Mina Al-Qaysi

Nonideal Behavior of an
Operational Amplifier

Metropolia University of Applied Sciences

Bachelor of Engineering
Electronics
Bachelor’s Thesis
Abstract

Author: Mina Al-Qaysi

Title: NonIdeal Behavior of an Operational Amplifier
Number of Pages: 39 pages
Date: 06 April 2024

Degree: Bachelor of Engineering

Degree Programme: Electronics
Professional Major: Electronics
Supervisors: Heikki Valmu

The thesis is a an investigation of operational amplifiers (op-amps) from the

rudiments of their explanation to how they are practically made into circuits by
use of components, such as resistors and operational amplifier ICs like LT1498
or LM358, It also deals with different op-amp parameters including input offset
voltage, bias current, slew rate, common-mode rejection ratio, gain bandwidth
product and rail-to-rail operation. Additionally, it discusses both ideal and non-
ideal features of op-amps along with their importance in electronic circuit design.

This thesis shows practical implementations of inverting operational amplifier

circuits that employ LT1498 and LM358 which involve calculation of component
values for desired gains. Furthermore, this thesis explores the behavior of these
circuits using LTspice simulations and Altium design to demonstrate their
functionality, performance characteristics and their such as voltage gain and
cutoff frequency and their PCB design.

This thesis can be used as resource for learning about the theory and application
of operational amplifiers in electronic circuit design. In particular this thesis unites
theoretical concepts with real world circuit implementations that provide insights
into designing and analyzing op-amp circuits for various applications.

Keywords : Operational Amplifier, key parameters, Analog device op- amp.

Contents

List of Abbreviations

1. Introducation 1

2. Operational Amplifier - Basics 2

2.1. Open-Loop Gain 5
2.2. Closed-Loop Gain 5

3. Operational Amplifier Circuit 6

3.1. Inverting Operational Amplifier 6
3.2. Non-inverting Operational Amplifier 7

4. Operational Amplifier Key Parameters 8

4.1. Input Offset Voltage 9
4.2. Bias Current and Input Offset Current 10
4.3. Slew Rate 11
4.4. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio 11
4.5. Gain Bandwidth Product 12
4.6. Rail-To-Rail VS Not 12

5. Ideal And Non-Ideal Op-Amp 13

5.1. Ideal Op-Amp 13
5.2. Non-Ideal Op-Amp 13

6. Comparison Of 10 Different OP-Amp 14

7. Design Process 17
7.1. Simulation 18
7.1.1. TL1498 Circuit Design 18
7.1.2. LM358 Circuit Design 20
7.1.3. LM324 Circuit Design 22
7.1.4. OP07 Circuit Design 24
7.1.5. OPA2134 Circuit Design 26
 7.1.6. LMH6629 Circuit Design 28

7.2. Schematic And PCB Design 30

7.2.1. LT1498 Schematic And PCB Design 30
7.2.2. LM358 Schematic And PCB Design 31
7.2.3. LM324 Schematic And PCB Design 32
7.2.4. OP07 Schematic And PCB Design 33
7.2.5. OPA2134 Schematic And PCB Design 34
7.2.6. LMH6629 Schematic And PCB Design 35
7.3 Measurements 36
8. Conclusion 38

References 39
List of Abbreviations

𝐴𝑐𝑚 : Common Mode Voltage Gain

𝐴𝑑 : Differential Voltage Gain

𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑙 : Open-Loop Voltage Gain

𝐴𝑣 : Voltage Gain

BW: Bandwidth

CMRR: Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

𝐹𝑡 unity gain frequency of the amplifier.

IC: Integrated Circuit

𝐼𝐵 : Bias Current

𝐼𝑖𝑜 : Input Offset Current

𝐼𝑙 : Load current.

𝐼𝑜 : Output current

Op-Amp: Operational Amplifier

𝑃𝑜 : Output power

PCB: printed circuit board

RTR: Rail-to-Rail

𝑅𝑓 , 𝑅2 : Feedback Resistance

𝑅1 : Input Side Resistance

SR: Slew Rate

𝑉−: Inverting Input Voltage

𝑉+: Noninverting Input Voltage

𝑉𝑐𝑚 : Common-Mode Input Voltage

𝑉𝑑 : Differential Input Voltage

𝑉𝑖𝑜 : Input Offset Voltage

𝑉𝑜 : Output Voltage

𝑉𝑠 +: Positive Supply Voltage

𝑉𝑠 −: Negative Supply Voltage

𝑉𝑜𝑠 : Offset Voltage

Vpp: Peak to Peak Voltage

𝑋𝑐 : Capacitive Reactance

𝑍𝑙 : Load Impedance

𝑍𝑛 : Input Impedance
 1

1 Introduction

In essence, an operational amplifier is a low output impedance, high gain differential

amplifier that is directly coupled. An apparatus with several uses is the operational
amplifier. The integrated circuit operational amplifier has evolved into a low-cost and
efficient solution for solving circuit design issues. Despite being categorized as a linear
integrated circuit, the operational amplifier finds application in non-linear and digital
domains as well. Operational amplifiers make up about one-third of all integrated
circuits; there are over 2000 different varieties that are sold commercially. Nearly
majority of these are monolithic integrated circuits (ICs) with power dissipations of less
than one watt at ambient temperature. The term "operational amplifier” (abbreviated
"Op. Amp.") initially refers to an amplifier circuit that could do multiple mathematical
operations, such as subtraction, differentiation, summation, and integration. Figure 1.
shows the operational amplifier schematic.

Figure 1. Operational amplifier schematic [2].

 2

2 Operational Amplifier - Basics

Originally designed to execute linear mathematical calculations in analog computers,

the operational amplifier is a multipurpose amplifying device. The internal circuit design
of the operational amplifier, which has been developed over 40 years, largely mirrors
the evolution of electronic components from vacuum tubes to monolithic integrated
circuits. The focus of applications for operational amplifiers has migrated from
laboratories to industries due to ongoing improvements in their qualities. In the field of
analog electronic systems, the operational amplifier has become the industry standard
due to its excellent performance, affordability, and versatility.
An operational amplifier is typically understood to be a direct-coupled amplifier that can
operate steadily in a closed-feedback loop and has a high gain and low noise. It should
be noted that the phrase "direct coupled" refers to an extension of the amplifier's
operating range to zero frequency or infinitely long periods, rather than an upper limit on
the frequency response of the amplifier.
The triangular shape of an operational amplifier's symbol in figure 2 indicates the
direction of signal flow from input to output. The three signal terminals of a real
operational amplifier are represented by three of the four terminals that are shown in
figure 2 These are the output, noninverting input, and inverting input [1].

Figure 2. Symbol of an operational amplifier [7].

 3

The ground which connected to the fourth signal terminal, might be virtual (figure 3
power supply common) or actual (figure 4). In either scenario, it symbolically denotes a
collection of at least two terminals meant for energy delivery.

Figure 3. Figure 4.
Figures 3,4. Actual implementation of the ground terminal [1].

For the other three terminals, the ground signal terminal serves as a point of reference.
figure 5 and figure 6 shows the sign convention for the input voltages 𝑉 − , 𝑉 + , output
voltage 𝑉𝑜 , input currents 𝑖 − , 𝑖 + , and output current 𝑖𝑜 . The ground is typically left out of
the amplifier symbol and the terminal voltages are simply expressed by adding a letter
when there is no chance of mistake.

Figure 5. Figure 6.
Figures 5,6. Shows the sign convention for the input voltages. [1]

The supply voltages 𝑉𝑠+ and 𝑉𝑠− typically provide a restriction on the absolute values of
the signal voltages 𝑉 − , 𝑉 + , and 𝑉𝑜 . In the absence of exceptional situations, the nominal
values of 𝑉𝑠+ and 𝑉𝑠− are + 15 V and -15 V, respectively. In both polarities, the
 4

corresponding signal swings of the output and input voltages are symmetrical and
typically fall within ±10 V. Different supply voltages, symmetrical and asymmetrical (such
as +5 V and 0 V), can also power a large number of operational amplifiers [2]

Operational amplifiers can handle various loads and so, they adjust their output current
accordingly. They function with passive as well as active loads and operate at any point
on the graph of the output voltage/current in relation to its four quadrants.

An important aspect of an operational amplifier is that it can amplify the difference

between its two input voltages without taking into account what each value is. This
definition yields us two essential concepts: first, a common-mode input voltage (𝑉𝑐𝑚 )
which is disregarded by the amplifier and based on the arithmetic mean of these two
voltages; secondly, it provides differential input voltage (𝑉𝑑 ), which is responsible for
amplification in this amplifier and occurs when there are differences between both
inputs.
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉 − − 𝑉 + (1)
The definition of the common-mode input voltage is rather arbitrary.

𝑉𝑐𝑚 = 𝑉 + + 𝐾𝑣𝑑 (2)

because it is dependent on the constant K's value that is selected. In practice, there are
two options: K = 1/2 and K = 0. The first option maintains symmetry.

𝑉− + 𝑉+
𝑉𝑐𝑚 = 2
(3)

However, this causes formal issues when defining the parameters of the operational
amplifier. Consequently, the second option where the noninverting input voltage 𝑉 + is
associated with the common-mode input voltage 𝑉𝑐𝑚 is favored.

𝑉𝑐𝑚 = 𝑣 + (4)
 5

Taking into account the closed-feedback loop function, where the noninverting input
typically acts as a forced reference point with which the inverting input is compared, this
second option is equally justified. Since the differential input voltage is typically minimal
when compared to the common-mode input voltage range, the difference between the
two definitions is essentially non-existent [2].

2.1 Open-Loop Gain

An op-amp in an open-loop arrangement, where the output terminal is unconnected from
the input terminal, is seen in the circuit in figure 7. The feedback loop is hence open.
The total voltage gains of the various stages inside the 𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 . op-amp internal circuit is
represented by the voltage gain in this design. A typical number is 105 . ∞ is the ideal
value.
𝐴𝑉𝑂𝐿 =Voltage gain in open-loop configuration

Figure 7. Open loop configuration [2].

2.2 Close-Loop Gain
An op-amp configured in a closed-loop is shown in figure 8 Since the input is sent to
the inverting input terminal, the feedback in this case is negative. There is a 180°
phase shift in the output. The relationship between 𝑅𝑓 and 𝑅1 sets a limit on the
closed-loop voltage gain, or 𝐴𝑉𝐶𝐿 , or just 𝐴𝑣 .
𝑅𝑓 = Feedback resistance.
𝑅1 is the resistance that is connected to the circuit's input side [3].
 6

Figure 8. Close loop configuration [2].

3 Operational Amplifier Circuit

3.1 Inverting Operational Amplifier Circuit

An inverting operational amplifier consistently produces an output voltage that is the

opposite sign of the input voltage, with the magnitude of the output determined by a
fixed gain factor. Figure 9 shows the circuit configuration of inverting operation amplifier.

Figure 9. Inverting operational amplifier [3]

 7

The gain in an inverting operational amplifier circuit is determined by the input and
feedback resistors. This means that the current flowing through the input resistor is
equal to the current flowing through the feedback resistor as far as the inverting input
being at a virtual ground. Consequently, we can obtain an equation that connects the
input and output voltages.
(𝑉𝑖𝑛 −0) (0−𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
− =0 (5)
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑓

or

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=− (6)
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑓

Now we will determine the relationship between our input and output, denoted by the
gain or amplification term "A," where A = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 /𝑉𝑖𝑛 . After rearranging the equation, the
following becomes apparent:

𝑅
𝐴 = − 𝑅𝑓 (7)
𝑖

As a result, the output will be amplified by 𝑅𝑓 /𝑅𝑖 and then inverted into a negative
voltage, regardless of the input voltage [6].

3.2 Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier Circuit

The circuit configuration of the noninverting operational amplifier shown as the figure
below.

Figure 10. Non-inverting operational amplifier circuit [3]

 8

The signal seems to go to the non-inverting input, but actually, the inverting input is
placed at a voltage divider midpoint. The output will force the voltage on its inverting
input to be exactly equal to that of the non-inverting one since it is connected through
this voltage divider. This takes place because both resistors have similar currents
flowing through them, resulting in voltage at inverting input being equal to that across
non-inverting input. We can use Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and some maths to
explain how this circuit functions. Selecting the node of the inverting input gives us:
(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑉𝑖𝑛
− =0 (8)
𝑅2 𝑅1

or
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= (9)
𝑅2 𝑅1

By dividing both sides by 𝑉𝑖𝑛 and multiplying both sides by 𝑅2 , this can be made simpler:

(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑅
= 𝑅2 (10)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1

This breaks down into:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅
− 1 = 𝑅2 (11)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1

Lastly, include one on each side:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅
= 1 + 𝑅2 (12)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1
Once more assigned "A," our gain, or amplification amount, provides us with:
𝑅
𝐴 = 1 + 𝑅2 (13)
1
Although they're less prevalent, non-inverting op-amp amplifier setups are incredibly
helpful [4].

4. Operational Amplifier Key Parameters

A differential amplifier with noise immunity is called an op-amp. Through the use of a
multistage amplifier circuit architecture, it also provides significant voltage gain.
Furthermore, the input stage circuit in the internal schematic offers high input
impedance. Low output impedance and the necessary current drive to supply output
current to supply output power 𝑃𝑜 (𝑃𝑜 =𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 ) of the load (𝑍𝑛 ) are provided by the output
stage circuit. +Vcc and -Vcc are applied to internal transistor circuits to provide biasing.
The 741 IC Pin Configuration is shown in figure11.
 9

High input impedance and low output impedance characterize the op-amp. As a result,
it will not use a lot of the external input voltage signal source's current. Consequently,
the loading effect is bypassed. It produces the highest output because of its low output
resistance. Numerous parameters are specified based on these characteristics, which
are caused by the biasing voltages provided to the integrated circuit and the current the
IC draws from the DC-supplying (bias) voltages. The part that follows provides an
explanation of them [2].

Figure 11. 741 Pinout Diagram [2].

4.1 Input Offset Voltage (𝑽𝒊𝒐 )

‘
The output of the op-amp must be zero in the event that no external input signal is
applied to any of the inverting or non-inverting input terminals. In other words, if 𝑉𝑖 = 0,
𝑉𝑜 = 0. However, the op-amp draws a limited bias current due to the supplied biasing
supply voltages, +Vcc and -Vcc, and the output will not be zero due to asymmetry in the
differential amplifier arrangement. We call this offset. Given that 𝑉𝑜 must equal zero
when 𝑉𝑖 = 0, the input signal must be applied in a way that cancels the output offset and
sets 𝑉𝑜 to zero. We call this input offset voltage. It is the voltage required to neutralize
an op-amp's output that must be applied between its two input terminals. This is shown
in figure 12 𝑉𝑖𝑜 = 0 V is the optimal op-amp value. Typical practical value is 100 µV [2]
VOS=VOS+−VOS− (14)
 10

Figure 12. Input offset voltage [2].

4.2 Bias Current and Input Offset Current
While operating with operational amplifiers (op-amps), a small amount of DC current is
required to flow into substitute so that it functions properly. Referred to as input bias
current, it is the average of input current to the two input terminals. Figure 13 shows the
input bias current.
IB1 + IB2
IB = (15)
2

Although the input impedance of an ideal op-amp is ∞, this is not often the case in
practice. Therefore, regardless of how little the voltage source may be, the IC takes
current from it.
Input offset current (𝐼𝑖𝑜 ) is the algebraic difference between the currents into the
inverting and non-inverting terminals.
The input offset current equation is:
𝐼𝑖𝑜 = |𝐼𝐵1 − 𝐼𝐵2 | (16)

Figure 13. Input bias current.

 11

4.3 Slew Rate (SR)

This is the maximum output voltage change rate per unit of time. The op-amp circuit's
input capacitance prohibits it from reacting instantly to high frequency impulses. The
slope of the leading and trailing edges of a square wave or high-frequency pulse applied
as input is measured at the output, and the bigger value is determined. Thus, SR is
obtained.
The slew rate equation is provided by:
𝛥𝑉𝑜
𝑆𝑅 = (17)
𝛥𝑡

4.4 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

An op-amp's ability to reject a signal that is common to both inputs is measured by its
CMRR. The ideal CMRR is infinite, meaning that any change in either input will have no
effect on the output if they fluctuate by the same amount while staying constant in
relation to one another. One attribute of differential amplifiers is the rejection of common
modes. Since operational amplifiers (Op-amps) are differential input amplifiers, they are
subject to common mode rejection.
When there is a "common voltage" or equal voltage across both of the amplifier's inputs,
this is known as the common mode signal. In this scenario, the amplifier should either
reject the signal and not amplify it, or its output should be zero.

The common mode voltage gain (𝐴𝑐𝑚 ) divided by the differential voltage gain (𝐴𝑑 ) is
known as the common mode ratio (CMRR).
𝐴
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝐴 𝑑 (18)
𝑐𝑚

The op-amp is configured as a differential voltage amplifier. 𝐴𝑑 are typically big. 𝐴𝑐𝑚 is
small. Because of this, CMRR has a high value. Decibels are used to express CMRR.

𝑉𝑜𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑐𝑚 = (19)
𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑚

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑑 = (20)
𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓
 12

The noise signals that are shared by the differential amplifier's two inputs will likewise
be amplified in this setup. The noise will be changed rather than amplified if the
amplifier's common mode gain is lower. As a result, the output Vo will have less noise
and only the differential input will be amplified. This is the benefit of the differential
amplifier that op-amps use. The CMRR value is high as a result.

4.5 Gain Bandwidth Product

The op-amp bandwidth in case the voltage gain is one unity.
Since,
1
𝑋𝑐 = [2𝜋𝑓𝑐] (21)

that means the gain will decrease as long as the frequency increases. 𝑍𝑙 decreases
also, because 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐼𝑙 × 𝑍𝑙 . As a result, the gain 𝐴𝑣 drops. The gain BW product shows
how much higher frequency input signals the op-amp can amplify.
𝐴𝑣 BW is sometimes referred to as unity gain bandwidth and closed-loop bandwidth.
Ideal value = ∞, Typical value = 1 MHz [2].
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐼𝑙 × 𝑍𝑙 (22)

𝑋𝑐 : Capacitive reactance.
𝑉𝑜 : Output voltage.
𝐼𝑙 : Load current.
𝑍𝑙 : Load impedance.

4.6 Rail-to-rail VS. Not

When an operational amplifier (op-amp) or other electronic device is said to be rail-to-
rail (RTR), it means that it can operate with its output voltage range spanning from the
lowest possible voltage (typically the ground or negative supply rail) to the highest
possible voltage (typically the positive supply rail). This maximizes the device's useable
dynamic range by enabling the output voltage to effectively reach both supply rails.

On the other hand, for non-rail-to-rail devices, the output voltage swing is limited. There
may be a gap at both extremes of the output voltage range that the output voltage cannot
 13

reach since they may not be capable of covering the entire range between the two
supplies rails. This restriction may be important in situations where the op-amp's entire
dynamic range is needed, like in sensor interfaces, data gathering systems, and audio
amplifiers [6].

5.Ideal and Non-Ideal Op-Amp

5.1 Ideal Op-Amps

Theoretically, an ideal op-amp can be used to streamline analysis in a variety of circuits.
It possesses the following qualities; Infinite open-loop gain: An ideal op-amp is thought
to have an endlessly high voltage gain, which allows it to amplify the input signal without
bound. A perfect op-amp has an endlessly high input impedance, which indicates that
no current enters the op-amp's input terminals. Zero output impedance: Since the output
impedance of the perfect op-amp is believed to be zero, any load can be driven without
affect the output voltage.

Unlimited bandwidth: An optimal operational amplifier possesses an unbounded

bandwidth, which permits it to amplify signals of any frequency without experiencing
distortion or attenuation. An optimal operational amplifier (op-amp) totally rejects any
signal that is shared by both input terminals, resulting in an infinite common-mode
rejection ratio (CMRR).

5.2 Non-ideal Op-Amps

Operational amplifiers that are not perfect: The constraints of electronic components
and manufacturing methods result in defective op-amps in the real world. The following
are features of non-ideal op-amps that differ from the ideal model;
Gain finite: The open-loop gain of real op-amps is typically quite large but not infinite.
Manufacturers list this gain on the datasheet for the op-amp.
Finite input impedance: Non-ideal op-amps have a finite input impedance, which means
that some current passes into the input terminals even though it is still high.
Non-zero output impedance: When driving large loads, a non-ideal op-amp's output
 14

impedance, which is typically low but not zero, may have some effect on the output
voltage. Restricted bandwidth: The performance of real op-amps may suffer at high
frequencies due to their limited bandwidth. Finite CMRR: Non-ideal op-amps may not
completely reject common-mode signals due to their finite common-mode rejection ratio.
Circuit Modelling: Circuit symbols can be used to represent both ideal and non-ideal op-
amps. The non-ideal op-amp may have extra parameters like input impedance, output
impedance, and finite gain, whereas the ideal op-amp is commonly represented by a
triangle symbol. By taking into account their properties during the circuit design and
analysis, non-ideal op-amps can be accurately represented. For example, to account
for the non-ideal behavior, we might add the output impedance, input impedance, and
finite gain of the op-amp in the circuit equations. In order to get precise and dependable
results in circuit design, it is imperative to utilize the particular properties of the chosen
op-amp. By utilizing the appropriate model, engineers can forecast the circuit's behavior
more accurately and make sure it adheres to the intended standards [5].

6. Comparison of 10 Different Operational Amplifier

To do this comparison we need to check the datasheet for each Op-Amp as shown in

the table below we looked for the (Unity gain, Slew rate, RTR, CMRR, Prices and their
offset voltage). Table 1 shows the comparison of the op-amps.

Table 1. Comparison of 10 Different Operational Amplifier

op-amps unity slew rate bias rail to rail CMRR price offset
gain voltage

LM741 1.5 MHz 0.5 V/μs 80 nA Not 95 dB 0.80 € 1 mV

LM358 0.7 MHz 0.3 V/μs -20 nA Not 80 dB 0.34 € 3 mV

 15

LM324 1.2 MHz 0.5 V/ μs -20 nA Not 80 dB 0.39 € 3mV

NE5532 10 MHz 9 v/μs 200 nA Not 100 dB 1.17 € 0.5 mV

RC4558 3 MHz 1.7 V/μs 150 nA Not 90 dB 1.21 € 0.5 mV

OP07 0.6 MHz 0.3 V/μs ±1.8 nA Not 120 dB 1.78 € 0.06 mV

LT1498 10.5 MHz 4.5 V/μs 250 nA RTR 90 dB 1.85 € 0.15 mV

TL072 3 MHz 20 V/μs 65 pA Not 100 dB 1.39 € 3 mV

OPA2134 8 MHz ±20 V/μs 5 pA Not 100 dB 5.61 € ±0.5 mV

LMH6629 330 MHz 1600 -15 μA RTR 87 dB 5.91 € ±0.15 mV

V/μs

In table 2 we do the same thing but for the Op-amp by Analog Devices (a component
manufacturer) that have parameters as close as possible to the previous one that were
shown in table 1.
Table 2. Op-amp by Analog Devices (a component manufacturer).
Op-amps unity slew rate bias rail to CMRR price offset
gain rail voltage

LM741/ 1.5 MHz 0.7 V/μs 31 pA Not 135 dB 0.8 µV

4,63 €
MAX9617
 16

LM358/ 1 MHz 0.35V/μs 1 pA RTR 140 dB 0.1 mV

3,37 €
MAX4238
LM324 / 0.98 0.75 4 pA Not 45 dB 1 mV
2,13 €
AD8544 MHz V/μs

NE5532 / 10 MHz 10 V/μs ± 2.5 nA Not 75 dB 3.79 € 1.5 m

MAX4490 V
RC4558 / 1.9 MHz 3 V/μs 40 pA Not 90 dB 4,34 € 0.3 mV
AD820
OP07/ 7.5 MHz 1.3 V/μs 1 pA Not 102dB 5 mV
2,72 €
MAX4237

TL1498/ 9 KHz 6.4 V/μs 0.1 pA RTR 95 dB 0.35 mV

MAX40018 2,38 €

TL072 / 5 MHz 20 V/μs 2 pA Not 86 dB 1.5 mV

1,39 €
ADTL082

OPA2134 / 8 MHz 20 V/μs 21 pA Not 100 dB 3,70 € 1.0 mV

AD8510
LMH6629 / 340 MHz 1400 32 µA RTR 95 dB 4,79 € 1 mV
MAX4305 V/μs
 17

7. Design Process

Amplification value, feedback resistor and circuits are provided by the supervisor of
this thesis.

Table 3 below shows the op-amp circuit will be designed.

Op-Amps Amplification Circuit

TL1498 20 dB Inverting

LM358 14 dB Inverting

LM324 26 dB Inverting

OP07 14dB Noninverting

OPA2134 20 dB Noninverting

LMH6629 26 dB Noninverting

Feedback Resistor = 220 KΩ

 18

7.1 Simulation

7.1.1 TL1498 circuit design

This circuit was simulated by LTspice simulation. It is an inverting circuit using a LT1498
operational amplifier with two resistors, the second resistor ( 𝑅𝑓 ) is 220KΩ, and the
amplification value is 20dB, in order to obtain R1 value we need to use equation (7) but
firstly we need to convert the amplification value from decibel to voltage ratio by using
equation (23).

The formula to convert decibels to voltage ratio is:

𝐺𝑑𝐵
𝐴𝑣 = 10 20 (23)

20
𝐴𝑣 = 1020 = 𝐴𝑣 = 10

For inverting op-amp circuit, the gain (𝐴𝑣 ) is calculated using the formula:

𝑅
𝐴 = − 𝑅𝑓 (7)
𝑖

Knowing that 𝑅𝑓 =220 kΩ, and 𝐴𝑣 =10

To solve 𝑅1 ,

R1=-220/10 = -22

so 𝑅1 = 22 kΩ
 19

In an ideal inverting configuration, the output voltage is inverted (opposite polarity) and
amplified by a factor determined by the ratio of the feedback resistor (𝑅𝑓 ) to the input
resistor (R1). figure 14 shows the simulation and the AC analysis for the circuit, from the
graph we could see that our voltage amplification in (dB) is right, and we could see also
the cutoff frequency.

Figure 14. simulation and AC analysis of inverting op-amp (TL1498

Now we do small calculation to compare 𝐹3𝑑𝐵 to the theoretical value.

Mag = -3dB and 𝐹3𝑑𝐵 =3.42 MHz

-3dB = 10 MHz (from datasheet)

𝐹𝑡
𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 𝑅 [24]
1+ 2
𝑅1

Where 𝐹𝑡 is (unity gain frequency of the amplifier), and we can find it from datasheet.

10
𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 220𝑘 = 0.9𝑀𝐻𝑧
1+
22𝑘

There is not that much difference, we can say its close to each other.
 20

7.1.2 LM358 Circuit Design

The circuit was simulated by LTspice. It is an inverting circuit using a LM358 operational
amplifier with two resistors, the second resistor ( 𝑅𝑓 ) is 220KΩ it Determines the gain of
the inverting amplifier, since the amplification value is 14 dB, so the first resistor is 44KΩ,
R1 (44kΩ) sets the input impedance of the circuit. In an ideal inverting configuration, the
output voltage is inverted (opposite polarity) and amplified by a factor determined by the
ratio of the feedback resistor (𝑅𝑓 ) to the input resistor (R1). The figure 15 shows the
simulation and AC analysis.

The formula to convert decibels to voltage ratio is:

𝐺𝑑𝐵 14
𝐴𝑣 = 10 20 = 𝐴𝑣 = 1020 = 𝐴𝑣 = 5.01187

For inverting op-amp circuit, the gain (𝐴𝑣 ) is calculated using the formula:

𝑅
𝐴 = − 𝑅𝑓 (7)
𝑖

Given that 𝑅𝑓 =220 kΩ, and 𝐴𝑣 = 5.01187

To solve 𝑅1 ,

R1=-220/5.01187 = -43.91

so 𝑅1 = 44 kΩ

AC Analysis

The graph in figure 15 shows that our amplification value is right, and we can see the
cutoff frequency also.
 21

Figure 15. simulation and AC analysis of inverting op-amp (LM358)

From the figure above we can see the cutoff frequency at -3dB.

Mag = -3dB and 𝐹3𝑑𝐵 =1.05 MHz

Now we do small calculation to compare 𝐹3𝑑𝐵 to the theoretical value.

-3dB = 0.7 MHz (from datasheet)

𝐹𝑡
𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 𝑅 (23)
1+ 2
𝑅1

𝐹𝑡 we obtain it for datasheet 𝐹𝑡 ( unity gain frequency of the amplifier)

0.7𝑀
𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 220𝐾
1+
44𝐾

𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 0.16 MHz

They are very close to each other.

 22

7.1.3 LM324 Circuit Design

The circuit was simulated by LTspice. It is an inverting circuit using a LM324 operational
amplifier with two resistors, the second resistor ( 𝑅𝑓 ) is 220KΩ, since the amplification
value is 26 dB, therefore the first resistor is 11 KΩ. The figure 16 shows the simulation
and AC analysis.

The formula to convert decibels to voltage ratio is:

𝐺𝑑𝐵 26
𝐴𝑣 = 10 20 = 𝐴𝑣 = 1020 = 𝐴𝑣 = 19.95

For inverting op-amp circuit, the gain (𝐴𝑣 ) is calculated using the formula:

𝑅
𝐴 = − 𝑅𝑓 (7)
𝑖

Given that 𝑅𝑓 =220 kΩ, and 𝐴𝑣 = 19.95

To solve 𝑅1 ,

R1=-220/19.95 = -11

so 𝑅1 = 11 kΩ
 23

Figure 16. Simulation and AC analysis of inverting op-amp (LM324)

From figure 16 we could do the calculation to compare the value we have with the
theoretical value that we will get from the datasheet.

Mag = -3dB and 𝐹3𝑑𝐵 =1.16 MHz

Now we do small calculation to compare 𝐹3𝑑𝐵 to the theoretical value.

-3dB = 1.2 (from datasheet)

𝐹𝑡
𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 𝑅 (24)
1+ 2
𝑅1

𝐹𝑡 we obtain it for datasheet 𝐹𝑡 ( unity gain frequency of the amplifier)

1.2𝑀
𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 220𝑘
1+
11𝑘

𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 0.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧

They are very close to each other.

 24

7.1.4 OP07 Circuit Design

The circuit was simulation by LTspice. It is noninverting circuit using a OP07 operational
amplifier with two resistors, the second resistor ( 𝑅𝑓 ) is 220KΩ, since the amplification
value is 14 dB, so the first resistor is 11 KΩ. Figure 17 shows the simulation and AC
analysis.

The formula to convert decibels to voltage ratio is:

𝐺𝑑𝐵 14
𝐴𝑣 = 10 20 = 𝐴𝑣 = 1020 = 𝐴𝑣 = 5.012

For a noninverting op-amp circuit, the gain (𝐴𝑣 ) is calculated using the formula:

𝑅
𝐴𝑣 = 1 + 𝑅2
1

Since 𝐴𝑣 = 5.012 and Rf = 220KΩ so,

220𝐾𝜴
5.012 = 1+
𝑅1

𝑅1 = 47.6 KΩ

Figure 17. Schematic and AC analysis of non-inverting op-amp (OP07)

 25

From the figure above we could see that our magnitude of the amplification is right,
and we can see the cutoff frequency.

From figure 17 we could do the calculation to compare the value we have with the
theoretical value that we will get from the datasheet.

Mag = -3dB and 𝐹3𝑑𝐵 =1.03 MHz

Now we do small calculation to compare 𝐹3𝑑𝐵 to the theoretical value.

-3dB = 0.6 (from datasheet)

we use the same formula for the inverting and non-inverting op-amp.

𝐹𝑡
𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 𝑅 (24)
1+ 2
𝑅1

𝐹𝑡 we obtain it for datasheet 𝐹𝑡 ( unity gain frequency of the amplifier)

0.6𝑀
𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 220𝐾 = 0.1𝑀𝐻𝑧
1+
47.6𝐾

They are close to each other.

 26

7.1.5 OPA2134 Circuit Design

The circuit was simulated by LTspice. It is noninverting circuit using a OPA2134

operational amplifier with two resistors, the second resistor ( 𝑅𝑓 ) is 220KΩ, since the
amplification value is 20 dB, so the first resistor is 11 KΩ. Figure 18 shows the simulation
and AC analysis.

The formula to convert decibels to voltage ratio is:

𝐺𝑑𝐵 20
𝐴𝑣 = 10 20 = 𝐴𝑣 = 1020 = 𝐴𝑣 = 10

For a noninverting op-amp circuit, the gain (𝐴𝑣 ) is calculated using the formula:

𝑅
𝐴𝑣 = 1 + 𝑅2
1

Since 𝐴𝑣 = 10 and Rf = 220KΩ so,

220𝐾𝜴
10 = 1+ 𝑅1

𝑅1 = 24.44kΩ

Figure 18. Simulation and AC analysis of non-inverting op-amp (OPA2134)

 27

From the figure above we could see that our magnitude of the amplification is right and
we can see the cutoff frequency.

From figure 18 we could do the calculation to compare the value we have with the
theoretical value that we will get from the datasheet.

Mag = -3dB and 𝐹3𝑑𝐵 =9.17 MHz

Now we do small calculation to compare 𝐹3𝑑𝐵 to the theoretical value.

-3dB = 8 MHz (from datasheet)

we use the same formula for the inverting and non-inverting op-amp.

𝐹𝑡
𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 𝑅 (24)
1+ 2
𝑅1

𝐹𝑡 we obtain it for datasheet 𝐹𝑡 ( unity gain frequency of the amplifier)

8𝑀
𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 220𝑘 = 0.7𝑀𝐻𝑧
1+
24.4𝑘
 28

7.1.6 LMH6629 Circuit Design

The circuit was simulated by LTspice. It is noninverting circuit using a LMH6629

operational amplifier with two resistors, the second resistor ( 𝑅𝑓 ) is 220KΩ, since the
amplification value is 26 dB, so the first resistor is 11 KΩ. Figure 19 shows the simulation
and AC analysis.

To formula to convert decibels to voltage ratio is:

𝐺𝑑𝐵 26
𝐴𝑣 = 10 20 = 𝐴𝑣 = 1020 = 𝐴𝑣 = 19.9

For a noninverting op-amp circuit, the gain (𝐴𝑣 ) is calculated using the formula:

𝑅
𝐴𝑣 = 1 + 𝑅2
1

Since 𝐴𝑣 = 19.9 and Rf = 220KΩ so,

220𝐾𝜴
19.9 = 1+
𝑅1

𝑅1 = 11.6kΩ

Figure 19 Simulation and AC analysis of non-inverting op-amp (LMH6629)

 29

from the figure above we could see that our magnitude of the amplification is right and
we can see the cutoff frequency.

From the above graph we could do the calculation to compare the value we have with
the theoretical value that we will get from the datasheet.

Mag = -3dB and 𝐹3𝑑𝐵 =3.09 MHz

Now we do small calculation to compare 𝐹3𝑑𝐵 to the theoretical value.

𝐹𝑡 = 190 MHz (from datasheet)

we use the same formula for the inverting and non-inverting op-amp.

𝐹𝑡
𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 𝑅 (24)
1+ 2
𝑅1

𝐹𝑡 we obtain it for datasheet 𝐹𝑡 (unity gain frequency of the amplifier)

190 𝑀
𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 220𝐾
1+
11.6𝐾

𝐹3𝑑𝐵 = 9.5 𝑀𝐻𝑧

 30

7.2 Schematic and PCB Design

7.2.1 LT1498/MAX40018 Schematic and PCB Design

The figure below shows the schematic of LT1498 designed by Altium design, the
component that we used had two resistors, LT1498 op-amp, test points and two
connectors for the voltage sources and the ground. op-amp pinout was obtained from
op-amp datasheet. Figure 20 and 21 shows the schematic and PCB design.

Figure 20. Schematic design

Figure 21. PCB design

 31

7.2.2 LM358/MAX4238 schematic and PCB design

The figure below shows the schematic of LM358 designed by Altium design, the
component that we used had two resistors, LM358 op-amp, test points and two
connectors for the voltage sources and the ground. op-amp pinout was obtained from
op-amp datasheet. Figure 22 and 23 shows the schematic and PCB design.

Figure 22. Schematic design

Figure 23. PCB design

 32

7.2.3 LM324/AD8544 schematic and PCB design

The figure below shows the schematic of LM324 designed by Altium design, the
component that we used had two resistors, LM324 op-amp, test points and two
connectors for the voltage sources and the ground. op-amp pinout was obtained from
op-amp datasheet. Figure 24 and 25 shows the schematic and PCB design.

Figure 24. Schematic design

Figure 25. PCB design

 33

7.2.4 OP07/MAX4236 schematic and PCB design

The figure below shows the schematic of OP07 designed by Altium design, the
component that we used had two resistors, OP07 op-amp, test points and two
connectors for the voltage sources and the ground. op-amp pinout was obtained from
op-amp datasheet. Figure 26 and 27 shows the schematic and PCB design.

Figure 26. Schematic design

Figure 27. PCB design

 34

7.2.5 OPA2134/AD8510 schematic and PCB design

The figure below shows the schematic of OPA2134 designed by Altium design, the
component that we used had two resistors, OPA2134 op-amp, test points and two
connectors for the voltage sources and the ground. op-amp pinout was obtained from
op-amp datasheet. Figure 28 and 29 shows the schematic and PCB design.

Figure 28. Schematic design

Figure 29. PCB design

 35

7.2.6 LMH6629/MAX4305 schematic and PCB design

The figure below shows the schematic of LMH6629 designed by Altium design, the
component that we used had two resistors, LMH6629 op-amp, test points and two
connectors for the voltage sources and the ground. op-amp pinout was obtained from
op-amp datasheet. Figure 30 and 31 shows the schematic and PCB design.

Figure 30. Schematic design

Figure 31. PCB design

 36

7.3 Measurement

The PCB of the AD8510 amplifier was connected to power supply that provide ±15 V,
function generator that providing sine wave with 2 Vpp and 0 offset voltage and
oscilloscope to obtain the changes in both amplitude and phase in order to compare the
results with the simulated AC analysis. Figure 32 shows the setup of the tested op-amp
circuit.

Figure 32. The setup of the tested op-amp circuit

The power supply powers the circuit with ±15 V, the blue wire is -15v is connected to
pin 4 of the op-amp, the red one +15v is connected to pin 8 of the op-amp and the
ground was connected to pin 2 of op-amp through a resistor with 24.4 Kohm. From the
function generator we provide the amplitude which was connected to pin 3 and has the
 37

value of 2 Vpp. From the oscilloscope we connect two channels for the input and output
to the test points in the PCB.

The below figure illustrate the amplitude and the phase changes over the frequency
range and from the result that we have obtained we can see it is similar to the simulation
process of the OPA 2134 op-amp which has the closest key parameters.

Figure 33. The practical AC analysis of AD 8501 op-amp

 38

8 Conclusion

The thesis offers an analysis of operational amplifiers or op-amps. This is intended to

give a good explanation of the basic theory used to design them and how they operate
in real world applications. These are all areas that have been addressed by this study
using theoretical approaches a LTspice simulations and Altium design.

The role of input offset voltage, bias current, slew rate, common mode rejection ratio
(CMRR) and gain bandwidth product (GBP) as key parameters for explaining circuit
performance has also been explored.

Examples of practical circuits presented in this study which use operational amplifier ICs
like LT1498 and LM358 demonstrate how component values can be calculated in order
to obtain desired gain settings on an inverting amplifier configuration. Validation through
simulation gives an insight about their behavior as well as voltage gains and frequency
responses.

The thesis is a useful source of information for electronics engineers who want to know
more about operational amplifiers and their place in electronic circuitry. This study
contributes to analog electronics development through linking theoretical concepts with
practical realizations and creates basis for future research and experiments in op-amp-
related circuitry.
 39

References

(1) Dostal, J. (2013). Operational Amplifier. Elsevier.

(2) Kishore, K. Lal. (2009). Operational Amplifiers and Linear Integrated Circuits.
Pearson Education India.

(3) Sarkar, S. K. (1999). Operational Amplifiers and Their Applications. S. Chand

Publishing.

(4) Nelson, J. C. C. (1995). Operational Amplifier Circuits: Analysis and Design. Boston:

Butterworth-Heinemann.

(5) Huijsing, J. (2016). Operational Amplifiers: Theory and Design. Springer.

(6) Jung, W. (2005). Op Amp Applications Handbook. Elsevier.

(7) Operational amplifier symbol. Source: Thomas, (2005).