RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Muhammad
Hussain Imran
Table of Contents
1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Purpose ......................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Standard ........................................................................................................................................ 5
1.3 Back ground................................................................................................................................... 5
2 Types ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Trunk type ..................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Crosshead type .............................................................................................................................. 5
3 Components and auxiliaries in reciprocating compressor .................................................................... 6
3.1 Crank case...................................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Crank shaft .................................................................................................................................... 7
3.3 Connecting rod .............................................................................................................................. 8
3.4 Cross head ..................................................................................................................................... 9
3.5 Piston rod .................................................................................................................................... 10
3.5.1 Connection of piston rod to crosshead ............................................................................... 11
3.6 Piston........................................................................................................................................... 11
3.6.1 Piston rings .......................................................................................................................... 12
3.6.2 Rider rings ........................................................................................................................... 12
3.7 Shaft sealing ................................................................................................................................ 12
3.7.1 Piston rod packing or cylinder pressure packing ................................................................. 12
3.7.2 Intermediate packing .......................................................................................................... 13
3.7.3 Oil wiper packing ................................................................................................................. 13
3.8 Cylinder ....................................................................................................................................... 14
3.8.1 Cylinder liner ....................................................................................................................... 14
3.8.2 Compressor Valves .............................................................................................................. 14
3.9 Bearings ....................................................................................................................................... 15
3.9.1 Main bearing ....................................................................................................................... 15
3.9.2 Big end and small end bearing ............................................................................................ 16
3.10 Lubrication system ...................................................................................................................... 16
3.10.1 Lube oil pump ...................................................................................................................... 17
3.10.2 Oil cooler ............................................................................................................................. 18
3.10.3 Lube oil filters ...................................................................................................................... 19

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 3.11 Driver ........................................................................................................................................... 19
3.12 Instrumentation........................................................................................................................... 19
3.12.1 Tachometers ........................................................................................................................ 19
3.12.2 Monitoring........................................................................................................................... 19
3.12.3 Alarms and shutdown.......................................................................................................... 19
4 Current challenges and their solutions................................................................................................ 20
4.1 Cylinder packing ring leakage from 16K-1 ................................................................................... 20
4.1.1 Problem statement.............................................................................................................. 20
4.1.2 Probable causes................................................................................................................... 20
4.1.3 Remedial actions ................................................................................................................. 20
5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 21

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List of Figures
Figure 1 compressor components ................................................................................................................. 6
Figure 2 crank case ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Figure 3 crank shaft ....................................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 4 connecting rod components............................................................................................................ 9
Figure 5 cross head...................................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 6 Piston and piston rod..................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 7 cylinder packing ............................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 8 A Typical oil wiper packing ............................................................................................................ 13
Figure 9 a typical compressor valve ............................................................................................................ 14
Figure 10 crush height ................................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 11 lubrication system ....................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 12 lubricator pump ........................................................................................................................... 18

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1 Introduction

1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this report is to provide the general information and fundamentals of reciprocating
compressors. The report also contains component description and their working principle.

1.2 Standard
The standard for reciprocating compressors in petroleum, chemical and gas industry API 618 is used.
Under the umbrella of API 618 defines the lubrication, control, instrumentation and other auxiliaries.

1.3 Back ground

There are currently seven reciprocating compressors at Oil refinery complex 2 and their brief summary is
shown in the table below:

S no. Tag # Availability status

1 6K-1A Available
2 6K-1B Available
3 16K-1 Available
4 16K-1A Available
5 35K-1 Available
6 35K-2 Available
7 19K-1 Available

2 Types
There are two basic types of reciprocating compressors distinguished by the style of piston and the
linkage between the piston and crankshaft.

1. Trunk type (Automotive type)

2. Crosshead type

2.1 Trunk type

These are lighter duty, single acting (i.e. compression is only one side to piston), lubricated by crank case
oil, no cross head. Trunk type compressors operate at speed ranges from 1200 to 1800rpm and have
power ratings near to 125HP.

2.2 Crosshead type

These are heavy duty, double acting (i.e. compression is on both sides of piston), force lubricated, the
piston is connected to crankshaft via piston rod, cross head and connecting rod. Except for 35K-1 and
35K-2 all compressors at the plant are crosshead type.

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3 Components and auxiliaries in reciprocating compressor

Figure 1 compressor components

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3.1 Crank case
Crank case is made up of cast iron. Crank case supports crankshaft bearing, acts as a sump for lube oil,
and provides support for crosshead assembly. It is important to align the crank case perfectly to the
ground or else web deflection (non uniformity in the crankshaft web) will induce.

Figure 2 crank case

3.2 Crank shaft

Crank shaft are made from forged steel and shall be heat treated and machined to its actual dimension.
For crank shaft material refer to API 618. For forced lubrication to journal bearings (including main
bearings and big end bearing) drilled holes are provided (refer Figure 2 crank case) in which dotted lines
shoes the passage for lube oil within the crankshaft. It is connected with two main journal bearings and
2 big-end journal bearings for connected rod.

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 BIG END BEARING

Figure 3 crank shaft

3.3 Connecting rod

For reciprocating compressor of above 150 kW (200 hp), have forged steel connecting rod. Connecting
rod is used to connect the crankshaft and the crosshead. Similar to crankshaft Forced lubrication oil
passages are drilled the length of the rod to permit oil flow from the crankpin to the crosshead pin
bushing. It is use to converts the rotary motion into reciprocating motion, while rod bolts and nuts
which are mounted on connecting rod shall be securely locked with cotter pins or wired.

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Figure 4 connecting rod components

3.4 Cross head

As per API 618 a crosshead is a sliding component typically manufactured of cast steel, or cast or ductile
iron. All reciprocating compressors at plant (except 35K-1/2) are equipped with crosshead and
replaceable crosshead shoes. Crosshead provides a guided motion to piston rod. Installation of
crosshead provides a separation of cylinder from crankcase avoiding carryover of oil into cylinder.

Crosshead alignment must be checked in order to avoid crosshead shoe uneven wear. This can be
checked by inserting feeler gauge in-between crosshead shoe and crosshead guide at various positions
as shown in Figure 5 cross head.

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 Crosshead
pin bushing
Piston rod
locknut Crosshead
pin

Crosshead
shoe

Crosshead
guide

Figure 5 cross head

3.5 Piston rod

Piston rods connects cross head to the piston, standard material for piston rod is AISI 4142 alloy steel,
and coated with wear resistant material (refer API 618 clause 6.10.4.2), the purpose of coating is to
maximize the rod and packing (carbon ring packing & oil packing) life. Tight dimensional tolerances are
kept in rods (i.e. 12.5μm for roundness and 25μm for diametral variation) to avoid piston rod run-out.

Piston rod run-out: The change in position of the piston rod in either the vertical or horizontal direction
as measured at a single point (typically at or near the pressure packing case) while the piston rod is
moved through the outbound portion of its stroke (or away from the crankcase). The shop-measured

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horizontal and vertical cold rod run-out shall equal the predicted cold rod run-out within a tolerance of
±0.015% of stroke. Horizontal (side) piston rod run-out, as measured by dial indicators during the shop
bar-over test, shall not exceed 0.064 mm (0.0025 in.), regardless of length of stroke (Clause no. 6.3.1 of
API 618, 2007)

3.5.1 Connection of piston rod to crosshead

Piston rod can be connected to cross in two basic configurations:

a. A direct connection, where the rod is threaded into the crosshead.

b. An indirect connection, where the rod is not threaded into the crosshead.

3.6 Piston
The compressor piston converts the energy/work supplied by the engine, applying it to the gas to raise
its pressure. The piston must be strong enough to withstand the pressures and forces applied, but still
be as light as possible, to minimize reciprocating weights and the resulting shaking forces. Cast steel and
cast iron are the piston material of choice for most applications. Aluminum is used for large pistons and
on higher-speed units to reduce and balance inertia forces. For some high pressure applications, over
150-atm absolute pressure one-piece integral steel piston and rod construction is used for higher piston
strengths.

Figure 6 Piston and piston rod

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3.6.1 Piston rings
The purpose of piston ring is to prevent blow-by of process gas from one side of the piston to another.
PTFE is commonly used as piston ring material for lubricated and non-lubricated services. Some shapes
of piston rings are shown in below figure.

3.6.2 Rider rings

Rider rings or wear bands support the weight of the piston, help guide the piston in the bore, and
prevent rubbing of the piston on the cylinder wall. Rider rings are also made from PFTE (Teflon)
combined with materials such as glass, carbon, bronze and high performance polymers.

3.7 Shaft sealing

As the piston rod passes many chambers (i.e. cross head, distance piece and cylinder) it is necessary to
provide sealing at every junction to prevent leakages. There are three common leakage point in the
related to piston rod motion where packing is required – cylinder pressure packing, intermediate
packing and oil wiper packing.

3.7.1 Piston rod packing or cylinder pressure packing

It consists of several annular cups, segmental rings, and a flange-like gland held in the cylinder head
stuffing box as a complete assembly by properly proportioned studs and nuts that secure it against a
sealing gasket (Figure 7 cylinder packing). The segmental packing (packing rings) is contained in the cups

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and is held together as an assembly by garter springs that hold the rings firmly on the piston rod. These
rings are free to "float" in the cups.

Figure 7 cylinder packing

3.7.2 Intermediate packing

An additional seal packing is installed in the distance piece (as shown in Figure 1 compressor
components), this intermediate seal serve as a safety barrier in event of seal leakage from cylinder
pressure packing.

3.7.3 Oil wiper packing

Installed at the junction of Crosshead case and distance piece oil wiper packing prevents the leakage of
oil into distance piece (clause 6.13.1.5 API 618, 2007). To wipe oil from the rod surface requires an
apparent contact pressure between ring and rod of about 50 psi (controlled by the garter spring). Lower
pressure tends to leave a thicker film, while high pressure may allow rapid wear of ring edge or rod
surface.

Figure 8 A Typical oil wiper packing

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3.8 Cylinder
Most process reciprocating compressors are supplied with a replaceable cylinder liner. Cylinder can be
divided into two basic type single acting and double acting compressor - A double acting cylinder is
designed to compress gas on both ends of the cylinder, (crank end and cylinder head end) while a single
acting cylinder is designed for compression only on one end of the cylinder (furthermore, construction
of compressor cylinder must comply with the clause no. 6.8 and for material refer Annex H of API 618,
2007).

3.8.1 Cylinder liner

A replaceable hollow cylinder shaped material which fits into the cylinder of compressor preventing any
damages to the cylinder case in case of any severe failure.

3.8.2 Compressor Valves

Compressor valves are check valves that control the flow into and out of a compressor cylinder. It is
usually spring loaded and allowed to move between two stops, the valve seat and the valve guard.
When resting against the valve seat the valve is closed, when against the valve guard, it is considered to
be fully opened. The distance the sealing element can travel between these two stops is called the valve
lift.

Figure 9 a typical compressor valve

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 3.9 Bearings
Providing support at various positions, these bearing plays an important role in the smooth operation of
the reciprocating compressor.

3.9.1 Main bearing

The main bearings support the crankshaft on two journal and one thrust bearing, and hence restrict its
radial & axial motion. Replaceable main bearing are installed in the housing of compressor. Prior to
installation of main bearing Crush measurement needs to be confirmed and corrected.

3.9.1.1 Crush measurement

Crush height is the difference between the outside circumferential length of a half bearing (one half
shell) and half of the housing circumference measured at a press load. Prior to obtaining bearing crush,
ensure that all surfaces of bearing shell and housing are clean. Install lower bearing shell in the bearing
frame and make sure that the both are in contact by applying a load F (as shown in figure 10) measure
the gap using feeler gauge and compare the value with OEM manual. Bearing clearance needs to be
checked once bearing crush is in allowable range (as per OEM) next is to check for bearing clearance.

Main bearing shell

Bearing frame/housing

Figure 10 crush height

3.9.1.2 Bearing clearance

Bearing clearance is simply the diametral difference of main bearing shell and crank shaft. Bearing
clearances are allowed for oil film creation. Vendor shall submit bearing clearance values for the
equipment. Using feeler gauge to indicate bearing clearance could give inaccurate readings. Best
practice to measure bearing clearance is using inside and outside micrometer.

Bearing frame/housing
Crank shaft journal

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Inside micrometer should be used to calculate inside diameter of bearing, while outside micrometer will
give outer diameter of crank shaft. Subtracting both the values will give you diametral clearance.

3.9.2 Big end and small end bearing

The lower end of connecting rod which is connected to the crank pin of crank shaft is known as big end
bearing. While the upper end of connecting rod which is connected to crosshead is known as small end
bearing. Big end bearing can split into two halves so that it can be mounted on the crank pin whereas, in
case of small end bearing a cross head pin (Figure 5 cross head) passes through it, interlocking the
connecting rod and cross head together. As per API 618 the clearance values of both these bearings
must be established by the manufacturer.

Small end bearing

Big end bearing

3.10 Lubrication system

Lubrication is achieved by pressurized system using sump of the compressor frame as a reservoir.
Lubrication system of this compressor complies with the chapter 1 & 4 API 614 standard. In
reciprocating compressor crankcases (Figure 1 compressor components), the oil pump delivers a
continuous flow to main and connecting rod bearings in order to reduce friction and carry away heat.
The main oil pump coupled with the crank shaft collects oil from the crank case passes it through the
thermostatically controlled oil cooler, to oil filter and return it back to the oil supply header (Figure 11
lubrication system).For detail lubrication system requirements of double acting reciprocating
compressors API 618 and chapter 1&3 of API 614 should be referenced.

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Figure 11 lubrication system

3.10.1 Lube oil pump

Lube oil pump is provided for the purpose of pressurized lubrication systems. There are two lube oil
pumps installed at a compressor i.e. main pump and auxiliary pump which are further elaborated below:

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3.10.1.1 Main pump
Main pump are commonly gear pump which are direct coupled with the crankshaft of compressor, takes
power form the compressor. Main pump supplies lube oil to main bearing, big end, small end, and cross
head of compressor.

In some case (like 6K-1 A /B) where cylinder/packing lubrication is required, a divider block pump
mechanical lubricator pump is supplied. Lubricator pump is crankshaft driven or motor driven (clause
6.14.3 API 618).

Figure 12 lubricator pump

3.10.1.2 Auxiliary pump

For each compressor having rating higher than 150KW, a separate oil skid is provided (Figure 11
lubrication system) this skid contains auxiliary pump, filters and lube oil cooler, pressure relief valve and
thermostatic valve. It is independent of compressor operation and has its own power source. Hence
continuous lubrication can be ensured before startup and after shutdown. The auxiliary pump is cable of
automatic start feature in case of low lube oil pressure at the compressor supply header.

3.10.2 Oil cooler

Oil cooler extracts the heat from the lube oil through a shell and tube heat exchanger with base material
of Stainless steel, in which Oil side pressure is kept higher than water side to avoid contamination of
lube oil (Figure 11 lubrication system). Oil cooler has critical importance in compressor operation as it
removes the heat from running gears of compressors and maintains viscosity of lube oil. Further to
which Oil cooler should fulfill the requirements of 6.14.2.3 of API 618.

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3.10.3 Lube oil filters
Depending on the system lube oil filters are provide on the separate skid. These filters are installed in
pair with a switch transfer valve. So that maintenance can be performed without disturbing the
operation. Further requirements are explained in 6.14.2.4 API 618, 2007.

3.11 Driver
Drivers are selected depending on the system requirement and feasibility. The driver of ay compressor
must provide torque necessary to maintain the required speed at compressor’s rated specification. In
our case all reciprocating compressors are motor driven. In case of motor driven compressor, motor
support is usually journal bearing with flooded or forced lubrication depending on the rating of
compressor. Further boundary conditions for selection and installation of compressor driver are given in
7.1.2 API 618, 2007.

3.12 Instrumentation
3.12.1 Tachometers
If specified, a tachometer shall be provided for variable speed units. The purchaser shall specify the
type, range, and indicator provisions of the tachometer. Unless otherwise specified, the tachometer
shall be supplied by the driver vendor and shall be furnished with a minimum range of 0% – 125% of
maximum continuous speed.

3.12.2 Monitoring
If specified, the vendor shall supply a temperature and pressure monitoring system installed and
calibrated in accordance with API 670. The monitoring shall be as specified by the purchaser and may
include but are not limited to following:

S no Function Temperature gauge Pressure gauge

1 Main bearing X
2 Compressor valve X
3 Cylinder packing X
4 Crosshead pin bearing (if req.) X
5 Cooling water outlet, each cylinder X
6 Cooling water supply, each cylinder X X
7 Lube oil inlet to frame X X
8 Lube oil outlet X
9 Suction gas X X
10 Discharge gas X X
11 Cylinder packing X

3.12.3 Alarms and shutdown

As per API 618 an alarm/shutdown system shall be provided. The alarm/shutdown system shall initiate
an alarm if any one of the specified parameters reaches an alarm point and shall initiate shutdown of

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the equipment if any one of the specified parameters reaches the shutdown point. Minimum
requirement for alarm and shutdown are specified in table below:

Condition Alarm Shutdown

High gas discharge temperature for each cylinder X X
Low frame lube-oil pressure X X
Low frame lube-oil level X —
Cylinder lubricator system failure X —
High oil-filter differential pressure X —
High frame vibration X X
High level in separator X X
Jacket coolant system failure X —

4 Current challenges and their solutions

4.1 Cylinder packing ring leakage from 16K-1

4.1.1 Problem statement
Excessive cylinder packing leaks from south side cylinder (plant side).

4.1.2 Probable causes

• Worn out packing rings
• Improper lube oil or insufficient lube rate
• Improper ring side or end gap clearance
• Damaged piston rod surface
• Excessive piston rod run-out

4.1.3 Remedial actions

1. Replace packing rings:
a. This involves removal and assembly of new packing rings, make sure all packing cups,
packing rings and flange plate must be examine for any contamination.
b. Preliminary assembly should be done in a vertical stack.
c. Place inner end cup with the tie bolts up on bench and stack all parts in correct
orientation and order on the tie bolts.
d. Be certain that all oil and cooling water holes are properly aligned and that all '0' rings
are firmly set in their grooves.
e. Apply light oil film to all packing rings as they are installed.
f. When all parts are correctly stacked on tie bolts, place packing gland cover plate on top
of stack and install tie bolt nuts. These nuts should be just snug to start.
g. Lay the assembly on its side in a piece of angle iron or other v-groove and gently tap all
cups and plates to assure they are completely aligned and concentric.

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 h. Tighten all tie rod nuts to maintain this concentricity during installation of the packing
assembly in the compressor.
i. Install packing assembly in compressor cylinder and tighten packing gland nuts just
enough to hold the assembly in place while installing the piston and rod.
j. Since the rod has threads on the end which could damage the packing ring bores, it is
necessary to use a protective cover on the end of the rod while inserting through the
packing assembly.
k. Install the piston and rod through the new packing, being careful not to force it and
damage the packing rings.
l. Install the cylinder head and torque to specifications.

2. Correction of piston rod run-out:

a. For allowable limits of rod run-out. Refer Annex C.3 API 618.
b. Run-out must be checked in both horizontal and vertical directions. It is best to check
run-out at both the crosshead and at the cylinder to verify that the crosshead and piston
are running true in the crosshead guide and cylinder respectively.
c. Confirm proper cylinder support (acceptable soft foot check)
d. Follow the procedure define in C.5 API 618, 2007 for calculation of rod runout.
e. Confirm cylinder alignment.
f. Adjust shims under crosshead shoes, until you achieve zero ΔDROP. (ΔDROP = 1/2
difference in running clearance of piston and crosshead)

5 Conclusion
On the basis of report we have developed a sound understanding regard the internal construction and
components of reciprocating compressor. Including but not limited to crank case, crank shaft,
connecting rod, crosshead, piston rod and piston. We have also discussed different systems involved in
the operation of compressor and their working. From this study we have also realized the importance of
piston rod run out, bearing crush and web deflection, also their role in the smooth operation of
compressor is of upmost importance.

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