Section 2 Unit 1

Measurement systems and machine tool math

➢ English system (imperial system) (inches)
○ Standard in united states, fractions and decimals both common
➢ Metric system or SI
○ Used globally; Uses decimals, not fractions
➢ Fractions, part of a whole
○ In machining, inches are often divided into 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, or 64
○ ⅝ = 5 of 8 parts
○ Convert improper fractions to mixed numbers and reduce to lowest terms
○ Convert fractions to decimals: divide numerator by denominator
○ Comparing fractions and ordering by size
■ Convert to equivalents (same denominator) then compare numerators to
assess relative size
○ Adding or subtracting fractions
○ Refer to chart for decimal to fractional conversions for quick and easy
conversions
➢ Basic algebra
○ PEMDAS
○ Solving for variables
➢ English/conversions
○ 1 Inch = 25.4mm, 1mm = 0.03937
○ Use proportions to convert inches to mm or mm to inches
■ See pg 64 and 65 for methods

Section 2 Unit 2
Semi-Precision Measurement

❖ What is Semi-Precision measurement?

➢ Measurement where tolerances are within 1/64th or 1/100th inch, 0.5mm, or 1
degree
➢ Always treat instruments with care
❖ Rules
➢ Flat tools with graduations used to measure linear distances
■ English rules usually divide inches into ⅛, 1/16, 1/32, or 1/64ths
 ■ Metric usually goes down to mm or ½ mm
➢ Small rules can be useful in tight spaces
➢ By holding the edge of rules against the surface being measured, the gradations
are more easily read
➢ Aligning a major gradation mark with an edge is easier than alighting the end of
the rule
➢ Some sample measurements using ⅛ and 1/16 graduations and 1/32 and 1/64th
graduations.
❖ Calipers
➢ Have two legs that contact parts to measure them
■ Slide calipers similar to rules
● Measure internal or external dimensions
■ Outside calipers measure external, inside measures internal
➢ Two types, sliding and transfer
➢ Sliding can be both, transfer needs a separate one for internal and external
■ Transfer are spring loaded for accurate measurements
■ Firm joint calipers are used less for measuring, and more for layout
❖ Squares
➢ Used to measure squareness
➢ Several types, including fixed, adjustable, die maker’s, and combination square
❖ Angular measurement
➢ Done with protractors of various types
➢ Hybrid depth gauges and protractors exist
■ Best for trig
❖ Gages
➢ Used to measure comparative size
■ Types include radius, fillet, angle, and screw pitch gages to name a few
➢

Section 2 Unit 4

❖ Precision measurement
➢ English measurements
■ Usually between 0.001 and 0.0001 of an inch
➢ Metric
■ Between 0.01 and 0.002 mm
➢ Angular accuracy
■ 5 minutes (1/12 degree)
 ➢ Language of precision Dimensions
■ Tenths following a thou measurement is a ten thousandths
➢ Precision measuring tools are delicate and expensive
➢ Care must be taken during use and storage
➢ Calibration: Verifying the accuracy of a measuring tool
■ Most precision tools need regular calibration and may be part of a larger
calibration scheme
➢ Temperature can affect ability to make precise measurements
■ A 5” dia aluminum part measured when 100 degrees can be 0.002” larger
than when measured at 70 degrees
❖ Straight edges
➢ Placed across a surface to check flatness
❖ Precision fixed guages
➢ Comparative measurements against known sizes
■ Feeler gages/thickness gages, pin, plug, ring, and snap gages are
included
➢ Pin gages compare holes
➢ A double end go/no-go gages made from a set of pins to compare what is an
acceptable vs not for a part
➢ Fixed go/no-go gages exist for particular dimensions
➢ Plug gages measure internal threading, and exist in regular and fixed go/no-go
gages
➢ Taper plug gages are used to measure internal tapers using prussian blue
➢ Taper plugs can have a go/no-go limits built into the end to determine acceptable
distances
➢ Go and no go ring gages measure outer diameter
➢ Thread ring gages measure external threads
➢ Snap gages are set to a set distance and should pass over a part
■ Used as go/no-go gages for distance
■ Digital snap gages also available, uses a digital gage
❖ Surface plates
➢ Flat plate sed as accurate reference surface for other precision tools
➢ Most are made of granite, three different grades of flatness
➢ MUST be cleaned before use to get desired results
❖ Solid squares
➢ More precise than adjustable squares
➢ Available in a wide variety of sizes
➢ Visible light when up against a part indicates the part is out of square
➢ You can use thickness gages to check how out of square the part is if light is
visible
❖ Gage block, grades and tolerances
➢ Accurately sized blocks for inspection/testing
➢ Available in different grades of accuracy
➢ Different size blocks can be wrung together
 ■ Called gage block builds
■ When creating, the fewest number of blocks should be used
➢ Standard set has 88 blocks included
➢ Tolerances for each gage block grade is within a millionth of an inch
➢ Grade 00 is +4/-4, Grade 0 is +6/-6, Grade As1 is +12/-12, and Grade As2 is
+24/-24
➢ Sometimes referred to as “Jo Block”
➢ Wringing gage blocks together can create a tough seal by pressing and twisting
to combine measurements into one larger one
❖ Vernier measuring tools
➢ Contain a main scale, and a secondary sliding scale called the vernier scale,
named for the inventor Pierre Vernier
■ Types include calipers, height gages, depth gages, gear tooth calipers,
and protractors
■ Linear tools available with either a 25 or 50 part vernier scale
■ Line on the vernier scale is collinear with main scale
➢ Gear tooth vernier calipers exist
➢ Vernier protractors also exist, at angles up to 5 minutes, or 1/12th of a degree
❖ Micrometers
➢ Use very accurate internal screw thread to measure
■ Types include outside micrometers, inside, and depth micrometers
➢ Multiple anvil micrometers can have different applications
➢ Disc mic, used for measuring flat things
➢ Screw thread micrometer
■ Used to measure threads
➢ Conical point micrometer used for fine points
➢ Blade micrometer used for grooves
➢ V-anvil micrometer, used for cylindricity
■ Also used for measuring 3 fluted cutting tools
➢ Tubular and rod micrometers are used for internal bores
❖ Precision transfer or helper type measuring tools
➢ Bore gages
■ Small hole gages are available in full-ball and half-ball styles
❖ Dial indicators
➢ Used to measure things with a dial
❖ Sin Bars
➢ Uses two rolls and a known center to center distance
➢ Types include bars, blocks, plates, and vises
➢ Uses gage blocks to create extremely accurate angles
➢ Comes in linear, and compound angle versions
❖ Surface finish measurement
➢ Roughness
■ Measured by RA, difference between peaks and valleys
➢ Waviness, variation
 ➢ Comparators are used to gage surface roughness
➢ Profilometers are touch based
➢ Comparators are sightlight based, both analogue and video
➢ Toolmakers microscopes can be used to visually see the status of the surface
finish
❖ Coordinate measuring machine
➢ Used to inspect dimensions of complex parts by moving the probe to touch part
surfaces

Section 2 Unit 5
❖ QA, Process Planning, and Quality control

❖ Discusses actions supporting machining

➢ Plans and processes to be effective and efficient
❖ QA
➢ Planor system of activities for meeting customer needs
❖

Section 2 Unit 6

❖ Steels
➢ Cold rolled/drawn
■ Smooth scale
➢ Hot rolled/formed
■ Large rough scale
➢ When carbon is 1.7-4.5% it is known as cast iron. It’s a dull gray color in a very
rough surface.
➢ Stainless
■ 10% chromium minimum to prevent rust
■ Austenitic is the highest resistance of stainless
■ Ferritic have low carbon content, not heat treatable
 ■ Martensitic are higher carbon, and can be heat treated
❖ Non-Ferrous metals
➢ Includes, aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, copper alloys, titanium alloys, and
superalloys
➢ New metals are always being formulated

Section 2 Unit 7
❖ Heat treating
➢ Heat treating is used to increase hardness of softer materials
➢ Heat treating of metal is performed to close tolerance using exacting equipment
and standardized processes
➢ But it can also be done simply in house for less demanding applications
➢ In many shops there’s a constant need to harden or soften jig and fixture
components
➢ Using small electric furnaces or a handheld torch, a complete tradesman should
be able to perform the basics
➢ Heat to critical temp and quench
➢ Different temps, quenching mediums, and quenching times result in different
hardnesses
➢ Case hardening can be used to harden the shell of softer metals with less carbon
➢ Steel changes color depending on temperature
➢ Case hardening keeps pliable inner cores but toughened outer shells for wear
resistance
❖ Tempering
➢ Reheat to lower than critical temp after hardening
■ Increased toughness
■ Reduced hardness
❖ Annealing
➢ Returns metals to base hardness
➢ Used to help with work hardening
❖ Normalizing
➢ Relieves stress on the part
❖ Non Ferrous heat treating
➢ Exists
❖ Heat treating furnaces
➢ Furnaces heat metal to required temperature
➢ Assume metal is too hot to touch at all times
➢ Twin furnaces have different chambers for different temperatures
➢ Specialty furnaces exist to reduce oxygen during process to help eliminate
oxidation
 ➢ PPE is required, long leather jackets, gloves, tongs, and face shields are all
required
❖ Hardness scales and testing
➢ Identifies hardness of steels after heat treat
➢ Any tests that leave a mark are considered destructive and care must be taken
for testing

Section 2 Unit 8
❖ Maintenance
➢ Machine tools require periodic maintenance/repair. Specs must be provided by
manufacturer
➢ Periodic inspection is part of maintenance
➢ Frequent lubrication is critical for machine operation
➢ Lubricants cools moving parts, reduce friction, and prevent seizing
➢ There are many different types of greases and oils for different uses.
➢ Always lubricant specified by the manufacturer
➢ Inspect moving parts for wear and damage
➢ Make sure dust and grit are removed from ball oilers and zerks to avoid lube
contamination
➢ A reservoir system (a place to hold lube) may include a hand pump
■ Pulling the pump on a central reservoir, or one shot can distribute oil tot
several different lubrication points through multiple oil lines
■ The gearbox of the example lathe holds the oil that lubricates the gears
that control the machine. The filler is at the upper right and the drain is at
the lower right.
■ Oil cups may fill a small reservoir or allow oil to slowly flow to a specific
lubrication point. Simply lift the cap and fill until oil is visible in the cup
■ Ball oiler allows oil to be applied between two machine tool sliding
surfaces that could not otherwise be reached
➢ Grease gun
■ A grease gun is pressed into a zerk fitting so that grease can be pumped
into the required location
➢ Inspect for wear in the ways.
❖ Cutting fluids
➢ Machining operations create heat as the tools cut the metals
➢ Cutting fluid is applied where the cutting is so the tool has a longer life
➢ Cast iron is one material recommended to be cut dry, without cutting fluid
➢ Cutting fluids cool tools and workpieces, also wash chips away from surfaces
➢ May be oil-based or chemical based
■ Some must be diluted in water
● Refractometers used to measure concentrations
 ● NEVER machine magnesium with water soluble cutting fluid
■ Some applications can used cold air guns or solid/semi-solid cutting
compounds
■ Various methods of application
❖ Lubricity vs cooling
➢ Soluble oil is mixed with water to produce a milky white cutting fluid
● Cold air guns can be used to provide cooling during a milling
operation.
◆ Uses vortex tubes and a compressed air source to reduce
air temperature to below zero degrees F with no moving
parts
➢ Stick cutting compounds can be touched to a cutting tool before beginning a
machining operation for lubrication
➢ Flood cooling is popular in cnc machining operations. It cools, lubricates, and
flushes chips away from the cutting area.
➢ Minimum quantity lubrication lubricates by misting a cutting area to use the
minimum amount of lubrication