Reviewer: GEC 105 Purposive Communication audience. It is usually mediated by audio and/or visual means.

The
purposes are again to entertain, persuade, and/or inform. Media and
I. SPEECH COMMUNICATION technology are used to reach a LARGE audience in a variety of ways
today.
First Module: Overview of the Speech Communication Process
Second Module: Communication Models
Speech communication, human communication, or simply
communication, stems from the Latin word “communis” which means Communication is part of our daily lives
common.
Communication comes in two forms.These are verbal communication
To communicate means to reach out in order to share something in and nonverbal.communication.
common.
Many people think that verbal communication refers to the spoken
Defined technically, communication is a process in which a source/speaker language called speech and that is solely oral in nature.
transmit a message through a channel to a destination/receiver, creating an
effect and providing an opportunity for feedback in the presence of noise VERBAL COMMUNICATION (VC) refers to symbols that have
and occurring within a context. universal meanings for all involved in the process. These spoken and
written verbal symbols are known as language. (Barker, 1993) So, verbal
Communication plays a crucial part in your personal and professionally communication refers not only to the spoken word but also to the written
lives and its mastery will influence how effectively you live your lives. (de word. For as long as you use language systems to communicate a
Vito 1997) meaning, then that is considered verbal communication.

A. FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATIONS NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION (NVC), on the other hand, refers

to the use of signs and symbols other than language, such as gestures,
We communicate for many reasons. According to Ehringer, et. al., we bodily actions, facial expression eye behavior and many more categories.
communicate to:
A. Components of the Communication Process
1. discover and identify (understand) the self.
1. SOURCE – is the originator of the message. In oral communication,
2. provide self-satisfaction
the source is the speaker, while in written communication, the source
3. facilitate adjustment to the environment; and
is the writer.

4. communicate and relate with others in the environment.

2. MESSAGE – could be an idea or feeling that can be transmitted

B. LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION verbally and/or nonverbally.

B.1 Intrapersonal Communication is defined as communicating with the 3. CHANNEL – This message has to be transmitted through a channel.

self. You talk with, learn about, and evaluate yourself In face-to-face human communication, the message is transmitted
through sound waves, light waves, and air. Human beings use their
B.2 Interpersonal Communication is when you communicate with five senses (seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting) to receive
another person. It is through interpersonal communication that you and decode a message. In mass communication, other channels used
establish, maintain, restore and/or end relationships. for transmissions of messages are television, radio, newspapers,
computers, and other electronic or high tech means.
B.3 Small Group Communication In SGC i.e., Small Group
Communication, you share ideas and information with 3 to 15 persons, 4. RECEIVER – The message then travels to a receiver or listener or
usually in order to came up with a decision or help solve problems. point of destination. The receiver can be the same person as the
source or another person or many persons like the audience in a
B.4 In Public Communication, a speaker addresses an audience to either lecture.
inform, persuade, entertain or do all three. Just like the other levels of
communication, speaking in front of an audience requires knowledge 5. FEEDBACK – The receiver decodes the message, which must have
and skills. some kind of an effect. The message could make the receiver feel mad,
sad, or glad. This causes him/her to react or give feedback. The
B.5 Mass Communication is communication to an extremely large feedback could be verbal or nonverbal (e.g., respond or look away)
 visible or invisible (e.g., look sleepy and board or fake attention), and dimensions of context. Moreover, each dimension influences, and is
intentional and unintentional. influenced by the others. For example, arriving late for a date (temporal
context) has a certain meaning influenced by culture (cultural context) and
6. NOISE – Another component always present in a communication may lead to changes in friendliness-unfriendliness (social- psychological
situation is noise. This is define as factors that distort the quality of context), which in turn may influence the physical context.
signal. In communication, anything that distracts you from
decoding the message with accuracy can be branded as noise. B. Communication Model

 Physical Noise Communicologists like Aristotle have advanced a particular/specific

 Physiological Noice
model.

 Psychological Noise Models serve as framework to help us understand an angle or a portion or

 Semantic Noise even one of the levels of communication.

7. CONTEXT – The sevent component of the communication process There is no one model that can fully describe or visualize everything that

is context. Context, environment, and situation are one and the same. transpires during a communicative experience. As an abstract

They are integral part of the communication process. We always representation, a model can only serve as a framework for illustrating more

communicate with a context. Context refers to the physical setting clearly some elements and factors that contribute to the dynamism and

and social aspects of the communication situation. (Gronbeck, 1990) complexity of communication.

The physical setting influences listeners' expectations, as well as readiness ARISTOTLE's MODEL

to respond. A social context is a particular combination of people, purposes

and places interacting communicatively. The first model was introduced by Aristotle all the way back in ancient
Greece. The great Greek philosopher and teacher wrote a book titled

People are distinguished from each other by such factors as age, occupation, Rhetorica in which he identified speaker, speech, and audience as the 3

power, degree, or intimacy and knowledge. These factors in part determine (three) elements of communication.

how one “properly”communicate with others. For instance a teacher is

expected to speak to her principal courteously. During his time, oratorical exercises were very popular and he was one of
the great orators always teaching large crowds. The components he

The degree to which people see each other as superior, equal, or inferior in identified were very simple but essential to public speaking.

status helps them determine their communicate style.

SPEAKER > SPEECH > AUDIENCE

De Vito (1994) identified 4 (four) dimensions to context: physical, cultural,

social psychological, and temporal THE ARISTOTELIAN or CLASSICAL MODEL

The cultural context refers to the communicator's rules and norms, beliefs Even modern communicologists cannot overlook Aristotle's writings due

and attitudes that are transmitted from one generation to another. For to the importance of what he introduced as effective persuasive tools: ethos,

example, in some cultures, direct eye contact between child and adult logos, and pathos (Agravante, 1992).

signifies directness and honesty while in others, it signifies disrespect!

Ethos is the speaker's credibility based on the perception of the audience.

The temporal or time context includes the time of day and time in history
in which the communication takes place. For the Chinese for example, the - “Credere” – to believe

evening is not the proper time for a suitor to visit a lady.In contrast, for most
- Creed – Pananampalataya
Filipinos the evening is ideal for courting.

- Io credo – I believe
The social-psychological context includes the status relationships among
the participants. The roles that people play, and the cultural rules of the
Logos is the logical arrangement of the speech;
society in which they are communicating/ It also includes the friendliness
or unfriendliness, formality or informality, and seriousness or
“Spechiare” – to mirror/ speculation
humorousness of the situation.

while Pathos is emotional appeal or ability to persuade by appealing to

For De Vito, the communication process is never static because of the
their emotions. ding occasionally when in fact, you're thinking of something else? If you
are, then you're missing out on a lot of information!
“Patire”– to Suffer
7. The ineffective listener tolerates or creates distractions while the speaker
Therefore communication is a two-way process. It involves the is talking.
complementary skills of speaking and listening.
Are you guilty of allowing the people around you to engage in
INEFFECTIVE LISTENING HABITS conversation while a speaker is talking? Or worse, are you yourself guilty of
carrying on a conversation when somebody else is talking? If you are, then
Ralph Nichols (1954), who spent much of his life doing research on you're not only depriving yourself of a learning opportunity but also
listening, provides us with a list of the 10 most common ineffective depriving others!
listening habits.
8. The ineffective listener avoids listening to difficult materials.
1. The ineffective listener criticizes the speaker's topic by calling it
uninteresting or boring. Are you guilty of tuning out when the speaker is discussing a topic that you
consider difficult? Do you wish in such a situation that you were listening
Are you guilty of dismissing a speaker's topic as uninteresting or boring to something less taxing? If you do, then you're curtailing the opportunities
even before she has started speaking? If you are, you're missing out on a lot to improve your listening skills!
of information!
9. The ineffective listener reacts emotionally to some messages.
2. The ineffective listener criticizes the speaker's appearance and manner of
delivery. Are you guilty of tuning out when the speaker cites an example or uses a
word to which you react emotionally? If you find what the speaker says
Are you guilty of making fun of the speaker's appearance or ridiculing his emotionally satisfying, do you put your critical functions on hold and
manner of speaking? Do you blame the shortcomings of the speaker for accept the message without much thought? On the other hand, if you find
your inability to listen well? If you do, you're wasting much of your time! what the speaker says emotionally disconcerting, do you mentally criticize
her, and in doing so, block out the rest of what she has to say? If you are,
3. The ineffective listener mentally argues with the speaker. then you are missing out on what could be a significant insight.

Are you guilty of finding fault with the arguments of the speaker, and 10.The ineffective listener tends to daydream during long presentations of
mentally debat- ing with her? Are you easily provoked to disagreement? If ideas.
you are, then you re not giving the speaker a fair chance to complete her
message. You're cutting the message down to bits and pieces of arguments. Are you guilty of shifting your attention to other thoughts more pleasant to
you while waiting for the speaker to finish a sentence? Are you guilty of
4. The ineffective listener listens only to facts. giving way to your own thoughts while the speaker spends time
elaborating on an idea that you thought you fully understood? If you are,
Are you guilty of paying attention only to the facts in the speaker's message? then you are closing your mind to the opportunities to learn.
If you are, then you are missing the more important theme, principle,
concept or general idea that the facts are intended to support. Techniques for Improving Your Listening Skills

5. The ineffective listener (takes note) of all the details of the speaker's According to Nichols himself, “If the coefficient of correlation between two
message. skills runs as high as 70 or 75, and if training in one of these skills has been
thoroughly demonstrated to be possible, then it is reasonable to assume that
Are you guilty of trying to take down everything that the speaker says? Are training in the other skill should be easily possible. Studies show that
you so engrossed in racing with the speaker through your pen that your correlation between reading and listening runs as high as 70. If reading can
writing becomes difficult to decipher when the time comes to review your be improved through training, then listening could also be improved
notes? If you are, then you're wasting your time! through training." Isn't this great news? Effective listening can be taught
and learned!
6. The ineffective listener pretends to listen to the speaker.

HERE'S WHAT WE CAN DO TO CHANGE OUR INEFFECTIVE

Are you guilty of faking attention? Are you guilty of giving the speaker the LISTENING HABITS:
wrong impression that you are listening by looking at the speaker and nod-
1. The effective listener tries to take interest in the speaker's topic. 9. The effective listener reacts with objectivity to the ideas of the speaker
and to her choice of language and materials.
To be a good listener, you should try to find some value in the topic being
discussed because the information might be useful to you in the future. To be a good listener, you should avoid clouding your understanding and
interpretations with strong emotions.
2. The effective listener concentrates on the message of the speaker.
10.The effective listener uses to her advantage the time difference between
To be a good listener, you should pay attention to what the speaker has to her thinking speed and the speaker's rate of speaking.
say.You may take note of the speaker's faults so that you may avoid them
when it is your turn to speak. However, you should avoid magnifying these A speaker can utter from 100 to 175 words a minute while you, as a listener
faults. Remember that you also have many opportunities to take the role of are able to think at a speed of 400-800 words a minute. (Hamilton and
a speaker, and you are far from perfect. Parker, 1997)

3. The effective listener withholds her evaluation until the speaker has fully Applying Some of the Techniques to the Types of Listening
given his arguments.
Let's review the different types of listening.
To be a good listener, you should open your mind to all the arguments and
evidence presented by the speaker before deciding whether to agree with  Empathic
him or not.
 Informational

4. The effective listener tries to understand the general theme, concept, or

 Critical

idea of the speaker.  Appreciative

To be a good listener, you must relate the facts presented by the speaker to EMPATHIC LISTENING – in which you make the speaker feel better
her general idea. Remember that the facts are meaningful only when because you have listened and sympathized with him.
understood in terms of the ideas they support.
In these instances, two important abilities are: the ability to paraphrase and
5. The effective listener knows how to take down notes. the ability to ask questions.

To be a good listener, it is not necessary for you to take down every word the INFORMATIONAL LISTENING –The ability of the listener to
speaker says. Brief key words and phrases that will later refresh your mind understand and retain information is very important.
are sufficient.
Sadly though, we forget 75% of the information we listen to immediately
6. The effective listener avoids faking attention. after the listening situation (Nichols and Stevens,1957) and we forget more
as time goes on.It is important, therefore, that we try very hard to
To be a good listener, you should closely follow the speaker's presentation understand and retain the information relayed to us.
of her ideas. Your feedback,based on your understanding of the message,
will serve as cues that will help the speaker achieve her purpose. APPRECIATIVE LISTENING – requires the least effort.

7. The effective listener minimizes distractions while the speaker is talking. COMMUNICATION SKILLS

As a listener, you should not compete with the speaker by carrying on a  Talking
conversation with the person next to you; neither should you tolerate
 Listening
people around you who cause similar distractions.
 Reading

8. The effective listener tries to cope with the difficult materials presented  Writing
by the speaker.
 Reasoning

To be a good listener, you should try to understand the message of the

speaker no matter how complicated or technical it may be.You should not
limit yourself to easy and light materials that do not require much effort to
comprehend.
INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC COMMUNICATION the topic?"

While public speakers achieve their goals through the use of well- When working on your speech, be careful to adjust to the amount of time
recognized stimuli that bring thoughts and feelings to listeners' minds, allotted for the entire speech presentation. The way you use your words to
their primary tool for stimulating their listeners' response is the spoken express your thoughts is a key to the success of your presentation.
word. Public speaking is often used as an instrument for change - that is,
speakers communicate their thoughts and feelings to listeners with the As for your audience, you must check their background:
intent of generating knowledge, Influencing values, beliefs, attitudies, and
reactions on reaching mutual understanding. 1. Age

Purposes of Public Speaking 2. Gender

When you deliver a speech, you use the shared symbols of communication 3. Number

to achieve your specific rhetorical purpose. The rhetorical purposes are:

4. Educational background

1. To inform
5. Group affiliations (religious, business, political, social, and economic)

2. To persuade
As to the occasion, analyse it in terms of its basic nature, time, venue, and

3. To entertain, particulary on special ocassion. program.

 The primary purpose is to share information with an audience These will give you an idea of how long your speech should be how formal
or informal your choice of language as well as your attire, and what role
Examples: lectures you hear from your instructors and you should play. If your role is that of a main speaker, then you must act
professors,doctors, and other professionals during classes, seminars dress and speak accordingly. However, if you are just requested to introduce
or meetings are all informative in nature/, a guest speaker, then you know what kind of adjustment you have to also
make with regard to how you act, dress, and speak.
 The primary purpose is to convince your listeners to your point of
view. Methods of Delivery

Examples: A salesman delivering a sales talk about the product he Aside from the different purposes and components of a public speech, there
is selling; a politicia convincing the business sector to support the are different methods of delivering a public speech:
administration's policy; a Christian delivering a personal
testimony to the congregation. 1. Manuscript or read,

In this rhetorical purpose, you must speak with sincerity and conviction on 2. Memorized,

a subject of importance to your audience to leave an impression on the way

they think, feel, and act. Speeches delivered with the primary purpose of 3. Impromptu, and

convincing, influencing or actuating (call to action), or inspiring also fall

under this category. 4. Extemporaneous

Four Interrelated Components Eugene White (1960) Manuscript/Read

 Speaker When politicians deliver s formal public address, they almost always read
from prepared manuscript.

 Speech
Memorized

 Audience
The memorized speech is usually written by the speaker herself and then

When determining the topic for your speech, your first source is yourself. memorized fo public delivery. This is no longer popular as a mode of

Don't go running to the library or asking others about your speech. Aşk speech delivery. The reason obvious: it is the most difficult!

yourself first: "What do I want to talk about?" "How much do I know about
Impromptu The modules in this unit should find you actually working on the most
commonly tapped vehicles for communicating scientific and technical
The impromptu speech is also usually used in speech contests. Each speaker information: the primary journal, and technical report, the fact sheet, and
is then given a chance to pick a prepared topic, given 5 minutes to make a the newsletter. This portion should also see you honing those writing and
mental outline of a speech, and then given 5 minutes to deliver his/her editing skills - the better for you to be able to effectively communicate
speech in front of the audience. The speaker is judged according to the scientific and technical information to various kinds of audiences.
organization of his/her speech, the content or meaning of t speech, as well
as his/her composure and confidence. Many people find writing such a tedious task that they keep on postponing
doing it.
Here are some suggestions to help you organize your ideas in this kind of
situation: Supposed you're to write a short technical report needed by your boss who
will be meeting with prospective investors. Before you actually sit down
1. Focus your remarks on the audience. You can praise the group leader or and write, you think of a million and one things that you should have done
talk about the accomplishment of the group or the preceding speaker. a long time ago.

2. Talk about the occasion. Remind them of the purpose of the meeting. Furthermore, there is nothing more rewarding than cultivating self-
discipline because the time will definitely come when you can no longer
3. Use examples. Be concrete as possible. postpone writing because the report is due!

4. Talk about something a previous speaker has said. Some may reason out that delaying tactics are means towards better
communication because these tend to relax and soothe the would-be writer,
5. Don't try to say too much. Focus on your specific purpose. Keep it short thereby affording him/her a fresh start on writing.
and simple.

J.R. Platt said: "Brilliance has an obligation not only to create but also to
6. Never apologize. The audience already knows the nature of an communicate."
impromptu situation. There is no need to apologize for the informality or
whatever shortcomings. The Language of Science

Extemporaneous The term "science writing" seems like a simple phrase but you need to
understand its nuances before you can effectively engage in it. It is
An extemporaneous speech is similar to the impromptu speech because important to entertain tvo possibilities when you encounter the term
you will also start with a topic, make an outline, and deliver the speech in writing about science and writing in the context of science (Moriarty 1999).
front of a live audience. The main difference is the time and manner of
preparation for the speech. For the extemporaneous speech you choose You can extol the earthshaking significance of genetic engineering through
your own topic, you are given ample time to gather readings and prepare fiction poetry, drama, the essay. Or you can compose a song about how the
instructional materials to h support your thoughts until you are able to confluence of modern information and communication technology is
formulate your own speech outline; and then you practice the oral delivery affecting the 21st century lifestyle. Better still, you can write a story for
in front of a full length mirror to gain self- confidence. You are also allowed comics to urge rural folks to be more scientific in their outlook by visiting
to carry notes (written in index cards) which will serve as your prompter. the doctor and not relying entirely on the neighborhood "arbulario"

THE MATERIALS FOR CONVEYING SEMI-TECHNICAL AND Science writing, on the other hand, also refers to writing that takes place
POPULAR S AND T INFORMATION within the context of science, governed by a specified set of conventions. It
concerns itself with describing observations and/or results, and the manner
The poster paper/presentation by which these are derived through experimental of non-experimental

Fact Sheet methods, including classification, statistical analysis, mathematical

analysis, and comparative studies. Science writing thus refers to the manner
Manual
of presentation, and not the topical content, making all things possible
Newsletter subjects for scientific treatment.

Photonovel
This second description of science writing classifies it under the broader
Leaflet
category of technical writing, which in turn refers to types of writing that
report factual information in an objective manner for an intended
audience. The scientific paper meant for publication in a scientific journal Once an outline has been prepared, 50 (Fifty) per cent of the job is done.
is a classic example of material for this level of writing. Why is it so? An outline represents a logical arrangement of your thoughts
on how you wish to develop and eventually write the material. You may
PREWRITING EXERCISES (Davis 1997) simply use words and phrases to construct your outline, or you may resort
to the full-sentence style. Either way, you've hurdled a huge barrier once
Writing at whatever level is not as simple as sitting before the computer and you've done it.
typing away what you did for an experiment, and what the implications are.
Some writers even go as far as suggesting you leave your computer screen
Good writing is a product of logical thinking and ample preparation. Most first and take up your trusty pencil and note cards to be able to compose
books w tell you that the most difficult part of writing is getting started. your outline well. Note cards, as you well know by now, are easy to shuffle
so they give us the opportunity to physically arrange or rearrange our ideas.
A. Think before you write

E. Write a rough abstract first

This may sound facetious but it just means you have to answer a lot of
questions first: Now, you can put flesh on your skeleton of an outline. Following closely
the IMRAD structure of your article, you will find it most rewarding to
1. Who am I writing for? write a sentence of justification for your piece of work, a statement of
objectives, a reference to methods used, a list of most important results, and
2. How do I "talk" to this audience? any conclusions reached.

3. What form will the writing take? The job of elaborating becomes easier later when these main points have
been put down on paper. By then, you need not follow any sequence
4. What is my audience asking? anymore. You may start in the middle and fill in the edges or you may work
backwards. The important thing is there are already signposts to direct you.
5. What are my motivations?

F. Get rid of your inhibitions

6. Do I have all the materials I need-literature, data, analyses,
reference books? This maybe the most important rule in prewriting exercises. How do you
feel when you are about to speak before an audience? Nervous, insecure,
7. How much space am I allowed for my material? trying hard to quell the feeling of butterflies fluttering in your stomach.
Don't you get somehow the same kinds of inhibitions before you write?
B. Talk before you write

Well veteran writers advise us to loosen up, just go ahead - WRITE! - and
Have you ever tried saying your ideas out loud? Involving your own ears
never be shackled by the rules and mechanics of sentence construction,
could help clarify ideas or arguments because you are more likely to follow
grammar, spelling, punctuation, et ce t era )at least not yet) Don't allow
the progression of ideas. Does the flow sound logical? Does the material
rules to distract from the content. Nora Ransom from Kansas State
sound complete or is there any missing information? You may also try
University (in Davis 1997) proposed the following rules for scientific
involving someone else's ears - like those of your classmate, friend, sibling,
writing.
or colleague - which can give you a much needed audience perspective of
the subject matter. There's nothing like having your very own sounding Ransom's Rules for Technical and Scientific (S and T) Writing
board, even if it's only your own voice on a tape recorder.

1. If it can be interpreted in more than one way, it's wrong

C. Brainstorm, freewrite, or make a list on paper

2. Know your audience, know your subject; know your purpose.

"The point in any kind of brainstorm writing writ is to get words down on
paper, to have these as stimuli for you to pick up the page and really get 3. If you can't think of a reason to put a comma in, leave it out.
going. Some start with a graphic presentation of ideas by drawing models or
flowcharts. Some scribble their thoughts on good, old-fashioned note cards 4. Keep your writing clear, concise, and correct.
which, by the way, may just be the most practical organizational aid: they
are easy to shuffle and organize. Whatever your style, do start somewhere. 5. If it works, do it.

D. Prepare an outline