; x_7'

ehapter 13
Nuclei
Inffoduction
The volume of a nucleus is about 10-rz times smaller than the volume of the
atom. In other words, an atom is almost empty. If an atom is enlarged to the
size of a classroom, the nucleus would be of the size of pinhead.
Nevertheless, the nucleus contains most (more than gg.9a/o) of the mass of
an atom
Atomic Masses and Composition of Nucleus
The ffrass of an atom is very small. Kilogram is not a very convenient unit to
measure such small quantities. Therefore, a different mass unit is used for
expressing atomic masses. This unit is the atomic mass unit (u). ,

Atomic Mass Unit (u)

Atonaic mass unit (u) is defined as1,i\2th of the mass of the carbon (12C)
atom.
-
lu: mass of the one C-12 atom
rz
L.gg2647 xLA-,26.,.
-
-1.660539 10-zr kg
Accurate measurement of atomic masses is carried out with a mass
spectrometer.
-tz-
Composition of Nucleus
The composition of a nucleus can be described using the follow-ing terms
and symbols:
Z - atomic number - number of protons : number of electrons
N - neutron number - number of neutrons:A-Z d

A - mass number = Z * N - total number of protons and neutrons .

Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons, Thus the number of
nucleons in an atom is its mass number A. rn ats ,*(y +n)
/\tA
. All the electrons of an atom are outside the nucleus '

. The total charge of the atomic electrons is (-Ze) X

. The total cherge of the nucleus is (*Ze)
' --r' ?\l
Atom is electrilaily neutral r
' ,

.' The mass of protor , Irlp :1.AA727 u: 1 .67262 L}-zr kg

lhN'
The mass of neutrorl, IrIn : L.00865 u - L.6749x10-27 kg O+
€ )
'
hfle= . OOoSXz{
 2*

,/ . Neutron was discovered by ]ames Chadwick.

. Chadwick was awarded the Nobel Frize in Physics in 1935 for his
discovery of the neutron.
Isotopes
Isotpes are different types of atoms of the same elemen! with same atomic
number ,but different mass number .They exhibit the same chernical
properties, but differ in mass.

, Chlorine has two isotopes having masses 34.glu and 36.98 u. The
relative abundances of these isotopes are 75.4 and24.6 per cen!
respectively. Thus, the average mass of a chlorine atom is obtained by
the weighted average of the masses of the two isotopes, which works
out to be
75.4 x34.98* 24.6x 36.98
100
- 35.47 u
which agrees wfth the atomic mass of chlorine.

. The lightest element hydrogen has three isotopes ,

?.ootiu", P*gffi(lH) contains one proton only
Deuterium({H) - contains- oile proton and one neutron.
Tritium(?H) - containi ope proton and two neutrons.
Tritium nuclei, being unstable, do not occur naturally and
are produced artficially in laboratories.

. The element gold has 32 isotopes, ranging from

A:L73 toA:244.
Isobars
All nuclides with same mass number A, but with differentatomic number
are called isobars.
For example, the nuclides (?H) and (!He)are isobars.

Isotones
Nuclicles with same neutron number N but different atomic number Z are
called isotones
For examplelflf;H S'?'nAu are isotones.
Size of The Nucleus
By performing scatteiing experiments in which fast electrons, instead of s-
particles, are projectiles that bombard targets made up of various elements,
the sizes of nuclei of various el-ements have been accurately measured.
 Radius of nucleus
A nucleus of mass number A has a radius
R : Ra Ar/e
where Ro
-- L.2 x 1.0-1s *.€ 1.28ro , l4-= rotl)
Volume of nucleus
V:l3 nR3
:ln(noa'zr;'
jn(Ro)tA
:
-
The volume of the nucleus is proportional to A( V d n)
Density of nucleus
Nuclear density-ffi i

:, ^*o
fn{ns)3*
=iP.: constant
-,5ft(Ro)'
Thus the density of nucleus is a constant, independent of A, for all nuclei.

Exarnple ''"'-::'::'.: '::':' :

Given the mass of iron nucleus as 55.85u and A:56, find the nuclear
density? - r= 1.2-ixrb-ZL &
tS.gS x \.66 \ lD-oa
mF" : 55.85 u - 9.27 x l-0-26 kg
Nuclear density- --3P" ^
,n(Rs)sA
9.27 x lB-26
je.z x lo-18 )3.r s6

- Z,Z9 x ISLT kg m-s

Mass - Energy !
Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy and one can convert
mass-energy into other forms of energy, say kinetic energr and vice-versa.
Einstein gave the famous mass-energy equivalence relation
S: fitcz
c isthe velocity of light in vacuum.c: 3 x 104 m s-1.
Experimental verification of the Einstein's mass-energy relation has been
achieved in the study of nuclear reactions. In a reaction the conservation law
of energy states that the initial energy and the final energy are equal
provided the energy associated with mass is also included.

l
r.
!e
i "t
Exarnple
Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance.
E:mcz
-LxLA-rx(3x108)2
:10-3X9X1016
:9X1013 I
Thus, if one gram of matter is converted to energy, there is a release of
enorl-nous amount of energy.
Example
Find the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit, first in Joules and then
in MeV.
1u -- 1.6605 x l0-27 kg
E:mcz ,

:1.6605 x L0-27 x(3 x 108)2

E: L.492;4 X 10-10 I
Energy equivalent in MeV.
1eV - 1,.602 xl-0-1eI
r L.4924 x 10-10
1.502x1O-1"9, ' ::
t--

: 0.931f x 1QJ eV
:931.5 MgV ':",-r':'''' "

Mass Defect and Binding -

Enerry
Mass Defect (AM)
The nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons. Therefore it may be
expected thatthe mass of the nucleus is equal to the total mass of its
individual protons and neutrons. ffip = l. 60 1z1u
h/ln - l.008{6t'
The nuclear mass M is always less than the total mass, of its constituents
(protons and neutrons). The difference in mass of a nucleus and its
consfihrents is called the mass defect
AM = [Z *o + (A - Z)m,,] - rrn
For example, Iet us consider 1!O ; a nucleus which has B neutrons and B
protons.
Mass of8 neutrons = B x 1.00866 u
Mass of B protons B x L.AA727 u
The expected inass of 1$O nucleus 16.1,27 44 u :-
The atomic mass of 1!O from mass spectroscopy experiments= 1,5.99493 u
 dfflltu I llprr ii:i rlrrrlir'r'!-r"F
tr
Substracting the mass of B electrons (B x 0.00055 u)
The mass of 1$O nucleus -15.99493 u -(B x 0.00055 u)- 15.99053 u

Mass defect AM :1,6.127 44 -15.99053 u

0.13 69Lu :
Binding Energy
The eirergy equivalent of mass defect is called binding energy.
Er - h Nic2
' If we separate a nucleus into its nucleons, we would have to supply a
total energy equal to Er, to those particles.
. If a certain number of neutrons and protons are brought together to
f'orm a nucleus of a ceriain charge and mass, an energy Ei, vtzill be
released.
Binding Enerry Per Nucleon
A more useful measure of the binding between the constituents of the
nucleus is the binding energy per nucleon, Ern,

The binding energy per nucleon, Eu.,, is the ratio of the binding enerry Eb of
a nucleus to the number of the nucleons, A in that nucleus.
ffiun*ffixlA
It is the average energy per nucleon needed to separate a nucleus into its
individual nucleons. '

The plot of binding enerry per nucleon versus mass number

u 1U
=
O a
J

€i
u
=.
r+
U
u
2

:5 co 50 100 l5a 2(D{} ?50

,...-.t.--.., )( r lJrlir

Observations:
(i) In the mass number range A: 30 to 17A (30 < A < 170), the
binding energy per nucleon is nearly constant, about B
MeV/nucleon..
(ii) The maximum of about 8.75 MeV for A : 56 I,e,.for s6Fe nucleus.
fiii\ tr'
rJDn io l^.^ro* I fnr
rJ lLrVv\. llJI }rnflr
lJrJLIr Ii-ht
rISrIIL ^rr^lai
lItrLl\-I .^rifh A.z 2O
vvlLrI ra-\ ^^l
.Jt-, ollLr f^-
I\Jl l"o--r.,
lluqvJ ^r,-Ioi
r-rLrUlL.r
\rlr/
with A>170.
 @g
tr'Vb san draw some conclusions from these two observations:
(i) The nuclear force is attractiye and sufficiently strong to produce a

(ii) The constancy of the binding energy in the range 30 < A < 77A
indicates that the nuclear force is short-ranged, A nucleon influences
only nucleons close to it and this property is called saturation property
of the nuclear force. Th-tf.e qt>r R.u.eLeoo E q eo^o:berr^h ( g'=er?kj
(iii) A very heavy nucleus, say A : 248, has Iower binding energy per
nucleon .Such a heavy nucleus breaks into two Iighter nuclei, thereby
increasing the binding energy per nucleon and the nucleons get more
tightly bound. Energy would be released in the process and this is an
implication of through fission.
(iv) Two very light nuclei (A < 10) have lower binding energy pef, nucleon
.They join to form a heavier nucleus , thereby increasing the binding
energy per nucleon and the nucleons get more tightly bound, Energy
would be released in such a process and this is an implication of
through of fusian.

Nuclear Force : ,

The ruuclear force binds the nuclearrs,'t€€ether inside the nucleus.

(i) The nuclear force is much s:tr ger than the Coulomb repulsive
force between protons inside the nucleus and the gravitational
force between the masses.
(ii) The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero as
their distance is more than a few femtometres. The force is
attractive for distances larger than 0.8 fm and repulsive if they are
separated by distances less than 0.8 fm.

>U
1.
a, t
trr
:l
+
A rough plot of the potential energy between
& {tq
two nucleons as a function of distance. The
r ..1
potential energy is a minimum at a distance r0
of about 0.8 frn.
1{
t1 z {t
r flrn)
,
(iii) The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and
proton-proton is approximately the same. The nuclear force does
not depentl on the electric charge.
 @+

Radioactivitv

A .H. Becquereldiscovered radioactivity in 1896. Radioactivity is a nuclear

phenomerron in which an unstable nucleus undergoes a decay.This is referred to as
radioactive decay. Three types of radioactive decay occur in nature :

1. a-deeay in which a helium nucleus (He) is emitted;

. 2, . $-decay in whieh electrons or positr*ns {particles with the samg mass as
electrons, but with a charge exactly opposite to that cf electron) are emitted;
3. y-decay in which high energy {hundreds of keVor more} photons are emitted
 : *gxr+filary:&&a;/@'iw6evrfiiP '.".

Nraelear Fissi*E?
Nuelear fission is the process in which a heav'ier nucleus splits ista
lighter nuclei with tIre release of iarge ameunt of enerry.
When a neutron was b*mbarcied an a uranium target, the uraniura
Rucl*us i:r*ke int* tw* RearE3r equal fragittents releasing great an":.*unt *f
energy.
ilxample
i.* +rt5ci *n ::ile; !*fm*
!jj=_- -* bt"*"" * t$${c- -+- Q
jr-E
Sl *.
!,iEa u

Fission d*es nat aiways pr*duce barium and kryptr:n. A different pair
ca* be pr*d-ueed,

*,, +'Biu -* 'e!u -" l[;st + ??Nb + afin

* =+Eu *
+';;i,r: iflxe + + z$n
3o $$sr

The energy releaseci ithe Q value ) in the iission reaction of nuciei like
ui=aniu-m is of the order *f 2** MeY p*;: fissioning nucleus.

The enormous energy releaserl in an atoin Lrcmb csmes iram

uncontrolied nuclear fission.
H*cEear Fusirn - En*rry Generetisn in Stars
Nuclear fusion is the process in which two iight nuciei cambine tc form
single iarger nucieus, r,vith the reiease of a large arn*rrtrt of energy.
Examples are
1l+ rr 1r-+ 4,,
LU .[
I ^
L
+r I
i
ar
v
a
!
t7/9 / il/t^:,
u,aL tvtc v
L:i lE-r lLL

{ri + !u -{rie+n*3.2zMev
fH+!u ?ri + ilt + 4.ils iuiev
T-h srmsElEE cEear fu si *st
For nuclear fusion to occur in br-ilk matter the temperature of the
material is t* b* raise'i untii tire particies have enough energy to
penetrate tire coulomb barrier. This process is cailed therrnonuclear
iusion.
for thermonuciear fusion to take place, extreme conditicns *i
temp*rature and pressiire ar+ rsquired, wirich are availabie *r:ly in tla*
interiors of stars including sun.
Eh* trra*E"gg g***ra*+:e !n sEer-.s *ak*s -pEa** da Eh*rae*a:,r*3*ax. f,aes€*;a-
lre€ffiq**i{3"+ -'les-'*.r+r€sE i-g+'-F:-adPa6t.faflndEft,, :# a#srffia
altftA;+.6-'#", .+ - .' . ^ * j4r-.
The fusion reactian in the sun is a multi-step praeess calied the proton-
protcn (p, p) cycle.
1g + 1H * ?* + e+ +v* 0.42 Mev

e++e-+ y+y+1.*2MeV
2:j_, trr - 2u^ r -. t t ACr trl[^tr
rd*19*lme+y+5.49MeV
}H + ;H * flte + lH + ilt + 12.86 Mev
The cambined reacticn is
4lit*2e- -$He*2v*6y +26.7 MeV
Gr {4 ln + 4 e-} -+ {fiHe * 2e-} * 2v * 6y + 26.7 MeV

Thus, four hydrogen atoms c*mbine to form an lLiHeatam with a

release *f 26.7 MeLr of energy.

In abaut 5 biliion years, however, the sun's cotre, which by that time will
be largely treliurn, will begin to cooi and the s*n wiil start to c*llapse
under its own gravity" This wili raise.tFre core temperature and cause the
cuter envel*pe t* expand, turning e,,sun int* what is ealled a red giant