Physical Media

Twisted Pair (TP)

 physical link:
 two insulated copper
transmitted data bit
propagates across link wires
 Category 3: traditional
 guided media:
phone wires, 10 Mbps
 signals propagate in ethernet
solid media: copper,  Category 5 TP:
fiber 100Mbps ethernet
 unguided media:
 signals propagate
freely, e.g., radio

1
Physical Media: coax, fiber
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
 wire (signal carrier)  glass fiber carrying
within a wire (shield) light pulses
 baseband: single channel  high-speed operation:
on cable  100Mbps Ethernet
 broadband: multiple  high-speed point-to-point
channel on cable
transmission (e.g., 5 Gps)
 bidirectional
 very low error rate
 common use in 10Mbs
Ethernet

2
Physical media: radio
Radio link types:
 signal carried in  microwave
electromagnetic  e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels

spectrum  LAN (e.g., 802.11b/g)

 11/54 Mbps

 no physical “wire”  wide-area (e.g., cellular)

 e.g. CDPD, 10’s Kbps
 bidirectional  satellite

 propagation  up to 50Mbps channel (or multiple smaller

channels)
environment effects:  270 Msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus LEOS (low earth
 reflection orbit)
 obstruction by objects
 interference

3
The Data Link Layer
Our goals: Overview:
 understand principles  link layer services
behind data link layer  error detection, correction
services:  multiple access protocols and
 error detection, LANs
correction
 link layer addressing
 sharing a broadcast
channel: multiple access  specific link layer technologies:
 link layer addressing  Ethernet
 instantiation and
implementation of various
link layer technologies

4
Link Layer: setting the context

5
Recap: The Hourglass Architecture of the Internet

Telnet Email FTP WWW

TCP UDP

IP

Ethernet Wireless FDDI

6 6
 Link Layer: setting the context
 two physically connected devices:
 host-router, router-router, host-host

 unit of data: frame

M application
Ht M transport
Hn Ht M network data link network
protocol
Hl Hn Ht M link link Hl Hn Ht M
physical physical frame
phys. link

adapter card
7
Link layer: Context
 Data-link layer has
transportation analogy
responsibility of  trip from New Haven to
transferring datagram
San Francisco
from one node to
 taxi: home to union
another node over a link
station
 train: union station to
 Datagram transferred by
JFK
different link protocols
 plane: JFK to San
over different links, e.g.,
 Ethernet on first link,
Francisco airport
 shuttle: airport to
 frame relay on
intermediate links hotel
 802.11 on last link
8 8
Link Layer Services
 Framing, link access:
 encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer
 implement channel access if shared medium,
 ‘physical addresses’ used in frame headers to identify
source, destination
• different from IP address!
 Reliable delivery between two physically connected
devices:
 seldom used on low bit error link (fiber, some twisted
pair)
 wireless links: high error rates
• Q: why both link-level and end-end reliability?

9
Link Layer Services (more)
 Flow Control:
 pacing between sender and receivers
 Error Detection:
 errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
 receiver detects presence of errors:
• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
 Error Correction:
 receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s)
without resorting to retransmission

10
 Adaptors Communicating
datagram
link layer protocol receiving
sending node
node
frame frame
adapter adapter

 link layer  sending side:

implemented in  encapsulates datagram in

“adaptor” (aka NIC) a frame

 adds error checking bits,
 Ethernet card,
modem, 802.11 card rdt, flow control, etc.
 adapter is semi-  receiving side
autonomous,  looks for errors, rdt, flow
implementing link & control, etc
physical layers
 extracts datagram, passes
to receiving node 11
 Link Layer: Implementation
 implemented in “adapter”
 e.g., PCMCIA card, Ethernet card
 typically includes: RAM, DSP chips, host bus
interface, and link interface

M application
Ht M transport
Hn Ht M network data link network
protocol
Hl Hn Ht M link link Hl Hn Ht M
physical physical frame
phys. link

adapter card 12
Error Detection
EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields

• Error detection not 100% reliable! Q: why?

• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
• larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

13
Parity Checking
Single Bit Parity: Two Dimensional Bit Parity:
Detect single bit errors Detect and correct single bit errors

Parity bit=1 iff

Number of 1’s even

0 0

14
Internet checksum
Goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted
segment (note: used at transport layer only)

Sender: Receiver:
 compute checksum of received
 treat segment contents as
segment
sequence of 16-bit  check if computed checksum equals
integers checksum field value:
 checksum: addition (1’s  NO - error detected
complement sum) of  YES - no error detected.
segment contents But maybe errors nonetheless?
 sender puts checksum
value into UDP checksum
field

15
Checksumming: Cyclic Redundancy Check
 view data bits, D, as a binary number
 choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G
 goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
 <D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2)
 receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero remainder:
error detected!
 can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
 widely used in practice (ATM, HDCL)

16
CRC Example
Want:
D.2r R = nG
XOR

equivalently:
D.2r = nG RXOR

equivalently:
if we divide D.2r by
G, want reminder R

D.2r
R = remainder[ ]
G

17
 Example G(x)
 16 bits CRC:
 CRC-16: x16+x15+x2+1,
CRC-CCITT: x16+x12+x5+1
 both can catch

• all single or double bit errors

• all odd number of bit errors
• all burst errors of length 16
or less
• >99.99% of the 17 or 18 bits
burst errors
CRC-16 hardware implementation
Using shift and XOR registers
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC-32#Implementation

18 18
Multiple Access Links and Protocols
Three types of “links”:
 point-to-point (single wire, e.g. PPP, SLIP)
 broadcast (shared wire or medium; e.g, Ethernet,
Wavelan, etc.)

 switched (e.g., switched Ethernet, ATM etc)

19
Multiple Access protocols
 single shared communication channel
 two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes:
interference
 only one node can send successfully at a time
 multiple access protocol:
 distributed algorithm that determines how stations share channel,
i.e., determine when station can transmit
 communication about channel sharing must use channel itself!
 what to look for in multiple access protocols:
• synchronous or asynchronous
• information needed about other stations
• robustness (e.g., to channel errors)
• performance

20
Multiple Access protocols
 claim: humans use multiple access protocols
all the time
 class can "guess" multiple access protocols
 multiaccess protocol 1:
 multiaccess protocol 2:
 multiaccess protocol 3:
 multiaccess protocol 4:

21
MAC Protocols: a taxonomy
Three broad classes:
 Channel Partitioning
 divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots,
frequency)
 allocate piece to node for exclusive use
 Random Access
 allowcollisions
 “recover” from collisions

 “Taking turns”
 tightly coordinate shared access to avoid collisions

Goal: efficient, fair, simple, decentralized

22
MAC Protocols: Measures
 Channel Rate = R bps
 Efficient:
 Single user: Throughput R
 Fairness
N users
 Min. user throughput R/N

 Decentralized
 Fault tolerance
 Simple

23
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: TDMA
TDMA: time division multiple access
 access to channel in "rounds"
 each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round
 unused slots go idle
 example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, slots 2,5,6 idle

 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing): channel divided into N time slots, one per
user; inefficient with low duty cycle users and at light load.
 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing): frequency subdivided.

24
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: FDMA
FDMA: frequency division multiple access
 channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
 each station assigned fixed frequency band
 unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle
 example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency bands 2,5,6 idle

time
frequency bands

 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing): channel divided into N time slots, one per user;
inefficient with low duty cycle users and at light load.
 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing): frequency subdivided.

25
TDMA & FDMA: Performance
 Channel Rate = R bps
 Single user
 Throughput R/N
 Fairness
 Each user gets the same allocation
 Depends on maximum number of users

 Decentralized
 Requires resource division
 Simple

26
Channel Partitioning (CDMA)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
 unique “code” assigned to each user; ie, code set partitioning
 used mostly in wireless broadcast channels (cellular,
satellite, etc)
 all users share same frequency, but each user has own
“chipping” sequence (ie, code) to encode data
 encoded signal = (original data) X (chipping sequence)
 decoding: inner-product of encoded signal and chipping
sequence
 allows multiple users to “coexist” and transmit
simultaneously with minimal interference (if codes are
almost “orthogonal”)

27
CDMA - Basics
 Orthonormal codes:
 <ci,cj> =0 i≠j
 <ci,ci> =1
 Encoding at user i:
 Bit 1 send +ci
 Bit 0 send -ci
 Decoding (at user i):
 Receive a vector ri
 Compute t=<ri,ci>
 If t=1 THEN bit=1
 If t=-1 THEN bit=0
 Correctness of decoding
 Single user
 Multiple users
• Assume additive channel.
• R = c 1 – c2
• Output <R,c1> = <c1,c1> + <-c2,c1> = 1 + 0 = 1
28
CDMA Encode/Decode

29
CDMA: two-sender interference

30
Random Access protocols
 When node has packet to send
 transmit at full channel data rate R.
 no a priori coordination among nodes

 two or more transmitting nodes -> “collision”,

 random access MAC protocol specifies:
 how to detect collisions
 how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed
retransmissions)
 Examples of random access MAC protocols:
 slotted ALOHA
 ALOHA
 CSMA and CSMA/CD

31
Slotted Aloha [Norm Abramson]
 time is divided into equal size slots (= pkt trans. time)
 node with new arriving pkt: transmit at beginning of
next slot
 if collision: retransmit pkt in future slots with
probability p, until successful.

Success (S), Collision (C), Empty (E) slots

32
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Q: what is max fraction slots successful?
A: Suppose N stations have packets to send
 each transmits in slot with probability p
 prob. successful transmission S is:

by single node: S= p (1-p)(N-1)

by any of N nodes
S = Prob (only one transmits)
= N p (1-p)(N-1)
At best: channel
… choosing optimum p =1/N
use for useful
as N -> infty ...
transmissions 37%
S≈ 1/e = .37 as N -> infty of time!

33
Goodput vs. Offered Load
S = throughput = “goodput”
(success rate)

Slotted Aloha

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

G = offered load = np
 when p n < 1, as p (or n) increases
 probability of empty slots reduces
 probability of collision is still low, thus goodput increases
 when p n > 1, as p (or n) increases,
 probability of empty slots does not reduce much, but
 probability of collision increases, thus goodput decreases
 goodput is optimal when p n = 1

34
Maximum Efficiency vs. n
0.4
1/e = 0.37
0.35
maximum efficiency

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15 At best: channel
0.1 use for useful
transmissions 37%
0.05 of time!
0
2 7 12 17 n

35 35
Pure (unslotted) ALOHA
 unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
 pkt needs transmission:
 send without awaiting for beginning of slot

 collision probability increases:

 pkt sent at t0 collide with other pkts sent in [t0-1, t0+1]

36
 Pure Aloha (cont.)
P(success by given node) = P(node transmits) .
P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0] .
P(no other node transmits in [t0,t0+1]
= p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
P(success by any of N nodes) = N p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
… choosing optimum p=1/(2N-1)
S = throughput = “goodput”

as N -> infty ... S≈ 1/(2e) = .18

0.4

0.3
(success rate)

protocol constrains
Slotted Aloha
0.2 effective channel
throughput!
0.1
Pure Aloha

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

G = offered load = Np
37
Aloha: Performance
 Channel Rate = R bps
 Single user
 Throughput R!
 Fairness
 Multiple users
 Combined throughput only 0.37*R

 Decentralized
 Slotted needs slot synchronization
 Simple

38
CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access

CSMA: listen before transmit:

 If channel sensed idle: transmit entire pkt
 If channel sensed busy, defer transmission
 Persistent CSMA: retry immediately with
probability p when channel becomes idle
 Non-persistent CSMA: retry after random interval

 human analogy: don’t interrupt others!

39
CSMA collisions spatial layout of nodes along ethernet

collisions can occur:

propagation delay means
two nodes may not yet
hear each other’s
transmission

collision:
entire packet transmission
time wasted

note:
role of distance and
propagation delay in
determining collision prob.
40
 CSMA/CD: Collision Detection
spatial layout of nodes along Ethernet spatial layout of nodes along Ethernet
A B C D A B C D

t0 t0
time

time
B detects D detects
collision, collision,
aborts aborts

instead of wasting the whole packet

transmission time, abort after detection.

41 41
CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)
CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA
 collisions detected within short time
 colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel
wastage
 persistent or non-persistent retransmission

 collision detection:
 easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths,
compare transmitted, received signals
 difficult in wireless LANs: receiver shut off while
transmitting
 human analogy: the polite conversationalist

42
CSMA/CD collision detection

43
Efficiency of CSMA/CD
 Given collision detection, instead of wasting the
whole packet transmission time (a slot), we waste
only the time needed to detect collision.
P: packet size, e.g. 1000 bits
C: link capacity, e.g. 10Mbps
P/C

 Use a contention slot of 2 T, where T is one-way

propagation delay (why 2 T ?)
 When the transmission probability p is approximately
optimal (p = 1/N), we try approximately e times
before each successful transmission 44 44
Efficiency of CSMA/CD
 The efficiency (the percentage of useful time) is
approximately

P
C
P  e 2T  1
1 5PT
 1
1 5 a , where a  TC
P
C
C

 The value of a plays a fundamental role in the

efficiency of CSMA/CD protocols.

 Question: you want to increase the capacity of a link

layer technology (e.g., , 10 Mbps Ethernet to 100
Mbps, but still want to maintain the same efficiency,
what do you do? 45 45
CDMA/CD
 Channel Rate = R bps
 Single user
 Throughput R
 Fairness
 Multipleusers
 Depends on Detection Time
 Decentralized
 Completely

 Simple
 Needs collision detection hardware

46
“Taking Turns” MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocols:
 share channel efficiently at high load
 inefficient at low load: delay in channel access,
1/N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active
node!
Random access MAC protocols
 efficient at low load: single node can fully
utilize channel
 high load: collision overhead

“taking turns” protocols

look for best of both worlds!
47
“Taking Turns” MAC protocols
Polling: Token passing:
 master node  control token passed from
“invites” slave nodes one node to next
to transmit in turn sequentially.
 Request to Send,  token message
Clear to Send msgs  concerns:
 concerns:  token overhead
 polling overhead
 latency
 latency
 single point of failure (token)
 single point of
failure (master)

48
Reservation-based protocols
Distributed Polling:
 time divided into slots
 begins with N short reservation slots
 reservation slot time equal to channel end-end propagation
delay
 station with message to send posts reservation
 reservation seen by all stations
 after reservation slots, message transmissions ordered by

known priority

49
 Summary of MAC protocols
 What do you do with a shared media?
 Channel Partitioning, by time, frequency or code
• Time Division,Code Division, Frequency Division
 Random partitioning (dynamic),
• ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
• carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard
in others (wireless)
• CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
 Taking Turns
• polling from a central cite, token passing
• Popular in cellular 3G/4G networks where
base station is the master

50
LAN technologies
Data link layer so far:
 services, error detection/correction, multiple
access
Next: LAN technologies
 addressing
 Ethernet
 hubs,bridges, switches
 802.11
 PPP
 ATM

51
LAN Addresses
32-bit IP address:
 network-layer address
 used to get datagram to destination network

LAN (or MAC or physical) address:

 used to get datagram from one interface to
another physically-connected interface (same
network)
 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs)
burned in the adapter ROM

52
LAN Addresses
Each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address

53
LAN Address (more)
 MAC address allocation administered by IEEE
 manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to
assure uniqueness)
 Analogy:
(a) MAC address: like ID number ‫תעודת זהות‬
(b) IP address: like postal address ‫כתובת מגורים‬
 MAC flat address => portability
 can move LAN card from one LAN to another
 IP hierarchical address NOT portable
 depends on network to which one attaches

 ARP protocol translates IP address to MAC address

54
Comparison of IP address and MAC Address

 IP address is  MAC address is flat

hierarchical for routing
scalability
 MAC address does not
 IP address needs to be
need to be globally
globally unique (if no
unique, but the current
NAT)
assignment ensures
uniqueness
 IP address depends on
IP network to which an  MAC address is
interface is attached
 NOT portable
assigned to a device
 portable
55
ARP: Address Resolution Protocol
 Each IP node (Host, Router)
on LAN has ARP table
 ARP Table: IP/MAC address
mappings for some LAN
nodes
< IP address; MAC address; TTL>
 TTL (Time To Live): time
after which address
mapping will be forgotten
(typically 20 min)

[yry3@cicada yry3]$ /sbin/arp

Address HWtype HWaddress Flags Mask Iface
zoo-gatew.cs.yale.edu ether AA:00:04:00:20:D4 C eth0
artemis.zoo.cs.yale.edu ether 00:06:5B:3F:6E:21 C eth0
lab.zoo.cs.yale.edu ether 00:B0:D0:F3:C7:A5 C eth0
56
Try proc/net/arp
ARP Protocol
 ARP is “plug-and-play”:
 nodes create their ARP tables without
intervention from net administrator

 A broadcast protocol:
 A broadcasts query frame, containing queried IP
address
• all machines on LAN receive ARP query

 destination D receives ARP frame, replies

• frame sent to A’s MAC address (unicast)

57
Ethernet
“dominant” LAN technology:
 cheap $20 for 10/100/1000 Mbs!
 first widely used LAN technology
 Simpler, cheaper than token LANs and ATM
 Kept up with speed race: 1, 10, 100, 1000 Mbps

Metcalfe’s Etheret
sketch

58
Ethernet Frame Structure
Sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame

Preamble:
 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one
byte with pattern 10101011
 used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates

59
Ethernet Frame Structure
(more)
 Addresses: 6 bytes, frame is received by all
adapters on a LAN and dropped if address does
not match
 Type: indicates the higher layer protocol, mostly
IP but others may be supported such as Novell
IPX and AppleTalk)
 CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, the
frame is simply dropped

60
Ethernet: uses CSMA/CD
A: sense channel, if idle
then {
transmit and monitor the channel;
If detect another transmission
then {
abort and send jam signal;
update # collisions;
delay as required by exponential backoff algorithm;
goto A
}
else {done with the frame; set collisions to zero}
}
else {wait until ongoing transmission is over and goto A}

61
Ethernet’s CSMA/CD (more)

Jam Signal: make sure all other transmitters are

aware of collision; 48 bits;
Exponential Backoff:
 Goal: adapt retransmission attempts to estimated
current load
 heavy load: random wait will be longer
 first collision: choose K from {0,1}; delay is K x 512
bit transmission times
 after n-th collision: choose K from {0,1,…, 2n-1}
 after ten or more collisions, choose K from
{0,1,2,3,4,…,1023}

62
Exponential Backoff (simplified)
 N users
 Interval of size 2n
 Prob Node/slot is 1/2n
 Prob of success N(1/2n)(1 – 1/2n)N-1
 Average slot success N(1 – 1/2n)N-1
 Intervals size: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 …
 Fraction (out of N) of success:
 2n = N/8 -> 0.03 % 2n = N/4 -> 2%
 2n = N/2 -> 15% 2n = N -> 37 %
 2n = 2N -> 60%

63
Ethernet Technologies: 10Base2
 10: 10Mbps; 2: under 200 meters max cable length
 thin coaxial cable in a bus topology

 repeaters used to connect up to multiple segments

 repeater repeats bits it hears on one interface to its other interfaces: physical layer device only!

64
10BaseT and 100BaseT
 10/100 Mbps rate; latter called “fast ethernet”
 T stands for Twisted Pair
 Hub to which nodes are connected by twisted pair,
thus “star topology”
 CSMA/CD implemented at hub

65
10BaseT and 100BaseT (more)
 Max distance from node to Hub is 100 meters
 Hub can disconnect “jabbering” adapter
 Hub can gather monitoring information, statistics
for display to LAN administrators

66
Gbit Ethernet
 use standard Ethernet frame format
 allows for point-to-point links and shared
broadcast channels
 in shared mode, CSMA/CD is used; short distances
between nodes to be efficient
 uses hubs, called here “Buffered Distributors”
 Full-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links

67
Token Rings (IEEE 802.5)
 A ring topology is a single unidirectional
loop connecting a series of stations in
sequence
 Each bit is stored and forwarded by each
station’s network interface

68
Token Ring: IEEE802.5 standard
 4 Mbps (also 16 Mbps)
 max token holding time: 10 ms, limiting frame length

 SD, ED mark start, end of packet

 AC: access control byte:
 token bit: value 0 means token can be seized, value 1 means data follows FC
 priority bits: priority of packet
 reservation bits: station can write these bits to prevent stations with lower priority packet from
seizing token after token becomes free

69
Token Ring: IEEE802.5 standard

 FC: frame control used for monitoring and

maintenance
 source, destination address: 48 bit physical
address, as in Ethernet
 data: packet from network layer
 checksum: CRC
 FS: frame status: set by dest., read by sender
 set to indicate destination up, frame copied OK from ring
 DLC-level ACKing
70