INTRODUCTION TO IOT

VEHICULAR IOT
The use of connected vehicles is increasing rapidly across the globe. Vehicular IoT systems
have penetrated different aspects of the transportation ecosystem, including on-road to off-road
traffic management, driver safety for heavy to small vehicles, and security in public
transportation.

Architecture of vehicular IoT

The architecture of the vehicular IoT is divided into three sub-layers:

1. Device
2. Fog
3. Cloud.
Device: The device layer is the bottom-most layer, which consists of the basic infrastruc ture
of the scenario of the connected vehicle. This layer includes the vehicles and road side units
(RSU). These vehicles contain certain sensors which gather the internal information of the
vehicles. The RSU works as a local centralized unit that manages the data from the vehicles.
Fog: In vehicular IoT systems, fast decision making is pertinent to avoid accidents and traffic
mismanagement. Fog computing plays a crucial role by providing decisions in real-time, much
near to the devices. The fog layer helps to minimize data transmission time in avehicular IoT
system.

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Cloud: Fog computing handles the data processing near the devices to take decisions
instantaneously. However, for the processing of huge data, fog computing is not enough. In a
vehicular IoT system, cloud computing helps to handle processes that involve a huge amount
of data. cloud computing is used as a scalable resource in vehicular IoT systems for long- term
storage.

Components of vehicular IoT

Modern cars come equipped with different types of sensors and electronic components. These
sensors sense the internal environment of the car and transmit the sensed data to a processor.
The on-road deployed sensors sense the external environment and transmit the sensed data to
the centralized processor.

The Components Required For Vehicular Iot Systems

Sensors: In vehicular IoT, sensors monitor different environmental conditions and help to
make the system more economical,efficient, and robust. Traditionally, two types of sensors,
internal and external,are used in vehicular IoT systems.
(i) Internal: These types of sensors are placed within the vehicle. The sensors are
typically used to sense parameters that are directly associated with the vehicle. Along
with the sensors, the vehicles are equipped with different electronic components such
as processing boards and actuators.The internal sensors in a vehicle are connected with

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the processor board, to which they transmit the sensed data. Further, the sensed data are
processed by the board to take certain predefined actions. A few examples of interna l
sensors are GPS, fuel gauge, ultrasonic sensors, proximity sensors,accelerome ter,
pressure sensors, and temperature sensors.
(ii) External: External sensors quantify information of the environment outside the
vehicle. For example, there are sensors used in the smart traffic system that are capable
of sensing vacant parking lots in a designated parking area. The still images and videos
from cameras are important inputs to generate decisions in a vehicular IoT system. As
an example, camera sensor can capture the image of the license plate of an overspeeding
vehicle at a traffic signal, the image can be processed to identify the owner of the
vehicle to charge a certain amount of fine. Similarly, temperature, rainfall, and light
sensors are also used in the vehicular IoT infrastructure.
Satellites: In vehicular IoT systems, automatic vehicle tracking and crash detection is among
the important available features. Satellites help the system to track vehicles and detect on-road
crashes. The satellite image is also useful for detecting on-road congestions and road blocks.
Wireless connectivity: As vehicular IoT deals with connected vehicles,communication is an
important enabling component. For taking any action or making decisions, the collective data
from internal and external sensors need processing. For transmitting the sensed data from
multiple sensors to RSU (roadside unit) and from RSUs to the cloud, connectivity plays an
indispensable role. in the vehicular IoT scenario, the high mobility of the vehicles necessitates
the connectivity type to be wireless for practical and real-time data transmission. Differ e nt
communication technologies, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and GSM, are common in the vehicular
IoT systems.
Road Side Unit (RSU): The RSU is a static entity that works collaboratively with internal and
external sensors.the rsus are equipped with sensors,communication units, and fog devices.
Vehicular iot systems deal with time-critical applications, which need to take decisions in real
time. The fog devices attached to the rsus process the sensed data and take necessary action
promptly. If a vehicular system involves heavy computation, the RSU transmits the sensed data
to the cloud end.
Cloud and fog computing:In vehicular IoT systems,fog computing handles the light-we ight
processes geographically closer to the vehicles than the cloud. fog computing takes faster
decision in vehicular IoT systems. for a heavy-weight process, fog computing may not be a
suitable option. In such a situation, cloud computing is more adept for vehicular IoT systems.

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Cloud computing provides more scalability of resources as compared to fog computing.

Therefore, the choice of the application of fog and cloud computing depends on the situation.
Analytics: In vehicular iot,analytics is a crucial component. Vehicular iot systems can be made
to predict different dynamic and static conditions using analytics. For example, strong data
Analytics is required to predict on-road traffic conditions that may occur at a Location after an
hour.

Advantages of vehicular IoT

1. Easy tracking: The tracking of vehicles is an essential part of vehicular IoT.the system
must know from which location and which vehicle the system is receiving the
information. In a vehicular IoT system, the tracking of vehicles is straightforward; the
system can collect information at a remote location.
2. Fast decision making: Most of the decisions in the connected vehicle environment are
time critical. Therefore, for such an application, fast and active decision making are
pertinent for avoiding accidents. In the vehicular IoT environment, cloud and fog
computing help to make fast decisions with the data received from the sensor-based
devices.
3. Connected vehicles: A vehicular IoT system provides an opportunity to remain
connected and share information among different vehicles.
4. Easy management: Since vehicular IoT systems consist of different types of sensors, a
communication unit, processing devices, and GPS, the management of the vehicle
becomes easy. The connectivity among different components in a vehicular IoT enables
systems to track every activity in and around the vehicle.
5. Safety: Safety is one of the most important advantages of a vehicular IoT system. With
easy management of the system, both the internal and external sensors placed at
different locations play an important role in providing safety to the vehicle, its
occupants, as well as the people around it.

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6. Record: Storing different data related to the transportation system is an essential

component of a vehicular IoT. The record may be of any form, such as video footage,
still images, and documentation.

Case Study 1: Crime assistance in a smart IoT transportation system(fog-FISVER)

The system highlights a fog framework for intelligent public safety in vehicular environme nts
(fog-FISVER). The primary aim of this system is to ensure smart transportation safety (STS)
in public bus services.
The system works through the following three steps:
(i) The vehicle is equipped with a smart surveillance system, which can execute video
processing and detecting criminal activity in real time.
(ii) A fog computing architecture works as the mediator between a vehicle and a police vehicle.
(iii) A mobile application is used to report the crime to a nearby police agent.

Architecture

Fog-FISVER is based on a three-tiered architecture, as shown in Figure

(i) Tier1—In-vehicle FISVER STS Fog: In this system component, a fog node is
placed for detecting criminal activities. This tier accumulates the real sensed data
from within the vehicle and processes it to detect possible criminal activities inside
the vehicle. Further, this tier is responsible for creating crime-level metadata and
transferring the required information to the next tier.

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Tier 1 consists of two subsystems: Image processor and event dispatcher

Image Processor:
(i) The image processor inside Tier 1 is a potent component,which has a capability
similar to the human eye for detecting criminal activities.
(ii) Developers of the system used a deep-learning-based approach for enabling image
processing techniques in the processor.
(iii) To implement the fog computing architecture in the vehicle, a Raspberry-Pi- 3
processor board is used, which is equipped with a high-quality camera.
(iv) This architecture uses template matching and correlation to detect the presence of
dangerous articles (such as a pistol or a knife) in the sub-image of a video frame.
(v) The image processor stores a set of crime object templates in the fog-FISVER STS
fog infrastructure, which is present in Tier 2 of the system.
The image processor is divided into the following three parts:
(a) Crime definition downloader: This component periodically checks for the presence of new
crime object template definitions in fog-FISVER STS fog infrastructure. If a new crime object
template is available, it is stored locally.
(b) Crime definition storage: In order to use template matching, the crime object template
definition is required to be stored in the system. The crime definition storage is used to store
all the possible crime object template definitions.
(c) Algorithm launcher: This component initiates the instances of the registered algorithm in
order to match the template with the video captured by the camera attached in the vehicles. If
a crime object is matched with the video, criminal activity is confirmed.
The Event dispatcher
The event dispatcher is responsible for accumulating the data sensed from vehicles and the
image processor. After the successful detection of criminal activity, the information is sent to
the fog-FISVER STS fog infrastructure.
The components of the event dispatcher are as follows:
(a) Event notifier: It transfers the data to the fog-FISVER STS fog infrastructure, after
receiving it from the attached sensor nodes in the vehicle.
(b) Data gatherer: This is an intermediate component between the event notifier and the
physical sensor. it helps to gather sensed data.

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(c) Virtual sensor interface: Multiple sensors that sense data from different locations of the
vehicle are present in the system. The virtual sensor interface helps to maintain a particular
procedure to gather data. This component also cooperates to register the sensors in the system.
Tier 2—FISVER STS Fog Infrastructure:
Tier 2 works on top of the fog architecture. Primarily, this tier has three responsibilities—keep
updating the new object template definitions, classifying events, and finding the most suitable
police vehicle to notify the event.
FISVER STS fog infrastructure is divided into two sub-components:
Target Object Training: Practically, there are different types of crime objects.The system
needs to be up-to-dated regarding all crime objects. This sub-component of Tier 2 is responsible
for creating, updating, and storing the crime object definition. The algorithm launcher uses
these Tier 1 for the template matching process. The template definition includes differe nt
features of the crime object such as color gradient and shape format. A new object definitio n
is stored in the definition database. The database requires to be updated based on the availability
of new template definitions.
Notification Factory: This sub-component receives notification about the events in a differe nt
vehicle with the installed system. This component receives and validates the events.
Tier 3
This tier consists of mobile applications that are executed on the users’ devices. The applicatio n
helps a user, who witnesses a crime, to notify the police.

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Chapter17

IoT Analytics
Machine Learning Definition:
machine learning as a “field of study that gives computers the ability to learn without
being explicitly programmed”.
Advantages of ML

(i) Self-learner: An ML-empowered system is capable of learning from its prior and, run-
time experiences, which helps in improving its performance continuously.For example, an
ML-assisted weather monitoring system predicts the weather report of the next seven days
with high accuracy from data collected in the last six months. The system offers even better
accuracy when it analyzes weather data that extends back to three more months.
(ii) Time-efficient: ML tools are capable of producing faster results as compared to human
interpretation. For example, the weather monitoring system generates a weather prediction
report for the upcoming seven days, using data that goes back to 6–9 months. A manual
analysis of such sizeable data for predicting the weather is difficult and time-consuming.
(iii) Self-guided: An ML tool uses a huge amount of data for producing its results. These
tools have the capability of analyzing the huge amount of data for identifying trends
autonomously. As an example, when we search for a particular item on an online e-commerce
website, an ML tool analyzes our search trends.
(iv) Minimum Human Interaction Required: In an ML algorithm, the human does not need
to participate in every step of its execution. The ML algorithm trains itself automatically,
based on available data inputs. For instance, let us consider a healthcare system that predicts
diseases. In traditional systems, humans need

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to determine the disease by analyzing different symptoms using standard “if–

else” observations.
(v) Diverse Data Handling: Typically, IoT systems consist of different sensors and produce
diverse and multi-dimensional data, which are easily analyzed by ML algorithms. For
example, consider the profit of an industry in a financial year.
(vi) Diverse Applications: ML is flexible and can be applied to different application
domains such as healthcare, industry, smart traffic, smart home, and many others. Two
similar ML algorithms may serve two different applications.
Challenges in ML
(i) Data Description: The data acquired from different sensors are required to be informative
and meaningful. Description of data is a challenging part of ML.
(ii) Amount of Data: In order to provide an accurate output, a model must have suffic ie nt
amount of data. The availability of a huge amount of data is a challenge in ML.
(iii) Erroneous Data: A dataset may contain noisy or erroneous data.
(iv) Selection of Model: We have already discussed the use of ML algorithms in differe nt
applications. Multiple models may be suitable for serving a particular purpose.
(v) Quality of Model: After the selection of a model, it is difficult to determine the
quality of the selected model.
Types of ML
ML algorithms consist of four categories:
(i) Supervised
(ii) Unsupervised
(iii) Semi-supervised
(iv) Reinforcement Learning

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Supervised Learning:
• This type of learning supervises or directs a machine to learn certain activities using
labeled datasets.
• The labeled data are used as a supervisor to make the machine understand the
relation of the labels with the properties of the corresponding input data.
• Consider an example of a student who tries to learn to solve equations using a set
of labeled formulas. The labels indicate the formulae necessary for solving an
equation. The student learns to solve the equation using suitable formulae from the
set. In the case of a new equation, the student tries to identify the set of formulae
necessary for solving it.
• algorithms are popular in solving classification and regression problems.
• The classification deals with predictive models that can approximate a mapping
function from input data to categorical output.
• Regression provides the mapping function from input data to numerical output.
There are different classification algorithms in ML.
Unsupervised Learning:
Unsupervised learning algorithms use unlabeled datasets to find scientific trends. the ML
algorithms

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in this category try to identify the nature and properties of the input equation and the nature of
the formulae responsible for solving it. Unsupervised learning algorithms try to create differe nt
clusters based on the features of the formulae and relate it with the input equations.
Unsupervised learning is usually applied to solve two types of problems:
clustering and association.
• Clustering divides the data into multiple groups.
• association discovers the relationship or association among the data in a dataset.
Semi-Supervised Learning: Semi-supervised learning belongs to a category between
supervised and unsupervised learning. Algorithms under this category use a combination of
both labeled and unlabeled datasets for training.
Reinforcement Learning: Reinforcement learning establishes a pattern with the help of its
experiences by interacting with the environment. the agent performs a crucial role in
reinforcement learning models. It aims to achieve a particular goal in an uncertain
environment.the model starts with an initial state of a problem, for which different solutio ns
are available.Based on the output, the model receives either a reward or a penalty from the
environment. The output and reward act as inputs for proceeding to the next state.

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 Healthcare IoT

Introduction

• Internet of Things (IoT) has resulted in the development and emergence of a variety of
technologies that has had a huge impact on the medical field, especially wearable
healthcare.
• These technologies have given rise to small, power-efficient, health monitoring and
diagnostic systems
• Currently, various IoT-enabled healthcare devices are in wide use around the globe for
diagnosing human diseases, monitoring human health conditions, caring/monitoring for
elders, children, and even infants.
• IoT-based healthcare devices provide access and knowledge about human physiological
conditions through hand held devices.

Architecture of healthcare IoT

We divide the architecture into four layers. The detailed description of these layers are as
follows:
i)Layer 1: We have already explained in previous chapters that sensors are one of the key
enablers of IoT infrastructure. Layer 1 contains different physiological sensors that are placed on
the human body. These sensors collect the values of various physiological parameters. The
physiological data are analyzed to extract meaningful information

(ii) Layer 2: Layer 1 delivers data to Layer 2 for short-term storage and low-level processing.
The devices that belong to Layer 2 are commonly known as local processing units (LPU) or
centralized hubs. These units collect the sensed data from the physiological sensors attached to
the body and process it based on the architecture’s requirement. Further, LPUs or the centralized
hubs forward the data to Layer 3.

(iii) Layer 3: This layer receives the data from Layer 2 and performs applicationspecific high-
level analytics. Typically, this layer consists of cloud architecture or high-end servers. The data
from multiple patients, which may be from the same or different locations, are accumulated in
this layer. Post analysis of data, some inferences or results are provided to the application in
Layer 4.

iv) Layer 4: The end-users directly interact with Layer 4 through receiver-side applications. The
modes of accessibility of these services by an end user are typically through cellphones,
computers, and tablets.

Components of healthcare IoT

Sensors: We have already explained that Layer 1 mainly consists of physiological sensors that
collect the physiological parameters of the patient.

Wireless Connectivity: Without proper connectivity and communication, the data sensed by the
physiological sensors are of no use in an IoT-based healthcare system. Typically, the
communication between the wearable sensors

Privacy and Security: The privacy and security of health data is a major concern in healthcare
IoT services. In a healthcare IoT architecture, several devices connect with the external world.
Moreover, between LPU and the server/cloud, different networking devices work via network
hops (from one networked device to another) to transmit the data.

Analytics: For converting the raw data into information, analytics plays an important role in
healthcare IoT. Several actors, such as doctors, nurses, and patients, access the healthcare
information in a different customized format.

Cloud and Fog Computing: In a healthcare IoT system, several physiological sensors are
attached to a patient’s body. These sensors continuously produce a huge amount of
heterogeneous data. For storing these huge amounts of heterogeneous health data, efficient
storage space is essential. These data are used for checking the patient’s history, current health
status, and future for diagnosing different diseases and the symptoms of the patient.

Interface: The interface is the most important component for users in a healthcare IoT system.
Among IoT applications, healthcare IoT is a very crucial and sensitive application.

Advantages and risk of healthcare IoT

Advantages in healthcare IOT

Real-time: In healthcare sectors, different components, such as the condition of the patients,
availability of doctors and beds in a hospital, medical facilities with their monetary charges, can
vary dynamically with time. In such a dynamic scenario, one of the important characteristics of
an IoT-based healthcare system is real-timeliness

Low cost: Healthcare IoT systems facilitate users with different services at low cost. For
example, an authorized user can easily find the availability of the beds in a hospital with simple
Internet connectivity and a web-browser-based portal.

Easy management: Healthcare IoT is an infrastructure that brings all its end users under the
same umbrella to provide healthcare services.

Automatic processing: A healthcare unit consists of multiple subsystems, for which manual
interventions are required. For example, to register a patient with a hospital, the user may be
required to enter his/her details manually. However, automatic processing features can remove
such manual intervention with a fingerprint sensor/device. Healthcare IoT enables end-to-end
automatic processing in different units and also consolidates the information across the whole
chain: from a patient’s registration to discharge.

Easy record-keeping: When we talk about a healthcare IoT system, it includes a huge number
of patients, doctors, and other staff. Different patients suffer from different types of diseases. A
particular disease requires particular treatment, which requires knowledge of a patient’s health
history, along with other details about them.
Easy diagnosis: We have already explained that a healthcare IoT system stores the data of the
patient in a secure manner. Sometimes, for diagnosing a disease, a huge chunk of prior data is
required.

Risk in healthcare IoT

Loss of connectivity: A healthcare IoT system consists of different physiological sensors that
sense and transmit the sensed data to a centralized unit

Security: A healthcare IoT system contains the health data of different patients associated with
the system. The healthcare system must keep the data confidential. This data should not be
accessible to any unauthorized person.

Error: Data analytics helps a healthcare IoT system to predict the patients’ condition and
diagnosis of diseases. A huge amount of data needs to be fed into the system in order to perform
accurate analytics.

Case Studies

AmbuSens system

In many developing countries, patients need to be transferred from primary-care to tertiary-care

hospitals for proper diagnosis and treatment.

• Digitization and standardization of the healthcare data, which can be easily accessed by the
registered hospital authorities.

• Real-time monitoring of the patients who are in transit from one hospital to another. At both
hospitals, doctors can access the patients’ health conditions.

• Accessibility by which multiple doctors can access the patient’s health data at the same time.

• Provision of confidentiality to the health data of the patients in the cloud.

• In the AmbuSens system, wireless physiological sensor nodes are used. These sensor nodes
make the system flexible and easy to use.

Architecture

The AmbuSens system is equipped with different physiological sensors along with a local hub.
These sensors sense the physiological parameters from the patient’s body and transmit those to a
local data processing unit (LDPU). The physiological sensors and LDPU form a wireless body
area network (WBAN).

Layer 1: This layer consists of multiple WBANs attached to a patient’s body. These WBANs
acquire the physiological data from the patient and transmit them to the upper layer. The
physiological sensors are heterogeneous, that is, each of these sensors senses different
parameters of the body.

Layer 2: In the AmbuSens system, cloud computing has an important role. Layer 2 is
responsible for handling the cloud-related functions. From Layer 1, WBANs attached to the
different patients deliver data to the cloud end. The cloud is used for the long-term analysis and
storage of data in the AmbuSens system. Moreover, the previous health records of the patients
are stored in the cloud in order to perform patient-specific analysis. A huge volume of health
data is produced by the WBANs, which are handled by the cloud with the help of big data
analytics for providing real-time analysis.

Layer 3: In the AmbuSens system, the identity of the patients remains anonymous. An algorithm
is designed to generate a dynamic hash value for each patient in order to keep the patient’s
identity anonymous. Moreover, in the AmbuSens system, at different time instants, a new hash
value is generated for the patients. The entire hashing mechanism of the AmbuSens is performed
in this layer. (iv) Layer 4: The users simply register into the system and use it as per requirement.

Hardware

In the AmbuSens system, a variety of hardware components are used such as sensors,
communication units, and other computing devices.

Sensors: The sensors used in the AmbuSens system are non-invasive. The description of the
sensors used for forming the WBAN in the AmbuSens system are as follows: (i) Optical Pulse
Sensing Probe: It senses the photoplethysmogram (PPG) signal and transmits it to a GSR
expansion module.

Electrocardiogram (ECG) unit and sensor: The ECG module used in AmbuSens is in the form
of a kit, which contains ECG electrodes, biophysical 9” leads, biophysical 18” leads, alcohol
swabs, and wrist strap. Typically, the ECG sensor measures the pathway of electrical impulses
through the heart to sense the heart’s responses to physical exertion and other factors affecting
cardiac health.

Electromyogram (EMG) sensor: This sensor is used to analyze and measure the biomechanics
of the human body. EMG sensor is used to measure different electrical activity related to muscle
contractions; it also assesses nerve conduction, and muscle response in injured tissue.

Temperature sensor: The body temperature of patients changes with the condition of the body.
Therefore, a temperature sensor is included in the AmbuSens system, which can easily be placed
on the body of the patient.
Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) sensor: The GSR sensor is used for measuring the change in
electrical characteristics of the skin.

Local Data Processing Unit (LDPU): In AmbuSens, all the sensors attached to the human body
sense and transmit the sensed data to a centralized device, which is called an LDPU.

Communication Module: Each sensor node consists of a Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1 standard)
module. The communication between the sensor nodes and the LDPU takes place with the help
of Bluetooth, which supports a maximum communication range of 10 meters in line-of-sight.

Front End

• In the AmbuSens system, three actors—doctor, paramedic/nurse, and patient—are able to

participate and use the services.
• The web interface is designed as per the requirements of the actors of the system. Each of
the actors has an option to log in and access the system.
• The confidentiality of a patient and their physiological data is important in a healthcare
system.
• For example, the detailed health data of a patient is accessible only to the assigned
doctor. These data may not be required for the nurse; therefore, a nurse is unable to
access the same set of data a doctor can access. The system provides the flexibility to a
patient to log in to his/her account and download the details of his/her previous
medical/treatment details.