Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things (IOT)

Course Code: BETCK105H

Total Hours of Pedagogy: 40 hours

Course objectives
Understand about the fundamentals of Internet of Things and
its building blocks along with their characteristics.

 Understand the recent application domains of IoT in everyday

life.
 Gain insights about the current trends of Associated IOT
technologies and IOT Analytics.
Module-2 (8- Hours Pedagogy)

IoT Sensing and Actuation:

Introduction
Sensors
Sensor Characteristics
Sensorial Deviations
Sensing Types
Sensing Considerations
Actuators
Actuator Types
Actuator Characteristics
Introduction:
A major chunk of IoT applications involves sensing in one form or
the other. Almost all the applications in IoT- be it a consumer IoT, an
industrial IoT, or just plain hobby-based deployments of IoT solutions—
sensing forms the first step. Incidentally, actuation forms the final step in the
whole operation of IoT application deployment in a majority of scenarios.

The basic science of sensing and actuation is based on the process of

transduction.

Transduction is the process of energy conversion from one form to

another. A transducer is a physical means of enabling transduction.

Transducers take energy in any form (for which it is designed)—

electrical, mechanical, chemical, light, sound, and others—and convert it
into another, which may be electrical, mechanical, chemical, light, sound,
and others. Sensors and actuators are deemed as transducers.
For example, in a public announcement (PA) system, a microphone (input
device) converts sound waves into electrical signals, which is amplified by
an amplifier system (a process).

Finally, a loudspeaker (output device) outputs this into audible

sounds by converting the amplified electrical signals back into sound waves.

Table 5.1 outlines the basic terminological differences between

transducers, sensors, and actuators.
Table: Basic outline of the differences between transducers, sensors, and actuators
Sensors:

Sensors are devices that can measure, or quantify, or respond to the

ambient changes in their environment or within the intended zone of their
deployment.
They generate responses to external stimuli or physical phenomenon
through characterization of the input functions (which are these external
stimuli) and their conversion into typically electrical signals.
For example, heat is converted to electrical signals in a temperature
sensor, or atmospheric pressure is converted to electrical signals in a
barometer.
A sensor is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., a
temperature sensor only senses the ambient temperature of a room). It is
insensitive to any other property besides what it is designed to detect (e.g., a
temperature sensor does not bother about light or pressure while sensing the
temperature).
 Finally, a sensor does not influence the measured property (e.g.,
measuring the temperature does not reduce or increase the temperature).

The below figure shows the simple outline of a sensing task. Here, a
temperature sensor keeps on checking an environment for changes. In the
event of a fire, the temperature of the environment goes up. The temperature
sensor notices this change in the temperature of the room and promptly
communicates this information to a remote monitor via the processor.

Figure:The outline of a simple sensing operation

The various sensors can be classified based on:

1) Power requirements,
2) Sensor output, and
3) Property to be measured.

1) Power Requirements:
The way sensors operate decides the power requirements that must
be provided for an IoT implementation. Some sensors need to be
provided with separate power sources for them to function, whereas
some sensors do not require any power sources.

Depending on the requirements of power, sensors can be of two

types.
i) Active Sensors
ii) Passive Sensors
 (i) Active: Active sensors do not require an external circuitry or
mechanism to provide it with power. It directly responds to the
external stimuli from its ambient environment and converts it into
an output signal.

For example, a photodiode converts light into electrical impulses.

(ii) Passive: Passive sensors require an external mechanism to power

them up. The sensed properties are modulated with the sensor’s
inherent characteristics to generate patterns in the output of the
sensor.

For example, a thermistor’s resistance can be detected by

applying voltage difference across it or passing a current
through it.
2) Sensor output:
The output of a sensor helps in deciding the additional components
to be integrated with an IoT node or system.

Typically, almost all modern-day processors are digital; digital

sensors can be directly integrated to the processors However, the integration
of analog sensors to these digital processors or IoT nodes requires additional
interfacing mechanisms such as analog to digital converters (ADC), voltage
level converters, and others.

Sensors are broadly divided into two types, depending on the type of
output generated from these sensors, as follows.

(i) Analog Sensors

(ii) Digital Sensors

(i) Analog:
Analog sensors generate an output signal or voltage, which is
proportional (linearly or non-linearly) to the quantity being measured and is
continuous in time and amplitude.
Physical quantities such as temperature, speed, pressure, displacement,
strain, and others are all continuous and categorized as analog quantities.
For example, a thermometer or a thermocouple can be used for measuring
the temperature of a liquid (e.g., in household water heaters).
These sensors continuously respond to changes in the temperature of
the liquid.

(ii) Digital:
These sensors generate the output of discrete time digital representation
(time, or amplitude, or both) of a quantity being measured, in the form of
output signals or voltages.
Typically, binary output signals in the form of a logic 1 or a logic 0 for
ON or OFF, respectively are associated with digital sensors.
The generated discrete (non-continuous) values may be output as a
single “bit” (serial transmission), eight of which combine to produce a single
“byte” output (parallel transmission) in digital sensors.
3) Measured Property:

The property of the environment being measured by the sensors

can be crucial in deciding the number of sensors in an IoT implementation.

Some properties to be measured do not show high spatial variations

and can be quantified only based on temporal variations in the measured
property, such as ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure, and others.

Whereas some properties to be measured show high spatial as well

as temporal variations such as sound, image, and others.

Depending on the properties to be measured, sensors can be of two

types.

(i) Scalar Sensors

(ii) Vector Sensors
(i) Scalar:
Scalar sensors produce an output proportional to the magnitude of the quantity
being measured. The output is in the form of a signal or voltage.
Scalar physical quantities are those where only the magnitude of the signal is
sufficient for describing or characterizing the phenomenon and information generation.
Examples of such measurable physical quantities include color, pressure,
temperature, strain, and others.
A thermometer or thermocouple is an example of a scalar sensor that has the
ability to detect changes in ambient or object temperatures (depending on the sensor’s
configuration). Factors such as changes in sensor orientation or direction do not affect
these sensors (typically).

(ii) Vector:
Vector sensors are affected by the magnitude as well as the direction and/or
orientation of the property they are measuring.
Physical quantities such as velocity and images that require additional
information besides their magnitude for completely categorizing a physical
phenomenon are categorized as vector quantities.
Measuring such quantities are undertaken using vector sensors. For example,
an electronic gyroscope, which is commonly found in all modern aircraft, is used for
detecting the changes in orientation of the gyroscope with respect to the Earth’s
orientation along all three axes.
Figure: The functional blocks of a typical sensor node in IoT
Figure: Some common commercially available sensors used for IoT-based sensing
applications
Sensor Characteristics:
All sensors can be defined by their ability to measure or capture a
certain phenomenon and report them as output signals to various other systems.
However, even within the same sensor type and class, sensors can be
characterized by their ability to sense the phenomenon based on the following
three fundamental properties.
i) Sensor Resolution
ii) Sensor Accuracy
iii) Sensor Precision
i) Sensor Resolution
`The smallest change in the measurable quantity that a sensor can detect is
referred to as the resolution of a sensor.
For digital sensors, the smallest change in the digital output that the
sensor is capable of quantifying is its sensor resolution.
The more the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is the precision.
A sensor’s accuracy does not depend upon its resolution.
For example, a temperature sensor A can detect up to 0.5 degree C changes
in temperature; whereas another sensor B can detect up to 0.25 degree C
changes in temperature. Therefore, the resolution of sensor B is higher than
the resolution of sensor A.
ii) Sensor Accuracy:
The accuracy of a sensor is the ability of that sensor to measure the
environment of a system as close to its true measure as possible. For example, a
weight sensor detects the weight of a 100 kg mass as 99.98 kg. We can say that
this sensor is 99.98% accurate, with an error rate of + or - 0.02%.

iii) Sensor Precision:

The principle of repeatability governs the precision of a sensor.
Only if, upon multiple repetitions, the sensor is found to have the same
error rate, can it be deemed as highly precise.
For example, consider if the same weight sensor described earlier
reports measurements of 98.28 kg, 100.34 kg, and 101.11 kg upon three repeat
measurements for a mass of actual weight of 100 kg. Here, the sensor precision
is not deemed high because of significant variations in the temporal
measurements for the same object under the same conditions.
Sensorial Deviations :
In this section we will discuss the various sensorial deviations that are
considered as errors in sensors.

Most of the sensing in IoT is non-critical, where minor deviations in

sensorial outputs seldom change the nature of the undertaken tasks. However,
some critical applications of IoT, such as healthcare, industrial process
monitoring, and others, do require sensors with high-quality measurement
capabilities.
In the event of a sensor’s output signal going beyond its designed
maximum and minimum capacity for measurement, the sensor output is
truncated to its maximum or minimum value, which is also the sensor’s limits.

The measurement range between a sensor’s characterized minimum

and maximum values is also referred to as the fullscale range of that sensor.

Under real conditions, the sensitivity of a sensor may differ from the
value specified for that sensor leading to sensitivity error. This deviation is
mostly attributed to sensor fabrication errors and its calibration.
 If the output of a sensor differs from the actual value to be
measured by a constant, the sensor is said to have an offset error or bias.
For example, while measuring an actual temperature of 0
degree C, a temperature sensor outputs 1.1 degree C every time. In this
case, the sensor is said to have an offset error or bias of 1.1 degree C.

Similarly, some sensors have a non-linear behavior. If a sensor’s

transfer function (TF) deviates from a straight line transfer function, it is
referred to as its non-linearity. The amount a sensor’s actual output
differs from the ideal TF behavior over the full range of the sensor
quantifies its behavior.
It is denoted as the percentage of the sensor’s full range. Most
sensors have linear behavior. If the output signal of a sensor changes
slowly and independently of the measured property, this behavior of the
sensor’s output is termed as drift.
Physical changes in the sensor or its material may result in long-
term drift, which can span over months or years. Noise is a temporally
varying random deviation of signals.
In contrast, if a sensor’s output varies/deviates due to deviations in the
sensor’s previous input values, it is referred to as hysteresis error.

The present output of the sensor depends on the past input values
provided to the sensor.

Typically, the phenomenon of hysteresis can be observed in

analog sensors, magnetic sensors, and during heating of metal strips.

One way to check for hysteresis error is to check how the

sensor’s output changes when we first increase, then decrease the input
values to the sensor over its full range.

It is generally denoted as a positive and negative percentage

variation of the full-range of that sensor.
 Focusing on digital sensors, if the digital output of a sensor is an
approximation of the measured property, it induces quantization error.
This error can be defined as the difference between the actual analog
signal and its closest digital approximation during the sampling stage of
the analog to digital conversion.
Similarly, dynamic errors caused due to mishandling of
sampling frequencies can give rise to aliasing errors. Aliasing leads to
different signals of varying frequencies to be represented as a single
signal in case the sampling frequency is not correctly chosen, resulting in
the input signal becoming a multiple of the sampling rate.

Finally, the environment itself plays a crucial role in inducing

sensorial deviations. Some sensors may be prone to external influences,
which may not be directly linked to the property being measured by the
sensor. This sensitivity of the sensor may lead to deviations in its output
values.
For example, as most sensors are semiconductor based, they are
influenced by the temperature of their environment.
Sensing Types :

Sensing can be broadly divided into four different categories

based on the nature of the environment being sensed and the physical
sensors being used to do so.

1) Scalar sensing
2) Multimedia sensing
3) Hybrid sensing
4) Virtual sensing
1) Scalar sensing:
Scalar sensing encompasses the sensing of features that can be quantified
simply by measuring changes in the amplitude of the measured values with respect to
time.
Quantities such as ambient temperature, current, atmospheric pressure, rainfall,
light, humidity, flux, and others are considered as scalar values as they normally do not
have a directional or spatial property assigned with them.
Simply measuring the changes in their values with passing time provides
enough information about these quantities. The sensors used for measuring these scalar
quantities are referred to as scalar sensors, and the act is known as scalar sensing.
The below figure shows Scalar sensors:
2) Multimedia sensing :
Unlike scalar sensors, multimedia sensors are used for capturing the
changes in amplitude of a quantifiable property concerning space (spatial) as
well as time (temporal).

Quantities such as images, direction, flow, speed, acceleration, sound,

force, mass, energy, and momentum have both directions as well as a
magnitude.

Additionally, these quantities follow the vector law of addition and

hence are designated as vector quantities. They might have different values in
different directions for the same working condition at the same time.
 The sensors used for measuring these quantities are known as vector
sensors. Figures (a) and (c) are vector sensors. A simple camera-based
multimedia sensing using surveillance as an example is shown in above figure.
3) Hybrid sensing:
The act of using Scalar as well Vector sensing at the same time is
referred to as hybrid sensing.

Many a time, there is a need to measure certain vector as well as scalar

properties of an environment at the same time.

Under these conditions, a range of various sensors are employed (from

the collection of scalar as well as multimedia sensors) to measure the various
properties of that environment at any instant of time, and temporally map the
collected information to generate new information.
 For example, in an agricultural field, it is required to measure the soil
conditions at regular intervals of time to determine plant health.
Sensors such as soil moisture and soil temperature are deployed
underground to estimate the soil’s water retention capacity and the moisture
being held by the soil at any instant of time.

However, this setup only determines whether the plant is getting

enough water or not. There may be a host of other factors besides water
availability, which may affect a plant’s health.

The additional inclusion of a camera sensor with the plant may be able
to determine the actual condition of a plant by additionally determining the
color of leaves. The aggregate information from soil moisture, soil temperature,
and the camera sensor will be able to collectively determine a plant’s health at
any instant of time.
Other common examples of hybrid sensing include smart parking
systems, traffic management systems, and others. The above figure shows an
example of hybrid sensing, where a camera and a temperature sensor are
collectively used to detect and confirm forest fires during wildlife monitoring.
4) Virtual sensing :
Many a time, there is a need for very dense and large-scale deployment
of sensor nodes spread over a large area for monitoring of parameters.

One such domain is agriculture. Here, often, the parameters being

measured, such as soil moisture, soil temperature, and water level, do not
show significant spatial variations. Hence, if sensors are deployed in the fields
of farmer A, it is highly likely that the measurements from his sensors will be
able to provide almost concise measurements of his neighbor B’s fields; this is
especially true of fields which are immediately surrounding A’s fields.
Exploiting this property, if the data from A’s field is digitized using an IoT
infrastructure and this system advises him regarding the appropriate
watering, fertilizer, and pesticide regimen for his crops, this advisory can
also be used by B for maintaining his crops.

In short, A ’s sensors are being used for actual measurement of

parameters; whereas virtual data (which does not have actual physical
sensors but uses extrapolation-based measurements) is being used for advising
B. This is the virtual sensing paradigm.
 Figure below shows an example of virtual sensing. Two temperature
sensors S1 and S3 monitor three nearby events E1, E2, and E3 (fires). The
event E2 does not have a dedicated sensor for monitoring it; however, through
the superposition of readings from sensors S1 and S3, the presence of fire
in E2 is inferred.
 A simple scalar temperature sensing of a fire detection event is shown
in below figure.

Figure : The different sensing types commonly encountered in IoT

Sensing Considerations :

The choice of sensors in an IoT sensor node is critical and can either
make or break the feasibility of an IoT deployment.

The following major factors influence the choice of sensors in IoT-

based sensing solutions:

1) Sensing range
2) Accuracy and precision
3) Energy
4) Device size

These factors are discussed as follows:

1) Sensing range :

The sensing range of a sensor node defines the detection fidelity

of that node.
Two approaches to optimize the sensing range in deployments
include
a) Fixed k-coverage and
b) Dynamic k-coverage.
A lifelong fixed k-coverage tends to usher in redundancy as it
requires a large number of sensor nodes, the sensing range of some of
which may also overlap.
Dynamic k-coverage incorporates mobile sensor nodes post
detection of an event, which, however, is a costly solution and may not
be deployable in all operational areas and terrains.
 Additionally, the sensing range of a sensor may also be used to
signify the upper and lower bounds of a sensor’s measurement range.

For example, a proximity sensor has a typical sensing range of a

couple of meters.

In contrast, a camera has a sensing range varying between tens of

meters to hundreds of meters. As the complexity of the sensor and its
sensing range goes up, its cost significantly increases.
2) Accuracy and precision :
The accuracy and precision of measurements provided by a sensor
are critical in deciding the operations of specific functional processes.
Typically, off-the-shelf consumer sensors are low on requirements
and often very cheap. However, their performance is limited to regular
application domains.
For example, a standard temperature sensor can be easily integrated
with conventional components for hobby projects and day-to-day
applications, but it is not suitable for industrial processes. Regular
temperature sensors have a very low-temperature sensing range, as well as
relatively low accuracy and precision.
The use of these sensors in industrial applications, where a precision
of up to 3–4 decimal places is required, cannot be facilitated by these
sensors.

Industrial sensors are typically very sophisticated, and as a result,

very costly. However, these industrial sensors have very high accuracy and
precision score, even under harsh operating conditions.
3) Energy :

The energy consumed by a sensing solution is crucial to

determine the lifetime of that solution and the estimated cost of its
deployment.
If the sensor or the sensor node is so energy inefficient that it
requires replenishment of its energy sources quite frequently, the effort in
maintaining the solution and its cost goes up; whereas its deployment
feasibility goes down.

Consider a scenario where sensor nodes are deployed on the top

of glaciers.

Once deployed, access to these nodes is not possible. If the

energy requirements of the sensor nodes are too high, such a deployment
will not last long, and the solution will be highly infeasible as charging
or changing of the energy sources of these sensor nodes is not an option.
3) Device Size :
Modern-day IoT applications have a wide penetration in all
domains of life.

Most of the applications of IoT require sensing solutions which

are so small that they do not hinder any of the regular activities that were
possible before the sensor node deployment was carried out.

Larger the size of a sensor node, larger is the obstruction caused

by it, higher is the cost and energy requirements, and lesser is its demand
for the bulk of the IoT applications.

Consider a simple human activity detector. If the detection unit is

too large to be carried or too bulky to cause hindrance to regular normal
movements, the demand for this solution would be low.
It is because of this that the onset of wearables took off so
strongly. The wearable sensors are highly energy-efficient, small in size,
and almost part of the wearer’s regular wardrobe.
Actuators :

An actuator can be considered as a machine or system’s

component that can affect the movement or control the said mechanism
or the system. Control systems affect changes to the environment or
property they are controlling through actuators.
The system activates the actuator through a control signal, which
may be digital or analog. It elicits a response from the actuator, which is
in the form of some form of mechanical motion.
The control system of an actuator can be a mechanical or
electronic system, a software-based system (e.g., an autonomous car
control system), a human, or any other input. The below figure shows the
outline of a simple actuation system.
A remote user sends commands to a processor. The processor instructs a
motor controlled robotic arm to perform the commanded tasks
accordingly.
The processor is primarily responsible for converting the human
commands into sequential machine-language command sequences,
which enables the robot to move. The robotic arm finally moves the
designated boxes, which was its assigned task.

Figure : The outline of a simple actuation mechanism

Actuator Types :

Actuators can be divided into seven classes:-

1) Hydraulic
2) Pneumatic
3) Electrical
4) Thermal/Magnetic
5) Mechanical
6) Soft
7) Shape Memory Polymers
1) Hydraulic Actuators :

A hydraulic actuator works on the principle of compression and

decompression of fluids.
These actuators facilitate mechanical tasks such as lifting loads
through the use of hydraulic power derived from fluids in cylinders or
fluid motors.
The mechanical motion applied to a hydraulic actuator is
converted to either linear, rotary, or oscillatory motion. The almost
incompressible property of liquids is used in hydraulic actuators for
exerting significant force.
These hydraulic actuators are also considered as stiff systems.
The actuator’s limited acceleration restricts its usage.
2) Pneumatic Actuators :
A pneumatic actuator works on the principle of compression and
decompression of gases. These actuators use a vacuum or compressed air at
high pressure and convert it into either linear or rotary motion.
Pneumatic rack and pinion actuators are commonly used for valve
controls of water pipes.

Pneumatic actuators are considered as compliant systems. The actuators

using pneumatic energy for their operation are typically characterized by the
quick response to starting and stopping signals. Small pressure changes can be
used for generating large forces through these actuators.
Example:
Pneumatic brakes are an example of this type of actuator which is so
responsive that they can convert small pressure changes applied by drives to
generate the massive force required to stop or slow down a moving vehicle.
Pneumatic actuators are responsible for converting pressure into
force
The power source in the pneumatic actuator does not need to be stored
in reserve for its operation.
3) Electric/Electrical Actuators :
Electric motors are used to power an electric actuator by
generating mechanical torque. This generated torque is translated
into the motion of a motor’s shaft or for switching (as in relays).

For example, actuating equipments such as solenoid valves

control the flow of water in pipes in response to electrical signals. This
class of actuators is considered one of the cheapest, cleanest and speedy
actuator types available. Figures (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (i), and (j) show
some of the commonly used electrical actuators.
4) Thermal/Magnetic Actuators :
The use of thermal or magnetic energy is used for powering this
class of actuators. These actuators have a very high power density and
are typically compact, lightweight, and economical.

One classic example of thermal actuators is shape memory

materials (SMMs) such as shape memory alloys (SMAs). These
actuators do not require electricity for actuation. They are not affected
by vibration and can work with liquid or gases.

Magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs) are a type of

magnetic actuators.
5) Mechanical Actuators :
In mechanical actuation, the rotary motion of the actuator is
converted into linear motion to execute some movement. The use of gears,
rails, pulleys, chains, and other devices are necessary for these actuators to
operate.

These actuators can be easily used in conjunction with pneumatic,

hydraulic, or electrical actuators. They can also work in a standalone mode.

The best example of a mechanical actuator is a rack and pinion

mechanism.

Figures (g), (h), (k), and (l) show some of the commonly available
mechanical actuators.
The hydroelectric generator shown in Figures (g) and 5(h) convert the
water-flow induced rotary motion of a turbine into electrical energy.

Similarly, the mechanical switches shown in Figures (k) and (l) uses
the mechanical motion of the switch to switch on or off an electrical circuit.
6) Soft Actuators :

Soft actuators (e.g., polymer-based) consists of elastomeric

polymers that are used as embedded fixtures in flexible materials such as
cloth, paper, fiber, particles, and others

The conversion of molecular level microscopic changes into

tangible macroscopic deformations is the primary working principle of
this class of actuators.

These actuators have a high stake in modern-day robotics. They

are designed to handle fragile objects such as agricultural fruit
harvesting, or performing precise operations like manipulating the
internal organs during robot-assisted surgeries.
7) Shape Memory Polymers Actuators :
Shape memory polymers (SMP) are considered as smart materials that respond
to some external stimulus by changing their shape, and then revert to their original
shape once the affecting stimulus is removed.
Features such as high strain recovery, biocompatibility, low density, and
biodegradability characterize these materials.
SMP-based actuators function similar to our muscles. Modern-day SMPs have
been designed to respond to a wide range of stimuli such as pH changes, heat
differentials, light intensity, and frequency changes, magnetic changes, and others.
Photopolymer/light-activated polymers (LAP) are a particular type of SMP,
which require light as a stimulus to operate.
LAP-based actuators are characterized by their rapid response times. Using
only the variation of light frequency or its intensity, LAPs can be controlled remotely
without any physical contact.
The development of LAPs whose shape can be changed by the application of a
specific frequency of light have been reported. The polymer retains its shape after
removal of the activating light. In order to change the polymer back to its original
shape, a light stimulus of a different frequency has to be applied to the polymer.
 The below figure shows some of the commonly used actuators in
IoT applications

Figure: Some common commercially available actuators used for IoT-based control
applications
Actuator Characteristics :

The choice or selection of actuators is crucial in an IoT

deployment, where a control mechanism is required after sensing and
processing of the information obtained from the sensed environment.
Actuators perform the physically heavier tasks in an IoT
deployment; tasks which require moving or changing the orientation of
physical objects, changing the state of objects, and other such activities.
The correct choice of actuators is necessary for the long-term
sustenance and continuity of operations, as well as for increasing the
lifetime of the actuators themselves.
A set of four characteristics can define all actuators:
1) Weight
2) Power Rating
3) Torque to Weight Ratio
4) Stiffness and Compliance
1) Weight :

The physical weight of actuators limits its application scope.

For example, the use of heavier actuators is generally preferred

for industrial applications and applications requiring no mobility of the
IoT deployment.

In contrast, lightweight actuators typically find common usage in

portable systems in vehicles, drones, and home IoT applications.

It is to be noted that this is not always true. Heavier actuators also

have selective usage in mobile systems, for example, landing gears and
engine motors in aircraft.
2) Power Rating :
The power rating defines the minimum and maximum operating
power an actuator can safely withstand without damage to itself.
Generally, it is indicated as the power-to-weight ratio for actuators.
This helps in deciding the nature of the application with which
an actuator can be associated.

For example,
Smaller servo motors used in hobby projects typically have a
maximum rating of 5 VDC, 500 mA, which is suitable for an operations-
driven battery-based power source. Exceeding this limit might be
detrimental to the performance of the actuator and may cause burnout of
the motor.
In contrast to this, servo motors in larger applications have a
rating of 460 VAC, 2.5 A, which requires standalone power supply
systems for operations. It is to be noted that actuators with still higher
ratings are available and vary according to application requirements.
3) Torque to Weight Ratio :
The ratio of torque to the weight of the moving part of an
instrument/device is referred to as its torque/weight ratio.
This indicates the sensitivity of the actuator. Higher is the weight
of the moving part; lower will be its torque to weight ratio for a given
power.
4) Stiffness and Compliance :
The resistance of a material against deformation is known as its
stiffness, whereas compliance of a material is the opposite of stiffness.

Stiffness can be directly related to the modulus of elasticity of

that material. Stiff systems are considered more accurate than compliant
systems as they have a faster response to the change in load applied to it.

For example,
Hydraulic systems are considered as stiff and non-compliant,
whereas pneumatic systems are considered as compliant.
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