Reviewer for Purposive Communication

(Midterm Examination)

Chapter 1: COMMUNICATION PROCESS, PRINCIPLES, AND ETHICS

1. Communication: An Overview
A. Nature of the Communication Process

As we all know, human communication is vital for survival and it is one thing in life that we cannot
avoid to do.
Communication:
- comes from the Latin word ‘communis’, which means ‘commons’. To be common
means “to come together” or “to commune”- “to share something in common”.
- is the process of exchanging ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions from one person to
another with the use of symbols which may be verbal and/or non-verbal and aims for
understanding.
Elements of Human Communication:

1. Sender - is the one who initiates the communication.

2. Receiver -provides the sender with feedback which may prompt the sender to clarify
the message or signal to carry on as planned.
3. Message –I s made up of the ideas and feelings that a sender-receiver wants to
share with others.
• Verbal symbols – express through words
• Non-Verbal symbols – express through gestures, inflection, tone, etc.
4. Channel - are means through which we transmit the message in either vocal or non-
vocal messages.
• Vocal messages– are verbal and spoken
• Non-vocal messages– may be expressed in words or non-verbal
symbols
5. Feedback - the behavioral response of the sender-receiver to each other. It is the
information that comes back to the sender of the message and informs how well the
message is getting through.
6. Noise - an interference that bars the message from being understood or interpreted.
• External noise– comes from the physical environment
• Internal Noise– confined within the psychological and sociological
nature of individuals when thoughts and feelings are engrossed on
something other than the communication at hand.
7. Context - refers to the surrounding/environment that helps shape the interaction
between and/or among individuals.
• Physical context– the physical environment where the communication
 takes place.
• Social context– refers to the relationship the participants hold for each
other.
• Psychological context– which has to do with the mood and emotions
of the communicators at the moment of communication.
Process of Oral Communication:

1. Encoding - is everything that goes inside the brain of an individual.

- involves the sender who, grounded by communicative intentions and
goals, decides on assigning codes.
- is a systematic arrangement of symbols used by individuals to create
meaning.
2. Transmission - is the process by which the sender, having assigned codes to come
up with thought symbols (message) that are also comprehensible by the
participant/s of the communication, transmits or sends message to its recipient.
3. Receiving - Having been submitted through sound waves and light waves, the
comes from the sender then reaches the receiver. It is assumed that the receiver’s
attention is focused on the communication at hand to facilitate better understanding
of the message transported by the sender.
4. Decoding - is the process by which the receiver interprets or assigns meanings to
the codes transported by the source. The receiver tries to give meanings to these
symbols which may be literal or may give associations depending on knowledge
and/or experience.
5. Responding - response is anticipated by the sender from the receiver. Feedback

2. Speech and the Speech Communication Process: An Overview

A. Its Nature and Functions
B. Nature of the Speech Communication Process The speech communication
process:
1. SPEAKER - Speech communication begins with a speaker. Your success as a
speaker depend on you-on your personal credibility, your knowledge of the subject,
your preparation of the speech, your manner of speaking, your sensitivity to the
audience and the occasion.
2. MESSAGE - The message is whatever a speaker communicates to someone else.
Your goal in public speaking is to have your intended message be the message
that is actually communicated.
• You must narrow your topic down to something you can discuss. You must
do research and choose supporting details to make your ideas clear and
convincing. The message you send with words, with your tone of voice,
 appearance, gestures, facial expression, and eye contact.
3. CHANNEL - Means by which a message is communicated. When you pick up the
phone to call a friend, the telephone is the channel. Public speakers may use one
or more of several channels, will affect the message received by the audience
4. LISTENER - The person who receives the communicated message. If you talk to a
friend on the phone, you have one listener. But in public speaking you have many
listeners. To be an effective speaker, we must be audience-centered.
5. FEEDBACK - They send back messages of their own. Affected by one’s frame of
reference. Example: “I agree with you,” “I don’t agree with you.
6. INTERFERENCE - Anything that impedes the communication of a message. Have
two kinds of interference in public speaking. External and internal.
7. SITUATION - Time and place. Conversation always takes place in a certain situation.
Public speakers must also be alert to the situation. Physical setting is also important.

Types of Communication:
According to Mode:
The true mode of communication meaning pertains to the exact way by which
communication is expressed or the way a communication is processed.
Essentially, a mode of communication describes the method through which a
communication takes place. Communication is an important aspect of human
society, and it is used in some way during almost every form of social interaction.
There are many different ways to communicate, such as through speech, body
language, facial expressions, and other physical gestures and movements.
1. Verbal Communication
o Verbal communications occur when two or more individuals speak to each
other, whether it be formally or informally, face-to-face or virtually, or via
telephone or video chat. There are many important considerations to be
made when expressing communications verbally, which include the
complexity of words, tone of voice, and coexistence with non-verbal forms
of communication that take place at the same time. Writing can sometimes
also be considered a form of verbal communication because it requires the
knowledge and use of speech, but written communications are often
grouped separately.
2. Non-Verbal Communication
o Non-verbal communications are equally as important as verbal
communications, and in many instances, they occur at the same time, as
well as existing independently during other interactions. A few forms of non-
verbal communications include body language, facial expressions, eye
contact, posture, appearance, sign language, and other movements that
 assist in communicating when words are not the best option.
3. Visual Communication
• Visual communications are sometimes considered non-verbal, although many
(such as television) include both verbal and non-verbal interactions. The practice
of using visual elements to communicate information or messages. Types of visual
communication include animated GIFs, screenshots, videos, pie charts,
infographics, and slide deck presentations. Getting your message across in a
clear, concise way can be difficult with visuals alone.

According to Context

1. Intrapersonal Communication - operates within the communicator. (what to wear

for the day, what activities to engage in, reflecting different situations, talking to
oneself)
2. Interpersonal Communication - occurs between two or more people. (private
conversations with friends, interview with prospective employer, simple group meeting).

Types of Interpersonal Communication:

A. Dyadic or face-to-face Interaction - is a conversation between two persons which
usually occurs in an informal interaction. This interaction provides a great deal of
feedback as compared to other types of communication.

B. Small Group Communication - occurs when each member or participant speaks

out or is actively participating in the process to come up with a consensus. Degree of
formality may range from intimate to formal

C. Public Communication - an enlarged form of group communication that involves a

resource person addressing a specific audience. The speaker or the resource person
has a message about a certain topic which he/she has prepared beforehand and
delivers nit before an audience. Feedback is limited.

D. Mass Communication - has highly structured messages and able to reach a larger
number of audiences at the same time through the use of electronic devices or print
media like newspapers and magazines.

E. Technology-Mediated Communication - from electronic emails, texting, instant

messaging, social networking, tweeting, blogs and video conferencing-they all share
one thing in common.
3. Extended communication- involves the use of electronic media. With the use of
electronic media, messages are transmitted quickly. Unlike before, when it only
 called for the use of television or radio, nowadays, the description of extended
communication may be expanded to include tele, audio or phone conferencing,
video-conferencing, Skype calls, and other technological means.
4. Organizational communication focuses on the role that communication plays in
organizational success. Organizations comprise individuals who work for the
company. For an organization to be successful, a system of communication should
be put in place. A set of rules or standards for communication protocol should be
made clear so that communication patterns are established. On the part of the
individual, you should be equipped with the needed oral and written
communication skills that the organization expects you to have.
5. Intercultural communication is a communication between or among people
having different linguistic, religious, ethnic, social and professional backgrounds.
Even gender difference affects communication. Individuals having different
orientations communicate and interpret messages differently. This particularly
happens with non-verbal communication. It is communication between or among
people having different linguistic, religious, ethnic, social and professional
backgrounds. Even gender difference affects communication. Individuals having
different orientations communicate and interpret messages differently. This
particularly happens with non-verbal communication.

According to Purpose and Style

• When individuals exhibit different communication styles, it's easy for conflict or
misunderstandings to occur. Understanding the characteristics and tendencies of
different communication styles can help us to effectively interact with someone
who has a different style
1. Formal Communication
• This type of communication employs formal language delivered orally or in written
form. This includes: Lectures, public talks/speeches, research and project
proposals, reports and business letters, among others are all considered formal
situations and writings. To inform, to entertain and to persuade are the main
objectives of this type of communication.
2. Informal Communication
• In this type of communication certainly does not employ formal language. It
involves personal and ordinary conversations with friends, family members or
acquaintances about anything under the sun. The mode may be oral as in face-to-
face, ordinary or everyday talks and phone calls, or written as in the case of e-mail
messages, personal notes, or text messages. The purpose is simply to socialize
and enhance relationships.
Principles of Effective Communication
Effective communication requires a certain level of connection between and among
people, allowing a series of exchanges of thoughts and emotions, eventually leading to
mutual understanding. In order for that to happen, the following principles must be
observed:
• Clarity. This pertains to both the message and the purpose why the message has
to be sent. The message should be clear by using appropriate language and
communication channels, but equally important is that the reason for sending and
receiving the message must be understood by both sender and receiver.
• Conciseness. The message should be as brief as may be required depending on
one's purpose, especially in most modern contexts in the business and academic
fields where time is of the essence. It should be devoid of trivial details that would
hinder communication.
• Completeness. Despite its conciseness, the message should still be complete
and accurate. Whenever necessary, background information should be given to
provide better context; facts and observations may also be helpful.
• Organization. Effective communication is usually planned in order to ensure the
systematic flow of ideas and transition from one point to another. There are
instances, however, when communication is impromptu, but this should not be an
excuse for an organized presentation of ideas.
• Empathy. The sender of the message should be sensitive to the needs and
interests of the receiver. In case of face-to-face communication, the speaker must
always be conscious of the reaction of the listener and adjust his/her
communication strategy accordingly.
• Flexibility. Different people have different communication styles, and
consequently, different expectations. Effective communicators know how to adapt
to the varying needs and expectations of their audience, and modify the message
or the way the message is sent to avoid misunderstanding or misinterpretation.

What is Ethics in Communication?

Ethics plays a vital role in communication, when we communicate we should consider
how helpful or harmful our words to others. To communicate ethically, we must give
thought to the manner in which we communicate. Formulating a list of rules to be
applied in the different communication situations in which we find ourselves would be a
futile endeavor. Having Ethics can help us improve our manner in communicating a
person or a party. A great deal of the ethics of communication involves a respect for
truth, if we cannot trust the other party, we cannot accurately judge how to respond. If
we cannot accurately judge how to respond, then our communication becomes
increasingly ineffective or unsuccessful.

Key Concept of Ethics of Communication

➤ Ethics – analyzing what is right and wrong, and what is good and bad.

➤ Communication – process of sending and receiving messages.

➤ Ethics of Communication - on how one’s behavior is governed by one’s moral and

how this in turn affects the way we communicate. When we are involved in ethical
decision-making, we are free to choose but we can also consider that our choices
should be well versed by ethics.

Some Approaches for Making Ethical Choices in Communication

• Discussing the approaches to Ethical-Decision Making
• Discussing the article "How to be an Ethical Communicator" by Richard
Johannesen
• Discussing Real Life Situations about Ethical Communication

Four Approaches of Ethical Decision-Making

1. Utilitarian Ethics - a substantive (firm basis in reality) ethical system which
focuses mainly on the outcomes of ethical decisions.
Example:
A hospital has 4 people whose lives depend upon receiving organ transplants (a
heart, lungs, kidney, and liver). If a healthy person wanders into the hospital, his
organs could be harvested to save four lives at the expense of one life.
2. Moral Duty - morality of actions not on what outcomes we gain for ourselves, but
also on the law and duty that governs it.
Example:
Supposed you're a software engineer and learn the nuclear missile is about to
launch that might start a war. You can hack and cancel the launch but it’s against
your professional code of ethics to break into a system software without permission
and it’s a form of lying or cheating.
3. Virtue Ethics - emphasizes an individual’s virtue of mind, character, and sense of
honesty, rather than the rules or consequences.
Example:
A person with these values would no more think of stealing pens from work than
she would rob a bank. In her eyes – stealing is stealing – no matter how small the
theft or the justification.
4. Common Good Approach - regards all individuals as a part of a larger community
and that the own good of each individual is linked to the good of the community
 and that community members are bound by the pursuit of common values and
goals.
Example:
Court systems, Health Care and Law making.

How to be an Ethical Communicator by Richard Johannessen (2017)

To make best decisions in communication, we must communicate ethically.
Johannessen formulates a list of rules to be applied in the different communication
situations in which we and ourselves would be a futile endeavor.
1. Ethical Communicators are Respectful of Their Audience – Communication is
a two-way process; it implies a party other than ourselves and attempts to influence
that person.
“A communicator, with particular motives, attempts to achieve a specific end with
a specific audience by employing (intentionally or unintentionally) communicative
means or techniques to influence that audience” (Johannessen 16). In this
principle, respect and audience analysis are an important part of communication.
We cannot respond appropriately if we are ignorant of the people with whom we
communicate.
2. Ethical Communicators Consider their Consequences of their
Communications – Our communication endeavors are never isolated from one
another. How we respond at school influences how we respond at home and that
in turn affects how we respond at school. If we do not fully understand the natures
of our audiences, we need to be prepared for the effect of our communication on
them and upon ourselves.
Example:
Sam has been chairing the planning committee for the Outing Club’s spring break trip. He
is ready to send out a final copy of the flier except for Larry who has missed the last two
meetings and has not read his committee report. Larry is slowing down the committee’s
progress and threatening the success of the trip. Sam has to consider the consequences
of asking his friend to step down but also his responsibilities to the group.

Ethical Communicators Respect Truth - "The conveying of belief is an essential

purpose of speech" (Kupfer 118). We can’t effectively determine how to respond if we
can’t trust the other side. Our communication becomes increasingly unproductive if we
are unable to appropriately judge how to respond. Respect truth because honesty is an
essential part of having a close relationship towards a certain person or a group. If you
cannot trust or the other party cannot trust you then the communication becomes
ineffective.
 Ethical Communicators Use Information Properly - Respect for truth as an ethical
communicator entails being well-informed on a topic before claiming to be an expert on
it. We must be adequately prepared for the occasion if we are to convey knowledge to
individuals, let alone persuade them (Adequate Information).
We must also consider the quality of the data and the accuracy with which we use it. We
want people to respond to what we say and do when we communicate. When we utilize
false information to persuade people, we present difficulties for them as well as ourselves
(Accurate Information).

Ethical Communicators Do Not Falsify Information - Plagiarism is an intellectual

theft. We used another’s words or ideas and fail to give credit to the owner or to the
source. We acknowledge sources in writing by using quotation marks and including a
source citation. We acknowledge sources by naming them in the context of the speech
when we talk.

Consider the Receiver’s preferred Communication Channel – If you use a

communication channel that are not preferred for the receiver then the message is
unsuccessful. Use the most preferred communication channel, whether that be face-to-
face, email, conference call, phone call, messenger app, etc.
Strive to Understand – While proactive in listening, we should also strive to
understand what are the messages shown in to completely know the meaning behind
those messages. In Ethical Communication it is also provided to learn what other people
shared to the other party to gain more knowledge in this specific type of lessons.
Avoid Negative Voice – In ethical communication, the speaker should present
themselves as polite and professional. One of the most important aspects of
communication is tone. If the tone is off, the listener may misunderstand the meaning
entirely, resulting in unnecessary confrontations that reduce corporate productivity. Self-
control, a soft trait that helps one to know how to respond to a terse business message,
tends to be associated with controlling one's tone.
Do Not Interrupt Others – Allowing others to speak is important as it shows
professional and respectful way to keep the performance flow without interrupting.
Respect the Privacy and Confidentiality – Ethical communication includes respecting
the other's privacy especially in business. This can have a wide range of implications,
including minimizing workplace gossip and mitigating toxic conversations about the
private lives of personnel.
Accept Responsibility – Taking the actions that result from one’s choice of words,
whether it may be good or bad.
Ethic Codes
Ethic Codes (or Ethical Codes) are moral guidelines that are used to help assist people
in making decisions, to tell the difference between ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ and to utilize this
understanding to make ethical choices.
There are 3 levels:
1. Code of ethics (social issues)
2. Code of conduct (influence to behavior of employees)
3. Code of practice (professional responsibility)
Ethical communicators are honest, accurate, and candid in all communications. This
practice encourages the free flow of important information in an ethical manner.

CORPORATE CODES OF ETHICS

• Honesty – Professional communicators are honest, accurate, and candid in all
communications. This practice encourages the free flow of important information
in the interest of the public.
• Confidentiality – Protecting the confidences and privacy rights of employees and
customers is the duty of professional communicators. Additionally, they must abide
by legal requirements for disclosing information that affects the welfare of others.
• Credit – Give due credit to those who you get ideas from.
• Free Speech – Principles of free speech and free ideas should be encouraged.
• Courtesy – Sensitivity towards cultural values and beliefs are crucial.
Chapter 2: COMMUNICATION AND GLOBALIZATION

Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among people,

companies and governments of different nations, a process driven by international
trade and investment and aided by information technology.
Globalization has emerged as a new paradigm for describing the way in
which the human family can relate to each other. Globalization is the increased
interconnectedness of all peoples on the face of the earth.
Globalization motives are idealistic, as well as opportunistic, but the
development of a global free market has benefited large corporations based in the
Western world. Its impact remains mixed for workers, cultures, and small
businesses around the globe, in both developed and emerging nations.
Globalization is a social, cultural, political, and legal phenomenon.
• Socially, it leads to greater interaction among various populations.
• Culturally, globalization represents the exchange of ideas, values, and artistic
expression among cultures.
• Globalization also represents a trend toward the development of single world
culture.
• Politically, globalization has shifted attention to intergovernmental organizations
like the United Nations (UN) and the World Trade Organization (WTO).
• Legally, globalization has altered how international law is created and enforced.

Benefits of Globalization to Communication

✓ As technology advances, the world is both getting larger and smaller. Today we are
able to communicate with people across the globe at the touch of a button. While
globalization, or communication between nations beyond their borders, is an old concept,
with the onset of new technology globalization is impacting the ways we communicate
and learn in fascinating ways. We are expanding our understanding of fellowship and as
we become more connected, we are deepening our educational experiences.
✓ The world becomes more accessible and equitable in general. Search engines,
EBooks, online courses and other virtual education give more people the ability to learn
about subjects that used to require a certain level of income or social positioning.
Information isn't as restricted and it allows us the opportunity not only to receive
information but to enter into academic spaces and contribute.
The Globalization of Communication
Main points:
- Today communication is increasingly global
- This promotes a 'reordering' of time and space
 - This in turn, promotes global interconnections interdependencies = globalization.
Globalization is a progress, not an end state. Started mainly with three processes
during the 19th century:
Tracing the History of the Globalization of Communication
1.) 1830's. The telegraph - electric communication via transatlantic underwater cables.
No more messengers.
1843 - Washington and Baltimore connected
1865 - Britain and India connected
1870s - Europe linked to large parts of the world
1924 - King George V sends a message to himself that circulated the globe in 80 seconds
2.) 19th century. Emergence of global news networks. Significant in three ways
1.) News over large territories
2.) Global in scope
3.) Reached big audiences
3.) Electro-magnetic waves. The emergence of organizations with the mission to
disseminate radio frequencies.

Effect of Globalization to Communication Skills

a. Virtual Interaction- Globalization has introduced virtual communication
and collaboration as a major part of workplace dynamics. Modern entrepreneurs need to
understand the strengths and limitations of different communications media, and how to
use each medium to maximum effect. For example, communicating via email to distant
team members requires a certain etiquette and nuance not necessarily required in face-
to-face interactions. Holding virtual meetings requires a similar change in approach, and
people who are unaccustomed to communicating in groups in virtual settings can find
themselves lost, confused or unable to share their input. When choosing a communication
skills training program, look for courses that address the challenges of virtual interactions.

b. Cultural Awareness in speech- The need for cultural awareness is a major impact of
globalization on the required skill set of effective communicators, resulting in the evolution
of communication skills development programs. Modern entrepreneurs and employees
need the ability to catch subtle nuances of people's manner of speech when
communicating across cultures. Even when two people are speaking the same language,
cultural differences can affect vocabulary, colloquial expressions, voice tone and taboo
topics.
C. Cultural Awareness in Body Language-Awareness of cultural differences in body
language can be just as important as the nuances of speech. Modern training programs
teach students to understand acceptable speaking distances, conflict styles, eye contact
and posture in different cultures, accepting that the physical expressions of their own
culture are not universally accepted.
d. Time Differences- The advent of global collaboration introduces another new dynamic
to communication skills -- the need to communicate and share information with people
across several time zones. When people collaborate with others on the other side of the
globe, their counterparts are usually at home asleep while they themselves are at work.
Today's communication skills development programs should address the nuances of
overcoming this challenge by teaching people to understand the information needs of
their

Language Varieties
Also called “lects,” these refer to the different variants of a language that can be
sufficiently delimited from one another in terms of social, historical, or geo-spatial factors,
thus forming language clusters.
In addition, language varieties may also be grouped in the following classifications:
a. Pidgin. It refers to a new language that develops into situations where speakers of
different languages need to communicate but do not share a common language.
Examples are Chavacano in the Philippines and Bislama, a language spoken in Vanuatu.
b. Creole. It is a pidgin that becomes the first language of the children, or the mother
tongue of a certain community. Examples are the Gullah and the Patwa, a creole in
Jamaica.
c. Regional Dialect. It is not a language that is distinct from a national language, but
rather a variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a country. Examples are
Cebuano, Waray, Ilocano, and Hiligaynon in the Philippines.
d. Minority Dialect. This is a variety used as a marker of identity, usually alongside a
standard variety, by the members of a particular minority ethnic group. Examples are the
Sinama of the Badjaos in the Philippines and the London-Jamaican variety in Britain.
e. Indigenized Varieties. These are spoken mainly as second languages in former
colonies with multilingual populations. A classic example is Singlish (or Singaporean
English).
Language Registers
A language register is characterized by the way a speaker uses language
differently in different social circumstances. These are determined by such factors as
social atmosphere, purpose of communication, audience, and the general context of the
discourse.
Generally, language registers can be classified as (1) formal, (2) casual, (3)
intimate, (4) frozen, and (5) consultative.
a. Formal. These registers are used in professional, academic, or legal settings where
communication is expected to be respectful, uninterrupted, and restrained to specific
rules. Slang is never used and contractions are rare. Examples are registers used in
research papers, government documents, business letters, and in business
presentations.
b. Casual. These registers are used when communicating with friends, close
acquaintances, colleagues, and family members. These are used in birthday parties or
family gatherings.
c. Intimate. Intimate language registers are reserved for special occasions, usually
between only two people and often in private. Examples are an inside joke between two
high school friends or sweet nothings whispered to your "special someone."
d. Frozen. It refers to historic language that is intended to remain unchanged. Examples
are the registers used in the Philippine Constitution and the Holy Bible.
e. Consultative. It is used in conversations when people are speaking with someone who
has specialized knowledge or is offering advice. Tone is often respectful, such as the use
of honorifics or courtesy titles, but may be more casual if the relationship between or
among the communicators is friendly. Examples are registers used in local television
broadcasts or in a conversation with a doctor during a medical examination.

Language registers can also be classified as Formal, Informal, or Neutral. Formal

language registers are appropriate for professional situations, such as when speaking to
a supervisor or writing an invitation letter. Informal language registers, on the other hand,
are conversational and appropriate when speaking or writing to a friend or to someone
you know quite well.
The use of one or a combination of these registers highly depends on the audience
(person/s for whom the message is intended) and the context (nature of the
communicative situation). Using the proper registers shows respect, interest, and a
certain level of professionalism, hence enhancing harmonious personal and professional
relationships. These are also used in writing short notes, personal journals, or diaries.
Lastly, neutral language registers are non-emotional and laden with facts. These are most
appropriate for research or technical writing.
Chapter III: LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL SETTINGS
Chapter IV : VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE

RLD ENGLISHES AND ENGLISH AS INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE

Varieties of English or World Englishes (WE) actually stands for the localized varieties of English
as they are used or spoken in a certain place. In Asian context, the context of World Englishes was
introduced by Braj Kachru.

The famous “Three Concentric Circles of Asian Englishes” attributed to Kachru presents the three circles:
1) Inner Circle with ENL (English as a Native Language) member countries;

2) Outer Circle with ESL (English as a Second Language) member countries; and the

3) Expanding Circle with EFL (English as a Foreign Language) member countries.

Example of the countries belonging to the Inner Circle are USA, UK, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand.
Kachru’s Outer Circle is comprised of Singapore, Malaysia,, the Philippines, and Pakistan, among others
while the Expanding Circle is composed of countries such as China, Japan, Taiwan, and Thailand. Aside
from the fact that the Outer and Expanding Circles are ESL- and EFL –speaking, respectively, they have
been colonized by some member countries in the Inner Circle making the varieties they speak as post-
colonial. It is then to be understood that people have different linguistic and cultural backgrounds making
intercultural communication a significant variable in communication.

According to Bautista and Gonzales as cited by Madrunio and Martin (2018) the structural characteristics
of these new varieties differ. This is brought about by the mother tongue or home languages of those who
learn or acquire English. And even in terms of social features, differences can also be highlighted in that
there is a continuum of basilectal, mesolectal, and acrolectal varieties of English within the same speech
community. The acrolect comes closest to the standard while the basilect deviates thoroughly from it and
comes closest to the pidgin. Mesolect on the other hand, or the middle variety is midway between the
acrolect and basilect. Bautista and Gonzales use the term edulects for these varieties resulting from certain
types of education ascertained by social class but are conveyed or transferred by the kind of instruction of
the school system especially for those coming from higher-income families and/ or better educated classes.

As regards to structural variation, Kachru and Nelson as cited by Madrunio and Martin (2018) claim that
these varieties of English are influenced by the local language(s) in various areas of their grammars and
exhibit specific phonological, lexical, syntactic, and discoursal characteristics. For example in terms of
stress and rhythm, Outer and Expanding varieties observe syllable-timed rhythm rather than stress-timed
rhythm. Nigerians say ‘success for suc’cess and Indians and Nigerians say recog’nize for ‘recognize.
Moreover, speakers from the Outer and Expanding Circles do not make any changes in their pronunciation
to make a distinction between nouns and verbs in pairs which Inner Circle countries observe as in case of
‘import and im’port and do not utilize contrastive stress for focusing (Kachru & Nelson as cited by Madrunio
and Martin 2018).

As regards to sounds, Outer and Expanding Circles do not observe initial aspirations of voiceless such as
p, t, k and these are often perceived by Inner Circle countries as b,d, g. Some speakers of Expanding Circle
varieties, as in the case of Japanese speakers, do not properly distinguish between r and l.

According to Pope (2006, as cited by Madrunio and Martin, 2018), in the case of syntactic features,
question-answering systems differ between Inner and Outer-Expanding Circles. The inner Circle observes
the positive-negative system where the answer follows the polarity of the question. Example, If the question
is in the positive, the answer confirming the assumption of the questioner is in the positive, and the answer
disconfirming the assumption is in the negative. If, however, the question is in the negative, the answer
confirming the assumption of the questioner is in the negative as well, while the answer disconfirming the
assumption of the questioner is in the positive. On the other hand, the Outer Expanding Circles, observes
the agreement-disagreement system which poses difficulty to speakers who follow the positive-negative
system particularly in interpreting the yes or no of the response unless it is followed by a clarification.

When it comes to lexicon, vocabulary words peculiar only to some English varieties in Southeast Asia can
be noted as seen in the following examples:

1. Singapore English

Actsy - show off

Missy – nurse

Chop – rubber stamp

Marina kids – youngster who spend their leisure time at or around Marina Square, a shopping center

Graduate mothers – graduate (well-educated) married women, encouraged to have more children and
accorded certain privileges in Singapore, as compared to non-graduate mothers.

2. Philippine English

Deep – puristic or hard to understand as an attribute of language

Stick – cigarette

High blood – tense or upset

Blowout – treating someone with a snack or meal

Motel- a hotel used for pre-marital or extramarital affairs

Manualize – to prepare manuals

Go ahead – leave before others with host’s permission

3.Malaysian English

Antilog – a male hated by a girl

Popcorn – a loquacious person

Kachang – peanuts, easy

Slambar – relax

Red spot, open shelf – girls who are popular and those who are not

Day bugs – those who come to attend school but do not live in residence halls

LINGUISTIC PREFERENCES AND NONVERBAL BAHAVIOR

Effective communication needs to convey a deep meaning to come up with a sensible meaning across
cultures.

Intercultural Communication

➢ The process of interpreting and sharing meanings with individuals from different cultures.

Forms of Interpersonal Communication (IC)

1. Interracial – interactants are of different races

2. Interethnic – interactants are of from different origins

3. International – interactants are from different political structures/nations

4. Intracultural – interactants are among members of the same racial, ethnic or co-culture group
Culture- system of knowledge, beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that are acquired,

shared and used by its members during daily living.

Co-culture - Groups of persons who differ in some ethnic or sociological way from the parent culture.

Strategies and Communication Approaches of Marginalized Groups

Strategy Definition Approach

1. Separation Co-culture members resist interacting with Passive
members of dominant culture
2. Accommodation Co-culture members maintain their cultural identity Assertive
while striving to establish relationships with
members of dominant culture
3. Assimilation Co- culture members attempt to fit in with Aggressive,
members of dominant culture Confrontational

Preparing to Communicate Across Cultures

1. I enjoy communicating with persons unlike me as much as with persons like me.

2. I am equally sensitive to the concerns of all groups in our multicultural society.

3. I can tell when persons from other cultures do not understand me or are confused by my actions.

4. I do not fear interacting with persons from minority groups any more than I fear interacting with persons
from the dominant culture.

5. Persons from other cultures have a right to be angry at members of my culture.

6. Persons from other cultures who don’t actively participate in a conversation, dialogue, or debate with
others may act that way because of their culture’s rules.

7. How I handle disagreements with persons from other cultures depends on the situation and the
culture(s) they are from.

8. My culture is not superior to other cultures.

9. I am knowledgeable of how to behave with persons of different culture.

10. I respect the communication rules of cultures other than my own.

Public speaking in a multicultural world:

CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN THE MODERN WORLD
CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND PUBLIC SPEAKING
Speechmaking becomes more complex as cultural diversity increases.
Complexity- differences in language from culture to culture.

AVOIDING ETHNOCENTRISM
• The belief that one’s own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures
 • it is part of every culture, and it can play a positive role in creating group pride and
loyalty
• You need to keep in mind that all people have their special beliefs and customs.
• Avoiding ethnocentrism does not mean that you must agree with the values and
practices of all groups and cultures.
• When you work on your speeches, be alert to how cultural factors might affect how
listeners respond.

References:

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION MODULE - Allen Francis Mascariñas Moncayo,

Batangas State University
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/university-of-antique/bs-civil-engineering/types-
of-communication-according-to-mode/36309617
https://www.scribd.com/document/521286497/Ethics-in-Communication-module-1
https://www.scribd.com/document/498097778/Chapter-2-Communication-and-
Globalization