Computer Networks

Unit 5
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Agenda

Introduction to the Link Layer Link Virtualization

Error Detection Techniques Data Center Networking

Error Correction Techniques Physical Layer

Multiple Access Links Guided Transmission Media

Multiple Access Protocols Communication Satellites

Switched Local Area Networks (LANs) Wireless Transmission

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Introduction to the Link Layer
The Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI model, positioned between the Physical Layer and
the Network Layer. Its primary role is to facilitate reliable communication between directly
connected nodes in a network. This layer is responsible for framing data packets, controlling
access to the physical transmission medium, and ensuring error detection and correction during
data transmission.
Key functions of the Link Layer include:
Framing: Encapsulating network layer packets into frames, adding headers and trailers for
identification and control.
Addressing: Providing physical addresses (MAC addresses) for devices on the same local
network.
Error Detection and Correction: Implementing mechanisms to detect and correct errors that may
occur during transmission.
Flow Control: Managing data transmission rates to prevent overwhelming the receiving device.
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Error Detection Techniques
Parity Bits:
A simple method that adds an extra bit to a binary string to ensure that the total number of 1s is
even (even parity) or odd (odd parity). While easy to implement, it can only detect single-bit
errors.
Checksums:
This technique involves summing the binary values of a data segment and sending the sum
along with the data. The receiver calculates the checksum and compares it to the sent value. It
effectively detects errors but may fail in certain scenarios, such as when two errors cancel each
other out.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):
A robust error-detection method that treats data as a polynomial and divides it by a
predetermined polynomial. The remainder from this division is appended to the data. At the
receiver's end, the same division process is repeated, and any mismatch indicates an error. CRC
is widely used due to its effectiveness in detecting multiple-bit errors.
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Error Correction Techniques
Error correction techniques ensure reliable data transmission by identifying and correcting errors
that occur during data transfer. Key methods include:
Forward Error Correction (FEC): This technique allows the receiver to detect and correct errors
without needing retransmission. Redundant data is added to the transmitted message, enabling
the receiver to reconstruct the original message even if some bits are corrupted.
Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ): ARQ is a feedback-based protocol where the receiver
requests the sender to retransmit data if errors are detected. It ensures data integrity by
combining error detection with retransmission, often using acknowledgments (ACKs) and
negative acknowledgments (NAKs) to confirm successful reception or request retransmission.
Hamming Code: A specific form of error correction that adds redundant bits to the data,
enabling the detection and correction of single-bit errors. Hamming codes use a systematic
method to calculate parity bits based on the original data, allowing the receiver to identify and
correct errors efficiently.
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Multiple Access Links
Definition and Importance:
Multiple access links are communication systems that enable multiple users to share a common
transmission medium efficiently. They play a vital role in networking, particularly in environments
with limited bandwidth, where optimal resource utilization is essential.

Key Benefits:
Increased Efficiency: Multiple access techniques allow more users to connect simultaneously,
maximizing the use of available bandwidth.
Cost-Effectiveness: By sharing a single communication channel, organizations can reduce
infrastructure costs associated with dedicated links for each user.
Enhanced Connectivity: Supports various applications, from telecommunication to data
transmission, ensuring seamless communication among devices.
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Types of Multiple Access Links
1. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):
Divides the channel into time slots.
Each user transmits in their allocated time slot.
Efficient for synchronous communication and suitable for applications requiring fixed
bandwidth.
2. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):
Allocates separate frequency bands to each user.
Users transmit simultaneously but on different frequencies.
Commonly used in analog communication systems and broadcasting.
3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
Assigns unique codes to each user for transmission.
Users can transmit simultaneously over the same frequency.
Provides robust performance against interference and is widely used in mobile communication.
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Multiple Access Protocols
Multiple Access Protocols are essential for managing how multiple devices share a communication
medium. Key protocols include:
ALOHA Protocol: A simple, uncoordinated protocol where devices transmit whenever they
have data. If a collision occurs (simultaneous transmission), devices wait a random time before
retrying. ALOHA is easy to implement but has low efficiency, especially under high traffic.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): This protocol requires devices to listen to the medium
before transmitting. If the channel is idle, the device sends its data. If the channel is busy, the
device waits until it becomes free, reducing the chance of collisions.
CSMA/CD (Collision Detection): An extension of CSMA used in wired networks. After
transmitting, devices listen for collisions. If a collision is detected, they stop transmitting and
wait a random time before retrying. This method improves efficiency in busy networks.
CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance): Commonly used in wireless networks, CSMA/CA minimizes
collisions by using a request-to-send (RTS) and clear-to-send (CTS) mechanism. Devices must
request permission to transmit, reducing the likelihood of overlapping transmissions.
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Switched Local Area Networks (LANs)
Definition of LANs:
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area, such as a home, school, or office building.
LANs facilitate high-speed communication and data sharing among connected devices.

Architecture of LANs:
Star Topology: Most common architecture, where devices are connected to a central switch. It
offers improved performance and easier troubleshooting.
Bus Topology: All devices share a single communication line. It’s simpler but can lead to
performance issues with increased traffic.
Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular format, where each device acts as a repeater
for the signals. It can offer better performance but is less robust to failures.
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Switched Local Area Networks (LANs)
Function of Switches:
Switches are integral components of a LAN, functioning as intelligent devices that connect
multiple computers and devices.
They operate at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, facilitating communication
between devices within the same network.
Key Roles of Switches:
Packet Forwarding: Switches receive incoming data packets, read their MAC addresses, and
forward them only to the intended recipient, minimizing unnecessary traffic.
Collision Domain Management: By creating separate collision domains for each connected
device, switches reduce the chances of data collisions, enhancing overall network performance.
VLAN Support: Switches can create Virtual Local Area Networks (VLANs), allowing for
logical separation of network segments while utilizing the same physical infrastructure,
improving security and performance.
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Link Virtualization
Concept of Link Virtualization
Link virtualization refers to the abstraction of physical network links, allowing multiple logical
connections to share the same physical infrastructure. It enables efficient resource allocation and
management by treating a single physical link as multiple virtual links, which can be dynamically
adjusted based on network demands.
Benefits of Link Virtualization
Enhanced Flexibility: Supports diverse network applications by allocating bandwidth as needed.
Improved Resource Utilization: Maximizes the use of physical links by consolidating multiple
virtual connections.
Scalability: Facilitates easy network expansion without requiring additional physical
infrastructure.
Fault Tolerance: Allows for redundancy and load balancing, enhancing network reliability.
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Data Center Networking
Structure and Design of Data Center Networks:
Data center networks are typically organized in a tiered architecture, consisting of core,
aggregation, and access layers. The core layer provides high-speed backbone connectivity, the
aggregation layer manages traffic and connects multiple access switches, while the access layer
connects servers and storage devices. This layered approach ensures efficient data flow and
resource allocation, enhancing overall performance.

Importance of Scalability and Efficiency:

Scalability is crucial for data centers to accommodate growing workloads and user demands
without significant redesigns. Efficient network design allows for the seamless integration of
additional servers and storage, ensuring optimal resource utilization. By employing technologies
such as virtualization and software-defined networking (SDN), data centers can dynamically
adjust to changing traffic patterns, maximizing efficiency and minimizing operational costs.
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Physical Layer
The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
The physical layer consists of the electronic circuit transmission technologies of a network. It is
a fundamental layer underlying the higher-level functions in a network and can be implemented
through a great number of different hardware technologies with widely varying characteristics.

Key functions include:

Defining electrical, optical, and mechanical characteristics of network interfaces.
Specifying the hardware technologies for data transmission, such as cables, switches, and
connectors.
Ensuring reliable signal transmission over various media (e.g., copper, fiber optics, and
wireless).
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Physical Layer
Interaction with the Link Layer
The Physical Layer works closely with the Link Layer to facilitate data communication.

Key interactions include:

Conversion of data packets from the Link Layer into electrical or optical signals for
transmission.
Handling framing, addressing, and error detection as data is sent and received.
Managing the access to the physical medium, ensuring proper data flow and minimizing
collisions.
This collaboration is essential for maintaining efficient and reliable network communication.
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Guided Transmission Media
Types of Guided Media:
1. Twisted Pair Cable
Description: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.
Use Cases: Commonly used in telephone and local area network (LAN) connections.
2. Coaxial Cable
Description: Composed of a central conductor, insulating layer, metallic shield, and outer
insulation.
Use Cases: Widely used for cable television and internet connections.
3. Fiber Optic Cable
Description: Transmits data as light pulses through thin strands of glass or plastic.
Use Cases: Used in high-speed internet, telecommunications, and long-distance data
transmission.
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Guided Transmission Media: Advantages and Disadvantages
Type of Media Advantages Disadvantages

-Cost-effective Limited distance and bandwidth

Twisted Pair Cable

Susceptible to electromagnetic interference
Easy to install
(EMI)

Higher bandwidth than twisted pair More expensive than twisted pair
Coaxial Cable
Longer distances than twisted pair Bulkier and less flexible for installation

Extremely high bandwidth Higher installation costs

Long-distance transmission Fragility compared to copper cables

Fiber Optic Cable
Requires specialized installation and
Immune to EMI
equipment
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Communication Satellites
1. Geostationary Satellites (GEO)
Orbit at approximately 35,786 km above the Earth’s equator.
Maintain a fixed position relative to the Earth, providing consistent coverage to specific areas.
Commonly used for television broadcasting, weather monitoring, and long-distance
telecommunications.
2. Medium Earth Orbit Satellites (MEO)
Positioned between 2,000 km and 35,786 km above the Earth.
Typically used for navigation systems like GPS.
Offer lower latency than GEO satellites, making them suitable for some broadband services.
3. Low Earth Orbit Satellites (LEO)
Orbit at altitudes ranging from 160 km to 2,000 km.
Provide lower latency and higher data speeds due to proximity to Earth.
Increasingly used for internet services, remote sensing, and Earth observation.
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Communication Satellites
Functionality
Communication satellites relay signals between ground stations, enabling global connectivity.
Facilitate various types of communication services, including voice, video, and data
transmission.
Applications
Television Broadcasting: Distribute television signals to homes and businesses.
Internet Services: Provide high-speed internet access in remote areas through LEO
constellations.
Weather Monitoring: Support meteorological data collection for forecasting and disaster
management.
Global Positioning Systems (GPS): Enable precise location tracking and navigation for various
applications, including transportation and logistics.
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Wireless Transmission Technologies
Wireless transmission refers to the transfer of information over a distance without the use of wires
or cables. Various technologies enable wireless communication, including:
Radio Waves: Widely used for broadcasting, Wi-Fi, and cellular networks. They operate in
various frequency ranges, providing coverage over large areas.
Microwaves: Employed for point-to-point communication, such as satellite links and microwave
towers. They require line-of-sight due to their higher frequencies.
Infrared: Used for short-range communication, such as remote controls and data transfer
between devices in close proximity.
Bluetooth: A short-range wireless technology that enables devices to communicate over short
distances, commonly used for connecting peripherals like headphones and keyboards.
Wi-Fi: A popular technology for local area networking that allows devices to connect to the
internet wirelessly. It operates on 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands.
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Advantages and Challenges of Wireless Communication
Advantages:
Mobility: Wireless communication allows users to connect and communicate from anywhere
within the coverage area, enhancing convenience and flexibility.
Ease of Installation: Wireless networks are quicker and easier to set up compared to wired
networks, eliminating the need for extensive cabling and infrastructure.
Scalability: Wireless networks can be easily expanded by adding more access points or devices
without significant changes to the existing infrastructure.
Challenges:
Interference: Wireless signals can be disrupted by physical obstacles, electronic devices, and
environmental factors, leading to reduced performance and reliability.
Security Risks: Wireless networks are more vulnerable to unauthorized access and attacks,
necessitating strong security measures to protect data.
Limited Range: The coverage area of wireless networks can be limited, requiring additional
access points to maintain connectivity in larger spaces.
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Importance and Significance
Importance of Error Detection and Correction:
Error detection and correction techniques enhance the reliability of data transmission by
identifying and correcting errors caused by noise or interference.
Protocols like CRC and ARQ ensure data integrity, significantly improving the overall quality
of communication.

Significance of Network Protocols:

Network protocols govern the rules and conventions for communication between network
devices, enabling effective data exchange and resource sharing.
Multiple access protocols like CSMA and TDMA are crucial for managing how multiple
devices share the same medium, optimizing network performance and reducing collisions.
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Conclusion (Recap)
Link Layer Concepts:
The Link Layer serves as a bridge between the physical transmission medium and the Network
Layer, ensuring reliable communication between directly connected nodes.
Key functions include framing, addressing, and controlling access to the shared medium.

Physical Layer Concepts:

The Physical Layer is responsible for the transmission of raw bits over a physical medium,
including the electrical, optical, or radio signals.
It defines the hardware elements involved in the transmission process, such as cables, switches,
and modulation techniques.