Module-2

IoT Sensing and Actuation

2.1 Introduction
A major chunk of IoT applications involves sensing in one form or the other. Almost
all the applications in IoT—be it a consumer IoT, an industrial IoT, or just plain hobby-
based deployments of IoT solutions—sensing forms the first step. Incidentally, actuation
forms the final step in the whole operation of IoT application deployment in a
majority of scenarios. The basic science of sensing and actuation is based on the
process of transduction. Transduction is the process of energy conversion from one
form to another. A transducer is a physical means of enabling transduction. Transducers
take energy in any form (for which it is designed)—electrical, mechanical, chemical,
light, sound, and others—and convert it into another, which may be electrical,
mechanical, chemical, light, sound, and others. Sensors and actuators are deemed
as transducers. For example, in a public announcement (PA) system, a microphone
(input device) converts sound waves into electrical signals, which is amplified by an
amplifier system (a process). Finally, a loudspeaker (output device) outputs this into
audible sounds by converting the amplified electrical signals back into sound
waves. Table 2.1 outlines the basic terminological differences between
transducers, sensors, and actuators.

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 Table 2.1 Basic outline of the differences between transducers, sensors, and actuators

Parameters Transducers Sensors Actuators

Definition Converts Converts various forms of Converts electrical
energy from energy into electrical signals. signals into
one form to various forms of
another. energy, typically
mechanical
energy.
Domain Can be used It is an input transducer. It is an output
to represent a transducer.
sensor as well
as an actuator.
Function Can work as Used for quantifying Used for
a sensor or an environmental stimuli into converting signals
actuator but not signals. into proportional
simultaneously. mechanical or
electrical outputs.
Examples Any sensor or Humidity sensors, Temperature Motors (convert
actuator sensors, Anemometers electrical energy
(measures flow velocity), to rotary motion),
Manometers (measures fluid Force heads
pressure), Accelerometers (which impose
(measures the acceleration of a a force), Pumps
body), Gas sensors (measures (which convert
concentration of specific gas or rotary motion of
gases), and others shafts into either a
pressure or a fluid
velocity).

2.2 Sensors
Sensors are devices that can measure, or quantify, or respond to the ambient changes
in their environment or within the intended zone of their deployment. They generate
responses to external stimuli or physical phenomenon through characterization of the
input functions (which are these external stimuli) and their conversion into typically
electrical signals. For example, heat is converted to electrical signals in a temperature
sensor, or atmospheric pressure is converted to electrical signals in a barometer. A

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sensor is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., a temperature sensor only
senses the ambient temperature of a room). It is insensitive to any other property
besides what it is designed to detect (e.g., a temperature sensor does not bother about
light or pressure while sensing the temperature). Finally, a sensor does not influence
the measured property (e.g., measuring the temperature does not reduce or increase
the temperature). Figure 2.1 shows the simple outline of a sensing task. Here, a
temperature sensor keeps on checking an environment for changes. In the event of a
fire, the temperature of the environment goes up. The temperature sensor notices this
change in the temperature of the room and promptly communicates this information
to a remote monitor via the processor.

Environment Sensing Processing Monitoring

Enent: Fire Temperature Sensor node

sensor

Figure 2.1 The outline of a simple sensing operation

The various sensors can be classified based on: 1) power requirements, 2) sensor
output, and 3) property to be measured.
• Power Requirements: The way sensors operate decides the power requirements
that must be provided for an IoT implementation. Some sensors need to be
provided with separate power sources for them to function, whereas some
sensors do not require any power sources. Depending on the requirements of
power, sensors can be of two types.
(i) Active: Active sensors do not require an external circuitry or mechanism to
provide it with power. It directly responds to the external stimuli from its
ambient environment and converts it into an output signal. For example, a
photodiode converts light into electrical impulses.
(ii) Passive: Passive sensors require an external mechanism to power them
up. The sensed properties are modulated with the sensor’s inherent
characteristics to generate patterns in the output of the sensor. For example,
a thermistor’s resistance can be detected by applying voltage difference
across it or passing a current through it.
• Output: The output of a sensor helps in deciding the additional components
to be integrated with an IoT node or system. Typically, almost all modern-day
processors are digital; digital sensors can be directly integrated to the processors.

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 However, the integration of analog sensors to these digital processors or IoT
nodes requires additional interfacing mechanisms such as analog to digital
converters (ADC), voltage level converters, and others. Sensors are broadly
divided into two types, depending on the type of output generated from these
sensors, as follows.
(i) Analog: Analog sensors generate an output signal or voltage, which is
proportional (linearly or non-linearly) to the quantity being measured and is
continuous in time and amplitude. Physical quantities such as temperature,
speed, pressure, displacement, strain, and others are all continuous
and categorized as analog quantities. For example, a thermometer or a
thermocouple can be used for measuring the temperature of a liquid (e.g., in
household water heaters). These sensors continuously respond to changes
in the temperature of the liquid.
(ii) Digital: These sensors generate the output of discrete time digital
representation (time, or amplitude, or both) of a quantity being measured,
in the form of output signals or voltages. Typically, binary output signals in
the form of logic 1 or a logic 0 for ON or OFF, respectively are associated
with digital sensors. The generated discrete (non-continuous) values may
be output as a single “bit” (serial transmission), eight of which combine to
produce a single “byte” output (parallel transmission) in digital sensors.
• Measured Property: The property of the environment being measured by the
sensors can be crucial in deciding the number of sensors in an IoT
implementation. Some properties to be measured do not show high spatial
variations and can be quantified only based on temporal variations in the
measured property, such as ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure, and
others. Whereas some properties to be measured show high spatial as well
as temporal variations such as sound, image, and others. Depending on the
properties to be measured, sensors can be of two types.
(i) Scalar: Scalar sensors produce an output proportional to the magnitude of
the quantity being measured. The output is in the form of a signal or
voltage. Scalar physical quantities are those where only the magnitude of
the signal is sufficient for describing or characterizing the phenomenon and
information generation. Examples of such measurable physical quantities
include color, pressure, temperature, strain, and others. A thermometer or
thermocouple is an example of a scalar sensor that has the ability to detect
changes in ambient or object temperatures (depending on the sensor’s
configuration). Factors such as changes in sensor orientation or direction
do not affect these sensors (typically).
(ii) Vector: Vector sensors are affected by the magnitude as well as the direction
and/or orientation of the property they are measuring. Physical quantities
such as velocity and images that require additional information besides

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 their magnitude for completely categorizing a physical phenomenon are
categorized as vector quantities. Measuring such quantities are undertaken
using vector sensors. For example, an electronic gyroscope, which is
commonly found in all modern aircraft, is used for detecting the changes
in orientation of the gyroscope with respect to the Earth’s orientation along
all three axes.

Points to ponder

A sensor node is made up of a combination of sensor/sensors, a processor unit, a

radio unit, and a power unit. The nodes are capable of sensing the environment
they are set to measure and communicate the information to other sensor nodes
or a remote server. Typically, a sensor node should have low-power requirements
and be wireless. This enables them to be deployed in a vast range of scenarios
and environments without the constant need for changing their power sources
or managing wires. The wireless nature of sensor nodes would also allow them
to be freely relocatable and deployed in large numbers without bothering about
managing wires. The functional outline of a typical IoT sensor node is shown in
Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 The functional blocks of a typical sensor node in IoT

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Figure 2.3 shows some commercially available sensors used for sensing applications.

(a) Camera sensor (b) Color sensor (c) Compass and (d) Current sensor (e) Digital temperature
barometer and humidity sensor

(f) Flame sensor (g) Gas sensor (h) Infrared sensor (i) Rainfall sensor (j) Ultrasonic
distance
measurement
sensor

Figure 2.3 Some common commercially available sensors used for IoT-based sensing applications

2.3 Sensor Characteristics

All sensors can be defined by their ability to measure or capture a certain phenomenon
and report them as output signals to various other systems. However, even within the
same sensor type and class, sensors can be characterized by their ability to sense the
phenomenon based on the following three fundamental properties.
• Sensor Resolution: The smallest change in the measurable quantity that a sensor
can detect is referred to as the resolution of a sensor. For digital sensors, the
smallest change in the digital output that the sensor is capable of quantifying is
its sensor resolution. The more the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is the
precision. A sensor’s accuracy does not depend upon its resolution. For example,
a temperature sensor A can detect up to 0.5◦ C changes in temperature; whereas
another sensor B can detect up to 0.25◦ C changes in temperature. Therefore, the
resolution of sensor B is higher than the resolution of sensor A.
• Sensor Accuracy: The accuracy of a sensor is the ability of that sensor to measure
the environment of a system as close to its true measure as possible. For example,
a weight sensor detects the weight of a 100 kg mass as 99.98 kg. We can say that
this sensor is 99.98% accurate, with an error rate of ±0.02%.
• Sensor Precision: The principle of repeatability governs the precision of a sensor.
Only if, upon multiple repetitions, the sensor is found to have the same error

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 rate, can it be deemed as highly precise. For example, consider if the same
weight sensor described earlier reports measurements of 98.28 kg, 100.34 kg, and
101.11 kg upon three repeat measurements for a mass of actual weight of 100 kg.
Here, the sensor precision is not deemed high because of significant variations in
the temporal measurements for the same object under the same conditions.

2.4 Sensorial Deviations

In this section, we will discuss the various sensorial deviations that are considered as
errors in sensors. Most of the sensing in IoT is non-critical, where minor deviations
in sensorial outputs seldom change the nature of the undertaken tasks. However,
some critical applications of IoT, such as healthcare, industrial process monitoring,
and others, do require sensors with high-quality measurement capabilities. As the
quality of the measurement obtained from a sensor is dependent on a large number of
factors, there are a few primary considerations that must be incorporated during the
sensing of critical systems.
In the event of a sensor’s output signal going beyond its designed maximum and
minimum capacity for measurement, the sensor output is truncated to its maximum
or minimum value, which is also the sensor’s limits. The measurement range between
a sensor’s characterized minimum and maximum values is also referred to as the full-
scale range of that sensor. Under real conditions, the sensitivity of a sensor may differ
from the value specified for that sensor leading to sensitivity error. This deviation is
mostly attributed to sensor fabrication errors and its calibration.
If the output of a sensor differs from the actual value to be measured by a constant,
the sensor is said to have an offset error or bias. For example, while measuring an actual
temperature of 0◦ C, a temperature sensor outputs 1.1◦ C every time. In this case, the
sensor is said to have an offset error or bias of 1.1◦ C.
Similarly, some sensors have a non-linear behavior. If a sensor’s transfer function
(TF) deviates from a straight line transfer function, it is referred to as its non-linearity.
The amount a sensor’s actual output differs from the ideal TF behavior over the full
range of the sensor quantifies its behavior. It is denoted as the percentage of the
sensor’s full range. Most sensors have linear behavior. If the output signal of a sensor
changes slowly and independently of the measured property, this behavior of the
sensor’s output is termed as drift. Physical changes in the sensor or its material may
result in long-term drift, which can span over months or years. Noise is a temporally
varying random deviation of signals.

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 In contrast, if a sensor’s output varies/deviates due to deviations in the sensor’s
previous input values, it is referred to as hysteresis error. The present output of
the sensor depends on the past input values provided to the sensor. Typically, the
phenomenon of hysteresis can be observed in analog sensors, magnetic sensors, and
during heating of metal strips. One way to check for hysteresis error is to check how
the sensor’s output changes when we first increase, then decrease the input values
to the sensor over its full range. It is generally denoted as a positive and negative
percentage variation of the full-range of that sensor.
Focusing on digital sensors, if the digital output of a sensor is an approximation
of the measured property, it induces quantization error. This error can be defined as
the difference between the actual analog signal and its closest digital approximation
during the sampling stage of the analog to digital conversion. Similarly, dynamic
errors caused due to mishandling of sampling frequencies can give rise to aliasing
errors. Aliasing leads to different signals of varying frequencies to be represented as
a single signal in case the sampling frequency is not correctly chosen, resulting in the
input signal becoming a multiple of the sampling rate.
Finally, the environment itself plays a crucial role in inducing sensorial deviations.
Some sensors may be prone to external influences, which may not be directly linked
to the property being measured by the sensor. This sensitivity of the sensor may lead
to deviations in its output values. For example, as most sensors are semiconductor-
based, they are influenced by the temperature of their environment.

2.5 Sensing Types

Sensing can be broadly divided into four different categories based on the nature
of the environment being sensed and the physical sensors being used to do so
(Figure 2.4): 1) scalar sensing, 2) multimedia sensing, 3) hybrid sensing, and 4) virtual
sensing.

2.5.1 Scalar sensing

Scalar sensing encompasses the sensing of features that can be quantified simply by
measuring changes in the amplitude of the measured values with respect to time.
Quantities such as ambient temperature, current, atmospheric pressure, rainfall, light,
humidity, flux, and others are considered as scalar values as they normally do not have
a directional or spatial property assigned with them. Simply measuring the changes
in their values with passing time provides enough information about these quantities.
The sensors used for measuring these scalar quantities are referred to as scalar sensors,
and the act is known as scalar sensing. Figures 2.3(b), 2.3(d), 2.3(e), 2.3(f), 2.3(g), 2.3(h),
2.3(i), and 2.3(j) show scalar sensors. A simple scalar temperature sensing of a fire
detection event is shown in Figure 2.4(a).

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 (a) Scalar sensing (b) Multimedia sensing

(c) Hybrid sensing (d) Virtual sensing

Figure 2.4 The different sensing types commonly encountered in IoT

2.5.2 Multimedia sensing

Multimedia sensing encompasses the sensing of features that have a spatial variance
property associated with the property of temporal variance. Unlike scalar sensors,
multimedia sensors are used for capturing the changes in amplitude of a quantifiable
property concerning space (spatial) as well as time (temporal). Quantities such
as images, direction, flow, speed, acceleration, sound, force, mass, energy, and
momentum have both directions as well as a magnitude. Additionally, these quantities
follow the vector law of addition and hence are designated as vector quantities. They
might have different values in different directions for the same working condition
at the same time. The sensors used for measuring these quantities are known as
vector sensors. Figures 2.3(a) and 2.3(c) are vector sensors. A simple camera-based
multimedia sensing using surveillance as an example is shown in Figure 2.4(b).

2.5.3 Hybrid sensing

The act of using scalar as well as multimedia sensing at the same time is referred to
as hybrid sensing. Many a time, there is a need to measure certain vector as well as
scalar properties of an environment at the same time. Under these conditions, a range
of various sensors are employed (from the collection of scalar as well as multimedia
sensors) to measure the various properties of that environment at any instant of

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time, and temporally map the collected information to generate new information.
For example, in an agricultural field, it is required to measure the soil conditions at
regular intervals of time to determine plant health. Sensors such as soil moisture
and soil temperature are deployed underground to estimate the soil’s water retention
capacity and the moisture being held by the soil at any instant of time. However,
this setup only determines whether the plant is getting enough water or not. There
may be a host of other factors besides water availability, which may affect a plant’s
health. The additional inclusion of a camera sensor with the plant may be able
to determine the actual condition of a plant by additionally determining the color
of leaves. The aggregate information from soil moisture, soil temperature, and the
camera sensor will be able to collectively determine a plant’s health at any instant
of time. Other common examples of hybrid sensing include smart parking systems,
traffic management systems, and others. Figure 2.4(c) shows an example of hybrid
sensing, where a camera and a temperature sensor are collectively used to detect and
confirm forest fires during wildlife monitoring.

2.5.4 Virtual sensing

Many a time, there is a need for very dense and large-scale deployment of sensor
nodes spread over a large area for monitoring of parameters. One such domain is
agriculture. Here, often, the parameters being measured, such as soil moisture, soil
temperature, and water level, do not show significant spatial variations. Hence, if
sensors are deployed in the fields of farmer A, it is highly likely that the measurements
from his sensors will be able to provide almost concise measurements of his neighbor
B’s fields; this is especially true of fields which are immediately surrounding A’s
fields. Exploiting this property, if the data from A’s field is digitized using an
IoT infrastructure and this system advises him regarding the appropriate watering,
fertilizer, and pesticide regimen for his crops, this advisory can also be used by B for
maintaining his crops. In short, A’s sensors are being used for actual measurement
of parameters; whereas virtual data (which does not have actual physical sensors
but uses extrapolation-based measurements) is being used for advising B. This is the
virtual sensing paradigm. Figure 2.4(d) shows an example of virtual sensing. Two
temperature sensors S1 and S3 monitor three nearby events E1, E2, and E3 (fires). The
event E2 does not have a dedicated sensor for monitoring it; however, through the
superposition of readings from sensors S1 and S3, the presence of fire in E2 is inferred.

2.6 Sensing Considerations

The choice of sensors in an IoT sensor node is critical and can either make or break the
feasibility of an IoT deployment. The following major factors influence the choice of
sensors in IoT-based sensing solutions: 1) sensing range, 2) accuracy and precision,
3) energy, and 4) device size. These factors are discussed as follows:

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(i) Sensing Range: The sensing range of a sensor node defines the detection fidelity
of that node. Typical approaches to optimize the sensing range in deployments
include fixed k-coverage and dynamic k-coverage. A lifelong fixed k-coverage
tends to usher in redundancy as it requires a large number of sensor nodes,
the sensing range of some of which may also overlap. In contrast, dynamic k-
coverage incorporates mobile sensor nodes post detection of an event, which,
however, is a costly solution and may not be deployable in all operational areas
and terrains.
Additionally, the sensing range of a sensor may also be used to signify the upper
and lower bounds of a sensor’s measurement range. For example, a proximity
sensor has a typical sensing range of a couple of meters. In contrast, a camera
has a sensing range varying between tens of meters to hundreds of meters. As
the complexity of the sensor and its sensing range goes up, its cost significantly
increases.
(ii) Accuracy and Precision: The accuracy and precision of measurements provided
by a sensor are critical in deciding the operations of specific functional processes.
Typically, off-the-shelf consumer sensors are low on requirements and often very
cheap. However, their performance is limited to regular application domains.
For example, a standard temperature sensor can be easily integrated with
conventional components for hobby projects and day-to-day applications, but it
is not suitable for industrial processes. Regular temperature sensors have a very
low-temperature sensing range, as well as relatively low accuracy and precision.
The use of these sensors in industrial applications, where a precision of up to
3–4 decimal places is required, cannot be facilitated by these sensors. Industrial
sensors are typically very sophisticated, and as a result, very costly. However,
these industrial sensors have very high accuracy and precision score, even under
harsh operating conditions.
(iii) Energy: The energy consumed by a sensing solution is crucial to determine the
lifetime of that solution and the estimated cost of its deployment. If the sensor
or the sensor node is so energy inefficient that it requires replenishment of its
energy sources quite frequently, the effort in maintaining the solution and its
cost goes up; whereas its deployment feasibility goes down. Consider a scenario
where sensor nodes are deployed on the top of glaciers. Once deployed, access
to these nodes is not possible. If the energy requirements of the sensor nodes are
too high, such a deployment will not last long, and the solution will be highly
infeasible as charging or changing of the energy sources of these sensor nodes is
not an option.
(iv) Device Size: Modern-day IoT applications have a wide penetration in all
domains of life. Most of the applications of IoT require sensing solutions which
are so small that they do not hinder any of the regular activities that were
possible before the sensor node deployment was carried out. Larger the size
of a sensor node, larger is the obstruction caused by it, higher is the cost and

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 energy requirements, and lesser is its demand for the bulk of the IoT applications.
Consider a simple human activity detector. If the detection unit is too large to
be carried or too bulky to cause hindrance to regular normal movements, the
demand for this solution would be low. It is because of this that the onset of
wearables took off so strongly. The wearable sensors are highly energy-efficient,
small in size, and almost part of the wearer’s regular wardrobe.

2.7 Actuators
An actuator can be considered as a machine or system’s component that can affect
the movement or control the said mechanism or the system. Control systems affect
changes to the environment or property they are controlling through actuators. The
system activates the actuator through a control signal, which may be digital or analog.
It elicits a response from the actuator, which is in the form of some form of mechanical
motion. The control system of an actuator can be a mechanical or electronic system,
a software-based system (e.g., an autonomous car control system), a human, or any
other input. Figure 2.5 shows the outline of a simple actuation system. A remote
user sends commands to a processor. The processor instructs a motor controlled
robotic arm to perform the commanded tasks accordingly. The processor is primarily
responsible for converting the human commands into sequential machine-language
command sequences, which enables the robot to move. The robotic arm finally moves
the designated boxes, which was its assigned task.

Monitoring Processing Actuation Environment

Event: Factory
Sensor node Motor-driven
automation
mechanism

Figure 2.5 The outline of a simple actuation mechanism

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2.8 Actuator Types
Broadly, actuators can be divided into seven classes: 1) Hydraulic, 2) pneumatic, 3)
electrical, 4) thermal/magnetic, 5) mechanical, 6) soft, and 7) shape memory polymers.
Figure 2.6 shows some of the commonly used actuators in IoT applications.

2.8.1 Hydraulic actuators

A hydraulic actuator works on the principle of compression and decompression
of fluids. These actuators facilitate mechanical tasks such as lifting loads through
the use of hydraulic power derived from fluids in cylinders or fluid motors. The
mechanical motion applied to a hydraulic actuator is converted to either linear,
rotary, or oscillatory motion. The almost incompressible property of liquids is used
in hydraulic actuators for exerting significant force. These hydraulic actuators are also
considered as stiff systems. The actuator’s limited acceleration restricts its usage.

2.8.2 Pneumatic actuators

A pneumatic actuator works on the principle of compression and decompression
of gases. These actuators use a vacuum or compressed air at high pressure and
convert it into either linear or rotary motion. Pneumatic rack and pinion actuators are
commonly used for valve controls of water pipes. Pneumatic actuators are considered
as compliant systems. The actuators using pneumatic energy for their operation are
typically characterized by the quick response to starting and stopping signals. Small
pressure changes can be used for generating large forces through these actuators.
Pneumatic brakes are an example of this type of actuator which is so responsive that
they can convert small pressure changes applied by drives to generate the massive
force required to stop or slow down a moving vehicle. Pneumatic actuators are
responsible for converting pressure into force. The power source in the pneumatic
actuator does not need to be stored in reserve for its operation.

2.8.3 Electric actuators

Typically, electric motors are used to power an electric actuator by generating
mechanical torque. This generated torque is translated into the motion of a motor’s
shaft or for switching (as in relays). For example, actuating equipments such as
solenoid valves control the flow of water in pipes in response to electrical signals.
This class of actuators is considered one of the cheapest, cleanest and speedy actuator
types available. Figures 2.6(a), 2.6(b), 2.6(c), 2.6(d), 2.6(e), 2.6(f), 2.6(i), and 2.6(j) show
some of the commonly used electrical actuators.

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 (a) Brushless DC (b) Brushless DC (c) Stepper motor (d) Geared (e) DC motor
motor motor stepper motor

(f) Relay array (g) Hydroelectric (h) Hydroelectric (i) Solenoid-based (j) Solenoid-based
generator generator flow valve flow valve

(k) DPDT switch (l) Push button

switch

Figure 2.6 Some common commercially available actuators used for IoT-based control
applications

2.8.4 Thermal or magnetic actuators

The use of thermal or magnetic energy is used for powering this class of actuators.
These actuators have a very high power density and are typically compact,
lightweight, and economical. One classic example of thermal actuators is shape
memory materials (SMMs) such as shape memory alloys (SMAs). These actuators do
not require electricity for actuation. They are not affected by vibration and can work
with liquid or gases. Magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs) are a type of magnetic
actuators.

2.8.5 Mechanical actuators

In mechanical actuation, the rotary motion of the actuator is converted into linear
motion to execute some movement. The use of gears, rails, pulleys, chains, and
other devices are necessary for these actuators to operate. These actuators can be
easily used in conjunction with pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical actuators. They
can also work in a standalone mode. The best example of a mechanical actuator is
a rack and pinion mechanism. Figures 2.6(g), 2.6(h), 2.6(k), and 2.6(l) show some of
the commonly available mechanical actuators. The hydroelectric generator shown in

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Figures 2.6(g) and 2.6(h) convert the water-flow induced rotary motion of a turbine
into electrical energy. Similarly, the mechanical switches shown in Figures 2.6 (k) and
2.6(l) uses the mechanical motion of the switch to switch on or off an electrical circuit.

2.8.6 Soft actuators

Soft actuators (e.g., polymer-based) consists of elastomeric polymers that are used as
embedded fixtures in flexible materials such as cloth, paper, fiber, particles, and others.
The conversion of molecular level microscopic changes into tangible macroscopic
deformations is the primary working principle of this class of actuators. These
actuators have a high stake in modern-day robotics. They are designed to handle
fragile objects such as agricultural fruit harvesting, or performing precise operations
like manipulating the internal organs during robot-assisted surgeries.

2.8.7 Shape memory polymers

Shape memory polymers (SMP) are considered as smart materials that respond to
some external stimulus by changing their shape, and then revert to their original shape
once the affecting stimulus is removed. Features such as high strain recovery,
biocompatibility, low density, and biodegradability characterize these materials.
SMP-based actuators function similar to our muscles. Modern-day SMPs have been
designed to respond to a wide range of stimuli such as pH changes, heat differentials,
light intensity, and frequency changes, magnetic changes, and others.
Photopolymer/light-activated polymers (LAP) are a particular type of SMP, which
require light as a stimulus to operate. LAP-based actuators are characterized by their
rapid response times. Using only the variation of light frequency or its intensity, LAPs
can be controlled remotely without any physical contact. The development of LAPs
whose shape can be changed by the application of a specific frequency of light have
been reported. The polymer retains its shape after removal of the activating light. In
order to change the polymer back to its original shape, a light stimulus of a different
frequency has to be applied to the polymer.

2.9 Actuator Characteristics

The choice or selection of actuators is crucial in an IoT deployment, where a control
mechanism is required after sensing and processing of the information obtained from
the sensed environment. Actuators perform the physically heavier tasks in an IoT
deployment; tasks which require moving or changing the orientation of physical
objects, changing the state of objects, and other such activities. The correct choice
of actuators is necessary for the long-term sustenance and continuity of operations,
as well as for increasing the lifetime of the actuators themselves. A set of four
characteristics can define all actuators:

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• Weight: The physical weight of actuators limits its application scope. For
example, the use of heavier actuators is generally preferred for industrial
applications and applications requiring no mobility of the IoT deployment. In
contrast, lightweight actuators typically find common usage in portable systems
in vehicles, drones, and home IoT applications. It is to be noted that this is not
always true. Heavier actuators also have selective usage in mobile systems, for
example, landing gears and engine motors in aircraft.
• Power Rating: This helps in deciding the nature of the application with which
an actuator can be associated. The power rating defines the minimum and
maximum operating power an actuator can safely withstand without damage
to itself. Generally, it is indicated as the power-to-weight ratio for actuators.
For example, smaller servo motors used in hobby projects typically have a
maximum rating of 5 VDC, 500 mA, which is suitable for an operations-driven
battery-based power source. Exceeding this limit might be detrimental to the
performance of the actuator and may cause burnout of the motor. In contrast to
this, servo motors in larger applications have a rating of 460 VAC, 2.5 A, which
requires standalone power supply systems for operations. It is to be noted that
actuators with still higher ratings are available and vary according to application
requirements.
• Torque to Weight Ratio: The ratio of torque to the weight of the moving part of
an instrument/device is referred to as its torque/weight ratio. This indicates the
sensitivity of the actuator. Higher is the weight of the moving part; lower will be
its torque to weight ratio for a given power.
• Stiffness and Compliance: The resistance of a material against deformation
is known as its stiffness, whereas compliance of a material is the opposite of
stiffness. Stiffness can be directly related to the modulus of elasticity of that
material. Stiff systems are considered more accurate than compliant systems as
they have a faster response to the change in load applied to it. For example,
hydraulic systems are considered as stiff and non-compliant, whereas pneumatic
systems are considered as compliant.

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