Spread Spectrum

Spread Spectrum:

• The transmitted signal is spread over a frequency band that is much

larger, in fact, than the maximum bandwidth required to transmit the
information bearing (baseband) signal
o For example, required bandwidth is 5MHz, but spread bandwidth
of 20 MHz is used for transmission
• Compared to traditional transmission system, spread spectrum occupies
more bandwidth
• Types of Spread Spectrum:
o Direct Sequence spread Spectrum (DSSS)
▪ Each bit spread to multiple bits
o Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
▪ Frequency of the signal changed for every time period

DSSS FHSS
 • Advantages of using Spread Spectrum:
o Spread-spectrum signals can be overlaid onto the bands where
others systems are operating with the minimal performance impact
on both systems.
o Spread-spectrum signal is wideband signal. it reduces effect of
frequency-selective fading
o Provide reliable transmissions system in urban and indoor
environment with multipath conditions
o Suitable for environment with more interference like
manufacturing
o Cellular system with CDMA spread spectrum offer operational
flexibility compared to FDMA and TDMA
o Suitable for operation in ISM bands.

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

• Transmitter shifts center frequency of the transmitted signal.

• Because of shift in frequency (or frequency hops) for every time period,
total occupied bandwidth is greater than required.
o Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Frequency Hopping

Transmitter:

• Input data is modulated using traditional modulator. Then, center

frequency is modified according to random hopping generated by
random number generator.
• Since generated frequency pattern is appears to be random, it is called
pseudorandom sequences or codes.
Receiver:

• Dehopper synchronized to transmitter to repeat the hopping pattern of

transmitted signal and then detects the data.
• Sampling rate is same as the traditional transmission system.

• Hopping sequence of an FHSS system

• FHSS and retransmission
• Frequency selective fading and FHSS
• FHSS and GSM (To avoid co-channel interference/frequency selective
fading)
• Multiple Access Points in 802.11 using FHSS

Direct Sequence spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Autocorrelation:

• Correlating pulse with itself.

• Multiplying pulse with its delayed versions of itself and integrating the
product over the duration of pulse.

Cross Correlation:
𝑛

𝑅𝑎𝑏 (𝑙 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑗 𝑎𝑗−𝑙
𝑗=−𝑛

a=[a0,a1,a2…..an]
b=[b0,b1,b2…..bn]
Rab=[a0b0+a1b1+a2b2+…+anbn,
a0b1+a1b2+a2b3+..+anb0,
 a0b2+a1b3+a2b4+..+anb1,
…
a0bn+a1b0+a2b1+..+anbn-1,

• Example for cross correlation

• a=[1,1,1,-1] b=[-1,1,-1,1]
1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1
-1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1
-1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1
=-2 0 -2 2

Autocorrelation Example
1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 -1
1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 1
1111 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1
 Figure: Barker Code Modulated DSSS signal in IEEE 802.11b (old standard)
standard and its autocorrelation

Processing Gain:

High peak-to-side lobe ratio of the that equals to N

Bandwidth expansion factor:

Bandwidth of transmitted DSSS signal is N times larger than traditional

system. This N is called as bandwidth Expansion Factor.

Types of Codes :

 PN (Pseudo Noise) sequences

 Orthogonal codes

Orthogonal codes: cross correlation is 0

Walsh codes:
𝑊1 𝑊1
W1=(0) 𝑊2𝑛 = ( ̅̅̅̅̅)
𝑊1 𝑊1

W1(0)=(0) => 1 code : 0

 1 user
0 0
𝑊2 = ( ) => 2 codes : [0 0] [0 1]
0 1
 2 users
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
𝑊4 = (0 0 1 1) => 4 codes : [0 0 0 0] [0 1 0 1] [0 0 1 1][0 1 10]
0 1 1 0

 4 users can be accommodated

Example : Consider a scenario of 4 users, each user given one code of length 4
bits.

0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
𝑊4 = (0 0 1 1) => 4 codes : [0 0 0 0] [0 1 0 1] [0 0 1 1][0 1 10]
0 1 1 0

 4 users can be accommodated

Now, User 1, 2,3 and 4 want to transmit bit 0, bit 1, bit 1 and bit 0
respectively.

User 1 User 2 User 3 User 4

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 011 0 1 1 0 0 in code is
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 equivalent to -1
1 in code is
equivalent to 1
Data to be Data to be Data to be Data to be Data bits to be
transmitted: 0 transmitted: 1 transmitted: 1 transmitted: transmitted
0
1 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 1 -1 -1 1 Transmitted
bits/signal
To transmit bit
1, transmit the
given code
To transmit bit
0, transmit the
reverse of given
code
Case 1: Extraction of corresponding bit at receiver
If All transmissions are added to each other
1 1 1 -1 Suppose All
-1 1 -1 1 transmission
 -1 -1 1 1 added with
1 -1 -1 1 each other
________________
0 0 0 1

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Extraction of bit
(mul with) (mul with) (mul with) (mul with) using respective
-1 -1 - 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 1 -1 code
0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
(add) (add)
=0+0+0+-1=-1 =1 (add) (add)
-ve hence, bit +ve hence,bit =1 =-1
0 1 +ve hence,bit -ve hence,
1 bit 0

Case 2: Extraction of corresponding bit at receiver

If Transmission of A and B are added to each other, C and D are added to
each other
1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 A and B
-1 1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 transmissions
(add) ________________ are added each
________________ 0 -2 0 1 other
0 2 0 0
C and D
transmissions
are added each
other
0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 -2 0 1 0 -2 0 1 Positive result
(mul with) (mul with) (mul with) (mul with) means bit 1
-1 -1 - 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 1 -1 Negative result
0 -2 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 -2 0 1 means bit 0
(add) (add) (add) (add)
=-2 =3 =3 =-2
 • Each Transmitter of each user, transmit the given code/complementary
of given code corresponding to bit 1/0
• Transmissions from different users will get added in medium will result
in combined signal
• Each Receiver, multiply the combined signal with its respective code
and add the result of multiplications;
o If final value is +ve, it is considered as bit 1 from the transmitter
o If final value is -ve, it is considered as bit 0 from the transmitter

Employed for CDMA

DS-CDMA

DSSS in 802.11

Diversity Techniques
• Fading:
o A transmitted signal undergoes changes while traveling through
the propagation path to the receiver. The effect of these changes is
commonly called fading. Causes are : multipath, shadow fading,
frequency selective fading,
 Figure : Causes of fading

Figure : Illustration of fading

• Set of techniques to counteract the effects of fading (i.e., fluctuations)

due to multipath, shadow fading and other effects rather than increasing
the transmission power.
• Fading causes the errors at the receiver.
• Types:
o Time diversity
o Frequency Diversity
o Space Diversity
• Time diversity
o Multipath: Due to reflection, diffraction and scattering the received
signal arrived from different paths.
o Since the length of the paths are not same, the (copies of) signal
arrives at receiver at different time delays.
o Technique to address the multipath arrival problem. It will lead to
ISI (Inter Symbol Interference)
 Figure :Multipath
o
• Frequency Diversity
• Space Diversity