Mathematics Handbook

j
. LOGARITHM
LOGARIlHM OF A NUMBER :
The logarithm of the number N to the base 'a' Is the exponent indicating
the power to which the base 'a' must be raised to obtain the number N.
This number is designated as log. N .
(a) log, N - x, read as log of N to the base a <::> a' = N
If a = 10 then we write log N or log,oN and if a - e we write
In N or log,N (Natural log)
(h) Necessary conditions : N > 0 ; a > 0 ; a "' 1
(e) log) = 0
(d) log,a = 1
(e) logy' a =-1
(f) logf(x.y) = log,x + log.y; x, y > 0

(g) log, (;) = log, x - lpg, y ; x, y > 0

(h) log, x P = plog. x ; x > 0
1
(I) log . x=-log"x ; x > O
• q
1 1 .
(D og, x = log, a ; x > 0 , x "' 1
(k) log,x - Iog"x/Iogba ; x > 0, a, b > 0, b "' 1, a "' 1
(I) log, b.logb dog, d = log, d ; a, b, c, d > 0, "' 1
(m) a""'" = x; a > 0, a "' 1
(n) a""'" - c"""' ; a,b,c > 0 ; b "' 1
X < y if a>1
Prepared by - M1 Sir (0) Iog x < Iog y <::> [
• • x>y if 0 < a<1
(P) log,x = log.y => x - y ; x, Y > 0 ; a > 0, a "' 1
(q) eln, ' _ a'
(r) log,02 - 0 .3010 ; log103 - 0.4771; In2 - 0 .693, in10 - 2.303
(5) If a > 1 then log. x < p=>O < x < a P
(t) If a > 1 then log. x > P => x > a P
(u) If 0 < a < 1 then log. x < p => x > a P
(vi If 0 <a < 1 then log. x > p=>O < x < a P
1
 - --,,, ,
Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook

4. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ALLIED ANGLES :

" ~ -
L ~ G ~ OMETRIC RATIOS & ! ~ 'TES (a) sin (2n7t + 8) = sin 8, cos (2n7t + 8) = cos 8, where n
(b) sin (- 8) = - sin 8 cos (-8) = cos 8
E I

1. RELATION BETWEEN SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT OF sin(90° - 8) = cos8 cos(90° - 8) = sin8

ANGLES: sin(90° + 8) = cos8 cos(90° + 8) = -sin8
D G 2C sin(180° - 8) = sin8 cos(180° - 8) = -{Oos8
-= - =-
90 100 7t sin(180° + 8) = -sin8 cos(180° + 8) = -{Oos8
sin(270° - 8) C' -{Oos8 cos(270° - 8) = -sin8
,
1 Radian = 180 degree ~ 57 ' 17'15" (approximately)
sin(270° + 8) = -{Oos8 cos(270° + 8) = sin8
n Note:
1 degree = 180 radian ~ 0 ,0175 radian
(i) sin n7t = 0 ; cos n7t =(-1)"; tan n7t = 0 where n E I
2. BASIC lRIGONOMElRIC IDENTITIES : 7t 7t
(ii) sin(2n+ 1) '2 = (-1)"; cos(2n+ 1) '2 =0 where n E I
(a) sin' 9 + cos'9= 1 orsin'S- 1- cos'9 orcos'9= 1 - sin'9
(b) sec' e - tan' 0 = 1 or sec' 8 = 1 + tan' 8 or tan' 9 = sec' 9 - I 5. IMPORTANT TmGONOMETmC FORMUlAE :
(I) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B,
(e) If seeS + tanS = k =:> sec9 - tan9 = ~ =:> 2secO = k + ~
(ii) sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B.
(d) cosec'8 - cot' 8 = 1 or cosec'9 = 1 + cot' S or cot'9 = cosec'9 · 1 (iii) cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
1 1 (Iv) cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
(e) If cosecO + cot9 = k =:> cosecS - cot9 = k =:> 2 cosec 0 = k + -
!<
(v) tan (A + B) = tanA+tanB
3. SIGNS OF TRlGONOMETRlC FUNCTIONS IN D1FFEREl\T 1- tan A tanB
QUADRANTS :
(vi) tan (A _ B) = tan A - tanB
90', ,,/2 , l+tanAtanB

®. ®
II quadra nt I quadrant
cotBcotA - 1
(vii) cot(A+B)=
only sine All + ve ! cotB +cotA
& cosec + w
cotBcotA + 1
180',,, 0', 360', 2" (viii) cot (A - B) = cotB -co tA
onl y tan & cot o nly cos
+ ve &sec +ve (Ix) 2 sin
,
A cos B = sin, (A+ B) + sin (A - B),

CD mquadrant IV quadrant © (x)

(xl)
2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) - sin (A - B),
2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A - B)
270' , 3,,/2 (xii) 2 sin A sin B - cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)
"

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 Mathematic. Handbook
(xxviii) sin (A + B + C)
(xlii) sinC+slnD=2sin (C;D)cos (C;D) = sinAcos&osC + sin&osAcosC + sinCcosAcosB
- sinAslnBsinC
= ~sinAcoBC - ITsin A
(xiv) sinC-sinD=2cos (C;D) sin (C;D) = cosA cosB cosC [lanA + lanB + lanC - lanA lanB lanC]
(xxix) cos (A + B + C)
(xv) cosC+cosD=2cos (C;D) cos (C;D) = cosA oosB cosC - sinA sinB cosC - sinA oosB sinC
- cosA sinE sinC
= ITcos A - ~sln A sin B cos C
(xvi) cosC-cosD=2sin (C;D)sin(D;C) = cosA cosB cosC [1- lanA lanB - lanB lanC - lanC lanA]

(xxx) Ian (A + B + C)
2tan9
(xvU) sin 29 = 2 sin 9 cos 9 = 1 + 002 9 tan A + tanB+ tanC- tanAtanBtanC
1- tanAtanB - tanBtanC- tan Ctan A
1-tan2 a (xxxi) sin a + sin (a+J3) + sin (a+2J3) +... sin (a + n - 1 13)
(xviii) cos2S - cos'S - sin'S - 2cos'9 - 1 - 1 - 2 sin'S - 2
1+tan a

(xix) 1 + cos 2S = 2 cos' 9 or cosa = ±~1+ cos2fl

2

- (xx) 1 - cos29 = 2 sin' 9 or sin 9 - ± ~1-COS2fl 2

J: (xxxii) cos a + cos (a+J3) + cos (a + 213) + .... +cos(a + n -113)

(xxi)
tanS 1- cos2fl
sin2fl
sin 2fl P- cos 2fl
-1-"+'::'cos='2fl- = ± 1 + cos 2fl 1
j
(xxii) tan 2fl = 2tan 9
1-tan2 9

(xxiii) sin 39 = 3 sin 9 -4 sin' 9.

i
i 6. VAWES OF SOME T-RATIOS FOR ANGLES 1So, 36°, 15°,
~ 22 .5°,67.5° etc.
(xxiv) cos 39 - 4 cos' 9 - 3 cos9. Ij . ../5-1
(a) sm 18" = - - = cos 72' = sm-
. 11

i 4 ill
. ,>a 3tan9-tan3 9 , ../5+1.
(xxv) tan.,., j
11
(b) cos36°=--=sm54° =cos-
1-3tan 2 9 ~ 4 5
(xxvi) sin' A - sin' B - sin (A+B). sin (A-B) - cos' B - cos' A.
•i (c) sin 15° = ~ J3 = cos 75° = sin"::'
______________________________________
(xxvii) cos' A - sin' B - cos (A+B). cos (A - B).
E~
2J2 12 ~

5
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Mathematics Handbook Handbook
(e) tan 0 tan (60° - 0) tan (60° + 0) ~ tan 30
° - ..f3 + 1 _ . 750 -005-
_ n
(d) 005 15 - -- -SIn
2J2 12 (d) cot 0 cot (60° - 0) cot (60° + 0) ~ cot 30

"
(e) tan 12 = 2 - ;,3 = ..f3 -+ 11 = cot 5"
r;:;..f3 12 (e) (I) sin' 0 + sin' (60° + O) + sin' (60° - O) ~ 2'3
5" r;:;
(f) tan - =2+;,3 = ~=cot-
..f3 + 1 n .(ii) cos' 0 + cos' (60° + O) + cos' (60° - O) ~ 2'3
12 ;,3 -1 12
(I) (i) If tan A + tan B + tan C ~ tan A tan B tan C,
(g) tan(225°) = J2 -1= oot(67.5°) = cot 3; = tan% then A + B + C ~ nll, n E I
(h) t.an(67.5°) = J2 + 1 = oot{22.5°) (ii) If tan A tan B + tan B tan C + tan C tan A ~ 1,
7t
7. MAXIMUM & MINlMUM VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC then A+BC~(2nl), E I
EXPRESSIONS:
sin(2 n O)
(a) a cos 0 + b sin 0 will always lie in the interval (g) cos 0 cos 20 cos 40 " .. cos (2'-1 0) ~ 2n .
smO
I- Ja 2 + b2 ,Ja2 + b2 ) i.e. the maximum and minimum (h) colA - tanA ~ 2cot2A

values are Ja 2 + b 2 , -Ja 2 + b2 respectively. 9. CONDITIONAL IDENTITIES:

(b) Minimum value of a' tan' 0 + b' cot' 0 ~ 2ab, where a, b > 0 If A + B + C ~ 180°, then;

(e) -Ja 2 + b2 + 2abcos(a -Il) !> a cos (a + 0) + b cos (Il + 0) I (a) tan A + tan B + tan C ~ tan A tan Btan C

!> Ja 2 + b2 + 2abcos(a -13) where a and Il are known angles. i 1

(b) cot A cot B + cot B cot C + cot C cot A ~ 1

A B B C C A~
(d) Minimum value of a'cos'O + b' sec'O is either 2ab or a' + b', j i (e) tan - tan- + tan-tan-+tan - tan- 1

I
2 2 2 2 2 2
if for some real 0 equation acosO ~ bsecO is true or not true "
ABC ABC
la, b > 01 ; (d) cot - + cot - + cot- ~ cot-cot - cot-
(e) Minimum value of a'sin'O + b'cosec'O is either 2ab or a' + b' , i 1 222 222

if for some real 0 equation aslnO ~ bcosecO is true or not true j

i (e) sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C ~ 4 sinA sinB sinC

8.
la, b > 0)
IMPORTANT RESULTS:
(a) sin 0 sin (60° - 0) sin (60° + 0) = ..!sin36
I
-

c
I
I
~
(I) cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C ~-14

(g) sin A + sin B + sin C ~ 4 cos 2'cosZ'cosZ'

ABC
cosA cosB cosC

4 •
"• ~ 1 + 4 sin ~ sin ~ sin ~
(b) cos O. cos (60° - 0) cos (60° + 0) = 4
L-----__________________________
1 00536
~ __ -~E
i• ·
E~
i ____
(h) cos A + cos B + cos C
~ ____________________________ ~

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 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook

10. DOMAINS, RANGES AND I'tRIODIOIY OFl1UGONOMEIRIC (eI) y - cotx

FUNcnONS:

T-RatIoDomain Range Period

sin x R [-1, 11 211

cos x R [- 1,11 211 y

tan x R-{(2n+l}n/2 ; nEIl R 11 (e) y - secx

1\ ./ J i\ .J y-
(-21(, 1)
cot x R-[nll : nEIl R 11 ~. l (2rt.l)

sec x R- {(2n+ 1) 11/2 : n E I) (-00,-1) v[l,oo) 211 X' 0 x

cosec x R- {nll : n E I} (-00,-1) v[l,oo) 211 (-«,-1) (It.-I)
y- - 1
(, I( \
11 . GRAPH OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNcnONS : y
y
(a) y - slnx y
(f) y - cosecx
I\, J 1\ ) y- 1
X' X it·')
X' 0 X

(h) y - cosx
Y
y
!
:
i

i i
J
i-t·-,)
'"\
y'
If "\
:1 ~._1)
y - -1

j J 12. IMPORTANT NOTE :

(e) y - tanx
X' x

i i
I
j i
j
(a) The sum of interior angles of a polygon of n-sides
= (n - 2) x 1800 = (n - 2)1t.
(b) Each interior angle of a regular polygon of n sides

= In - 2) x 1800 = In - 2) ~

i I••
n n

(c) Sum of exterior angles of a polygon of any number of sides

X' X ,
~ = 3600 = 21t.
ii
i E~
i ________________ ~ ________________ ~

E
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 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
(h) If cos a = 1 then a = 2nlt , n E I

(i) If sin' a - sin' a or cos' a = cos' a or tan' a = tan' a,

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION
then a = nit ± a, n E I

1. TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION: OJ For n E I, sin ml = 0 and cos nit = (- 1)", n E I

An equation involving one or more trigonometrical ratios of unknown sin (nit + a) = (-1)" sin 0

angles is called a trigonometrical equation. cos (nit + 0) = (-1)" cos 0

2. SOLUTION OF TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION: (k) cos nit = (-1)", n E I

A value of the unknown angle which satisfies the given equations is 0- 1

. nit - nit
called a solution of the trigonometric equation. 0) If n is an odd integer the n stn - = (- 1) 2 cos - =0
2 '2
(a) PrIncipal solution :- The solution of the trigonometric equation
lying in the interval [0, 2,,). nrr -0- 1 nrr )
( -0+1
(m) sin ( 2+e) = (- 1) 2 cos e , cos 2+ 0 = (- 1) 2 sina
(b) General solution :- Since all the trigonometric functions are
many one & periodic, hence there are infinite values of a for
4. GENERAL SOLUTION OF EQUATION a cos a + b sin 0 = c :
which trigonometric functions have the same value. All such
possible values of a for which the given trigonometric function Consider, a sin 0 + b cos 0 = c ....... .......... (i)
is satisfied is given by a general formula . Such a general formula
is called general solutions of trigonometric equation.
- P7 a ~7 .
Sin e+ b COS 0 c
= P7='"
~a2+b 2 ~a2+b 2 ~a2+ b 2
3. GENERAL SOLUTIONS OF SOME TRIGONOMETRIC 'i
••a equation (i) has the solution only if I c I ,; ~a 2 + b2
EQUATIONS (TO BE REMEMBERED) : ]
l
""
~
a = 0, then e = n", n E I (set of integers)
(a) If sin 1
j
,.~ ,
iI
by introducing this auxiliary argument $, equation (i) reduces to
(b) If cos a = 0 , then e = (2n+ 1) '2" n E I
(c) Iltan e = 0, then e = n", n E I

a - sin a, then e = n" + (-Ira where a E[ -2~ ,i], n E

I i •,j
sin (e + $) I 2
va + b
2=
c

Now this equation can be solved easily.

(d) If sin I j
(e) If cos e = cos a , then a = 2n" ± a, n E I, a [0,,,)
j
I 5. GENERAL SOLUTION OF EQUATION OF FORM :

I~
E
0
"~ , n
aosm • n-l
x + a 15m . n-2
x COSX + a25m x cos2x + ... ....... + anCOS nx =-

(f) If tan a = tan a, then a = n" + a, n EI, a E(-2" ,~)

(g)
•
If Sin '2 = (4n + 1) '2 ' n El
e =1, then a = 2n" +
1t 7t ••i
~
E~
I ao' a]' ... ..... ao are real numbers

Such an equation is solved by dividing equation by cos"x.

________________ ________________ ~ ~

L - - - - - - -__________________________ 11
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 Mathematics Handbook

6. IMPORTANT TIPS :
QUADRATIC EQUATION
(a) For equations of the type sin e - k or cos e - k, one must check
thatlkl..,l. 1. SOLUTION Of QUADRATIC EQUATION & RELATION
(b) Avoid squaring the equations, if possible, because It may lead BETWEEN ROOTS & CO-EffICIENTS :
to extraneous solutions . . (a) The solutions of the quadratic equation, ax' + bx + c - 0 is

(c) Do not cancel the common variable factor from the two sides of . by -b±.Jb2 -4ac
gIven x-
the equations which are In a product because we may loose 2a
(h) The expression b' - 4 ac " D is called the discriminant of the
some solutions.
quadratic equation.
(d) The answer should not contain such values of e, which make (c) If a & J3 are the roots of the quadratic equation ax' + bx + c - 0,
any of the terms undefined or Infinite.
then;
(e) Check that denominator is not zero at any stage while solving
(I) a + J3 - - b/ a (11) aJ3 = c / a (BI) la - J31 = ,JD / I a I
equations.
(d) Quadratic equation whose roots are a & J3 is ( x - a ) ( x - J3 )-0
(f) (I) If tan e or sec e is involved In the equations, e should not be
i.e.
"
odd multiple of 2"' x' - ( a + (3) x + aJ3 = 0 i.e. x' - (sum of roots) x + product of
(H) If cot eor cosec e is involved In the equation, e should not be .. roots - O.

integral multiple of " or O. I! t

~
2. NATURE Of ROOTS:
(a) Consider the quadratic equation ax' + bx + c - 0 where a, b,
(g) If two different trigonometric ratios such as tan e and sec e are 1
J
i c ER&a ~ Othen;
Involved then after soMng we cannot apply the usual formulae
for general solution because periodicity of the functions are not
same. I ;
I
(I) D > 0 ~
(8) D - 0
(IU) D < 0
~

~
roots are real & distinct (unequal) .
roots are real & coincident (equal)
roots are imaginary.
(b) If L.H.S. of the given trigonometric equation Is always less than
J i (Iv) If p + i q is one root of a quadratic equation, then the
or equal to k and RHS Is always greaier than k, then no solution j j
other root must be the conjugate p - I q & vice versa.

I I
exists. If both the sides are equaJ to k for same value of e, then (p, q E R & i - H) .
solution exists and If they are equal for different value of e, then (h) Consider the quadratic equation ax' + bx + c - 0
solution does not exist.
;! ••
ii
where a , b, CEQ & a ~ 0 then;
• I (i) If D is a perfect square, then roots are rational.
I EL-__________________________________ ~

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 Mathematics Handbook
5. MAXIMUM&MINIMUMVAUJES OF QUADRATIC EXPRESSION :
(i1) If ex = p + ;{q is one root in this case, (where p is rational -0
Maximum & Minimum Values of expression y - ax' + bx + c is 4a
& JO. is a surd) then other root will be p - JO. ' which occurs at x = - (b/2a) according as a < 0 or a > O.
, ,

3. COMMON ROOTS OF lWO QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

(a) Only one common root. & YE (-00, ~] if a <0.
Let be the common root of ax' + bx + c = 0 & a'x' + b'x + c' = 0
CL

then a ex ' + b ex + c = 0 & a' ex ' + b' ex + c' = 0 , By Cramer's 6. LOCATION OF ROOTS:
2
CL ex 1
Rule be' - b' c =ac-ac
, , Let fIx ) = ax' + bx + c, where a, b, c E R, a '" 0
ab' - a'b
ca'-c'a be'- b'c (a) Conditions for both the roots of fIx) = 0 to be greater than
Therefore, ex ; a b' - a 'b a'e - ac' a specified number 'd' are D ~ 0; a.f(d) > 0 & (-b/2a) > d.
So the condition for a common root is
(ca' - c'a)' = (ab' - a'b)(bc'· b'c)
abc
(b) If both roots a re same then -;; -b' ; -;
a c
4. ROOTS UNDER PARTICUlAR CASES
(b) Conditions for the both roots of f(x ) - 0 to lie on either side of
Let the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has real roots and
the number 'd' in other words the number 'd' lies between the
(a) If b = 0 => roots a re of equal magnitude but of opposite sign
(b) If c = 0 => one roots is zero other is - b/ a
..,
!
I: (
roots of fIx) - 0 Is a.f(d) < O.

(e) If a = c => roots are reciprocal to each other ! 1

I ]
a> 00 c < 0O} => 1
I
(d) If roots are of opposite signs
a< c>

(e) If
a > 0, b > O,c > O} _
a < 0, b < 0,c < 0
~ both roots are negative, I
! j
(e) Conditions for exactly one root of fIx) - 0 to lie in the interval
(d,e) i.e .. d < x < e is f(d). f(e) < 0
(I) If a > 0, b < 0, C > O} => both roots are positive, i j
!
I•
a < 0, b > O,c < 0
(g) If sign of a = sign of b ~ sign of c
magnitude is negative,
=> Greater root in
Il
(It) If sign of b = sign of c ~ sign of a => Greate r root in :;; i• (d) Conditions that both roots of fIx) - 0 to be confined between
i•
magnitude is positive,
the numbers d & e are (here d <e).
(I) If a + b + c = 0 => one root i ~ 1 and second root is cia , EL-______________ ~-
~- __________________~E 15
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 Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook

0", 0; a.f(d) > O&af(e) > 0; d < (-4>/2a) <e

[ ~E:C - &SERl~ J
\ ! 7\ 1. ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (AP) :

7. GENERAl. QUADRATIC EXPRESSION IN TWO VARIABLES :

AP is sequence whose terms increase or decrease by a fixed number.
This fixed number is called the common difference. If 'a' is the
I( x. y ) = ax' + 2 hxy + by' + 2gx + 2 Iy + C may be resolved into
first term & 'd' is the common difference, then AP can be written as
two linear lactors il ;
a, a + d, a + 2d, .............. a + (n - 1) d , ..... .. ...
a h g (a) nili term of this AP ITn~ a + (n-l)dl, where d = T, - T ~I
6 = abc + 21gh - ai' - bg' - ch' = 0 OR h b I =0
n n
g I c (b) The sum of the first n terms: Sn = Z[2a + (n -lId] ~ Z[a + t ]

8. THEORY OF EQUATIONS : where eis the last term.

(c) A1son ili term ITn=sn-Sn-l l
II u' .U2.U 3•. ........ u n are the roots 01 the equation;
Note:
I(X ) = ao x , + a 1 x~ I~'
+ az x + ..... + a n-I x + an = 0 where aD t
(i) Sum of first n terms of an AP. is of the form An' + Bn i.e. a
al'" ... .a n are constants a o :t:. 0 then ,
quadratic expression in n, in such case the common difference
is twice the coefficient of n' . i.e. 2A

Il
1<
(il) nO. term of an A.P. is of the form An + B i.e. a linear expression
1 in n, in such case the coefficient of n is the common difference
= -~ ......... a,a,a3...... a ; = (_ I)' ~ ~
aD aD I J of the AP. i.e. A
Note: J ] (iU) Three numbers in AP can be taken as a - d, a, a + d; four

(I) Every odd degree equation has at least one real root whose
sign is opposite to that 01 its last term. when coefficient 01 highest
degree term is (+)ve {II not then make it (+) vel.
I I
j j
numbers in AP can be taken as a - 3d, a - d, a + d, a + 3d
five numbers in AP are a - 2d, a - d, a, a + d, a + 2d & six
terms in AP are a - Sd, a - 3d, a - d, a + d, a + 3d, a + Sd · etc.
i ~ (Iv) If for AP. po. term is q, q" term is p, then rili term is = p + q - r
Ex. x3 - x' + x- I = 0 j j & (p + q)ili term is O.

i I
(II) Even degree polynomial whose last term is (-)ve & coefficient (v) If al' a" a, ....... and b l , b" b, ........ . are two A.P.s, then
a l ± b l , a, ± b" a, ± b, ......... are also in AP.
01 highest degree term is (+)ve has atleast two real roots. one 9
(+)ve & one (-)ve . ~ (vi) (a) If each term of an AP. is increased or decreased by the
;;•
"
(IH) If equation contains only even p ower 01 x & all coefficient are "ii same number, then the resulting sequence is also an A.P.
(+)ve. then all roots are imaginary. i t having the same common difference.
________________ ________________- - J
______________~E
E~ ~

~-
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 Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook
(b) If each term of an A P. Is multiplied or divided by the same Note:
non zero number (k), then the resulting sequence is also an
(i) In an G.P. product of k'" term from beginning and k"'term from
AP. whose common difference is kd & d/k respectively,
the last is always constant which equal to product of first term
where d is common difference of original AP.
and last term.
(vii) Any term of an AP (except the first & last) is equal to half the
sum of terms which are equidistant from it.
(ii) Three numbers in G.P. air, a, ar
Five numbers in G.P. air, air, at art ar2
T = T,_k + T..k k < r Four numbers in G.P. a/r'. air. ar. ar'
, 2 '
Six numbers in G.P. a/r'. a/r'. air. ar. ar'. ars
2. GEOMETmC PROGRESSION (Gp) : (iii) If each term of a G.P. be raised to the same power. then resulting
GP is a sequence of numbers whose first term is non-zero & each of series is also a G.P.
(iv) If each term of a G.P. be multiplied or divided by the same
the succeeding terms Is equal to the preceeding terms multiplied by
non-zero quantity, then the resulting sequence is also a G.P.
a constant. Thus in a GP the ratio of successive terms Is constant. (v) If a l' a" a, ..... and bl' b" b" .... .. . be two G.P.'s of common
This constant factor is called the COMMON RATIO of the series & ratio r l and r, respectively, then alb l , a,b, ..... and
is obtained by dividing any term by the immediately previous term. a 1 a2 a3 • . .
b' b' -b .. .... WIll also form a G.P. common ratio WIll be r l r,
I , ,
Therefore a, ar, ar' , ar" , ar" , .. .. ...... is a GP with 'a' as the first
term & 'r' as common ratio. and !i respectively.
r,
(a) n ~ term ITn - a r0- 1 1 (vi) In a positive G.P. every term (except first) is equal to square root

(h) Sum 0 f the first n terms S n =

a(rn-l) 'f
, 1 r '"
r ~
I
l
iI
1 J
!
of product of its two terms which are equidistant from it.
i.e. TI' - ~Tr _ k Tull , k < r
(vii) If a , • a,. a, •.•.• a, is a G.P. of non zero. non negative terms.
I J then log a" log a, ••••• .Iog a, is an A.P. and vice-versa.
(e) Sum of infin,ite GP when I r 1<1 & n -+ co, rn -+ 0
iI 3. HARMONIC PROGRESSION (HP) :
A sequence is said to HP if the reciprocals of its terms are in AP.

Ij !i If the sequence al' a" a" ... ... . , a is an HP then 1/a l ,

l/a" ......... , 1/a, is an AP & converse. 'Here we do not have the
formula for the sum of the n terms of an HP. The general form of a

I• I"•
(d) Any 3 consecutive terms of a GP can be taken as a/r, a, ar; 1 1 1 1
harmonic progression is -, --d '-2d ,......... ( 1) d
any 4 consecutive terms of a GP can be taken as a/r" , a/r, a a+ a+ a+ n -
ar, ar" & so on. ~ • Note: No term of any H.P. can be zero. If a, b, c are in

HP=>b = 2ac or =a~ - b

~-
(e) If a, b, c are In GP ~ b' - ac
________________________
~ loga, 10gb, loge, are in AP.
~E
I i E~
a+c c b-c
________________ ________________ ~ ~

18 19
 c

Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook

4. MEANS (a) G' = AH (A, G, H constitute a GP) (b) A ~ G~H
(a) Arithmetic mean (AM) : (c) A = G=H~ab
If three terms are in AP then the middle term is called the AM (il) Let a" a" ...... ,a, be n positive real numbers, then we define
between the other two. so if a. b. c are in AP. b is AM of a & c. their arithmetic mean (A), geometric mean (G) and harmonic
n-arithmetic means between two numbers:
mean (H) asA = a, + a 2 + ..... + a n
If a.b are any two given numbers & a. A,. A, .......... A,. bare
n
in AP then AI' A, •...A, are the n AM's between a & b. then
b-a n
A,~ a + d. A ,~ a + 2d •......• A,~ a + nd. whered ~ n+l G = (a la, ...... ... a,)'" and H = ( 1 1 1 1)
-+ - + - + .... -
Note: Sum of n AM's inserted between a & b is equal to n times a1 a2 a3 an
n
the single AM between a & b i.e. I A, = nA where A is the It can be shown that A ~ G ;;, H. Moreover equaUty holds at either
(=1
place if and only if a, = a, =...... = a,
single AM between a & b.
(b) Geometric mean (GM) : 5. ARITHMETICO - GEOMETRIC SERIES

If a. b. c are in GP. b is the GM between a & c. b' - ac. Sum of First n terms of an Arithmetieo-Geometric Series :
therefore b ~ ../at Let 5 n = a + (a + d)r + (a + 2d)r 2 + ... .. ..... + [a + (n - 1)djr n- 1
n-geometric means between two numbers : a dr(l - r n- I ) [a + (n-l)dj rn
. 5 - - -
then n - 1-r + ==-'--;;--'- , r ;< 1
If a. b are two given positive numbers & a. Gl' G, •........• G, .
b are in GP then Gl' G,. G3 ••••.•• G, are n GMs between a & b.
J ! (l _ r)2 l- r
~ ~
J Sum to infinity :
G,~ ar. G, ~ aT' • .... ... G,= ar'. where r= (b/ a)lIM ' 1
I •]
Note: The product of n GMs between a & b is equal to nth If Irl < 1 & n -> then Lim rn = 0 ~ 5 = _ a_ + ~

i
00
n
n~ ro ro l - r (l _ r)2
power of the single GM between a & b i.e. n G, = (G) n
(: 1
where J , 6. SIGMA NOTATIONS
G is the single GM between a & b ! ~
(c) Harmonic mean (HM) : j ~ Theorems:
j j
If a. b. c are in HP,then b is HM between a & c, then b ~
i I••
n n n n n
Zac .
a+c (a) Da, ± b,) = La, ± Lb, (b) Lka, = kLa,
r=l r=l r=l r::l r=l
Important note : J ,
~

i• i
n
(i) If A. G. H. are respectively AM. GM. HM between two positive
(e) Lk = nk ; where k is a constant.
number a & b then r= l
~- ______ ~ ________________ ~E
E
20 21
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
7. RESULTS PERMUTATION & COMBINATION
(a) i>
,-I
= n(n + 1) (sum of the first n natural numbers)
2 1.
'-
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING (counting

(b) ±
,- I
r2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1) (sum of the squares of the first n natural
6
without actually counting):
If an event can occur in 'm' different ways, following which another
numbers) event can occur in 'n' different ways, then the total number of different
n2 (n + 1)2 ways of
[i>]2
n 3
(e) I r = 4 (sum of the cubes of the first n (a) Simultaneous occurrence of both events in a definite order is m
,. 1 ,- I
natural numbers) x n. This can be extended to any number of events (known as
n n multiplication principle).
(d) I r4 = -In + 1)(2n + 1)(3n2 + 3n -1)
,-I 30 (b) Happening of exactly one of the events is m + n (known as .
addition principle).
2. FACTORIAL :
A Useful Notation: n! = n (n - l)(n - 2) ...... 3. 2. 1;
n! ~ n. (n - I)! where nEW
O! = I! = 1
(2n)! = 2n. n! 11. 3. 5. 7........ (2n -1)1

i i1
Note that fact oria l~ of negative integers are not defined .
3. PERMUTATION:

'
1
J (a) np r denotes the number of permutations of n different things,

II
taken r at a time (n E N, r E W, n ~ r)
n!
np r ~ n (n - 1) (n - 2) ..... ........ (n - r + 1) ~ (n _ r)!
! (b) The number of permutations of n things taken all at a time when
! i p of them are similar of one type, q of them are similar of
j

!
j second type, r of them are similar of third type and the remaining
j

I•
n - (p + q+ r) are all different is: -,...:.n::,!----:
~ p! q! r!
;; (c) The number of permutation of n different objects taken r at
:;; ;; a time, when a particular object is always to be included is
I r! . n-1C _
i E~-
r 1

~- __----____________~E 23
22
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook

(d) The number of pennutation of n different objects taken r at a (d) (i) Total number of ways in which it is possible to make a selection
time, when repetition be allowed any number of times is by taking some or aU out of p + q + r + ... ... things, where p
n x n x n .. .. .... .... .. r times = nr, are alike of one kind, q alike of a second kind, r alike of third
(e) (i) The number of circular permutations of n different things kind & so on is given by : (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) .. ....... -l.
"P (ii) The total number of ways of selecting one or more things
taken all at a time is ; (n - 111 = --" .
n from p identical things of one kind, q identical things of second
If clockwise & anti-clockwise circular permutations are
kind, r identical things of third kind and n different things is
. . (n-l)!
considered to be same, then it is - 2 - ' (p + 1)(q + 1)(r + 1) 2n-1
(U) The number of circular permutation of n different things 5. DMSORS:
taking r at a time distinguishing clockwise & anticlockwise
Let N = p" qb rC .. .. ... where p, q, r.. .... .. are distinct primes & a ,
"P
arrangement is - ' b, c ....... are natural numbers then:
r
(a) The total numbers of divisors of N including 1 & N is
4. COMBINATION:
= (a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1).......
(a) nCr denotes the number of combinations of n different things
(b) The sum of these divisors is = (pO + pI + p2 + .... + pal
"P (qO + ql + q2 + .. .. + qb) (rO + rl + r2 + .... + re) .. .
taken r at a time , and "C, = n! _f where r $; n ;n E
r!(n - r)! r! (c) Number of ways in which N can be resolved as a product of two

Nand r E W. nCr is also denoted by (~) or A ~ or C (n, rl. <.

}
•i factor is

~
=

(a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1)...... if N is not a perfect square

r•
~ 1
(h) The number of combination of n different things taking r at a J I
time. i 1 ~ [(a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1) ...... + 1) if N is a perfect square
I
(i) when p particular things are always to be included = n - PC r_p

(U) when p particular things are always to be excluded = n - PCr i

J
~
,f
~
j
(d) Number of ways in which a composite number N can be resolved
into two factors which are relatively prime (or coprime) to each
other is equal to 2n - 1 where n is the number of different prime
(IU) when p particular things are always to be included and
q particular things are to be excluded = n - P - qc r_p ! i factors in N.

I,
I•
6. DIVISION AND DISTRIBUTION:
(e) Given n different objects , the number of ways of selecting atleast
one of them is, nC 1 + nC 2 + nC 3 + ...... .. + nC n = 2 n - 1. I (a) (I) The number of ways in which (m + n) different things can be
divided into two groups containing m & n things respectively

~-
This can also be stated as the total number of combinations of n
distinct things.
____~ ________~E
•
i I
E
(m+ n)!
is : m.r n.r (m" n).

25
24
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
7. DEARRANGEMENT:
(6) If m ~ n, it means the groups are equal & in this case the 'Number of ways in which n letters can be placed in n directed
envelopes so that no letter goes into its own envelope is
number of subdivision is (2n)! 2! ; for in anyone way it is
n! n!
possible to inter change the two groups without obtaining a
new distribution.
8. · IMPORTANT RESULT:
(ill) If 2n things are to be divided equally between two persons (a) Number of rectangle of any size in a square of size n x n is
(2n)! n n
then the number of ways - 1 1 (21) x 2! . i
n. n. . ~> 3 & number of square of any size is ~) 2 .
r=l r",l

(b) (I) Number of ways in which (m + n + p) different things can (b) Number of rectangle of any size in a rectangle of size n x p
be divided into three groups containing m, n & p things
np
(m+n+p)!
respectively is m.1 n.1 p.I ' m,;. n ,;. p.
(n < p) is "4 (n + 1)(p + 1) & number of squares of any size is

(3n)! n
(H) If m - n - p then the number of groups - 3! . :Dn + l-r)(p+ l -r)
n! n! n! r=l

(ill) If 3n things are to be divided equally among three people (e) If there are n points in a plane of which m( <n) are collinear :
(3n)!
then the number of ways in which it can be done is (n!)3 . I
t I
~
(I) Total number of lines obtained by Joining these points is
nC 2 - mC 2 + 1
~
i (II) Total number of different triangle nC 3 - mC 3
(c) In general, the number of ways of dividing n distinct objects into J ~
l groups containing p objects each ,m groups containing q objects J ~
(d) Maximum number of point of intersection of n circles is np 2 &

nile + m)!
each is equal to (p!)' (q!t I!m!
Herelp+mq-n
I
!
•
I
l
i
n lines is nc 2.

(d) Number of ways in which n distinct things can be distributed to j I

p persons If there is no restriction to the number of things
by them = pn
received,-.
~
I j
E
(e) Number of ways in which n identical things may be distributed .~ •;;
among p persons if each person may receive none, one or i
more things Is ; n+p-1c n.
L -__________________________________ ~E
i EL-______________~-
27
26
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
3. SOME RESULTS ON BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS :

BINOMIAL THEOREM .
(a) 'C ='C , => X=y or x+y= n

C C C 2"·1 _ 1
(c) Co +_1 + - ' + ...... - "- = - - -
= tncrX - rY~ 1 where oeN. 2 3 n+1 n+ 1
,=<l
(d) Co _ S+ C, _ C 3 .. .. .. + (- WC, = _1_
1. IMPORTANT TERMS IN THE BINOMIAL EXPANSION 2 3 4 n+ 1 n+1
ARE:
(e) Co+ C, + C, + ...... = C, = 2'
(a) General term: The general tenn or the ( r + 1)'" tenn in the
(f) Co+ C, + C, + .. .. .. = C, + C, + C5 + ...... = 2 ~ '
expansion 01 (x + y)" is given by

(2n)!
' C , ' + .. .... + C ' -- " C -_ -
(g) CO' + C ,+ -
n n n!n !
(b) Middle term :
(2n)!
The middle term (s) is the expansion 01 ( x + y)" is ( are) : (h) Co'C, + C,.CH, + C'.CH' +...... ·+ C~ , = (n + r)!(n _ r)!
(I) If n is even, there is only one middle tenn which is given by
Tin +2')12 ::=: nC nl2' X n/2. yn12 J J Remember : (2n)! = 2'. n! [1.3.5 .. .. .. (2n - 1)1
~
l ! 4. Greatest coefficient & greatest term in expansion of (x + a)' :
(il) If n is odd, there are two middle tenns which are T,n"J12 & 1 ~

i
(a) If n is even greatest coefficient is 'Col'

I
TUn+lV21+1

(c) Term Independent ofx:

,
If n is odd greatest coefficient is 'C , _I or ' C M ,,

Term independent 01 x contains no x ; Hence lind the value 01 l (h) For greatest term :
~
r lor which the exponent 01 x is zero. I 1
j 1
is an integer
1 Tp & Tp+, if 1: 1+

I•
2. II (,fA + B)n ~ I + I, where I & n are positive integers & 0 ,; I < I ,
- +1
then 9 a
Greatest term =
~ 1
~ if 1:1+ is non integer and E (q. q + 1). q E I
(a) (I + I). I - K" il n is odd & A - B2 - K > 0 ~ • - +1
j
(b) (I +1)(l-l)=kn ilniseven& ,fA-B<l
L -__________________-~E
i a
EL-__________________________________
29
28
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
5. BINOMIAL THEOREM FOR NEGATIVE OR FRACTIONAL
COMPLEX NUMBER
INDICES :
n(n -1) , n(n - 1)(n - 2) 1. DEFINITION:
If ne Q. then (1 + x)" ~ 1 + nx + 2! x + 3! x'
Complex numbers are defined as expressions of the form a + ib
+ ....... 00 provided I x I < 1.
Note:
where a, b E R & i= R. It is denoted by z i.e. z = a + ib.

(I) (1 - X)- l - 1 + x + x' + x' + ............ 00 'a' is called real part of z (Re z) and 'b' is called imaginary part
of z (1m z).
(8) (1 + X)-l ~ 1 - x + x' - x' + ............ 00
Every Complex Number Can Be Regarded As
(18) (1 - x)-' ~ 1 + 2x + 3x' + 4x' + ............ 00

(Iv) (1 + x)-' a 1 - 2x + 3x' - 4x' + ............ 00 I

Purely real Purely imaginary Imaginary
6. EXPONENTIAL SEmES : if b = 0 if a = 0 if b ., 0
Note:
X x2 x 3 (i) The set R of real numbers is a proper subset of the Complex
(a) e' ~ 1 + ,+ -21 + -3 + .......00; where x may be any real or
1. . 1. Numbers. Hence the Complex Number system is
N e W c I c Q e R e C.
complex number & e ~ Lim (1 +
n-+x>
.!.)n n (0) Zero is both purely real as well as purely imaginary but
not imaginary.
i (iii) i = R is called the imaginary unit. Also i' = - I ; i3 = -i ;

7. LOGARITHMIC SERIES:
I& !
! i' = 1 etc.
l rlV) Ja .,Jb = .,J;b only if atleast one of either a or b is non-
J I
x2 x3 X4
i ~

;
(a) en (1 + x) - x - -2 + - -- + .......00 , where -1 < x ,; 1 ~ negative.
3 4 >

x2 x3 X4 1j 2. CONJUGATE COMPLEX:
If z = a + ib then its conjugate complex is obtained by changing
(b) fn(1-x)--x - - - - - - - .......00,where-1,; x<l
234 . i ,! the sign of its imaginary part & is denoted by Z . i.e. Z = a - ib.

(1 + xl ( x3 x5
i ~ Note that:

I, i
l '\
(e) en (1- xl ~ 2 x +'3+5+ .......00)' x 1<1 (i) z+z=2Re(z)
(ii) z - z = 2i Im(z)
(i0) z z = a 2 + b' which is real
:; •
;; (Iv) If z is purely real then z - z - 0

~ ______________________________________ ~E
" i
E
(v) If z is purely imaginary then z + z = 0

31
30
Mathematics. Handbook Mathematics Handbook

3. REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER IN VARIOUS 5. IMPORTANf PROPERTIES OF MODULUS :

FORMS: (a) Izl " 0 (h) Izl " Re (z) (e) Izl " 1m (z)

(a) Cartesian Form (Geometrical Representation): (d) Izl ~ Iz I ~ I-zl = 1- z I (e) zz ~ Izl' (f) Iz, z,1~ IZ,I·lz,1
EvelY complex number z = x + iy can
I::1~ 1::1, z, ~ ~
Imaginary
be represented by a point on the
Pix, y)
(g) 0 (h) 1" 1 IzI'
cartesian plane known as
complex plane IArgand diagram) (i) Iz, + " I' ~ Iz,l' + Iz, I' + 2Re(z,z., )
by the ordered pair Ix , y). or I z, + z, I ' = I z, I' + I z, I ' + 21 z, I I z, I cos(S, - S,)
Length OP is called modulus of 0) Iz, + z,l' + Iz, - z,l' = 2 [Izd' + Izl ]
the complex number denoted by
Real axis
1z 1 & 6 is called the argument or (1<) II" I-I "II " I2, +2,1" Iz, I + Iz, I [Triangle Inequality]
amplitude . (1) IIz, I-I z, l l ,,1z,- z,l" Iz, I+ Iz, I [Triangle Inequality]

e.g. 1z 1 = JX2 + y2 & 6 = tan-I l langle made by OP with 11

(m) If z + ;: = 0 (a> 0), thenmaxl z l =
a + .Ja'
2 +4
positive x- ax!sl
x
I
Geometrically z 1 represents the distance of point P from origin. & min I z 1= ~(.J a' +4 -a)
Ilzl;,O)
(b) Trigonometric / Polar Representation :
6. IMPORTANf PROPERTIES OF AMPUTUDE :
z=rlcos6+isin6) where Izl -r;arg z=6; I =r lcos 6-i sin 8)
Note : cos 6 + i sin 6 is also written as CiS 6. "i (a) amp (z,. z,) = amp z, + amp z, + 2 kn ; k E I
Euler's formula:
The formula e" = cosx + i sin x is called Euler's formula .
•"I ( z '\
(h) amp l z:) = amp z, - amp', + 2 kn; k E I
, e bt + e- Ix i
I
Alsocosx = 2 & sin x '"'" are known as (e) amp(z') = n amp(z) + 2kn, where proper value of k must be
2i
Euler's identities. chosen so that RHS lies in (-n , n J.
(c) Exponential Representation : (d) log(z) = log(r e~ ) = logr + is = log I z I +i amp(z)
Let z be a complex number such that I z I - r & arg z - 6,
1
i 7. DE'MOIVER'S THEOREM:
then z - r.e" j
The value of (cosS + iSinS)' is cosnS + isinnS If 'n' is integer & it is one
4. IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF CONJUGATE :
(a) II) =Z (b) Zl +Z2 - <t+ z, i
~
of the values of (cose + isinS)" if n is a rational number of the form pi
q, where p & q are co-prime.
•i•
<
(c) ZI - Z2 - <t - Z;, (d) Z, Z2 = ZI . Z;,
Note: Continued product of roots of a complex quantity should be
(e) (I) If f(a+!~) = x + iy => fla - i~) - x - iy determined using theory of equation.
E
32 33
 Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook
8. CUBE ROOT OF UNITY : from (i) & (ii)
A(z,1

D
-1 + i.}3
(a) The cube roots of unity are 1 , ro ~ 2
111
' -1-i.}3 ;4. /3 or -+ - -+ -~ O
& 00 = e ZI - Z2 Z2 -Z3 Z3 -ZI
2 B(z,) C(zJ
(b) 1 + ro + ro' - 0, ro'- 1, in general (b) Isosceles triangle:

, "_[0 r
1+00 +00 - 3 rlsm
. ultipl eo13
is not integral multiple 01 3 4cos' a (z, - z, X" - z,) = (', - ' , )'

z, z, 1
(e) a' + b' + c' - ab - be - ca - (a + bro + cro')(a + bro' + cro) (e) Area of triangle .1.ABC given by modulus of <I1 z, -
. Zz
1
a' + b' = (a + b)(aro + bro')(aro' + bro) Z3 Z, 1
a' - b' - (a - b)(a -Olb) (a - ro'b) 12. EQUATION OF UNE THROUGH POINTS z, & z, :
x' + x + 1 - (x - roXx - ro')
z z 1
9. SQUARE ROOT OF COMPLEX NUMBER :
z, z, 1 = 0 => ,(z,-z,)+z(z, -z,)+z,z, - z,z, =0

Ja+ib=± {£zF +iIzF} 10rb>0

z, Z, 1
=> z(z, - z,)i+ z(z, - z,)i +i(z,z, -Z,Z2) = 0

& ±
{~ 2 i ~} 2 lor b < 0 where I z I = Ja' + b' . JI
! !
Let (z, - ',)i = a, then equation of line is la z + a z + b =

C&bER.
01 where a E
10. ROTATION: 1 1
C(z,) Note:
Z2-zo
i =
ZI -Zo
Iz,- zo llz1- z0 1
e
19

Take a in anticlockwise direction

11. RESULT RELATED WITH TRIANGLE:

Atz") L II
9 8(z,)

Atz,)
I

! J
I j
j j
(I) Complex slope of line ilz + az + b ~ 0 is -
(H) Two lines with slope II, & 11, are parallel or perpendicular if
II, ~ II, or 11, + \1, = 0
(Iii) Length of perpendicular from point A(a) to line ilz + az + b = 0
a
=
a

lila + aa+bl

i i iI
(a) Equilateral triangle: is
21al
ZI - Z2 Z3 - Z2 h[/3
--=--e .... .. (i) 13. EQUATION OF CIRCLE :
( t
Btz) I C(z,) • •• (a) Circle whose centre is Zo & radii ~ r

~-
Also
____ ~
...... (ii)
________________ ~E
i 1 E~
Iz- o l~r
________________ ~ ________________ ~

34 35
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
(b) General equation of circle

1. MINORS:
centre '- a' & radii = ~I a I' - b
The minor of a given element of determinant is the determinant of
(e) Diameterforrn (z - z, )(z - ~ ) + (z - z, )(z - z,) = 0 the elements which remain after deleting the row & the column in
which the given element stands.
or arg ( Z- Z' ) = ±!.'. a l bl c I
z-z, 2
For example, the minor of a, in a, b, c, is Ib, c'l & the
b3 c3
a 3 b 3 c3
(<I) Equation !Z- Z'! = k represent a circle if k # 1 and a straight line
Z-2 2
minor of b, is la, cII
if k = 1. a 3 c3
(e) Equation 1Z- z, I' + 1z - z, I' = k Hence a determinant of order three will have" 9 minors".
2. COFACTORS :
represent circle if k ;:' ! 1z, - z, I'
2 If M'l represents the minor of the element belonging to ;th row and j"
column then the cofactor of that element : Cij ~ (-1)1'1. Mij ;
(f) arg (z -
z-
Z, )= a
Z2
0 < a < ", a # -2" Important Note:
a 1 a2 a3
represent a segment of circle passing through A(z,) & B(z,)

i
Consider !J. ~ bl b, b3
14. STANDARD LOCI:
J: C1 c2 C3

J J Let AI be cofactor of at' B, be cofactor of b,and so on, then,

(a) 1z - z, 1 + 1z - z, 1 = 2k (a constant) represent
1 i (I) alAI + blBI + CIC I ~ alA, + a,A, + a3A3 ~ .............. ~ !J.

ij I
(I) if 2k > 1z, - z, 1 => An ellipse
(iI) a,A I + b,B, + c, C I = blAI + b,A, + b3A3 = .... . ........ = 0
(U) If 2k = Iz, - z, 1 => A line segment
3. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANfS:
(18) If 2k < 1z, - z, 1 => No solution j (a) The value of a determinants remains unaltered, if the rows &
(b) Equation liz - z, 1- 1z - z, 1 1= 2k (a constant) represent j j columns are interchanged .

!I
(b) If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant be interchanged,
(I) If 2k < 1z, - z, 1 => A hyperbola the value of determinant is changed in sign only. e .g.
(U) If 2k - 1z, - z, 1 => A line ray a, b, c I a, b, c,
(18) 2k > 1z, - z, 1 => No solution
";; ;;•j Let D ~ a, b, c, & D' = a l b l c, Then D' =-D.

~- ____ ~ ________________ ~E
i EL-________________~-
a 3 b3 C3 a 3 b3 C3

37
36
 Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
any two rows 4. MULTIPUCATION OF lWO DETERMINANTS :
same proportion, then its value is zero.
al b l I 1" m, I Iall, + b, t. a, m, + b l m21
(eI) If all the elements of any row (or columns) be multiplied by the
same number, then the determinant is multiplied by that number.
I a 2 b 2 x '2 m2 = a 2 ', + b 2 '2 a 2m l + b 2m 2
Similarly two determinants of order three a re multiplied.
a1 + x b, + y c, + z a, b,c,xyz (a) Here we have multiplied row by column. We can also multiply
(e) a2 b2 c2 = a2 b2 c2 +a 2 b2 C2 row by row, column by row and column by column.
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a 3 b3 c3 (b) If D' is the determinant formed by replacing the elements of
determinant D of order n by their corresponding cofactors then
(f) The value of a determinant is not altered by adding to the
D'= ~ '
elements of any row (or column) the same multiples of the
5. SPECIAL DETERMINANTS:
corresponding elements of any other row (or column) e.g .
(a) Symmetric Determinant :
. al b, c, Elements of a determinant are such that a ij = a, .
a h 9
Let 0- a 2 b2 c2
e.g. h b f = abe +2fgh - af2 _ bg2 - ch2
a3 b3 c3
9 I c
at +ma 2 b, +mb2 c1 +mc2 (b) Skew Symmetric Determinant:
0'- a2 b2 c2 . Then 0' =0.
II a, = -a,
then the determinant is said to be a skew symmetric
determinant. Here all the principal diagonal ele ments are zero.
a3 + nal b3 + nb, C3 + nC l The value of a skew symmetric determinant of odd order is zero
Note: While applying this property ATI.EAST ONE ROW and 01 even order is perfect square.
(OR COLUMN) must remain unchanged. o b-c
e.g. - b 0 a = 0
(g) If the elements of a determinant d are rational function of x
and two rows (or columns) become identical when x = a, then x C -a 0
- a is a factor of d . (c) Other Important Determinants:
Again, if r rows become identical when a is substituted for x, 1 1 1 1 1 1
then (x - a),-I is a factor of d. (I) a b c a b c = (a - b)(b - c)(c -a)
fl f2 f3 be ac ab a 2
b2
c2
(h) If O(x) = g, g2 g3 ' where f" g" h,; r - 1, 2, 3 are three 1 1 1
hi h2 h3 (H) a b c = (a-bXb -c)(c -aXa + b +c)

differential function . a' b' c'

d
f' , f' 2 f2 f3 f, f2 f3 1 1 1
then -D{x) = g, g2 g'2 g' gl g2 g3 (Iii) a' b' c' = (a - b)(b - cXc - a)(ab + be +cal
dx
h, h2 h2 h3 h' , h '2 h ' a' b' c'

38 39
 Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
Now following algorithm is used to solve the system.
1 1 1
Check value of 6
(Iv) a b c = (a-b)(b-c)(c-a)(a'+b'+c'-ab - bc-ca)
a 4 b4 c 4 ~ ~
6. SYSTEM OF EQUATION: 6;tO 6=0
. ~
(a) System of equation Involving two variable: ~
Consistent system Check the values of
a,x + b,Y + c, = 0 and has unique solution 6" fi, and 6 J

,
a,x+b,Y+c,=O

!
x=~ y = 6, z = 63
6 ' 6 ' 6
Consistent •
Inconsistent

,
(System of equation has solution)
~
(System of equation
has no solution)
a hI 1
-1= - ; t -
c
i
~
Atleast one of 6 " 6 , and 6 3 6,=6, =63 =0
unique solution Infinite solution
a 1 b, a1 hl c1 a2 b2 c2 is not zero
~
-"'-
a, b, =b~ 2 =C2 (Equations represents
Inconsistent system
~ Put z = t and solve any
two equations to get the
or a 1b2 - a 2b];t 0(Equations represents parallel disjoint lines)
(Equations represents coincident lines) values of x & y in terms of t
intersecting lines)

If A,-
-Ib, c'l ,A,-
-Ic, a'i ,A-
_la, b , I ,then x=-',
A y=-'
A ~
b, c, c, a2 a2 b2 A /l If these values o f x, y and z in The values of x, y, z doesn't
I
or
a2e1 - a}e 2
a, b2 - a 2 b, I
J
~
:
j
terms of t satisfy third equation
~
Consistent system
satiSfy third equation

Inconsistent system
~
(b) System of equations Involving three variables : 1 (System has infinite solutions)

I
a,x + b,Y + C,l = d, Note:
a,x + b,y + C,l = d, J (I) Trivial solution: In the solution set of system of equation if all
a,x + b,y + C,l = d,
! 1 the variables assumes zero, then such a solution set is called
To solve this system we first define following determinants i f Trivial solution otherwise the solution is called non-trivial solution.
j j (U) If d, = d, = d, = 0 then system of linear equation is known as
a, b, c, d, b, c,
A= a2
a,
b2
b3
C2
C3
A,= d 2 b2
d3 b 3
C,
c3 Is I! system of Homogeneous linear equation which always posses
atleast one solution (0, 0, 0).
(iii) If system of homogeneous linear equation posses non-zero/ non-
a, d, c, a, b, d, •
:i
;;
;; • trivial solution then 6 = O.
A, = a2 d 2 c, a2 b2
a 3 b3 d 3
d2
i i In such case given system has infinite solutions.
________________ ________________
~-
a3 d 3 c3 ________________ ~E
E~ ~ ~

40 41
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics 3. . SQUARE MATIDCES .
SQUARE MATmCES
MATRICES I
Triangular Matrix Diagonal Matrix denoted as
1. INTRODUcnON: I A = diag (all' 302 ......... a..o)
I I where ai, = 0 for i " j

r] ~]
A rectangular array of mn numbers in the form of m horizontal lines 3 0
(called rows) and n vertical lines (called columns), is called a matrix
of order m by n, written as m x n matrix.
A=[ g 2
0
-3
B=[! 3

In compact form, the matrix is represented by A=la 'J lm~'

Upper Triangular Lower Triangular
2. SPECIAL TYPE OF MATRICES: a;, = 0 'rf i>j a,, =O lfi<j
(a) Row Matrix (Row vector) : A -Ian, a", ...... .... a.,] i.e. row
matrix has exactly one row.
Scalar Matrix Unit or Identity Matrix

(b) Column Matrix (Column vector) : A - [::: 1i.e. column I I

am] . [~ ~ g1 if i = j
matrix has exactly one column. o 0 a if i" j
(e) Zero or Null Matrix: (A = 0 _,), An m x n matrix whose all ,
entries are zero. .. }
"•
Note:
(d) Horizontal Matrix : A matrix of order m x n is a horizontal } 1 (i) Minimum number of zeros in triangular matrix of order n
~ ,•
matrix if n > m. J • = n(n - 1)12 .

t
I
(Ii) Minimum number of zeros in a diagonal matrix of order n
(e) Vertical Matrix: A matrix of order m x n is a vertical matrix
iI = n (n - 1).
ifm>n.
! 4. EQUALITY OF MATmCES :
(f) Square Matrix : (Order n) If number of rows = number of j !
column, then matrix is a square matrix. j ! Let A = [a,,] & B- [b,] are equal if.

Ii
(a) both have the same order. (b) a" = b'j for each pair of i & j .
Note:
(I) The pair of elements a, & a, are called Conjugate Elements.
(H) The elements an' a" , a", ... .... aM are called Diagp nal
I ~
j

•
5. ALGEBRA OF MATmCES :
Addition: A + B = [a,j + b,] where A & B are of the same order.
Elements. The line along which the diagonal elements ~ (a) Addition of matrices Is commutative: A + B = B + A .
lie is called ·Principal or Leading diagonal. ''The quantity ~ Matrix addhlon Is associative :
E
~ L all :.. trace of the matrix written as, t, (A)
__________________________________ ~E i 43
42
 Handbook
(c) Distrlbutivity:
6. MULTIPUCATION OF A MATRIX BY A SCAlAR :
A(B+C) ~ AB + AC]

~ ~
Provided A,B & Care confonnable for
(A + B)C ~ AC+BC
If A = [: :] , then kA = [ : :]
cab kckakb respective products

11. POSITIVE INTEGRAL POWERS OF A SQUARE MATRIX :

7. MULTIPUCATION OF MATRICES (Row by Column) :
Let A be a matrix of order m x nand B be a matrix of order p x q
then the matrix multiplication AB is possible if and only if n = p.
Let Am" - la'l ) and Bo> p = Ib,;1. then order of AB is m x p m
(c) 1 ~ I m,n E N
n

& (AB)'I = La"b

,.1
, 12. ORTHOGONAL MATRIX
A square matrix is said to be orthogonal matrix if A AT - I .
8. CHAR~STIEQUON:
Note :
Let A be a square matrix. Then the polynomial I A - xii is called as
(i) The detenninant value of orthogonal matrix is either 1 or-l.
characteristic polynomial of A & the equation I A - xii = 0 is called
characteristic equation of A. Hence orthogonal matrix is always invertible
(il) AN ~ I ~ N A Hence A-I ~ AT .
9. CAYLEY· HAMILTON THEOREM :
Every square matrix A satiSfy its characteristic equation 13. SOME SQUARE MATRICES :
i.e. aox" + a1xn--l + .. .. ... . + an-I X + an =: 0 is the characteristic
equation of matrix A, then aoA" + alA~1 + ... .. .. . + a~lA + ani = 0 J (a) Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix is idempotent provided
! A 2 ~A.

10. PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPUCATION :

(a) AB =0 A-O orB = o (in general)
Note:
t- iI I For idempotent matrix note the following:
(I) A" ~ A \;/ n ;;: 2, n EN.
(il) detenninant value of idempotent matrix is either 0 or 1

If A and B are two non-zero matrices such that AB - 0, then A ! (iii) If idempotent matrix is invertible then its inverse will be
and B are called the divisors of zero. If A and B are two matrices j identity matrix i.e. I.
such that J (b) Periodic Matrix: A square matrix which satisfies the relation
(I) AB - BA then A and B are said to commute i N,I ~ A, for some positive integer K, is a periodic matrix. The
(II) AB - -BA then A and B are said to anticommute f period of the matrix is the least value of K for which this holds
(b) Matrix MultipHcation Is Associative : ~ ;; true.
If A, B & C are conformable for the product AB & BC, then i• E~
i Note that period of an idempotent matrix is l.
______________ ~ ______________ ~
(AB)C = A(BC), (AB)C - A(BC)
~- ____~E 45
44
Mathematics Mathematics Handbook

(c) NUpotent Matrix : A square matrix is said to be nilpotent Thus the diagonal elements of a skew square matrix are all
matrix of order m, m E N , if Am = 0, A~' *O. zero, but not the converse.
Note that a nilpotent matrix will not be invertible. For a skew symmetric matrix A = _AT.
(d) Involutary Matrix : If A' = I, the matrix is said to be an (c) Properties of symmetric & skew symmetric matrix:
involutary matrix. (i) Let A be any square matrix then, A + AT is a symmetric
Note that A - A -, for an involutary matrix. matrix & A - N is a skew symmetric matrix .
(e) If A and B are square matricps of same order and AB - BA (ii) The sum of two symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix
then and the sum of two skew symmetric matrix is a skew
(A + B)' ='CoA' + 'C,A~ B + 'C, A~ 2 B 2 + ........... + 'C,B' symmetric matrix.
14. TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX: (Changing rows & columns) (iii) If A & B are symmetric matrices then.
Let A be any matrix of order m x n. Then AT or A' - [a,,) for 1 ,; i ,;
(1) AB + BA is a symmetric matrix
n&l,;j ,; m ofordernxm
(2) AB - BA is a skew symmetric matrix.
Properties of transpose:
If AT & BT denote the transpose of A and B (iv) Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum or
(a) (A +BF = AT +BT ; note that A & B have the same order. difference of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
(b) (A BF = BTAT IReversallaw) A & B are conformable for matrix
1 T
product AB A=- (A+A ) +
~
2
(c) (N)T - A .. symmetric skew syinmetric
(d) (kA)T = kAT, where k is a scalar. !!
General: (A,. A" ....... A,F = A ~ ..... .. . A ~. Ai (reversal law ! 1 TIT
and A = - (A +A)--(A - A)
for transpose) j 2 2
15. SYMMETRIC & SKEW SYMMETRIC MATRIX: ! 16. ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATmX :
(a) Symmetric matrtx : j
For symmetric matrix A - AT. I ( all a 12 a l3 '\
Note: Maximum number of distinct entries in any symmetric i Let A = [a,[ = l a 21 a" a 23 J be a square matrix and let the

I j 3 31 3 32 3 33
matrix of order n is n(n + 1) .

(b) Skew symmetric : ma~ matrix formed by the cofactors of [a,,] in determinant I A I is
Square matrix A = la,) is said to be skew symmetric if ~
a, = -a, 'V i & j. Hence if A is skew symmetric, then ••
al l = -a" => ail = 0 'V i .
L -__________________________________ ~E
i
46
 Mathematics Handbook

Note: 18. SYSTEM OF EQUATION & CRfTERIA FOR CONSISTENCY

II A be a square matrix of order n, then Gauss - Jordan method:

Example:
(I) A(adj A) = I A I I, = (adj A) . A
(0) Iadj A I = I A I n-I a,x + b,Y+ c,z ~ d,
(IH) adj(adj A) = IA I "..2 A
a,x + b,Y+ C, l ~ d,
(Iv) I adj(adj A) 1=1 A ~, - l) ' a,x + b,Y + C,l ~ d,
(v) adj (AB) (adj B) (adj A)
(vi) adj (KA) Kn-I (adj A) , where K is a scalar

17. INVERSE OF A MATRIX (Reciprocal Matrix) :

A square matrix A said to be invertible (non singular) if there exists => AX= B => A-'X~B
a matrix B such that, AB - I - BA
B is called the inverse (reciprocal) of A and is denoted by A-I . Thus => X~A - 'B~Adj AB
IAI
KI = B eAB = I = BA Note:
We have, A.(adj A) =1 A I In (I) If I A I" 0 • system is consistent having unique solution
A - 1 A(adj A) = K I In I A I (II) If I A I" 0 & (adj A) . B # O(Null matrix), system is consistent
having unique non-trivial solution.
In (adj A) = A- I I A I In
J J
! (ill) If I A I" 0 & (adj A) . B - 0 (Null matrix): system is consistent
KI = (adj A) .. ! 1
1 having trivial solution.
IAI
1
Ii I
(Iv) If I A I ~ 0 , then matrix method falls
Note: The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix A
to be invertible is that I A 1* 0
I
I
Theorem: II A & B are invertible matrices of the same order, then If (adj A) . B ~ 0 (null matrix) If (adjA). B"O
j
(ABr' = B- 1 A -I.
j j ~ ~
Consistent Inconsistent
N~:
(I) If A be an invertible matrix, then AT is also Invertible
(A Tr l =(A-I)T .

(0) II A is invertible , (a) (A -I r l = A

&
t
~
~
:;
I•• ,
(infinite solutions) (no solution)

~ I
•
i ______________ ______________-J
____ ____________
E~ ~

~ ~ ~E

49
 Mathematics Handbook
5. HALF ANGLE FORMUlAE :
a+b+c
PROPERTIES AND SOLUTIONS OF TRIANGLE s= 2 ~ semi-perimeter of triangle ,

()
, A
a (I) sm =
1(S - bXs
be
- c)
(il) sm
,B
=
(s-c)(s- a)
ca
1. SINE FORMULAE : A 2 2
In any triangle ABC
(iii) sin C = (s - a)(s - b)
_a_=_b_=_C_ = A = abc =2R 2 ab
sin A sin B sin C 2'"
A Js(s-a) (II) cos B = JS(S - b)
(h) (i) cos ~
where R is circumradius and t. is area 2= 2 ca
of triangle.
C JS(S-C)
2. COSINE FORMUlAE : (iii) cos 2 = -----.;b

b2 +c 2 _a 2 A (s - bXs - c) D-
(a) cos A = 2bc or a' = b' + C' - 2bc cosA o (c) (I) tan- = = --
2 sIs-a) sIs-a)
c2 + a 2 _ b2 B (s - cXs-a) D-
(h) cosB = -~
2ca
(iI) tan 2= sIs _ b) = -s(s---b)

a2 + b2 _ c2 C (s-a)(s-b) 6.
(e) cos C = 2ab (iii) tan 2 = sIs _ c) = sIs - c)

3. PROJECTION FORMUlAE :
'i.
! i! (d) Area of Triangle

~ 6. = -Js(s :- a)(s - b)(s - c)

(a) bcosC+ccosB=a J
J
~beSinA ~casinB ~absinc

I
= = =
(h)"Ccos A + a cos C = b i

4.
(e) acosB+bcosA=c

NAPIER'S ANALOGY (fANGENT RULE) :

•
I
I j 6.
~ !.j2(a2b2 + b2c2 + c2a 2 ) _ a 4 _ b4 -c'
4
RADIUS OF THE CIRCUMCIRCLE 'R' : A
i I Circum centre is the point of intersection of
(a) tan(B;C) = ~: cot~ j perpendicular bisectors of the sides and

(h) tan(C-A) = c-acotB

2 c+a 2
I
I, i ~
distance between circumcentre & vertex of
triangle is called circumradius 'R',
R = _a_ = _b_ = _c_ = abe,
~ 2sinA 2 sinB 2sinC 46.
(e) tan(A-B)=a-bcotC
2 a+b 2
____________________________________
~ ~E
EL-______________-=~
51
50
 Mathematics Handbook
7. RADIUS OF THE INCIRCLE 'r' : 9. LENGTH OF ANGLE BISECTOR, MEDIANS & ALTITUDE:
Point of intersection of internal angle bisectors is incentre and If m" P, & h, are
the lengths of a median, an angle bisector &
perpendicular distance of incentre from any side is called inradius 'r'. altitude from the angle A then,
A A B A
r ; - ; (s- a)tan - ; (s - b) tan - "J:.Jb 2 +c 2 + 2bccosA ~ m. = ~2b + 2c 2 _a 2
s 2 2 2 2

2bccos A
and A _ 2 h = a
.... - b+c 'cotB+cotC
B~-
3 2 2 2
. B.C
sm - sm -
.A.C
Stn - SIn -
. B.A
sm - sm -
Note that m; + m~ + m~ =4(a +b +c )
;a 2 2;b 2 2;c 2 2 10. ORrnOCENTRE AND PEDAL TRIANGLE :
ABC
cos 2" cos 2"
cos
z (a) Point of intersection of altitudes is A
orthocentre & the triangle KLM
8. RADII OF THE EX·CIRCLES : A
which is formed by joining the feet
Point of intersection of two external angle of the altitudes is called the pedal
and one internal angle bisectors is excentre triangle.
and perpendicular distance of excentre from
.. (b) The distances of the orthocentre B,JC.-~K!
any side is called exradius. If r I is the radius of
escribed circle opposite to angle A of AABC I! !
~
from the angular points of the
~ABC are 2R cosA, 2R cosB, &
and so on then : i !
1 2RcesC.

Ii
i
j
1
f
(e)

(d)
The distance of orthocentre from sides are 2R cosB cosC,

bcesB(~
2R cesC cesA and 2R cosA cesB
The sides of the pedal triangle are a cos A ( ~ R sin 2A),
R sin2B) and c cos C (~R sin 2C) and its angles are
I j 1t - 2A, 1t ·2B and 1t - 2C

I I•
(e) Circumradii of the triangles PBC, PeA, PAB and ABC are equal.
(f) Area of pedal triangle - 2~cosA cosB cosC

:; • = ~R2 sin2Asin2Bsin2C
;;
i j = R/2
(g) Circum radii of pedal triangle ______________
______________
~ ________________ ~ ________________ ~E

52 53
 Mathem~ics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
13. m-n THEOREM : A
11. EX-CENTRAL TRIANGLE :
(m + n) cot e = m cot CL - n cot p
(m + n) cot e = n cot B - m cot C.
.....................
....... 14. IMPORTANT POINTS :
(a) (I) If a cos B ~ b cos A, then the triangle is isosceles.
B (ti) If a cos A = bcosB, then the triangle is isosceles or right angled.
(b) In Right Angle Triangle:
(I) a' + b' + c' ~ SR'
(II) cos' A + cos' B + cos'C = 1
(a) The triangle fonned by joining the three excentres I" I, and 13 (e) In equilateral triangle:
of 6. ABC is called the excentral or excentric triangle , 3R
(I) R=2r (ti) r, = r, = r,=_
(b) Incentre I of MBC is the orthocentre of the excentral 6. 1,1,13 , 2
(e) t.ABC is the pedal triangle of the 6. 1,1,1 3 ,
(III) r : R: r, = 1 : 2 : 3 (Iv) area
J3a
= - - (v) R = r.;
2
a
(d) The sides of the excentral triangle are 4 ,,3
ABC (d) (I) The circumcentre lies (1) inside an acute angled triangle
4Rcos'2 ' 4Rcos'2 and 4Rcos'2 (2) outside an obtuse angled triangle & (3) mid point of the

"A"B "C
and its angles are 2'-'2 ' 2'-'2 and 2'-'2'
I! I! hypotenuse of right angled triangle.
(II) The orthocentre of right angled triangle is the vertex at the
J right angle .
(e) II, - 4Rsin ~ ; II, - 4Rsin ~ ; 113 - 4Rsin ~, 1

I
(iii) The orthocentre, centroid & circumcentre are collinear &
i centroid divides the line segment joining orthocentre &

i
12. THE DISTANCES BElWEEN THE SPECIAL POINTS:
circumcentre internally in the ratio 2 : 1, except in case of
(a) The distance between circumcentre and orthocentre is
equilateral triangle. In equilateral triangle all these centres
l
= R.JI - 8cosAcosBcosC
(b) The distance between circurncentre and incentre is = JR2 _ 2Rr
t j
j
coincide.

~ 15. REGUlAR POLYGON:

(e) The distance between incentre and orthocentre is

= J2r2 -4R 2 cosAcosBcosC

I I
~
• (a) Radius of inclrcle of this polygon r ~ 2c01;;-
..
Consider a 'n' sided regular polygon of side length 'a'

(d) The distance between circumcentre & excentre are

1•
;.

";; (b) Radius of circumcircle of this polygon R ~ -"- cosec!:

i E~ ________________ ~ ________________
2 n ~

~- ____________~E 55
54
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
area of regular polygon 18. ANGLES OF ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION:

Perimeter = na m 2nr tan -"- ~ 2nR sin-"- Let OP be a horizontal line in the vertical plane in which an object R
n n

.0:.
is given and let OR be joined.
22n 1 2 n1 2 n
Area = - nR sin- = nr tan- = -na cot-
2 n n 4 n C R O...,.-..--------P
16. CYCUC QUADRIlATERAL : C b angle of depression
(a) Quadrilateral ABeD is cyclic if LA + LC - 1t A .'
= LB + L C • B
(opposite angle are supplementary angles)
(b) Area = Jls - a)ls-b)(s-c)(s-d), where 2s =a + b + c + d QL~-P R
a 2 + b2 _ c 2 _ d 2 Fig . (a) Fig. (b)
(e) cos B = 21ab + cd) & Similarly other angles
(d) Ptolemy's theorem : If ABCD is cyclic quadrilateral, then In Fig. (a), where the object R is above the horizontal line OP. the angle
AC . BD = AB . CD + Be . AD POR is called the angle of elevation of the object R as seen from the
17. SOLUTION OF TRIANGLE : point O. In Fig . (b) where the object R is below the horizontal line OP,
Case-. : Three sides are given then to find out three angles use the angle POR is called the angle of depression of the object R as seen
~+- ~+- from the point O.
cosB = 2ac & cosC = 2ab
ease-D : Two sides & included angle are given :
A-B a-b C Ii •
!
Let sides a, b & angle C are given then use tan-- = --cot- !
2 a +b 2
and lind value of A - B ........ (i) I 1
& A+B =90 o-~ asinC ,I 1
i I
2 2 ....... (ii) c = - - .. ..... (iii)
slnA C
Case-III :
Two sides a, b & angle A opposite to one of
j i
them Is given
i I
j
(a) If a < b sinA No triangle exist
ii

I•
(b) If a = bsinA & A is acute, then one triangle
exist which is right angled. ~
(e) a > bslnA, a < b & A is acute, then two triangles exist i
(d) a > bsinA, a > b & A is acute, then one triangle exist •
•t •
(e) a > bsinA & A is obtuse, then there is one triangle if a > b
L -________ ~
a < b.
& no triangle if______________________ ~E
E~
i __________________________________ ~

56 57
 Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
(b) For external division: ( mx, - nx, , my, - n y,)
m-n m-n
STRAIGHT UNE
(c) Line ax + by + c = 0 divides line joining points P(x,y,) & Q(x" y,)
. . (ax, + by, +c)
1. RELATION BETWEEN CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATE In ratio ~
(ax, + by, + c)
& POLAR CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM
If (x,y) are cartesian co-ordinates of a point P, then : x - r cos e, 4. CO-ORDINATES OF SOME PARTICULAR POINTS:
y = r sine
Let A(x, ,y,) , B(x 2,y, ) and C(X3' Y3) are vertices of any triangle
and r=Jx'+y'. e=tan - l(~) ABC, then
(a) Centroid:
2. DISTANCE FORMULA AND ITS APPUCATIONS :
(i) The centroid is the point of
If A(xl'Y') and B(x" y,) are two points, then intersection of the medians
AB = J(x, -x,)' +(y, -y,)' (line joining the mid point of
sides and opposite vertices) :
Note:
(II) Centroid divides the median in
(I) Three given points A,B and C are collinear, when sum of any
the ratio of 2 : l.
two distances out of AB,BC, CA is equal to the remaining third
G(XI+ X23
+ X3 Yt +Y2 + Y3)
otherwise the points will be the vertices of triangle.
II (iU) Co-ordinates of centroid ' 3

(Ii) Let A,B,C & D be the four given points in a plane. Then the
quadrilateral will be :
I 1
J
i
(Iv) If P is any internal point of triangle such that area of ~PB,
AAPC and ABPC are same then P must be centroid.

1 (b) Ineenter:

I i
(a) Square if AB = BC - CD - DA & AC - BD ; AC .L BD
The incenter is the point of
(b) Rhombus if AB ~ BC = CD = DA and AC '" BD; AC.L BD
(e) Parallelogram if AB = DC, BC - AD; AC '" BD; AC ,L BD I intersection of internal bisectors
l j of the angles of a triangle. Also
= DA, AC = BD; AC ,L BD j
(d) Rectangle if AB = CD, BC j
j it is a centre of a drcle touching

I• I"
3. SECTION FORMULA: B(x" y,) D C(x" yJ
aU the sides of a triangle.
The co-ordinates of a point dividing a line joining the points A(x"y,)
and B(x"y, ) in the ratio m : n is given by : _ (ax, + bx, + cx, ay, + by, + cy3 )
• Co-ordinates of incenter I a +b+C ' a +b+C
(a) For internal division : ( mx, + nx ' , my ' + ny , )
" i
m+n m+n 1 Where a, b, c are the sides of triangle ABC.
EL-__________________ -~
~- __- -______________~E 59
58
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
(e) Ex-centers:
(l) Angle bisector divides the opposite sides in the ratio of The centre of the circle which touches
" 'd BD = -AB = -c side BC and the extended portions of
remaIning Sl es. e.g. -
OC AC b sides AB and AC is called the ex-centre
(n) lncenter divides the angle bisecto rs in the ratio of t.ABC with respect to the vertex A. It
(b+c): a, (c+a): b, (a+b) : c is denoted by II and its coordinates are
(e) Clrcumcenter: II ;( -ax l + bx, + cx, , -aYI + by, + cy,)
It is the point of intersection of -a + b+c -a + b + c
perpendicular bisector; of the Similarly ex-centers of t.ABC with respect to vertices Band C
sides of a tnangle. If 0 is the are denoted by I, and I, respectively, and
cirrumcenter of ~ trlar>je AOC,
I, ; (axl - bx, + cx, ,aYI - by, + cy, )
then OA 2
=OB =OC
2 2
. a-b+c a-b+c
Also it is a centre of a circle touching all the vertices of a triangle. I, ;(ax l + bx, - cx, ,aYI + by, -cy,)
Note: a+b-c a+b-c
(I) If a triangle is right angle , then its circumcenter is mid point
of hypotenuse. 5. AREA OF TRIANGLE :
(II) Rnd perpendicular bisector of any two sides and solve them Let A(xI'Y I)' B(x"Y,) and C(x"Y,) are vertices of a triangle, then
to find circumcentre.
(eI) Orthocenter: 1 XI YI 1 1
6<, • y,)
It is the point of intersection of
perpendicular drawn from vertices
A

J I! Area of t-ABC= 2 x, y, 1 = 2 I [xl(Y,-Y,)+x' (Y' -YI)+X'(YI-Y,)11

X3 Y3 1
on opposite skies of a triangle arxI
! 1
J To remember the above formula, take the help of the following method :
can be obtained by solving the
J 1 1 [ Xl x, X3 Xl] 1

I i
e<JliItion of any two altitu:les. =- X X X = I -2 [(xIY,- x,Y I) + (X'Y3-X3Y,)+(X3YI-XIY, )) I
Note: 2 YI y, Y3 Yl
If a triangle is right angled triangle, then orthocenter is the point Remarks :
j j
where right angle is fonned. (i) If the area of triangle joining three points is zero, then the points
Remarks : j I
(l) If the triangle is equilateral, then centroid, incentre, j
!
j are collinear.
(Ii) Area of Equilateral triangle

I,•
orthocenter, circumcenter, coincides.
(H) Orlhocentre, centroid and circumcentre are always collinear
and centroid divides the line joining. orthocentre and
! If altitude of any equilateral triangle is P, then its area = ~.
circumcentre in the ratio 2 : 1 •:;
(a 2 J3i
(lH) In an isosceles triangle centroid, orthocentre, incentre, I, If 'a' be the side of equilateral triangle, then its area
______________________________
= l-4-)
__
circumcentre lies on the same line. E~ ~ ~

~-E 60 61
 Mathematics Handbook

(iii) Are;}. 01 quadrilateral whose conseartive vertices are (x" y,), (x." y,), 9, STANDARDFORMSOFEQUATIONSOFAST&MGHTUNE:
(a) Slope Intercept form: Let m be the slope of a line and c its
Y,) .'s -2
11 x , -x Y'- Y3 1
3
(x" Y,) & (x" intercept on y-axis, then the equation of this straight line is written
x, - x, y, - y,
as: y=mx+c
6. CONDmON OF COWNEARITY FOR nlREE POINTS:
(h) Point Slope form: If m be the slope of a line a nd it passes
Three points (x, ,y,), (x" Y,) and (x" y,l are collinear il anyone 01 the
throug h a point (x, ,Y , ), the n its equatio n is written as :
given point lies on the line passing through the remaining two points.
Y- YI = m(x-x l )
Thus the required condition is -
(c) Two point form: Equation of a line passing through two points
Y3 -y,
xl YI 1 (xI'YI) and (x " Y, ) is written as :
y, -y,
X3 -Xl
or
Xl -X 2
~
Yl -Y3
or x2 Y2 1 =0 y 1
X 2 - Xl Xl - X3
x3 Y3 1 Y _ YI = Y2 - Y. (x - XI ) or
X

1 =0
XI YI
7. EQUATION OF STRAIGHT UNE : x2 - XI
x, y, 1
A relation between X and Y which is satisfied by co-ordinates 01
every point lying on a line is called equation of the straight line . (d) Intercept form: If a and b a re the intercepts made by a line
Here remember that every one degree equation in variable x and Y
on the axes of x and Y, its equation is written as : ~ +.l!. = 1
always represents a straight line i.e. ax + by + c = 0 ; a & b " 0 a b
simultaneously.
(e) Normal form: If p is the length of perpendicular on a line
(a) Equation 01 a line parallel to x-axis at a distance a is Y = a or
y=-a from the origin a nd ct the angle which this perpendicular makes
~
(b) Equation 01 x-axis is y = 0
(e) Equation 01 line parallel to y-axis at a distance b is x = b or Il !
~
with positive x-axis, then the equation of this line is written as :
xcosa + ysina ~ p (p is always positive), where 0 S a < 2n,
x=-b
I 1 (f) Parametric form : To find the equation
(d) Equation 01 y-axis is x = 0 1l Y P L
8. SLOPE OF UNE :
I i
of a stra ight line which passes through r :(x, y)

j
y A 8 !
a given point A(h , k) and makes a given
II a given line makes an angle 9
(0·,; 9 < 180·, 9 " 90") with the
............ -.... : (x,. yJ f~ angle S with the positive direction of the L'
:(h k) :
: '
:
:
:
Y2-Y' ! i x-axis, p(x , y) is any point on the line LAL', : l
" O '/-~ x
positive direction 01 x-axis, then slope ._.. -! (x ltYI) ! I i Let AP = r then x - h = r cosS, y - k =
01 this line will be tanS and is usually j j
x-h y-k

I
~- x = --:-;;- = r is the equation

I
X 2 -X I r sine & -- a
denoted by the letter m i.e. m=tan9. COSu Sin'\]

Obviously the slope 01 the x-axis and of the straight line LAL',
~ Any point P on the line will be of the form (h + r cose, k + r
j

i
line parallel to it is zero and y-axis and line parallel to it does not exist.
; sinS), where I r I gives the distance of the point P from the fixed
If A(x" Y,) and B(x." Y,) & x, "
.
x, then slope 01 line AB =
Y2 -Yl
--
x2 -Xl
I E
point (h, k),
~- __
62
-~E 63
I
 Mathematics Handbook

(g) General form: We know that a first degree equation in X and 12. DISTANCE BElWEEN lWO PARAllEL UNES :
y, ax + by + c - 0 always represents a straight line. This form ; (a) The distance between two parallel lines ax + by + c, =0 and
is known as general form of straight line,
ax+by+c, =O is = Ic, - c2 1
(I) 51ope 0 f th 'IS I'me =-=
-a coell. of X -la
2
+ b2
coeff. of y b (Note: The coefficients of x & y in both equations should be same)
c
(Ii) Intercept by this line on x-axis = - - and intercept by this line
a (b) The area of the parallelogram = p, Pe2 , where P, & P2 are
sm
c distances between two pairs of opposite sides & e is the angle
on y-axis =- b
between any two adjacent sides. Note that area o f the
(IH) To change the general form of a line to normal form , first
take c to right hand side and make it positive, then divide the parallelogram bounded by the lines y = m,x + c,' y = m,x +

whole equation by .Ja' + b2 • ..

c, and y - m, x +dl' y = m,x + d2 1Sg,ven by
I(C, -c 2 ) (d, -d 2 )1.
10. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO UNES : m 1 -m 2
(a) If 8 be the angle between two lines: y =m,x + candy = m,x + c, '
13. EQUATION OF UNES PARALLEL AND PERPENDICUlAR
(m -m '\
thentan8=±1 I ') TO A GIVEN UNE :
\l+m,m,
(h) If equation of lines a re alx+bIY+c ,=O and a ,x+b,Y+c, =O, then (a) Equation of line parallel to line ax + by + c = 0
these line are - ax+by +1.=0
a l bl c, (b) Equation of line perpendicular to line ax + by + c - 0
(i) Parallel
i!
"¢ - C> -= -
a, b, c,
bx-ay+k=O
(H) Perpendicular c> ala,+blb,-O
a 1 bl c 1 Here i., k, are parameters and their values are obtained with the
i
(ill) Coincident c> - = - = -
a, b, c, i help of additional information given in the problem.

(Iv) Intersecting

11 . LENGIlf OF PERPENDICUlAR FROM A POINT ON A UNE :

a l bl
c> -;>0 -
a 2 b,
II 14. STRAIGHT UNE MAKING A GIVEN ANGLE WITH A UNE :
Equations of lines passing through a point (x, oY,) and making an
angle a, with the line y- mx+c is written as:
Length of perpendicular from a point (XI 81) on the line ax+by+c-O j y-y, =
m± tana
(x-x,)
is = la,-x7=.+;:bY~
+b .Ja 2
+:-,-cl
2
I
;
l+miana
15. POSmON OF lWO POINTS WITH RESPECT TO A GIVEN

•• .;;
UNE:
In particular the length of the perpendicular from the origin on the '
Icl Let the given line be ax + by + c = 0 and i'(xl' y,), Q(x" y,) be two
~
line ax + by + c - 0 Is P = I~=;'" 2
__________________________________ + b' "a ~E
~
,
iE~
points. If the quantities ax, + by, ________________
________________ ~
+ c and ax, + by, + c have the same ~

64 65
 Mathe matics Handbook Mathematics Handbook
signs, then both the pOints P and Q lie on the same side of the line (b) Rotation of axes without y y
ax + by + c = o. If the quantities ax. + by. + c and ax, + by, + C bave shifting the origin: P(x,y)
opposite signs, then they lie on the opposite sides of the line. Let 0 be the origin. Let P 5 (x, y) .. ~ y,') t~
y i ro·," . . X'
with respect to axes OX and
16. CONCURRENCY OF UNES :
Three lines a.x + b.y + c. = 0; a,x + b,y + C, = 0 and a,x + b,y + c, =0
OY and let P 5 (x', y') with respect
to axes OX' and OY', where -:>"I~!=.*+
·~l X
x

a, b, c. L X'OX = L YOY' = e
are concurrent, if fj, = a, b, c, =0 then x = x' cos e -y' sin e
y = x' sin e + y' cos e
a, b3 c3
and x' = x cos e + y sin e
Note: y'=-xsine+ycose
If lines are concurrent then fj, - 0 but if fj, =0 then lines mayor The above relation between (x, y) and (x', yl can be easily obtained
may not be concurrent Hines may be parallel). with the help of following table

17. REFLECTION OF A POINT : ~

New x-!. y-!.
y X' .... cos e sin e
Let p(x,y) be any point, then its image
with respect to y' .... -sin 0 cos e
(a) x-axis is Q(x, -y) RI-x, y) .
19. EQUATION OF BISECTORS OF ANGLES BETWEEN TWO
(b) y-axis is R(- x, y) _-,l~ X

(e) origin is S(-x, - y)

(d) line y= x is T(y, x)
• Q{x,-y)
I 1•
X ~
UNES:
If equation of two intersecting lines are a,x+b ,y+c , -O and
1 1 a,x + b,y+c, =O, then equation of bisectors of the angles between
18. TRANSFORMATION OF AXES
(a) Shifting of origin without rotation y
of axes :
If coordinates of any point p(x, y) with
y.
Plx,y)
---- ----•• -,: (x. ,y')
IIi
i !
i
,
these lines are written as :

a,x + b,y + c,
Jai + bi
± a,x + b,y + c,
Ja~ +b ~
......... (1)

y" , ,: (a) Equation of bisector of angle containing origin :

respect to new origin ( a,~ ) will be (x', yl a,~ ) Ii X·
i ~ If the equation of the lines are written with constant terms c,
then x = x' + a, y - y' + ~ ·-x'··+; j ] and c, positive , then the equation of the bisectors of the angle

I.
X
or X' = X - a, y' = y - ~ 0 J containing the origin is obtained by taking positive sign in (1)
T hus if o rigin is shifted to pOint (a, ~ ) without rotation of axes, ~ (b) Equation of bisector of acute/obtuse angles:
then new equation of curve can be obtained by putting x + a in ;; ~ See whether the constant terms c, and c, in the two equation are
;; ii
place of x and y + ~ in place of y. +ve or not. If not then multiply both sides of given equation by
~- ______ ~ ________________ ~E
i t -1 to make the constant terms positive
E
66 67
 Mathematics Handbook
ab 1
y= l( - h± )h' -
b ) x " y = m,x & y = m,x
If sign of For obtuse For acute
2h a
ala, + bIb, angle bisector angle bisector and m, + m, = - b ; m,m, = b
+ use + sign in eq. (1) use-sign in eq. (1) These straight lines passes through the origin and for finding
- use-sign in eq. (1) use +sign in eq. (1) the angle between these lines same formula as given for general
'.e. ,f a,a, + b,b, > 0, then the b,sector correspondmg to + s'gn equation is used.
gives obtuse angle bisector The condition that these lines are:
(i) At right angles to each other is a + b = O. i.e. co-efficient
a,x+~yc ~x+y
of x2 + co-efficient of of = O.
Ja~ + b~ Ja~ + b~
(il) Coincident is h' = abo
20. FAMILY OF UNES : (iii) Equally inclined to the axis of x is h = O. i.e . coell.
If equation of two lines be P '" a,x + b,Y + c, - O and of xy = O.
Q '" a,x+b,y + c,= 0, then the equation of the lines passing through
(d) The combined equation of angle bisectors between the lines
the point of intersection of these lines is : P + AQ = 0 or a,x + b,Y +
represented by homogeneous equation of 2"" degree is given
c, + A (a,x + b,Y + c,) = O. The value of A is obtained with the help
x' - y' xy
of the additional informations given In the problem. by a _ b h' a ., b, h ., o.
21. GENERAL EQUATION AND HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION (e) Pair of straight lines perpendicular to the lines ax' + 2hxy + by' =
OF SECOND DEGREE :
(a) A general equation of second degree Il I£ o and through origin are given by bx' - 2hxy + ay' = o.
ax' + 2hxy + by' + 2gx + 2fy + c - 0 represent a pair of 1 (f) If lines ax' + 2hxy + by' + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 are parallel then
1
.1=abc+2fgh-al' - bg' - ch' = 0 ,
1 1
straight lines if or

I II
a h g distance between them is = 2 g - ac
a(a+ b)
h b I =0
g f c 22. EQUATIONS OF LINES JOINING THE POINTS OF
1 INTERSECTION OF A LINE AND A CURVE TO THE
2~h -ab j
(b) If e be the angle between the lines, then tan e = ±=-'"--..,...::.:.
a+b j i OIDGm: y

i i
Obviously these lines are Let the equation of curve be :
(I) Parallel, II .1 - 0, h' = ab or if h' = ab and bg2 = af' ax' + 2hxy + by'+ 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ...... (i) Q
j
(il) Perpendicular, il a + b =0 i.e. coeff. of x' + coefl. of y' = O. !
~
(e) Homogeneous equation 01 2'" degree ax' + 2hxy + by' - 0 ••< • and straight line be

~
always represent a pair of straight lines whose equations are
__________________________________ ~E
i i
EL-__________________________________
tx +my+n=O ...... (ii) ~

69
68
 Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook

I_~-":i ~ ~"_ . _ " _ . :~ J

Now joint equation of line OP and OQ joining the origin and pOints
of intersection P and Q can be obtained by making the equation (i)
homogenous with the help of equation of the line. Thus required
1. DEFINITION:
equation is given by -
A circle is the locus of a point which moves in a plane in such a way
ex + my) (ex + my)2 that its distance from a fixed point remains constant The fixed
ax' +2hxy+by' +2(gx+fy) ( - n +c -n =0
point is called the centre of the circle and the constant distance is
23. STANDARD RESULTS: called the radius of the circle:
(a) Area of rhombus formed by lines a I x I + b I y 1+ c = 0
2. STANDARD EQUATIONS OF THE CIRCLE :
2c' (a) Central Fonn :
or ± ax ± by + c - 0 is 1ab 1 .
If (h. k) is the centre and r is the radius of the circle then its
c' equation is (x - h)' + (y - k)' = r'
(b) Area of triangle formed by line ax+by+c - 0 and axes is 21 ab 1.
(b) General equation of circle:
x' + y' + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, where g, f, c are constants and
(e) Co-ordinate of foot of perpendicular (h, k) from (x" Y,) to the line
centre is (-g, - I)
.. h-x, _ k-y, _ - (ax, +bYl +c) : (coefficient of x coefficient of y)
ax+by+c - 0 ,s given by - - - - b - - 'b'
a a + Le: 2 ' 2

(d) Image of point (X I' YI) w.r. to the line ax+by+c '- 0 is given by " and radius r = ~g2 + f2 - C
h - Xl k - Yl -2(ax l + byl +c) 1 J •:.
• Note: The general quadratic equation in x and y,
- a - = -b- = a'+b' ~ ax' + by' + 2hxy + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents a
! 1 circle if :
1 , (i) coefficient of x' = coefficient of y' or a = b" 0
~
i
~
I
l
I
(ii) coefficient of xy = 0 or h -0
(iii) (g' + f2 - c) ;, 0 (for a real circle)
(c) Intercepts cut by the circle on axes :
i j The intercepts cut by the circle x' + y' + 2gx + 2fy + c =0 on:
I
I x-axis = 2~g
I~ i (i) -c (ii) y-axis = 2Jf2 - c

,
Note:
Intercept cut by a line on the circle x' + y2 + 2gx + 2fy+c=0 or .
;;
•
iEL-__________
:i

length of chord of the circle = 2Ja 2 - p 2 where a is the radius

__of perpendicular
and P is the length __________________
from the centre to the chord:
______________--JE
~ ~ ~

~-
70 71
 Mathematics Handbook

(a) Condition of Tangency :

(d) Diameter form of circle , IP>r) - - - - - - -

If A(xI'Y ) and B(x"Y,) are the The line L = 0 touches the (P=r) - - 7 "__:::---Tangcn '
(p<r) s...."'Canl
' circle 5 = 0 if P the length of
end pOints of the diameter of P
the circle then the equation of the perpendicular from the (P=O) --\---'''--j-- Diame\"
centre to that line and radius
the circle is given by
of the circle r are equal i.e.
(x - x,)(x - x,) + (y - y,)(y - y,) - 0
p= r.
(e) The parametric forms of the circle:
(b) Equation of the tangent (T - 0) :
(I) The parametric equation of the circle x'+y2 = r' are
x - r cose, y - r sine; e E [0, 21<) (I) Tangent at the point (x"Y,) on the circle x'+ y' = a' is
(II) The parametric equation of the circle (x - h)' + (y - k)' = r' is xx. + YYI l1li a2 •
x - h + r cose, y - k + r sin a where e is parameter. (ii) (1) The tangent at the point (acos t, asin t) on the circle
(III) The parametric equatioo 01 the circle x' + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 x2 + y2 = a 2 is xcos t + ysin t - a
(2) The point of intersection of the tangents at the points
arex-- 9 +Jg' + f' -c case, y-...f +Jg'
+,' - c sine
where e is parameter.
Note that equation of a straight line joining two point ct & p
p(a) and Q(~) is ( acos cos ~
ai~
aSin~J
, cos "iP .
on the circle x' + y' = a' is (Iii) The equation of tangent at the point (x, ,Y,) on the circle
ct+P . ct+P ct-P x' + y' + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is
X cos -2- + Y SIn -2- = a cos--·
2
it "! "", + YY, + g(x + x,) + f(y+y, ) + c - 0
~
3. POsmON OF A POINT W.R.T CIRCLE: ~ I (Iv) If line y = mx + c is a straight line touching the circle
J
(a) Let the circle is x' + y' + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0IA I P C Q
1 I x' + y' = a', then c = ± a~l + m' and contact points are

I
){t>Y r

i
and the point Is (x"y,) then:
Point (X"Y, ) lies out side the circle or on the circle or inside the circle
according as l
(am
l.
'l' ~,±
,,1 + m'
~)or
,,1 + m'
a"1
a'm
( ' f --'
a')
±""Z and equation
c
::::. x,' + Y, ' + 2gx, +2fy, + c >, =, < 0 or 5 , >, = , < 0
!
(b) The greatest & the least distance of a point A from a circle with ! ! of tangent is

I•
Y _ mx ± a.J'l-+-m--=-2
centre C & radius r is AC + r & AC - r respectively.
(c) The power of point is given by 5 " I
~
(v) The equation of tangent with slope m of the circle
4. TANGENT UNE OF CIRCLE :
•~ • (x - h)' + (y - k)' = a' is
(y - k) - m(x - h) ± a.J'l-+-m72
When a straight line meet a circle on two coincident points then it is
called
L -_ _ _ ___ the
__ tangent
____ of_the
__ circle.
_________________ ! I
~E

EL-______________~-
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 Mathematics Handbook
Handbook
6. CHORD OF CONTACT :
Note: If two tangents PTI & PT, are
To get the equation of tangent at the point (x , Y,) on any curve L
drawn lrom the point P (XI'
,. f 2 X + Xl .
YI) to the circle t-I~f:" P(x " \' ,l
we replace xx, in place of x, YY, m place 0 y , -2- m
S " x' + y' + 2gx + 2fy + c ~ 0,
place of x, y ~y , in place of y, xy , ; yx, in place of xy and c then the equation 01 the chord
in place of c. 01 contact T IT, is :
(e) Length of tangent ( .;s. ): P(x,.y,)
XXI + YYI + g (x + XI) + I (y + YI) + c - 0 (i.e. T - 0 same as equation
01 tangent).
The length of tangent drawn 7. EQUATION OF lliE CHORD WITH A GIVEN MIDDLE POINT
from point (xl'Y') out side (f - 5,):
the circle The equation 01 the chord 01 the circle S " x' + y' + 2gx + 2fy + c ~
S " x' + y' + 2gx + 2fy + c ~ 0 is,
PI ~ JS: ~x; ~+ y; + 2gx, + 2fy, +c
o in terms 01 its mid point M(x
' YI) is V_ VI __ x, +g (X - XI)'
l
y, +f
(d) Equation of Pair of tangents (SS, _ T') : This on simplication can be put in the lorm
Let the equation of circle S" x' + y' ~ a' and p(x, ,Y,) is any point XXI + YYI + g (x + XI) + I (y + YI) + c ~ XI' + y l ' + 2gx I + 21Y I + c
outside the circle. From the point we can draw two real and distinct which is designated by T - 51'
tangent PQ & .PR and combine equation of pair of tangents is - 8. DIRECTOR CIRCLE :
(x' + y' - a') (x,' + yt' - a') - (xx, + W, - a')' or SS,- T' The locus 01 point 01 intersection 01 two perpendicular tangents to a
5. NORMAL OF CIRCLE : l circle is called director circle. Let the circle be x' + y' = a', then the
Normal at a point of the circle is the straight line which is Ii i
!
equation 01 director circle is x' + y' = 2a'.
perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact and passes :. director circle Is a concentric circle whose radius is J2 times the
through the centre of circle. I
1 radius 01 the circle.
(a) Equation of normal at point (x, ,y,) of circle x' + y' + 2gx + 2fy I Note:
+ c ~ 0 is
I, J The di rector circle of

~ ,1j x' + y' + 2gx + 2fy + c ~ 0 is x' + y' + 2gx + 21y + 2c- g' - f2 = 0
j 9. POLE AND POlAR :
P T
}
I Let any straight line through the given point
R Ih.kl
I
I,
(x"y,)

I1
A(xl'YI) intersect the given circle S ~O in

y-y -
y,+f)
(- - (x-x,) , two points P and Q and if the tangent 01
, x, +g the circle at P and Q meet at the point R
(b) The equation of normal on any point (x, ,Y,) of circle x' + y' ~
,
,
then locus 01
l-;
a' .'s (Y ~ - y, " E
75
~- ____________~E
74
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
(d) Equation of circle circumscribing a quadrilateral whose side in
point R is called polar of the point A and point A is called the pole.
order are represented by the lines L, = 0, L, = 0, 1., = 0 &
with respect to the given circle. L. = 0 are L, L, + 1.. L, L. = 0 provided coefficient of
The equation of the polar is the T=0. so the polar of point (x,.Y,) w.r.t x' = coefficient of y' and coefficient of xy = 0,
circle x' + y' + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is xx, +YY, +g(x+x,) + f(y+y ,)+c=O
11. DIRECT AND TRANSVERSE COMMON TANGENTS:
Pole of a given line with respect to a circle
Let two circles having centre C, and C, and radii, r, and r, and
To find the pole of a line we assume the coordinates of the pole
C,C, is the distance between their centres then:
then from these coordinates we find the polar. This polar and given
(a) Both circles will touch :

~T
lIne represent the same line. Then by comparing the coefficients of
(I) Externally if C1C, = r, +
similar terms we can get the coordinates of the pole. The pole of
r" point P divides C 1C, in
fx+my+n - O
the ratio r, : r, (internally),
( - fa' -rna'")
w.r.t. circle x' + y' = a' will be l -n- '-n-) In this case there are three common tangents.
(Ii) Internally if C 1C, = I r 1- r, I , point P
10. FAMILY OF CIRCLES :
divides C 1 C, in the ratio r 1 : r,
(a) The equation of the family of circles passing through the
externally and in this case there will
pOints of intersection of two circles 5 , = 0 & 5, = 0 is :
5 , + K 5, = 0 (K ,,-1). be only one common tangent.
(b) The equation of the family of circles passing through the point of 'it (b) The circles will intersect :
intersection of a circle 5 - 0 & a line L = 0 is given by 5 + Kl.. = O.
I:
! ! when I r 1 - r, I < C,C, < r 1
(e) The equation of a family of circles passing through two given ~ c, c,
l J + r, in this case there are
points (x ,. y,) & (x,. Y,) can be written in the form: 1
j 1 two common tangents.

parameter.
x
(x-x,)(x-x,) + (y-y,)(y-y,)+K x,
x,
y
y,
1
1 =OwhereKisa
Y2 1
i ,
I
! ,
~
(c) The circles will not intersect
(I) One circle will lie inside the other
circle if C 1C, < I r 1-r,1 In this
case there will be no common
(d) The equation of a family of circles touching a fixed line
~ tangent.
I R
y - y,- m (x - x,) at the fixed point (x,. y,) Is (l:< - xl + (y - y,l'
+ K Iy - y, - m (x - x,)) - 0 • where K is a parameter.
(e) Family of circles cirumsn~ a triangle whose sides are given by
I ~
J, ;;
L, - 0 ; 1, - 0 & I, = 0 is given by ; 1,1, + 1.. 1,1, + I'I,L, - 0 •i ;;

provided ooeffident of xy - 0 & coefficient of x' - coefficient of If'. I i c

EL-____________ ~p __________________________ ~

~- ____ ~ ______________ ~E

77
76
 Mathematics Handbook Handbook

(II) When circle are apart from each other then C1C,>rl+r, 13. RADICAL AXIS OF THE lWO CIRCLES (S,- S2= 0) :
and in this case there will be four common tangents. Definition: The locus of a point, which moves in such a way that
Lines PQ and RS are called transverse or indirect or the length of tangents drawn from it to the circles are equal is called
internal common tangents and these lines meet line C 1C, the radical axis. If two circles are·
on T,and T, divides the line C1C, in the ratio r l : r, internally
P(h,k)
and lines AB & CD are called direct or external common
ta ngents. These lines meet C1C, produced on T,. Thus I ,
divides C1C, externally in the ratio r l : r,.

Note: Length of direct common tangent = J(CIC, )' - (rl - r,)'

Length of transverse common tangent - J(CIC, )' - (rl + r, )' Radical axis

12. THE ANGLE OF INTERSECTION OF lWO CIRCLES: 5 , " x' + y' + 2g,x + 2f, y + c, =0
Definition: The angle between the tangents of two circles at the 5 , " x' + y' + 2g,x + 2f, y + c, = 0
point of intersection of the two circles is called angle of intersection Then the equation of radical axis is given by S,- S2- 0
of two circles. Note:
(i) If two circles touches each other then common tangent is radical
axis.

! I J
l 1
1 I (ll) If two circles cuts each other then common chord is radical axis.

then cose
I I
l 1
~
Here r 1 and r, are the radii of the circles and d is the distance j 5 ,-5,=0
between their centres. j j
(iii) If two circles cuts third circle orthogonally then radical axis of
If the angle of. intersection of the two circles is a right angle then
such circles are called .. Orthogonal ctrctes" and conditions for
the circles to be orthogonal is
I
~
I
•
*
first two is locus of centre of third circle .
(Iv) The radical axis of the two circles is perpendicular to the line
joining the centre of two circles but not always pass through mid
2g,g, + 2f,f, - c,+ c, "i" i point of it.
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~- 78 __~E 79
Mathematics Handbook

p~ ~ ~ . ~J
14 . Radical centre :
The radical centre of three circles is the point from which length of
tangents on three circles are equal i.e. the point of intersection of
radical axis of the circles is the radical centre of the circles. 1. CONIC SECTIONS:
A conic section, or conic is the locus of a point which moves in a
Note:
plane so that its distance from a fixed point is in a constant ratio to
(i) The circle with centre as
its perpendicular distance from a fixed straight line.
radical centre and radius equal
to the length of tangent from (a) The fixed point is called the FOCUS.

radical centre to any of the (b) The fixed straight line is called the DIRECTRIX.
circle, will cut the three circles (c) The constant ratio is called the ECCENTRICITY denoted bye.
orthogonally. (d) The line passing through the focus & perpendicula r to the
(ii) If three circles are drawn on three sides of a triangle taking directrix is called the AXIS.
them as diameter then its orthocenter will be its radical centre . (e) A point of intersection of a conic with its axis is called a VERTEX.

2. GENERAL EQUATION OF A CONIC: FOCAL DIRECTRIX

PROPERlY:
The genera l equation of a conic with focus (p, q) & directrix
,. }.. Ix + my + n ~ 0 is :
(I' + m') [(x - p)' + (y - q)'] ~ e' (Ix + my + n)'
•
~

• ! "ax' + 2hxy + by' + 2gx + 2fy + c ~ 0

~ ~
l 1 3. DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN THE CONIC:

I i,!
The nature of the conic section depends upon the position of the
focus S w.r.t. the directrix & also upon the value of the eccentricity e.

,.,1
j Two different cases arise.
~
j Case (i) When the focus lies on the directrix :
1

· •
i 1
9
~
~
I

I
2
In this case 0 " abc + 2 fgh - af' - bg' - ch' ~ 0 & the general
equation of a conic represents a pair of straight lines and if :
e > 1, h' > ab the lines will be real & distinct intersecting at S .
e ~ 1 , h' ~ ab the lines will coincide nt .
e < 1, h' < ab the lines will be imaginary.
______________________________________
E
80 81
 . Handbook

(U) When the focus does not lie on the directrix :

Note that :
The conic represents:
(I) Perpendicular distance from focus on directrix = half the latus
. ~ , rectum.
e- 1;Q .. 0 O<e<l;O .. O 0 .. 0 ;e> l e>l ; O .. O (H) Vertex is middle point of the focus & the point of intersection of
h' - ab h' < ab h' > ab h' > ab ; a + b - 0 directrix & axis.
(lH) Two parabolas are said to be equal if they have latus rectum of
4. PARABOlA :
same length.
A parabola is the locus of a point which moves in a plane, such that
its distance from a fixed point (focus) is equal to its perpendicular 5. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION:
distance from a fixed straight line (directrix). The simplest & the best form of representing the co-ordinates of a
Standard equation of a parabola is y' - 4 ax. For this parabola : point on the parabola y' = 4ax is (at', 2at) . The equation x = at'
(i) Vertex is (0. 0) (H) Focus is (a, 0) & y = 2at together represents the parabola y' = 4ax , t being the
(IIi) Axis is Y- 0 (Iv) Directrix is x + a = 0 parameter.
(a) Focal distance :
6. lYPE OF PARABOLA :
The distance of a point on the parabola from the focus is called
Four standard forms of the parabola are y' = 4ax y' =-4ax
the FOCAL DISTANCE OF THE POINT.
x' = 4ay; x' = -4ay
(b) Focal chord:
A chord of the parabola, which passes through the focus is called
I! M
z y
Y Z
a FOCAL CHORD.
J
1/ L I'tx.y)

I"
(a.O)
(c) Double ordinate:
A chord of tl)e parabola perpendicular to the axis of the i x' T"
'" x x' x

i --, x-•
symmetry is called a DOUBLE ORDINATE with respect to axis z' Y' ..e: V Z'
as diameter.
(d) Latus rectum :
A focal chord perpendicular to the axis of parabola is called the
Ij y' - 4ax y' --4ax
y

I
ye.
LATUS RECTUM. For y' - 4ax. Z' a Z
(I) Length of the latus rectum - 4a. x' x
•
(H) Length of the semi latus rectum - 2a. ~ Z' Y--lI Z

(W) Ends of the latus rectuin are U a, 2a) & L'(a, - 2a )

________________ ________________ i l V
~ ~ ~E

l x' - 4ay x' - -4ay

82
-~ 83
 10. LENGTH OF SUBTANGENT & SUBNORMAL:
PT and PG are the 'tangent and normal
respectively at the point P to the
parabola y' = 4ax. Then
T
TN = length of subtangent = twice the
abscisaa of the point P
(Subtangent is always bisected by the vertex)
NG = length of subnormal which is constant for all points on the
parabola & equal to its semilatus rectum (2a).

7. POSITION OF A POINT RElATIVE TO A PARABOlA 11. TANGENT TO THE PARABOLA y' = 4ax :
The poinl ( XI' YI ) lies oUlside, on or inside Ihe parabola y' ~ 4ax (a) . Point form :
according as Ihe expression YI' - 4ax i is positive, zero or negative. Equation of tangent to the given parabola at its point (x " y,) is
8. CHORD JOINING lWO POINTS : YY, = 2a (x + x,)
The equation of a chord of Ihe parabola y' = 4ax joining ils two (b) Slope form :
poinls P(II) and Q(I,) is y(11 + I,) = 2x + 2al, I, Equation of tangent to the given parabola whose slope is 'm', is
Note: y = mx + ~ , (m " 0)
m
(I) If PQ is focal chord Ihen II t, ~ -l.

(I~ -~a) •~ Point of contact is ( ; , ' ~ )

9.
(Ii) Extremities of focal chord can be taken as (at', 2at) &

(iii) If tlt, = k then chord always passes a fixed point (-ka, 0).
,
I
J 1
~
I
(e) Parametric form :
Equation of tangent to the given parabola at its point P(t), is .
ty = x + at'
UNE & A PARABOlA : j 1
Note: Point of intersection of the tange nts at the point t, & t, is

I1
(a) The line y = mx + c meets the parabola y' = 4ax in two poinls
real, coincident or imaginary according as a >=< cm fat , t" a(t, + t, ll. (I.e. G.M. and A.M. of abscissae and
f ordinates of the points)
a
~
~ condition of tangency is, c - - .
m
Note: Line y = mx + c will be tangent to parabola
Ii i
j
12. NORMAL TO THE PARABOLA y' = 4ax :
(a) Point form :
x 2 = 4ay if c _ - am 2. • 1 Equation of normal to the given parabola at its point (x " y,) is
(h) Length of the chord intercepted by the parabolay2 = 4ax on
I g y - y, =- ~ (x - x,)
Ihe line y = mx + c is: (:2) Ja(l + m')(a- mc) .
Note: length of the focal chord making an angle a with the
x-axis is 4a cosec 2 a.
,
! (b) Slope form :
Equation of normal to the given parabola whose slope is 'm' , is
y = mx - 2am - am 3 foot of the nonnal is (am' , - 2am)
__________________________________
84 85
 Mathematics
Mathematics Handbook
This reduced to T = 5 I
(c) Parametric form : where T "YYI - 2a (x + XI) & 51" y/ - 4ax l ·
Equation of normal to the given parabola at its point p(t), is 16. DIAMETER:
Y + Ix - 2at + at'
Note:
--------.. The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords of a
Parabola is called a DIAMETER. Equation to the diameter of a
(i) ( Point of intersection of normals at tl & t, is; parabola is y = 2a/m, where m = slope of parallel chords.
(a(tl' + t,' + tIt, + 2), - at lt, (t l + t,)).
17. CONORMAL POINTS:
(ii) If the'l'iOr'inal to the parabola y' = 4ax at the point Foot of the normals of three concurrent normals are called conormals
tl' meets the parabola again at the point t" then point.
( 2~ (i) Algebraic sum of the slopes of three concurrent normals of
t, - -l tl + ~). parabola y' - 4ax is zero.
J (ill) If the normals to the parabola y' = 4ax at the points tl & (ii) Sum of ordinates of the three conormal paints on the parabola
,. t, intersect again on the parabola at the point 'f,' then y' = 4ax is zero .
!.h. = 2 ; t, - - (tl + t,) and the tine joining t l & t, passes •r (iii) Centroid of the triangle formed by three co-normal paints lies
-thr~ point Hta,0). ~
on the axis of parabola.
13. PAIR OF TANGENTS:
The equation of the pair of tangents which can be drawn from any
A If 2Zak2 < 4(h - 2a)3 satisfied then three real and distinct normal
are drawn from point (h, k) on parabola l= 4ax .
point p(x I ' YI) outside the parabola to the parabola y' - 4ax is
J~
given by : SSI - T', where : Jj !
(v) If three normals are drawn from point (h, 0) on parabola
l = 4ax, then h;> 2a and one of the normal is axis of the
S=y' -4ax't I
S "y'-4ax' T '" WI - 2a (x + XI)'
- l l '
1 ~ parabola and other two are equally inclined to the axis of the

i!
14. CHORD OF CONTACT :
Equation of the chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point
J ! parabola.

P(x l , YI) is YYI - 2a(x + XI) j 18. IMPORTANT HIGHUGlfTS :

(a) If the tangent & normal at
.J;~embr that the area of the triangle formed by the tangents from . j
any point 'P' of the parabola
" .the point (xl' Y ) & the chord of contact is (y~ - 4ax )312 . Also note J J
~IY 1
• intersect the axis at T & G K

I,!
I X
'4!:
,I/"
that the chord of contact exists only if the )§ 1,ot inside. po"", 2a ~
l-
then 5T - 5G = 5P where
'5' is the focus. In other
X' T

IS. CHORD WITH A GIVEN MIDDLE POINf : words the tangent and the x- - a y
Equation of the chord of the parabola y' - 4ax whose middle point
•
_
•i normal at
a point P on the parabola are the bisectors of the angle between
is (x I'Y I) is Y_Y I _ 2a(x_x l ). ; E~ ________________ ~ ________________ ~

YI I
~- ______________~E 87
Q£
 Mathematics Handbook
Handbook
the focal radius SP & the perpendicular from P on the directrix.
From this we conclude that all rays emanating from S will
become parallel to the axis of the parabola after reflection.
ew ~L ~ .,_ __ J
(b) The portion of a tangent to a parabola cut off between the 1. STANDARD EQUATION & DEFINITION
directrix & the curve subtends a right angle at the focus . Standard equation of an ellipse referred to its principal axis along
(e) The tangents at the extremities of a focal chord intersect at 2 2 .

right angles on the directrix, and a circle on any focal chord as the co-ordinate axis is x 2 + Y2 = 1 . where a > b & b' = a' (1 -e' )
a b
diameter touches the ~irectx. Also a circle on any focal radii => a' - b' = a' e' .
of a point P (at', 2at) as diameter touches the tangent at the where e = eccentricity (0 < e < 1 ).

vertex and intercepts a chord of length aJ1 + t 2 on a normal

at the point P.
(d) Any tangent to a parabola & the perpendicular on it from the O , ~b)
___---tB-'(__ PIx. } !
focus meet on the tangent at the vertex. X= _ ~ ' F - -----·-····jL, . "", . ~: .: :. " \j" _Y. .. __ ... ,:~ -q
(e) Semi latus rectum of the parabola y' ~4ax, is the harmonic
X,,+-_..;::e,+;-,-.",..,+,+;·.:";,-+4~ :X
mean between segments of any focal chord Z'j (- a.O) A' 5' :(-. •. 0) S:.ila<.OI A(a.O) ~ Z
. 2bc III )d ....
I.e. 2a ~- or -+- ~ - 'c:
-ui L,' L "~
-
b +c b c a "" B'(O,-b) ~
~ Image of the focus lies on diretrix with respect to any tangent of 61 B
parabola y' - 4ax. ~ Y'
! FOCI :S '" (ae, 0) & S' '" (- ae, 0 ).
1
i (a) Equation of directrices
1 a a

i
x= - & x= --,
e e
(b) Vertices :
1
~ A' '" (-a, 0) & A '" (a, 0 ).
j
(c) Major axis: The line segment A' A in which the foci S' & S lie

i ";;
:;
·,
is of le ngth 2a & is called the major axis (a > b) of the ellipse.
Point of intersection of major axis with directrix is called the

foot of the directrix (Z) (±;, 0),

i ~
~ ________________ ~ ________________ ~E
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 Mathematics Handbook

2. ANOTHER FORM OF ElliPSE:

....'? i. ~ ~E ! ~. . ....... !: ...y. : .~ !. ~ .........
(d) Minor AxIs : The y-axis intersects the ellipse in the points
B' ", (O,-b) & B ", (0, b) , The line segment B'B of length
2b (b < a) is called the Minor AxIs of the ellipse.
(e) Principal AxIs : The major & minor axis together are called
(a) AA' = Minor axis = 2a
(t. b.)
(b) BB' = Major axis = 2b
PrIncIpal AxIs of the ellipse. (-a,O) A' Ala.O)
x' ~:'="If-,o+.n (O "' , O) r-.p=~ x
(f) Centre: The point which bisects evel)l chord of the conic drawn (e) a 2 = b2 (1-e2j
through it is called the centre of the conic. C ", (0,0) the origin (d) Latus rectum

7x + lb2 = 1
2
is the centre of the ellipse . LL' = LI LI' = 2:2
B'(O,-b)

(g) Diameter: A chord of the conic which passes through the equation y = ± be
centre is called a diameter of the conic.
(e) Ends of the latus rectum are: '(

(h) Focal Chord: A chord which passes through a focus is called

a focal chord,
(I) Double Ordinate : A chord perpendicular to the major axis is
called a double ordinate with respect to major axis as diameter. (f) Equation of directrix y = ± ~.
i e
0) latus Rectum : The focal chord perpendicular to the major
1
axis is called the latus rectum. t )1 -::
(I) Length of latus rectum

-2b' = -'--,------,'-
(minor axis)' 2a(1-e')
i
J
!
i 3.
(g) Eccentricity : e =

GENERAL EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE:

~
(LL) ~
a major axis
J
I Let (a,b) be the focus 5, and Ix + my + n =

I
(Ii) Equation of latus rectum : X - ± ae.
j
(IU) Ends of the latus rectum are L ( ae, ~), L '( ae, - ~ ),
l Ois the equation of directrix, Let p(x,y) be
~-1M
P(X,y)

J any point on the elUpse, Then by definition. x

+
1 axis

(-ae,~ b') 'l-ae ( , -~ b

',r .
3
j 1 ~ SP - e PM (e Is the eccentricity) ~_'=!2-1 ,<
,+,
Il
~ S(a.b)

I
Ll and Ll
(Ix + my + n)2
~ (x - a) 2 + (y - b)2 = e 2 (12 + m2) o
(k) Focal radii: SP= a ~x and S 'P - a + ex
~ SP + S 'P = 2a = Major axis.
i I ~ (J2 + m2j {(x - a) 2 + (y - b)2) = e 2{/x + my + n)2
EL-________________~-
~-
(I) Eccentricity: e = ,,1 -~
['b2
__ ________________
~ ~E
i• 91
90
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
7. LINE AND AN ELLIPSE
4. POSITION OF A POINT W.R.T. AN ElliPSE:
The po int P(xl' Y,) lies outside, inside or on the ellipse according as
, , The line y = mx + e meets the ellipse :: + ~: = 1 in two real points,
coincident or imaginary according as c2 is < or> a 2m 2 + b 2 .
. ~+!'L- 2 l ><or=O • =
'a b2 , ,
Heneey = mx + eistangenttothe eUipse 2,+ Y, = 1 ife' = a' m' + b' .
5. AUXILUARY CIRCLE/ECCENTRIC ANGLE : a b
A circle described on major axis as y The equation to the chord of the ellipse joining two points with
Q
diameter is called the auxiliary eeeent·ne angIes a & f3"IS gIven by ~cos-2 x a +f3 +bYsm-
. a +f3 a --f3 ·
- = cos-
p 2 2
circle. Let Q be a point on the e 2 ,
A S' 0 :; S A
auxmary circle x' + y2 = a' such that h,OI (tI,O) 8. TANGENT TO THE EWPSE .;.. + y 2 = 1
a b
QP produced is perpendicular to the
(al Point form:
x-axis then P & Q are called as the
Equation of tangent to the given ellipse at its point (XI' YI ) is
CORRESPONDING POINTS on
XXI + YY I = 1
the ellipse & the auxiliary circle respectively . 'e' is called the
a' b'
ECCENTRIC ANGLE of the point P on the ellipse (0 :<;; 0 < 2,,). (h) Slope form :
Equation of ta ngent to the given ellipse whose slope is 'm', is
I(PN) b Semi minor axis
Nate t hat - - = - = -::-- -- - -
I(QN) a Semi major axis i! 1
• Y = rnx ± Ja 2 m2 + b2
Hence "If from each point of a circle perpendiculars a re drawn
1
" ~

~
.

upon a fixed diameter then the locus of the paints dividing these ~
i ,"
,
f

I
perpendiculars in a given ratio is an ellipse of which the given circle
(e) Parametric form:
is the auxiliary circle". ¥ Equation of tangent to t he given ellipse at its point
~
6. PARAMATRIC REPRESENTATION:
The equations x - a cos e & Y= b sin e together represent the !j <
~
~
xcos8 ysin8
(a cos 8 ,b sin 8), is - a- + - b-- =
.
1

] , 2

I•
x' y' ~ 9. NORMAL TO THE ELLIPSE x 2 + Y2 = 1
ellipse 7+ b' =1 <
b a
"c
where

Q( e) "
e is a parameter (eccentric angle).
Note that if P( e) " (a cos e, b sin e) is on the ellipse the n ;
(a cos e, a sin e) is on the aUXiliary circle.
<
;;
~
, $ (a) Point form : Equation of the normal to the given ellipse at

l' I
a ' x b2 y
(x y)is - - - =a'-b'= a'e 2
Xl YI .

~- __________~E E
92 93
 13. EQUATION dl' CHORD WITH MID POINT (xI ' YI) :
slope is 'm' is y _ mx + (a ' - b') m A..lOHH3.Q'lH x' 2
~a ' + b' m' The equation of the chord of the ellipse Ui + . ; = 1
a %
(c) Parametric form : Equation of the normal to the given ellipo;e '< t;"" ~Qslroi$ l P ~ il! ti h<! I ( ~J lI j>Hi l 'li", Sir o] 6 ,i 610d19Q'lH 9r1T
at the point (acosij , bsinij) is ax. secij-by. cosec ij -(a' - b' ). XX yy y2 . ([ < 9) x2
where T = - ' +-' - 1 S =--1.. +--1.. - 1
10. CHORD OF CONTACT : : (~j'ytOro"Il!H.? !lbIThU~)3 mJAOII!AT2 .1
II PA and PB be the tangents from point P(x 1'Y1) to the ellipse . ( xx' YY, ) ' (xi 'j 1) , y;
x' y'
-+- = 1 l.e · ( O , ~2 fra"l+b:T If '"O X /'

IMPOT~ r ~I\ G f S Ui r:F+ I ~: ~

a' b'
xx, + yy, =1 14.
then the equation of the chord 6f contact AB is a' b' or
T - 0 at (x 1'Y1) (I) The fa'hgenUGI or , halF.a point :;--- !O.d (0 .",,'

11. PAIR OR TANGENTS:

y P on the elli S;/ bise ti the B "0....,
extr;)~l ! 8<",i .!'e rnal a gle'§i .d 'll
II P(x 1'Y1) be any point
lies outside the ellipse
x' + -y'
- =1
+-~ c ~-x
between th9'1;Xal distanc s of
,/
P. This refers to the well own
reflection property of the ellipse
3I
X'+-H~¥",e.o:_ x

which stl' {~s !.atr ~ ~ ~NTJ:l,S'f . lt l \id ~r! Rimea" ~ l! 8I l ' ~ti;'a l
a' b' ~
and a pair of tangents PA. PB
Y'
} focus are ref.lectell through
can be drawn to it from P. ! other focus & vice-versa. U \SI; :' J...,"' V:d '.l~rVJ
Then the equation of pair of tangents of PA and PB is 55 1- T2 J (ll) Point of intersection of the tangents at the point a & P is

I
i-"" :t,IS & ' i,.J -~ --
I(<:'.-tf'---COS- fC/J b;;In . y(,! -t ~) ~.
-_.'{j__ + r ,- \~, ' ::'.i. "C":" ,
x' y' \~-) . ,~ J ~f, -")
where S, = --t
a
+ --t-1
b . ~l (8 co~
2
' ~ ' - ' B "~ c~s ~ '0

2 2
(lll) If A(a), B(P), ely) & D(S) are cononnal points then suin i 8P~elc nhi c
j angles is odd multiple ofn ,~ c a +iJ + y.q. S dt (2h't!1'),c

12. DIRECTOR CIRCLE:

Locus of the point of intersection of the tangents which meet at right
angles is called the Director ClrcIe. The equation to this locus is
I
!
•
(IV) If A(a), B(P), C(y) & 0(8) ar< ~.!9¥r

(V)
Le. a + II + y + 8
\ 5~ QR¥c~
eccentric angles is even multiple of rt .
= 2mr
The product of the length's of the perpendicular s ~ gments from the
Po

.'. ,."
S i Wp!~'.

f)
~
s ~\fl

y
of their

x' + y' - a' + b' i.e. a circle whose centre is the centre of the ellipse •"
;; foci on any tangent to the ellipse is b2 arid' lffesf.!ebM these
& whose radius is the length of the Une joining the ends of the major i perpendiculars lie on its auxiliary ~ircle. .>; (, ). c, c f\
L -_ _ ~

& minor axis. ________________________ ~E

94
 I
Mathematics Ha ndbook
Mathematics Handbook
(d) Latus rectum :
(i) Equation: x = ± ae
HYPERBOLA
" ) Le n g
(11 h 2 b' _ (Conjugate Axis) 2 2 (' 1)
t=-- =ae-
The Hyperbola is a conic whose eccentricity is greater than unity. a (Transverse Axis)
(e> 1). = 2e(distance from focus to directrix)
1. STANDARD EQUATION & DEFlNlTION(S) :
y
(iii) Ends: (ae, ~), (ae, -:') ; ( -ae, bJ ( - ae, _:2)
a a
x=--e x =+e-
(e) (i) Transverse Axis :
B l 2
x '" (ae , b / a) The line segment A' A of length 2a in which the foci 5' & 5
(0. b)
both lie is called the Transverse Axis of the Hyperbola.
5' A' A 5 (ii) Conjugate AxIs :
x
c (0,0) (a. 0) (ae.O)
The line segment 8'8 between the two points B' '" (0, - b) &
(O,-b) B' 8 '" (0, b) is called as the Conjugate Axis of the Hyperbola.
(ae, - b'/a)
l' The Transverse Axis & the Conjugate Axis of the hyperbola
are together called the Principal axis of the hyperbola.
(f) Focal Property:
x2 y2 'i. The difference of the focal distances of any point on the
Standard equation of the hype rbola is --. - --. = 1 ,

i
a b } hyperbola is constant and equal to transverse axis i.e.
~
where b' = a ' (e' - 1)
i ,
! liP 51 - IP 5 'I I ; 2a. The distance 55' = focal length.

.,
1.e . e ~
b'
1 +- 2 = 1 +
( Conjuga te AXiS )'
. i ,,
~
(g) Focal distance :
Distance of any point PIx, y) on hyperbola from foci PS - ex - a

I,
a Transverse Axts

(a) Foci: •~~ 2,

& P5' = ex+ a.
CONJUGATE HYPERBOLA:
S =(ae . 0) & S' =(- ae, 0). 1 I

(b) Equations of directrices :

I
!
i Two hyperbolas such that transverse & conjugate axis of one hyperbola
are respectively the conjugate & the transverse axis of the other are
1
I
a a x' y'
X= - & x = -- .
~ called Conjugate Hyperbolas of each other. ego 2 - 2 ; 1 &
C e ~ a b
"• x' y'
(c) Vertices :
;;• •~
- - 2 + - ; 1 are conjugate hyperbolas of each other,
a b'

~-
A =(a, 0)&
______
A' " (- a , 0).
~ ________________ ~E
i E
97
96
 .' .\ ~
j. ' •
- ---
Note that: : m ul~9 ' ~lJ tGJ (b)
(I) If e, & e, are the eccentriciti\!,'lp l. th El. hyo~& ~ conjugate 2; , /II,] d , 8 ::is] 6) In.io q ,riJ J6 6Io,h9 q ~ d
then -' + ~ - ' ~ 1. The equations x = a sec 0 &. Y = b tim e together represents the
\' 1 ~ , . 2( ~ix A 916eUtOOJJ ~d ~ . 2 2 O (!f,j I ~ (1 :>9 2 "':
(ii) (the'tOeiXlf=a }\=rhnla
liY 7\ 9~1
- al\r
9 1J? [ T f.>1
1! g c ~oniU:(jat
J n
e~\! l5hW!A: and form hyperbola :' - ~ , = 1 where e' it apari1et, - - ~ - --
the vertice, 0 a SQuare, " e[ sO .-2. ,0 16 21n!.lHrtGJ ~r! J 10 n OilJ9219 1ni 10 !moCT ' : 9ioYl
(x h b 9 1.1D 01 ~ u :)b i rno 11 9 J rt 6 fl fbb S: =
, (iii) Two hy? ~;. b o las f re ,sai9 to be (iplilar if they have the same 5. POSITION OF A POI~ 'P' w.r.t. A ( ~;Yf,:!OlA :
,,J-
I ~.- e;~n IDl"'lty
,",". ,<) : I
II d - .9h \I. ~- d . <)1; I . (! u' ll.:J
'\ -
~ ("') JII
x 2 ( _ '~ ,;': _ 3 .5! InsJ d =~. c-_ ~ I _-
__ '" ~ x
't ~ 1 ' 6 6 I B )
The quantity -1-'
a
- ~b'; = 1 is positive I :/~t<!
~ S
: I'~r&f?lative
.I
according
3. RECTANGUlAR OR EQUIlAft!R!ir." Hh Lifu&N\
as the pOint' 4-"" ~Y lies within , upon or outside the curve,
2 J6 ' ~a'fIldn ~ 1\Iil ~ ~rMte.fh l.,( iIc!\ l H ~1en tilf' s l d i the transverse : 1 = -- - - - -- AJOIDI3QYll 3HT OT JAtJlJlOll'! ,8
6. LINE AND 'fA. HWERBOlA :
61 , Y I & nj ~lIiU!a\ '!- :axl~.fr@ < ~ 1 ;! T c§n'ed b l\sa cq~: Hyperbola,
dod19Wh<\ SItl!h~je-y Jor fl.()~ ~s li> s@Otil1:a~eW,ud
Note that the eccentricity of the re~ ~ MilJ2 and the
J3 (d IJ /lgu; Eb n N ( IatBS' 'j! efiI R { \~ 'bl I I'S t fi R' S& ~ o P! ~ njugate axis,
, ' 9 '6 \l1~.'yparjJQ;! lI-! .:- ~! = b ~'iRfC\.9 , ~ :< ~'I?t iCt6 ~'l/!;2 - b'_
Iii ~x
r' i ' ) rI ' " ~ ' JI1 " dl k dx l\ ofbPlilnOJ 9rit at; h ~ Ir,J?i ; d ,0) ,8 2 ,
4. A' Y CIRCLE,,: • l' !'I' r19v;g ~1i!: OJJ>ru-drwrtJie, 1lIJ)U'bpj~ ' ,. ~ ~c;oli!n(JI)ts two
d o('ll XYVii <;r!i (I ?IX! , ~ 1z J Pu
! . mk.J srH .:S 2( 1", 1\ 92 1 ~ )\f?nj ( 9f t' t- a b
C'd + ' b)m
9f6 16 p'61Ra Pflxj~Q( 8<
I -a
f =c
fI' -
o S -: ~ 4
~,1( 2
1l<~ y ' ~ in
b
2 ix -IS ! Il ( ~,!:
2
'6~rtL + fl
2
(1)

(n e, Glod 19Qx,I
;? ql i
: 9:)fI6J?ib 16Jo'1 (Il)
' 't'''4-'-" ""(! .~ .xfl to,\: 1 y/16 to 9:":1flt.i12iO

.to y.!..o ='" '2Q ~

: AJQ3H3QYH 3TAaULI10::-J .!;
A circle drawn with centre- C -& transverse axis as a diameter
,: ,:, ' I F c ~ l ed 't-Wl! A'tlXillilr/' · cjntli "' o i r { ~ e 1 1iyp ~ r Qj la .r fq~ t \ ~n of
~' . _ 1 ;.:{ 1,~ .,!. 1'1' ;'>;'; '~ " l l .' 'n! ,!' ~ I 2 2"'h..; )I ¥ !;U~.· ..,;{ ' \:"'L"· 1.:J<J?:....1 ':I1L·
tlle aUl(! mry eIre e IS x + Y ~ a ,

" j N~ \e from the figure that , \>' 8<' ~can. ~l:r Jthe Ii ~ €O~I!sldng
P~ints ,; on the hyperbola & the auxiUary circle: '6' is· ,called the
ecntr P'~ hg 1e L' ( ,t 't/t'J"Pdiflf ~ ~K l t l\ l l\ yp k rbola , (0 ,,;;.e < 2 " ),
Mathematics Handbook
(c) Parametric form : Equation of the tangent to the given
, Mathematics Handbook
If b' > a', the radius of the circle is imaginary, so that there is
no such circle & so no tangents at right angle can be drawn to
hyperbola at the point (a sec a , b tan a) is
the curve.
x seca _ y tan a = 1 10. CHORD OF CONTACT :
a b If PA and PB be the tangents from point P(x!,y!) to the Hyperbola
Note :. Point of intersection of the tangents at a 1 & a, is
x' y'
2" - 2" = I, then the equation of the chord of contact AB is
cos (~ 2 ) a , +a2) a b
x=a (9.9)' y=btan ( - 2 -
xx, yy, 1 T 0 (
cos ? -;;-;-- b' = or = at x! 'Yl )
, ,
8. NORMAL TO THE HYPERBOLA :' - ~, =1 : 11. PAIR OR TANGENTS:
(a) Point form: Equation of the normal to the given hyperbola
, ,
If P(x! ,y!) be any point lies outside the Hyperbola ; - ; - = 1 and
. . a 2x b2y 2 , a b
at the point P (X I' YI) on It IS - - + - - = a + b = a'e'. a pair of tangents PA, PBcan be drawn to it from P. Then the equation
XI YI of pair of tangents of PA and PB is 55 1= T2
(b) Slope form: The equation of normal of slope m to the given x' y' T = xx, _ yy, _ 1
where 5 =-' - -'-1
, a' b' a' b'
foot of normal are
ie (x'
.. a'
-.i-I)
b'
( xi _yi _ l ) = (XX, _yY'_ l )'
a' b' a' b'
a' mb' )
( ± J(a' _ m' b' ) , =F J(a' _ m'b' )
J J
~
12. EQUATION OF CHORD WITH MID POINT (XI'Yl) :

l l x' y'
The equation of the chord of the ellipse 2" - 2" = 1 ,
(c) Parametric form :The equation of the normal at the point I
I a b
P (a sec a , b tan a) to the given hyperbola is
1 l whose mid-point be (x 1'Yl) is T = 51
, ,

9.
~+=a
see a
DIRECTOR CIRCLE :
tana
2 +b2 a'e'.
I
I
I
~
i
" where T = xx, _ yy, - 1 , 5, = ~

i.e. (xx' _ yy,

a' b'

-1) = (xi _ yi
a'

-1)
_ YL - 1
b'

j
The locus of the intersection of tangents which are at right I 1j a' b' a' b'
angles is known as the Director Circle of the hyperbola. The 1 i 13. ASYMPTOTES:
~
equation to the director circle is: x' + y' = a' - b'.
If b' < a' this circle is real; if b' = a' the radius of the circle ~
"J
;.
~
Definition : If the length of the perpendicular let fall from a
point on a hyperbola to a straight line tends to zero as the point
is zero & it reduces to a point circle at the origin. In this case " • on the hyperbola moves to infinity along the hyperbola , then the
the centre is the only point from which the tangents at right i;; E~
1 straight line is called the Asymptote of the Hyperbola .
______________________________________ ~

angles can be drawn to the curve.

L -__________________________________ ~E

101
100
 .... \. ~:;F T ­ •
~
-- ----
2i Sl9rit J6riJ 02 .'[I6niQ6mi oi abm sri! 10 2U1b61 9riJ ~ ' fj <'d H I r--" ,= .... _. - } ' 91oYi

ot r1W6-1b°1RPW&9 ~l!fi\qRP.1
X2 y2
~rml'!PbIYRwti JW rtVoJ
.9'flU) ~ d t
will be
~6 b1l6 ) l i 'fnl i In<ik ,'C>o
L" 7STr[.)Z PslFlw.-(esH
orFlJJNliJTIONb 10 Iri;Tl"n~
8 "; 1 !"f'04 ~ Ji'l1-+
q 1\ (i)
' 'fl ~1 ' t bl'O
l~ ,; ,AIi'13JlF~\)j : ' i? ,WO iiJnr!l Ir;irrrcrrvloq 0wl '''6 9ndT (ii)
a2 - b2 = 0 : T3ATVl03 '10 <IHOH3 .OJ
If to every value . (oflsi:hrd~'"a · 'ikls"thr*><)aed of a
d ~,t. .Jq WfQ'M~V. ~ gn 6 1 srit sd 8q brM Aq l!
variable x, which belongs to a sElll fl, !;hew £CVJf , ~sp one and
Rectangular hyperbola referred to its . 'x
<oi 8,11, ~i ba~ ri axrg l :bt o caot~ s?ri J (lsril ..t = -. - S- only,g~ lJ j lir~\$ r ~ /IW, p,f tfl1 q,~flti)Y . ¥ x w _ hi~'p!,g tMet B, then
6
y is said to be a fllnction! 01 x and written as f : A -d~& ' lJ)= f(x) ,
(a) Equation is xy = c' with parametric rr c! not. :)fTUI 16 H no n ~,o q G 10 fH6rn oO In
representation x = c~l WI l<') ~ilO t, T ';;:rt=.;1'i!~ ? ':" x x is called argument or independent variable and y is called. IjlJ?!!ndent
n6 10 9 DClGl 269'19riw H ei 15 ilT on~ r oq "91B"b blx. 10 genG}1 \vi)
E R- {OJ. vanaDe. l
.n 19\19([ 2i [6 jmon~!q 9 91~s b fi;)VD

Pictorially: ~ [j] f(xl.=Jb il·.nul :>i61d9glJ\ (d)

"d nG O H Ii no iJor: !nP:\1\s'rd9gI G r @~ms o li '1' noi!:)[1,,1 A
. rro ili!ybis mllilcl; theIimli!l'!''4>t '" & O IJ St; tbe i pt e ~fI'age; ?<lIo 9 , under f.
8r:in 6EIi<llY iltlr\c!lt!i!lrsf !inA , u» conditions, i Bvi;/at~flwI J l'I!;[owing
. , ,

(i) f c A x B (ii) Va E A 3 b e'l'l'SlIcnr'that(a; b) E land

: (loib fl ul l"no ' 1 (J)
(iii) If (a, b) E f & (a, c) E f =:> b = c

~
(xl£ -<~ ' l._ .J ....<-le. . l.~
0;:);1 DUMAIN ,'t!U-VUMAllf'&'-'KAI'IGI!'i('jf:'!A"l'tlr'll.; I'ION :
......c... . " ... .
t
f,:
!~ Let f : PI)...,. B) r thl!ri~n91oA cjS'> kfl6WI i\; (ilie dVlrl..ln of 'f' &
~ i
1 the set B is known as co-d6w J rtldo i 1}:-'he !~f'8g f images
15. IMPORTAN"f HIGHLIGHTS . ~
, [ = S- - -,;- 92qilfs- ;;rTI 10 blOfb srll 10 nOii6Ups 9riT 1-. i noi 1081' l er~filt G or LAY l \f' 'liIf5W~
'li ~qi & 1Wi Iff<fi Ifti¥&"
(I) The tangent aild n ~'lm al ~2"Yrc . ~r 9 WifT~6rl? 8~ tbe angle if,.: i 0 ' nOf'hnu'l ,, !'mrlth6{!\>.( bf~G
amam 0 t = {x X E A, \X, tlX)J en
Ui il n9no q l<3 (b)

l
l:

between the focal radii. • . , n6 b9116) 2i ill' ~ x ( r , 5 ,(0 < ~ )'" ." IxH nuit],lu) A
r _ J..'{ ..
J _ .!':!.'{ _ .1xX = T 919r1w " ;x = 2
l'
Range 0 I = fix). I x E A ,
rro1bnul 15ltfmnoqx9 ~ : u l i to !:12.19'Jni 9dl .rtOu J rJul16 itn Gfioqx9
fi~) E B)
(ii) Reflection property'W ttH!;hyperoola M ..n inq;,ming light ray aimed ~
I: Range I's ~ subset of c~omain, . '.
towa rds one focus is refleated f ~ m ~'l:.u,er s~ce ~,1 he hyperbola f ;,:' .x,,:,1.?f) :.- \X ,IQ .9 .f ,no J1Jf1u t :Jlrrr rl Jn6p'ol 'Hit b':J!b ') 2.f

towards the other focus. l, r - "d -'~) "ll_. sd ' - s;;-) . 9.1 ~ ~. '. 3i q6" fJ\tP(!)R'~ It¥PEs~F v flUNdrt0i (y)116dl 910\11
l
6 mOll 1161 191 16IUJibnsql9C[ srl t 10 rilQf1sl srit 11 : noilinihO
.lnioq srit 26019S 01 2b09t 90il tri[!i61t2 6 01 6 1 0(h9q~ri
ili I' <,
~
, " d ! o (i~cpIa'l"f1!t\OW
If a function 'f' is called by f(lI) ", a\9<"'
+ an-I x -f II\, "'bersH is a non ncl!JatiJe intl!gea1cR\~'
r +iIa~
; : 2n () i h nl : l) .rrworl2 26 9 1G

I ¥'lI~\in -2 + ..... .
a 2,··· .a n
sdJ 09r1J ,610d19q"d snt gnol6 ,<Iinilni 01 ?'9vom 6I od'i9 q~ri sril no
6 no If/ioq o·
~
2-;
f;
1 are real mli)1~ a o " eH~f:i , t ~;HlIE!daJi>ynf function
.S(Od19q"H s dt lo 9toiqmlli!A srit b911J5:l 2; 9nil trigi",l" S~ ____~ofdern ' =~- '= _ ~ _ =- _ =d
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~-=d Mj
fen
Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook

Note:
(i) A polynomial of degree one with no constant term is called an ....•...
odd linear function. i.e. fIx) - ax, a " 0 10,1 • ••••••;::) .. 0. •. '" 10(0. 1)
f(xl= a', a>1
(ij) There are two polynomial functions, satisfying the relation; !. '
ILO) ( LO)
fIx). f(l/x) - fIx) + f(l/x). They are:
(a) fIx) - x" + 1 & g(x) .. lcg.x

(b) f(x) - 1 - x", where n is a positive integer.

(iii) Domain of a polynomial furiction is R
(iv) Range of odd degree polynomial is R whereas range of an (e) Absolute value function : y
y.. - x y- x
even degree polynomial is never R. It is defined as : y = I x I
(b) Algebraic function :
if X;,O
A function 'f' is called an algebraic function if it can be if x<0
-~ o ~-+ x
constructed using algebraic operations (such as addition ,
Also defined as maxlx, - xl
subtraction, multiplication, division , and taking radicals) starting
Domain R Range : [0 , 00)
with polynomials.
(c) Rational function : 1
Note: f(x)=W Domain R-IOI Range: R+
g(x) , Properties of modulus function :
A rational function is a function of the form y - fIx) - h(x) ,
where g(x) & h(x) are polynomials & h(x) " 0,
}
!
I! For any x, y, a E R.
(i) I x I ;, 0 (ii) Ixl = I-xl
Domain: R-Ix I h(x)-O) ] J
j j
I~ I ~
Any rational function is automatically an algebraic function.
(d) Exponential and Logarithmic Function :
A function fIx) - aX(a > 0), a " I, x E R is called an
exponential function. The inverse of the exponential function
;,
1 I
(iii)

(v)
I xy I Ix I Iyl

Ix l =a=>x-±a
(iv)

(vi) ,fx2 = Ixl

= : : ; b .. 0

~ ~ (vii) I x I ;, a => x ~ a or x ,;; -a, where a is positive,

is called the logarithmic function , i.e. g(x)- log,x.
j 1
i,"
Note that fIx) & g(x) are inverse of each other & their graphs (viii) I x I ,;; a => x [-a , aI, where a is positive

i
E

are as shown. (Functions are mirror image of each other (ix) I x I > I y I => x' > y'
about the line y - x) ,~ ,
Domain of aX is R Range R+ ,
~ Ix} iIxI - lyll ,;; Ixl+ IYI = {(a)1 x I + I y 1=1 x + y I =>
(b)lx l+ lyl=lx -y l =>
xy ;, 0
xy S 0
Domain o f log,x is R + Range R ~ E~ __________________________________ ~

L -____________________________________ E
104 105
 1 : ulo;hn u l ~il 19( Cn o!lhT (,1)
y Note: f(x) ~
(f) Signum f't'?ctlon ' <. y- 1 Ix) nt? = \y)l fJori":>(Jul s clic. (ij
Signum fuhl tio = sgn r<O<!m1M1I .if ~ l -il O, 9 ~h Gfl Range ::c:IJI<IrK*I.!. , n E 1- 1011
! I.())'l ifiS , ~ , ~! h~ , qI !I . S~ lIows n
(h) Fractional pa'tt"'filritMh :: noihclIIl " "im:) (ii)
~-: ix ? ~: , ; , { ~ ~: = 0
....
'" >it Is loehn\;id . jis}:: g\!!puR Ix} ~ )X :-ctJx;P'<lC!I.
I '" y
x 1x1 6t
',,,1.(,,',, O.x = ~ -1 ',~ x<0 ~ .)1 : no it){Jul t",,!!c:sT (iii)
Domain : R " r-~ ~ -i
d ·1 J:. + n I :
y
. g •• ph al y - 1,1
J( gO!o. Ilf\j2 [- 2,- I f,· n ~ ~ - -! -~· > :I."r- 5"1 : nl'GffiO{J
I ----- . _._ . . - - -_._.
Range: I- I, 0 , 11
[-1 ,0) x+1
(g) G test Integer or s~tulo.dA (9)
x'" x- -< )xI ~ !l : ~p b9nil 9b 2i Ji [0 ,1): Sex] '" (x)
.. Th funcl' n y = fix) = [xl is called the greatest integer
,(1 ,2) I\i'.,.r ,ne ~ x I xl - H n ibflroO
where '[xl denoteg f14 grJ~tes /htt' 9'l£ less than
0 >x li x- r. " " () !1~a . (J . I -) - H : 91!cmfl
x _ -.,.,...*"."n-.,.,...".-,,Note that for : Domain : R
x )92 -=
. Range: 10,1,1
r.;,n : noibnu
P!,riod : 1
.1(1 6:>92 {v)
Ix- ,xlx6m 26 b9rtil9b oe lA
y
II ) (, . ~\ 1' {l -;. (~) = 'i.l x} - H ; fri6f lto(J
ni6~ ofY- lx l 3
Note : I(x)~ N ]"s. D [ .mJ'~ n l f ~ "l 1_ HR ~ 1!;~ 11 . GO)

Ixi 1 ........ i
ni6moO .!.. =( r: 9to~ (i) Identity function :
Y, tfD '-' (A)i : no ibftut l n ~wu}:r{) :) (y
-,-[0..:.,1":')+_0_-1: noU:mul.ulubom I • 'in9: 0..4 If"", f{ .r: ~ :: >" 1zl -, ';J ! ni MtflOO
1- -2 _ 1 x The lunction I : A --> A de l l n ~ cj " .
[1 ,2) 1 i " ,~ , x ',fl6 10- by I(x) ~ x 'V x E A is called the' . '·1
: -1 x
I x- I ~ ! x I (ii) i 0 $ Ix l (I)
Domain: R L- -2 ,
identity lunctionnm,t.A·,M-lcli'ls9l1l {Jogh'!' 'M 'I "
(.'/

mng4, ; ii-f ~ I ~ , (vi) I~ I Ix -6 I ~x I (iii) "

"
I, .'
denoted by I .
9t~n
0) Constant function :
(;:~ ~ ! 1-1: f'J!,6 'llf}oQ .. (,1 \,;-: ', 1,
Y
.'
I"

Propetl\~ ohre"test Inte!ler functlon: I '

.'
1- ,!I . ~ f14 ~l. H ~: 1-1: o h.. moct t ~.J') i:;)l (i i!
y=c
IXI::: ;'xv ltV} 6 :t - X c G = I X 1 Vj
I : A -+ B is said to be constant
(i) [xl" x < [xl + 1 and x-I < [xl " x, 0 ,; x - [xl < 1 1\!l)€U9Fl il every ;e l e~ AlP Qt J A '., 0
x
. 9v: H~ 0q 2i 5 919 dw .6-- ~ X 10 6 S X c::: 6 .5 I X I (iiv)
,} h !)~ ., \h~
same I im9!le m , ~ . ;Qlu s , ;. 1 ,--;\ '.
(ii) Ix + yP>!iJ !\~+ }I>'), 91Slll1 +rl¥1t'
_ 0! ~ II <= 6 ~ ! x I liliV) I : A --> B ; f(x) - c, 'V x E A.
11xl + [yl + 1 {xl + r~ l < E , I}. ~ I ~ I < I x I Ixi) ¢ '" <BJls conslant f unctltsri!'" q ,< ,'j'

l1h,"WtI<l 'F
O~\{X <=
(ljil +£ J,-Q", l"t'l' 1 1(6)
1\{ -x J.,t~ i x,.H I(d)J
t = I! ~I + Ixl " 11'/ -!xii I"
(x) Domain: R
~ {~ 'H"h j'
Range., : Ie}
H I I ' (I,, ' (r ;.: : ' xi~ i!\
,

"
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
4. EQUAL OR IDENTICAL FUNCTION :
(1<) Trigonometric functions :
Two function f & g are said to be equal if :
(I) Sine function : f(x) = sin x
(a) The domain o f f = the domain of 9
Domain : R Range : 1-1 , 11, period 2"
(b) The range of f = ran ge. of g and
(ii) Cosine function : f(x) = cos x
(c) f(x) = g (x), for every x belonging to their common domain
Domain: R Range: [-1, 11, period 2" (i.e. should have the same graph)
(iii) Tangent function : f(x) - tan x
5. ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS:
Domain: R -{ x I x = (2n; 1)" ,n EI} If f & 9 are real valued functions o f x with domain set A, B
respectively, f + g , f - g, (f . g) & (fig) as follows:
Range : R, period "
(Iv) Cosecant function : f(x) = cosec x (a) (f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x) domain in each case is A " B

Domain : R - Ixlx = n" , n EI) (b) (I.g)(x) = f(x).g(x) domain is A " B

H, 1), period 2n
Range : R -
(v) Secant function : fIx) = sec x
(c) (i.)
g
(x) = ~ g(x) domain A " B - {x I g(x) = OJ

Domain : R - Ix I x (2n + 1) 1I/2 : n

= E I} 6. CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS :
Range: R -'- I- I, I ), period 2"
(a) One-One function (Injective mapping) :
(vi) Cotangent function: fIx) = cot x t
~ A fun ction f : A ---> B is said to be a one-one function or
Domain : R - Ix Ix = nn, n EI) • injective mapping if different e le ments of A have different
Range : R, period " •l f images in B. Thus for Xl' x 2 E A & f(x 1)' f(x2) E B, l(x1) = f(x2)
(I) Inverse Trigonometric function :
1 e:> Xl = X2 or x\ " '2 c:> l(x 1) " l(x 2)·
, Note:
(i) f(x) = sin-I x Domain : [-I , 11 Range : [""l
-2"'2"J iI (i) Any continuous functi on which is entirely increa sing
or dec reasing in whole domain is one-one.
(ii) f(x) = COS-I X Domain : H, 11 Range: [0 , "I
l (ii) [f a lunction is one-or.e, any line parallel to x-axis cuts the
( - ~,) I
I
(iii) f(x) - tan-I x Domain: R graph of the function at "tmost one point
Range:
(iv) f(x) = coe l x Domain: R Range: (0, ,,) (b) Many-one function:
1 A function f : A ---> B is said to he a many one lunction if
(v) f(x)= cosec-Ix Domain: R -{-I)) Range =[-~,]{ O) two or more e lements of A have t he same f image in B.

Thus f : A ---> B is many one if 3 x\' x2

= sec-I x Domain : R - (-1.1) Range : [O,nl- {~}
, E A , f:x \) = f(x 2)
(vi) f(x) but Xl " x?
EL-________________~-
109
108
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 ., •
.' ~ Mathematics Handbook
~=:I
~ ~ -

Properties of composite functions:

tm o lirx'_antJS . ·'~ ; r~WI* ' ~j ) ~IMce. (a) In general composite 01 lunctions is not commutative i.e.
Total num~ ~<b frunetlc!is> ,i t = 1 10 ni6 mob griT (6) gof '" fog.
(b) The composite 01 functions is associative i.e. il I, g, h are three
- number of dJne.~1!" fun~\i.<OSl +- ntlrme "G j ( many;6fi«/l)ct o n lunctions such that lo(go h) & (Iog)oh are de li ned, then
(1i6 m c(b) n QntClJfucior(~!'ed) '1 19'J 9 101 .(xl B = (xii (3) lo(goh) = (Iog)oh.
If range = c MR,lt~ n ~'li n 'tiki I1 ' J 8fl ~!t cl uorl2 .9i) . (c) The composite of two bijections is a bijection i.e. il I & g are
two bijections such that gol is defined, then gol is also a bijection.
(<I) Inio 2 W1.'6~Jl P~ lI!O 2l1!OITAIElQO :::JIMlH3C>JA .C
(d) If gol is one-one lunction then I is one-one but g may not be
8 .A 192 f i ~ (p ~ b ~ ti ~ i ~ ~l c f{'ti bt'1i\ k~lti t ~'h\J e a'Sf df. eZ elkJ\nt in one-one.
cci-dliiflMIfl (l)h i ~ lk ifulflhJ)irllage oP-afiy \eillin'&iil'lll"aomain,
l
8. HOMOGENEOUS FUNCTIONS:
8 ~ 1)I? 'l: i f1lJ ( j § WJf;li) ni ni6mob (x)t! ± Ix) ~ (x)(e :!: l) (6)
A function is said to be homogeneous with respect to any set of
Note: i1 ' /\ '" n,s[f1ob (x\e.(x)1 = Ixll!) Ii (d) variables when each of its te rms is of the same degree with respect
(i) If 'f' is both injective & surjective, thenN is called a Bijective to those variables.
(0 mMiPing ..- lIbe> bij.eOt, V2') f.uncti oK~ il" i,a( s ~ )n411i1ed as For examples 5x 2 + 3y2 - xy is homogenous in x & y. Symbolically
invertible, non singular or biuniforrt( t8nctionsf! ii, I(tx , ty) = t n f(x, y), then I(x, y) is homogeneous function of
(H) If a set 'A<'&liltJili klHI~ i .we~frlJ;\'t , tMi1H~l),J;r ber d degree n.
: di!l l't\49fiJ;)H:sw liwf Jb~l' it §h~Il;' o~ l' f it n! 9. BOUNDED FUNCTION:
are one one and rest are many one.
'Yo ryoilJelut 9flO -u n·') Ij 3d O J b i62 21 8 (- /.., . r noihi1u 1 A J A function is said to be bounded if I f(x) I ,;; M, where M is a finite
, ,~ , ,tM) s ,(lffl f ,: g 2t - :! ~ ~l9 lJC1~ ~ ; Qniq06m 9V"')9,";
! quantity.
I,xi\'~ Itx)} ,H la )( ~ 0f. ~veh{ degr , t~en it wlll' miither ,be injective nor 1

I
surje¢!iv)!. -\ i.jxH <.-. s X' £70 to ~x =- 1'<: ~.; 10. IMPUCIT & EXPUCIT FUNCTION:
(b) Of odd degree , then it will always belslJl'jective, no A function defined by an equation not solved for the dependent variable
. ,31 .Ih ~ oeneral commentr :>rm carl l be gl'yen on its iniect'vlty .
.; !n r ~fj!lr)nt ~! ~ :. 1")lj1\." (~o' ~,' ~01 11·:<:) '...'11''\ , ; J is called an implicit function. e.g. the equation x3 + y3 = 1 defines
7. COMPOSITE I (j)F " UNIFORMi.~ ·~ ' 'NO- ' UNIFORMLY
~ y as an implicit function. If y has been expressed in terms of x alone
<) l' ?ILDEFINE·D mNrrnal't':b . ·la~).1 , <" rlL! Yl ,t f t {Ii) ~ then it is called an Explicit function.
Let f : A -+'gii,' t.::, bJ ' ~ ' 'fut; ' ctl;ri~. d:B C Th~ ' tli~ function gof : I 11. INVERSE OF A FUNCTION:
A -+ C defined by (gof) (x) - glf{xlfiJ'!cl,? 1 ' 18j 1tgj ' fi'.r ~B rlBhsi te of
!"., :tbe.twoJunctiQosf, &9" t! It,;: If tl. '\ d,' <-1 .. ) I
I!; Let f: A -> B be a one-one & onto function, then their exists
~c a unique function g : B -> A such that I(x) = y <0> g(y) = x,
h ," Hli\ ~ in 'gof{x) 'ihe r'an'M'o h' mOst ~ r subset oi 'the domain
~ V X E A & y E B. Then g is said to be inverse 01 f.
X)I oi 'g' . .I x ~ g(Ji) / ' ," i Thus g = 1-1 : B -> A = Hf(x), xl) I (x, f (xl) E f)
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Mathematic5 Handbook Mathematics Handbook

Properties of Inverse function : Note:

(a) The inverse 01 a bijection is unique. (I) A function may neither be odd nor even.
(b) II I : A --> B is a bijection & g : B --> A is the inverse 01 I, then (II) Inverse of an even function is not defined, as it is many-one
log - Is and gol - IA; where IA & Is are identity lunctlons on function.
the sets A & B respectively. If 101 = I, then I is inverse 01 itself.
(iii) Every even function is symmetric about the y-axis & every
(c) The inverse 01 a bijection is also a bijection.
odd function is symmetric about the origin .
(d) II I & g are two bijections I : A --> B, g : B --> C & gol exist, then
(Iv) Every function which has '-x' in it's domain whenever 'x' is
the inverse 01 gol also exists and (gof}-I = I-log-I.
in it's domain, can be expressed as the sum of an even &
(e) Since f(a) - b il and only il I-I (b) = a, the point (a, b) is on the graph
an odd function.
01 'f' il and only il the point (b, a) is on the graph 01 I-I. But we
get the point (b, a) lrom (a, b) by reflecting about the line y = x. fix) + f(-x) fix) - f(-x)
e.g. f()
x = 2 +
y I 1 2
ODD
·;X~ ' ·) .,/
EVEN

:' ~/ (v) The only function which is defined on the entire number line &
i../ ...... :1•. b) even and odd at the same time is fix) = 0
0 ..·;····· . -1~f+ x
x
(vi) If fix) and g(x) both are even or both are odd then the function
fix) . g(x). will be even but if anyone of them is odd & other is

y- flx)
y
J
~
i
~
even, then I.g will be odd.

! I 13_ PERIODIC FUNCTION:

1 J A function fix) is called periodic if there exists a positive number
~

y- l"lx)
i
1
i
~
T(T >0) called the 'period of the function such that fix +
for all values of x within the domain of fix).
Note :
n
= f(x),

i ~
, The graph of f 1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f about the line y = x. j
I (i) Inverse of a periodic function does not exisl.

~~
' 12. ODD & EVEN FUNCTIONS: (il) Every constant function is periodic, with no fundamental period.
If a function is such that whenever 'x' is in it's domain '-x' is also
Jo (iii) If fix) has a period T & g(x) also has a period T then it
in it's domain & It satisfies .
;;
o
• does not mean that fix) + g(x) must have a period T. e.g .
f(-x) = I(x) it is an even function
f(-x) = -I(x) it is an odd lunction
L -__________________________________ ~E
i i fix) = I sin xl+ lcos x l .
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 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
(Iv) If ~x) has period p and g(x) has period q, then period of ~x) + g(x)
will be LCM of p & q provided f(xi & g(x) are non interchangeable.
If f(x) & g(x) can be interchanged by adding a least positive number
r, then smaller of LCM & r will be the period.
1
(c) y ~
x
1
2n- I ' where n E N .\.......... -1 I l .........
(v) If f(x) has period p, then f(x) and $W also has a period p.

(vi) If f(x) has period T then f(ax + b) has a period T/a (a > 0).
·····r l

i !
: :
(vii) I sinx I , I cosx I , I tanx I , I cotx I , I secx I & I cosecx I are : :

"\;G
, ' ,

~
periodic function with period n. ::! 1
, : ' Y= -
I : \ X4
(viii) sinnx, cosnx, secnx, cosecnx, are periodic function with period : 1
2n when 'n' is odd or n when n is even . (d) y ~
1
Tn, where n E N ,,
....lL. ,, ,,
y=;;;-
x ... .... .. : : : - ... _---
. (Ix) tannx, cosnx are periodic function with period n. -I 01 x

14. GENERAL :

v
If x, yare independent variables, then :
:' ,
.--_... I
-
(a) f(xy) ~ f(x) + f(y) => f(x) - kin x
1 ~ = x'
(b) f(xy) - f(x) . f(y) => f(x) - xn, n E R or f(x) - 0 1 , ..•
(e) y ~ x 2n , where n E N :/ !
(e) f(x + y) - f(x) . f(y) => f(x) - a 10< or f(x) - 0
(d) f(x + y) - f(x) + f(y) => f(x) = kx, where k is a constant.
15. SOME BASIC FUNCTION & THEIR GRAPH :
,
i
!
!
1
i J
Yi
y- x lP
y-x
j
1
It
(a) y - x2n , where n E N 1 i···
I -1 :,.-
(f) y ~ x2n+1 , where n E N -~ , -d'-!------,x

y-x • • ,
j
j
}
i ::TI
! !
y-x
~i

(b) y - x2n + I, where n E N -~x

I I•
;;

"I !"
•
Note: y ~ x2/ 3
----,<1'---- ,
Y

E~ ________________ ~ ______ ~ ______ ~

~- ______________~E
114 115
 Mathematics
Mathematics Handbook

y
whena>l whenO<a<l
1\ ) \) v,]
(-3rrl'.1. 1 bl12.1)

YI y cosecx
" X
(--.::/2.-11 (3-.12 .- 1)
·····f·····
.. If \ f\ y--l

.
\'"
l/I \
~

".
•••• log
-', )" It
)( .. -2 It

if ! I og. ; ~. Iog,...x
(h) y=aX i 1\ )
... .J.... .1.... ) .\_1.·. ,·,
! I Y
a> 1
.y 3"
o< a < 1 ~ - <~l
{-2d) ! i 10 . n !
i ,/ ~,

.~ . . t. . . . . . . . .·
i ! I !
y sec x
11 .:>/ ~
••• • •••• • ••• I

,:~ x

(I) Trigonometric functions:

v
(1(/2.1)

y = sinx
x
i
J
y cot x Ix
i
!;
•
II x-2:ot
v x--2rr ><--11
10.\)

y = cos x 0) y ax 2 + bx + c
x

1~ . -1 In.-\) j

y = tan x
-3 A/ 3JV'2 X
I•
,
•
.
vertex ( _ Jl.,_~)
2a 4a

•EL-__________________________________
i ~ where D b2 - 4ac ~

~- ______________~E
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 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
(c) f (xl transforms to kf (xl :
16. TRANSFORMATION OF GRAPH:
if k > 1 then stretch graph of f (xl k times along y-axis
(a) when f
(x) transforms to f (x) + k if 0 < k < 1 then shrink graph of f (xl, k times along y-axis
if k > 0 then shift graph of f (x) upward through k Examples:
if k < 0 then shift graph of f (x) downward through k
Examples :
..............
. .....
1.

\"
.......,l
(d) f (xl transforms to f (kxl :
if k > 1 then shrink graph of f (xl, 'k' times along x-axis
if 0 < k < 1 then stretch graph of f (xl, 'k' times along x-axis
2. •••• ••••. 1x 1-2 Examples:
-~ •• ~ ••7.4----'
..•.. iO~-2) 1

(b) f (x) transforms (x + k) : to f - 2 IT

- IT
if k > 0 then shift graph of f (x) through k towards left.
-~7 1
sinx
2
if k < 0 then shift graph of f (x) through k towards right. (e) f (xl transforms to f (-xl
Take mirror image of the curve y ~ f (xl in y-axis as plane mirror
Examples : J~ Example:
I
1 , 1 " .~
" •••••••••••
....-.
e
.
1 . ~

1. i
I ,, ~
1.

~._ i n(-x)
•..•..
o
------.-... _____ _
'
tn x

v::'
! ..............
.e
.., Ij !
r.
\ -1
2. ----.:.;=..!4-.f-!.----x
\\

i
e' ,.,

.~ . :::::......................e
Ii
....
2.
!
\
~

,!
; f
(xl transforms to - f (xl
(f)
::::::::::::::::::::::::I::::i:::i·....................... ,
-1 ; 1
~

E~
e Take image of y ~ f (xl in________________
________________ the x axis as plane mirror ~ ~

~- ____~E 119
118
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
to
Examples :
Remove the portion of graph which lies below x-axis & then
y take mirror image lin x axis} of remaining portion of graph
!!.:
/
" -1/ / ................ Examples:
====:::::::1---,
.......---..-.....
~
........
~
..··· x y
1
y

.................... ~. ........••....
. - - - * - - -x -~rX

(g) f (x) transfonns to I f (x) I :

1-lxl
Take mirror Image (In a axis) of the portion of the graph of ,
f (x) which lies below x-axis.
Examples : -E+",~X
f~_. ____ b _ _ __:D.
I (n x I
Iy 1-1- 1xl
U·~._/p\ ..,,·V
t y"'sinx
I sinK I

(It) f (x) transfo~to f ( I x I) : •!

Neglect the curve for x < 0 and take the image of curve for II !
x ~ 0 about y-axis. 1
1
j
in x (n I x I
1 j

---t-+----- x -~+7 X
I
j
I,
II
j
j
•
e' y "
I I!
,~

~-
::::::::::::=---1--- x -~
____~E
x
I i
E
121
120
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
y
(d) 1- 1 : R ~ (0, n)
P _____ • n
• _ _ ___ _ ______ .____ • • ___ . _ • • ____ • _____ . _ . _ • • • •

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION

1. DOMAIN, RANGE & GRAPH OF INVERSE lRIGONOMEllUC y~ar co t x

x
FUNCTIONS: y

Y-lIITC sinx
(a) I-I : [- 1, 11 ~ [--n/2, 11/21 11/2 ........... .

,Y •
............-j .......,······t············..·
. . . +... . . . .
(e) 1-1 : (--<0, -IJ u ll, (0)
_____-~I_+ x
~ 10, n/ 2) u (n/ 2, nJ .~+ ~!. ..
-~d
~ i x
............. - . / 2 -1: 0
y-arc sinx

. . . . . · . ·r. · · . ·. .
y
(f) 1-1 : (--<0, -IJ u ll, (0)
(y = sin-Ix) : 1t/2 :
·~

y ~ 1-1(/2, 0) u (0, n/2J , • x

(1)) f.- I: [-1, 11 ~ [0, 111
-.... -.. _-------- •----------,.------
./2
Ir I .~ . . . . . . . .t. . . . . . . .
. : - 11:/2 :
1
I
1 i 2. PROPERTIES OF INVERSE CIRCUlAR FUNCTIONS:
I
I
-\ x P-I:
j (I) y ~ sin (sin" x) ~ x, x E 1-1 ,1], y E 1- 1,11. y is aperiodic

I 1 (H) Y - cos (COS" x) ~ x ,x E 1-1,IJ, y E 1-1 ,11. y is aperiodic

I (ill) y ~ tan(tan" x)~ , x E R, y E R, y is aperiodic
y
(e) I- I: R ~ (--n/ 2, 11/2)
J
j (Iv) y ~ col(cot" x) ~ x, X E R, y E R, y is aperiodic
J
I (v) y ~ cosec (cosec" xl ~ x, I x I ~ 1, I YI ~ 1, y is aperiodic
-~ x
I • (vi) y ~ sec(sec" xl - x, I xl ~ 1; I y I ~ 1, y is aperiodic

~ ______________ ~
- rcJ2

____ (y =________
tan-Ix) ~ ~E
,
J
<
:;
ii
E~
•~
,
P-2:

~
(I) Y sin" (sin x), x ER, y E[
__________________
123
~
-i,i]. Periodic with period 2;<.
______________ ~

122
 Mathematics Handbook
(Ill) y = tan-' (tan xl
3x X
- 1t - X --<x<--
2 -
x
- 2
x ER -{(2n - Il i ,n EI}; YE(-i,i) ,periodicwith period x
x "
--sxs-
2 2 -3"
- < x <- -
x
x+"
X 3x 2 2
x- x -sxs-
sin- ' (sin x) = 2 2 x - -" < x < -"
3x 5x 2 2
x-2" -sxs-
2 2 tan- l (tan xl = x-" - <x < -3"
"
5" 7rt 2 2
3" - x -SxS-
2 2 x - 2" 3"
-<x < -5"
71< 91< 2 2
x -4x -sxs- 51( 7"
2 2 x - 3" -<x<-
2 2
y

- 2n x
-,
,
(i1) Y= cos- (cos xl, x
J
E R, y E 10,rtl, periodic with period 2" ; "}
•l•
,
-2

-x - rtSx S O i (iv) Y - cor'(cot xl, XER- In 1(1, y E (0, xl , periodic with period"
I y
OSxSrt 'j
X
1 ,
COS- I (cos x) = 2x -
x-2"
4x - x
X X S X S 2x
2rt S X S 3x
3rt S x S 4x
J
1
I
J
y 1 l
I 1 -2r. o 2.

I
I
r.

y= cosec" Icosecxl, x ER - In 1( ,n EII yE[-i,O)u(o,i]y

,
~ (v)

~ is periodic with period 2 1(,

, 2, x
- 2:t
"2 I EL-____________________________________
~- ____________~E 125
124
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
y
(Iv) cot-I (-x) = 1t - cot-I X , xeR
(v) sec-I (-x) = 1t - sec- I X , x~-lor
(vi) cosec-I(-x) = - cosec- I x, x~- l orx~l
P-5 :
1t
(i) sin-1 x + cos-1 X = -
2
"
(ii) tan- I x + cot-I X =- xeR
2
-t
(vi) Y ; sec (sec x), y is periodic with period
l
211
(iii) cosec-I x + sec l x =:2 " Ix l ~ 1
P-6 :
x R-{(2n-1)in EI}, y E[o'i)u(i'lI]
E
(i)
x+y
tan-I x + tan-I y = tan-I -1- - where x > 0 , y > 0& xy < 1
- xy
y
x+y
= 1t+tan-1 -l - - , where x>O, y>O&xy> I
- xy

2
n
" ' where x > 0 , y > 0& xy = 1
=:2

- 2n
-2
3lT -IT
-2
11: 0 3n
2
2n x
x- y
(ii) tan-I x - tan-I y = tan-I -1 - - where x >
+ xy
°, y>0

(iii) sin-I x + sin-I y = sin-I. IxJ1 - l + y~1 - x2 ] ,

P-3 :
1 . It where x > 0 , y > ° & (x' + y' ) < 1
(I) cosec- x = sin-
1 •
x '
1-
x~ -l,x~
i Note that: x' + y' < 1 => °< sin-I x + sin-I y < :2 "
1
(Ii) sec l x; cos-I -
j
x ~ -1, x ~ 1 (iv) sin-I x + sin-I y = " - sin-I IxJl- y2 + y~l - x2 ] ,
1
(Iii) cot-Ix ; tan-I -
x

x>0 I °
where x > 0, y > & X' +y' > 1
x
~ " < sin-I x + sin-I y < 1t
Note that: x' + y' > 1 => :2
1 i
; 11 + tan-I
x
x<0
j (v) sin-I x - sin-I y = sin-I Ix J1- y2 _ y~1 - x2 ] where x > 0 , y > °
P-4 :
(I) sin-I (-x); - sin-I x -1 ~ x ~ 1 i
~
(vi) COS-IX + cos-Iy = cos-Ilxy - ~l - x2 Jl - y2 ] , where x> 0 , y > °
••
(ii) tan-I (-x) ; - tan-I x x ER x < y, x, y >0
(Iii) COS-I (-x) - 11 - COS-I X , -1 ~ x ~ 1
~
~- ____~E
126
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
(d) y ~ f(x) ~ 5in-1 (3x - 4x') y

x+y + z - Xyz]
(viii) tan-Ix + tan-ly + tan-l z - tan-l [
. l -xy - yz-zx 1
- In + 35in- 1 xl if - l sxs--
if x > O. y > O. z> 0 & xy + yz + zx < 1 2
Note : In the above results x & yare taken positive. In case if these 3sin- 1 x
1 1 x
If - ~ x~-
2 2
are given as negative, we first apply P-4 and then use above results. 1
1
1t - 3sin- x if sxS 1
"2
3. SIMPUFIED INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNcnONS :
y
y (e) y ~ fIx) ~ C05- 1(4 x 3 - 3x) ,
(a) y = fIx) = sin- 1 ( ~ ) 7<12
1 +x
1
3C05- 1 X- 2n if - l $ xs--
2
x
1 1
if I x Is 1 2n - 3C05- 1 x if - -2 -< X <-
=
[ll-2tan-
"0-" 1
x if
-2
x
x>1 1
3C05- 1 x if "2$xSI
-(ll + 2 tan- 1 x) if x < -1

y
1
2 y (f) sin- (ZxJl -x2) ,12
i
(b) y = f(x) = cos- 1 ( -
1_-X
2) •
I !!
~
1+x J
D
! 1
1
1
-(n+25in- x) - lsxs- Jz - ,fi
x

I i 1 1 .fi
[ 2 tan- l x if x2:0

i
25in- J x --$X$ -
-I J2 J2 -,/2

I
= - 2 tan- l x if x < O 0 x
1
n-Zsin- I x J2 sx$ l
y j
(e) y = fIx) = tan- I ~ j y
1 _x2 j (g) C05- 1 (2x2 -1)

,
I~ I I Osx$ l

['''''',
{zcos- x

,
,J ~ Zn - Zcos-1x
= " Ixk 1
;;
•"I
- l sxs O
-1 0 1 x
II + 2 tan-I x

. -{ll -2tan- 1 x) if
if x <-l
x >1
• "
E
E 129
128
 Handbook

UMIT 3. FUNDAMENfAL THEOREMS ON UMITS:

Let Urn f(x) = I &Umg (x) = m If I & m exists finitely then:

x--+a x-+a
1. DEFINI110N :
(a) Sum rule: Um[f(x)+g(x)]=I+m
H.
Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about 'a' except possibly at
'a' itself. If fIx) gets arbitrarily close to L (a finite number) for all x (b) Difference rule: Lim[f(x)-g(x)]=I-m
,~.

sufficiently close to 'a' we say that fIx) a pproaches the limit L as x

approaches 'a' and we write Lim f(x) = L and say "the limit of fIx), (e) Product rule: Urn f(x).g (x) = I.m
,~.
x->a

as x approaches a , equals L".

(d) Quotient rule: Urn f( x) = i.. provided m", 0
2. LEFT HAND LIMIT & mGtfTHAND LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: ,~ . g(x) m

Left hand limit (LHL) = Lim f(x)= Lim f(a - h), h > O. (e) Constant multiple rule : Lim kf (x) = k Lim I (x) ; where k is oonstant.
x~a - h-tO X--+B x..... a

Right hand limit (RHL) = Lim f(x)= Lim f(a + h), h > O. (f) Power rule: If m and n are integers, then Lim [f(x)t/" = I m /"
x-ta ~ h.... O ,~.

Limit of a function f(xl is said to exist as, x --> a w ~ m provided Im / " is a real number.
Lim f(xl
x -ta -
= Lim f(xl - Finite quantity.
x -+a* Ji (g) Urn t[g(x)] = I (Urn g(x)) = I(m) ; provided I(x) is continuous at
t ! x-+a X-HI

Important note: J x=m.

j 1

I
In Lim f(xl, x --> a necessarily implies x '" a. That is while For example: Lim Cn(f(x» = f n[Lim f(xll ; provided Cnx is defined
X-+O
x-+a x..... a

evaluating limit at x = a, we are not concerned with the value of the

J at X= Lim f(t) .
! t->.
function at x = a. In fact the function mayor may not be defined at i J 4. INDETERMINATE FORMS:
x = a. J j

II
0:,:
0' 00 1 00 - 00 , Oxoo, 1000'
I
0
,00·
Also it is necessary to note that if fIx) is defined only on one side of
'x - a' , one sided limits are good enough to establish the existence
of limits, & if fIx) is defined on either side of 'a' both sided limits are
•;; Note:
;;

~
to be considered.
__________________________________ ~E
i l' ;; We cannot plot co on the paper. Infinity (co) is a symbol & not a
number. It does not obey the laws of elementary algebra,
_L-__________________________________ ~

130
131
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
6. UMIT OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:
5. GENERAL MEnlODS TO BE USED TO EVALUATE UMITS:
-I sin- 1 x
(a) Factorization: sinx 1 :;: U m -tan-x = U m -tan
· --:;:
L1m - - :x; : L'1m [where
Important factors : x-+o X x-+o X x-+o x x-+o x
X is measured in radiansJ
(I) x" - a" - (x - a)(x~l + ax~2 + ....... .. .. + a~l). n E N
. sin /(x)
(8) x" + a" = (x + a)(x~l- ax ~2 + ........... + a~l) . n is an odd (a) If Umf(x) = 0, then Um - - =l.
x-+a x-+a ((x)
natural number.
xn _an
(b) Using substitution Urn f(x) = Um f(a - h) or Urn f(a + h) i. e.
)( -+ a h..... D h-tO
Note: Urn na n- 1
a
x.....a X -
by substituting x by a - h or a + h
(b) Rationalization or double rationalization :
In this method we rationalise the factor containing the square 7. LIMIT OF EXPONENTIAl. RJNCTIONS:
root and simplify. , 1 e' - 1
(e) Urnlt when x ~ CX) :
(a) Urn ~ = t na(a > 0) In particular Um - - = 1 .
)(-)O X x-+o X
(I) Divide by greatest power of x in numerator and denominator.
a ll' l - l
(8) Put x = l/y and apply y ~ 0 In general if Um f( x) = 0 ,then Um f() = Cna, a > 0
x-+a x-+a X
(d) Squeeze play theorem (Sandwich theorem) :
If f(x) :s: g(x):s:h(x); \Ix & Umf(x)= f =Umh(x) then (b) Um £n(l + x) 1
x-.a x-+a x-+o x

......
Umg(x) = f .

i! I!1 (e) Um (1 + xlii, = e = Um

){....,O ' x-+oc
(1 + -xl)'
(Note: The base and exponent depends on the same variable.)
J
J In general, if Urn f(x) = 0 , then Um(1 + f(x»I / Ii'1 = e

I x-+a x-+a

I
•. 1
y-x SIn"X
(d) If Urn f(x) = 1 and Um oj>(x) = 00 ,
j x~a x-+a
x
i then Lim [/(x») 01,1= e k where k = Um oj> (x) [f(x) - IJ
j ! x-+a x-+a

1
I, ,•
(e) If Lim /(x) = A > 0 & Um oj>(x) = B (a finite quantity),
~
x-+a X- H I
y-x ~\ .
... ~
then Lim[f(x)j OI'1 =e BlnA = A B
:;;
;; • x-...
for example : Urn x2 sin.!. = O. as illustrated by the graph given.
x-+o x EL-__________________________________ ~

~- __------__________JE 133
132
 Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
8. UMIT USING SERIES EXPANSION:
Expansion of function like ~inomal expansion, exponential &
logarithmic expansion, expansion of sinx, cosx, lanx should be
remembered by heart which are given below' : 1. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS:
A function «x) is said to be continuous at x = a, if Urn f(x) = f(a) .
, x f na x2 en2a x3 fn3a x- ..
(a) a =1+-!~ ..... ..... a > O
SymboucaUyf iscontinuousatx =aif Um f(a - h) = Umf(a + h) = f(a).
2 3 h-+O h-+O
x x x
(b) e' = 1+1T+2!+3i+······· .. · 2. CONTINUITY OF THE FUNCTION IN AN INTERVAL :
x 2 x3 x4 (a) A function is said to be continuous in (a,b) if f is continuous at
(e) en(1+x)=x-2+3"-"4+....... for-1 < x,,1
each & every point belonging to (a, b).
3 5 7
x x x (h) A function is said to be continuous in a closed intervalla,bl if :
(d) sinx=x-3i+5T-7T+......... .
• f is continuous in the open interval (a,b)
x2 X4 x6
(e) C05X= 1-
21 + 4! - 6! +..... .... . • I is right continuous at 'a' i.e. Lim I(x) = I(a) = a finite
x-+a+
quantity
x 3 2x 5
(I) tan x = x+ 3"+ 15 +.. ..... • I is left continuous at 'b' i.e. Urn f(x) = I(b) = a finite quantity
)(-+b-

. J Note:
} (\) All Polynomials, Trigonometrical lunctions , exponential &
! !
J
1 Logarithmic functions ,!re continuous in their domains.
I

I
(Ii) If f & g are two functions that are continuous at x = c then the

I
I I
function defined by : Ft(x)=I(x)± g(x) ; F2 (x)= Kf(x), Kany

real number F3(X) = I(x).g(x) are also continuous at x = c. Further,

j
• i j
1 if g(c) is not zero, then F4(X) = ~ is also continuous at x-c.

I I•
<
:i
;;
,
•
(iH) If f and 9 are continuous then log and gol are also continuous.

(Iv) If f and 9 are discontinuous at x - c, then f + g, I -g. I.g may

i E~
i still be continuous.
________________ ~ ______________ ~

~- 134 __~E 135

 Mathematics Handbook
Handbook
3. REASONS OF DlSCONfINUITY: (c) Oscillatory type discontinuity :

(a) Umit does not exist • f( x) = sin'::

x
i.e. Urn f(x) .. Urn fIx)
x-+a- X--f>a+ Y= sin{tt/x)

(b) fIx) is not defined at x = a 9

Y
(c) Urn f(x) .. f(a) ~-x
X- M
a 2 3 4
Geometrically, the graph of
Um I(x) ~ 1(1)
the function will exhibit a .~l

Um I(x) does not exist

break at x = a, if the function H' fIx) has non removable oscillatory type discontinuity at x = 0
I(x) Is not defined at x • 3
is discontinuous at x = a. The Note: In case of non-removable (finite type) discontinuity the
non-negative difference between the value of the RHL at x = a &
graph as shown is discontinuous at x = 1 , 2 and 3.
LHL at x = a is called THE JUMP OF DISCONTINUITY, A function
4. TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES : having a finite number of jumps in a given interval I is called a
Type-l : (Removable type of discontinuities) : In case
PIECE WISE CONTINUOUS or SECTIONALLY CONTINUOUS
Urn f(x) exists but is not equal to ffa) then the function is said to have a
...... function in this intervaL
removable discontinuity or discontinuity of the first kind. In this case we 5. THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM:

....
can redefine the function such that Urn fIx) = f(a) & make it continuous
at x-a. Removable type of discontinuity can be further classified as:
Suppose fIx) is continuous on an interval I and a and b are any two
points of I. Then if Yo is a number between f(a) and f(b), their exists a
(a) Missing point discontinuity :
I number c between a and b such that ftc) = Yo

....
Where Urn fIx) exists finitely but f(a) is not defined .
(b) Isolated point discontinuity :
!
I
~
J
j
y

f: , :~·'n
y

flal ..
Iial --> +ve
Ilbl --> -ve

I
Where Urn fIx) exists & f(a) also exists but; Urn f(x) .. f(a).
fl al "'-~
I I I
x-+a x--+a 10,01 a
x
Type-2 : (Non-Removable type of discontinuities) :-

....
In case Urn f(x)does not exist then tt is not possible to make the function
j
j
i
oL-~+x
a
I I I
, b
The function f, being continuous on la,bl J (x) - 0 in (a, b)
continuous by redefining it. Such a discontinuity is known as j ~
I I
takes on eveI)I value between f(a) and f(b)
non·removable discontinuity or discontinuity of the 2nd kind. Non- - Note that a function f which is ocntinuous in [a,b] possesses the following
removable type of discontinuity can be further classified as : properties :

,
(a) Finite type discontinuity: In such type of discontinuity left hand , (a) If f(a) & fIb) posses opposite signs, then there exists atleast one

•i•
solution of the equation fIx) = 0 in the open interval (a, b),
limit and right hand limit at a pOint exists but are not equal. ~
(b) Infinite type discontinuity: In such type of discontinuity atleast • (b) If K is any real number between f(a) & fIb), then there exists atleast
EL-__________________________________
one solution of the equation fIx) = K in the open interval (a,b), ~

one of the limit viz. LHL and RHL is tending to infinity.

~-7E 136 137
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook (n) If f(xj & g(xj are derivable at x = a then the functions

I: D1FFERENTIABIU1Y
f(xj + g(xj, f(xj - g(xj, f(xj. g(xj will also be derivable at x =a
& if g(aj '" 0 then the function f(xj/g(xj will also be derivable
at x = a .
1. INTRODUCTION:
3. IMPORTANT NOTE:
The derivative of a function 'f' is function; this function is denoted
by symbols such as
(a) Let f'(a'j = p & f'(a-j = q where p & q a re finite then:
(i) p = q => f is derivable at x = a => f is continuous at x = a
f'() .:!!.
~ f(x)
x, dx' dx
df(x)
or dx
(li) p '" q => f is not derivable at x = a
It is very important to note that 'f' may be still continuous at
The derivative evaluated at a point a, can be written as : x=a
f'(a), [ddf(X)] ,f'(x)~ : " etc. In short, for a function 'f' :
x )( = II Differentiable => Continuous;
2. RIGHT HAND & LEFT HAND DERIVATIVES .: Not Differentiable ~ Not Continuous
(a) Right hand derivative: . I
But Not Continuous => Not Differentiable
The right hand derivative of f(x) at x - a denoted by I'(a') is
defined as: Continuous => Mayor may not be Differentiable
(b) Geometrical interpretation of differentiability:
f '(a +) = Lim f(a + h) - f(a) , provided the limit exists & is finite.
h->O h (i) If the function y = f(xj is differentiable at x = a, then a
(b) Left hand derivative: unique tangent can be drawn to the curve y = f(xj at P(a,
J f(a)) & f(aj represent the slope of the tangent at point P.
The left hand derivative of f(x) at x - a denoted by f(a-) is defined !
J (ii) If LHD and RHD are finite but unequal then it geometrically
I
I
as: I'(a- ) = Urn f(a - h) - f(a) , provided the limit exists & is finite. implies a sharp corner at x = a.
h-tO -h
e.g. f(xj = I x I is continuous but
(e) Derlvabillty of function at a point :
not differentiable at x = O.
If f(a') = I'(a-) - finite quantity, then f(x) is said to be derivable i
or differentiable at x-a. In such case f(a') - f(a-) - f(a) & it j A sharp corner is seen at x - 0 in
is called derivative or differential coefficient of f(x) at x = a. ,~ the graph of f(xj = Ix I .

Note: ! . (iii) If a function has vertical tangent at x = a then also it is

i"
(i) All polynomial, trigonometric, inverse trigonometric,
logarithmic and exponential function are continuous and
•~ E~
nonderivable at x = a.
________________ ~ ______________ ~

~
differentiable
________ ______ in their domains,
~
except at end points.__
__________
~ ~ ~E
i 139
138
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematlca Handbook

(e) Vertical tangent :

If for y = f(x) , METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION
f'(a' ) --+ 00 and f'(a-) --+ 00 or f(a') --+ -00 and f'(a-) --+ -00
1. DERIVATIVE OF f(x) FROM THE FIRST PRINCIPLE :
then at x = a, y = fIx) has vertical tangent but f(x) is not
differentiable at x = a Obtaining the derivative using the definition

4. DERWABIUTY OVER AN INTERVAL : ,oy ,f(x + ox) - f(x) , dy

LIm - ~ LIm ~ f (x) ~ - is called calculating
Bx-tO ox Sx ~ o ox dx
(a) fIx) is said to be derivable over an open interval (a, b) if it is
derivative using first principle or ab initio or delta method,
derivable at each & every point of the open interval (a, b).

(b) fIx) is said to be derivable over the closed interval la, bl if : 2, FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS:
If f and g are derivable function of x, then,
(I) f(x) is derivable in (a, b) &

(8) for the points a and b, f(a') & f(b-) exist. d df dg

(a) -(f±g)~ - ±-
Note: dx dx dx

(I) If f(x) is differentiable at x = a & g(x) is not differentiable at x d df

(b) dx (el) ~ c dx ' where c is any constant
- a , then the product function F(x)~f.g can still be
differentiable at x ~ a. 'i

i
d dg df
~ (e) dx (fg) ~ f dx + g dx known as "PRODUCT RULE"
(H) If f(x) & g(x) both are not differentiable at x = a then the product ~
function; F(x)=f(x).g(x) can still be differentiable at x-a. 1 I
(18) If f(x) & g(x) both are non-derivable at x=a then the sum function J 1
l
F(x)=f(x)+g(x) may be a differentiable function .

(Iv) If f(x) is derivable at x - a =I> f(x) is continuous at x = a.

I
j
' I,
~
i where 9 *0 known as "QUOTIENT RULE"
j
j j
dy dy du

I I
~
(e) Ify ~ ~u)&g(x ,

dy
then dx ~ du' dx knCMll1as "CHAIN RUU"

, du
Note In general if y ~ f(u), then dx ~ f (u), dx '
:i
Ii
i I
EL-______________~-
~- ________~E 141
140
 Handbook Mathematics Handbook
3. DERIVATIVE OF STANDARD RJNCTlONS 5. DIFFERENTIATION OF IMPUCIT FUNCTION:
,
. , . fIx) "'.
. rex) , " .. (a) Let function is 4>(x, y) = 0 then to find dy /dx, In the case of
(i) xn nx n- 1 implicit functions, we differentiate each term w.r.t. x regarding
eX eX y as a functions of x & then collect terms in dy / dx together on
(ii)
one side to finally find dy / dx
(iii) aX aXtna, a > 0
(iv) Cnx I/x dy - 84> / ax 84> 84>
(v) (I/x) log.e, a > 0 , a " 1
OR dx = 84> / ay where ax & ay are partial differential
log.x
(vi) sinx casx coefficient of 4>(x, y) w.r.to x & y respectively.
(vii) casx - sinx (b) In answers of dy/dx in the case of implicit functions, both x & y
(viii) tanx sec 2x are present.
(ix) secx secx tanx 6. PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION:
(x) cosecx - cosecx , colx
(xi) colx - cosec 2x If y = f(El) & x = g(El) where a is a parameter, then dy = dy / dEl
dx dx/d8
(xii)

(xiii)
constant

sin- 1 x
°
~,
1
- 1 <x <1
7. DERNA11VE OF A FUNC110N W.R.T. ANOTIiER FUNCJ10N :
dy dy / dx f'(x)
1 - x2 Let y= f (x) ; z = 9 (x) , then dz = dz / dx = g '(x)
-1
(xiv) C05- 1 x ~. -1 <x <1 8. DERNA11VE OF A RJNCJ10N AND ITS INVERSE RJNCJ10N :

tan-! x - -z'
l _ x2
1
,l If inverse of y = fIx)
(xv)
l +x
xER , x = f-l(y) is denoted by x - g(y) then g(f(x)) = x
1
! g'(f(x»f(x)= 1
sec- 1 x ~, l xl>1 l
(xvi)
I x I xZ_l ,
I
J 9. HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVE

(xvii) cosec- 1 x
I x I ~xz
-1
- 1'
I x I> 1
I
1
!
I
Let a function y - fIx) be defined on an open interval (a, b). It's
derivative, if it exists on (a, b) is a certain function fIx) [or (dy / dx)

(xviii) coC! x
1+x
-1
--z,xE R
i
j
I! or y' ) & it is called the first derivative of y w. r. t. x. If it happens
that the first derivative has a derivative on (a , b) then this derivative
is called second derivative of y w.r.t. x & is denoted by f"(x) or

I!
4. LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION: t
To find the derivative of : i (d 2y /dx 2) or y". Similarly, the 3,d order derivative of y w.r.t x, if it
~
(a) A function which is the product or quotient of a number of function or
~l d2~)' (
3
~
••
(b) A function of the form [fIx)] 9 (xl where f & 9 are both derivable, exists, is defined by d ;, = . It is also denoted by fm (x) or
it is convenient to take the logarithm of the function first & then
i •i" y'" &soon.
dx dx dx
differentiate, ________________ ______________
E E~ ~ ~

14~ 143
Mathematics Handbook ~;=:Mathemlcs Handbook
10. DIFFERENTIATION OF DETERMINANTS :
MONOTONICITY
f(x) g(x) h(x)
If F(x) = I(x) m(x) n(x) , where f, g. h. I , m, n, U, v, ware 1. MONOTONICITY AT A POINT :
u(x) v(x) w(x)

f(r
(a) A function f(x) is called an increasing function at point x = a, if in a
differentiable functions of x, then sufficiently small neighbourhocx:l of x = a; f(a - h) < f(a) < f(a + h)
t' (x) g'(x) h' (x) f(x) g(x) h(x) f(x) g(x) h(x) f(a + h)
F'(x) = I(x) m(x) n(x) + /,(x) m'(x) n'(x) + I(x) m(x) n(x) f(a) a + h)
u(x) v(x) w(x) u(x) v(x) w(x) u'(x) v'(x) w'(x)

11. L ' HOPITAL 'S RULE:

(a) Applicable while calculating limits of indeterminate forms of
o 00
a -h a a+h
/1 a
the type 0' 00' If the function f(x) and g(x) are differentiable in (b) A function f(x) is called a decreasing function at point x = a if in a
certain neighbourhood of the point a, except, may be, at the sufficiently small neighbourhood of X= a; f(a - h) > f(a) > f(a + h)
point a itself, and g'(x) " 0 , and if
lim f(x)
)1,-+11
= lim g(x) = 0
It ... ;!!
or lim f(x)
It ..... a
= lim g(x) = 00 ,
X -HI
~-h)
, f(x) I' f '(x) ~
; f(a + h)
f(a) +

~a+h)
then II m - = Im - - }
,~. g(x) ,~. 9 '(x) !'
! J
J }
,
a-h a a+h x a
provided the limit lim f',((X)) exists (L' H opitaI's rule). The point
i
i
If. ..... a 9 X
Note: If x = a is a boundary point then use the appropriate one

I
'a' may be either finite or improper + "" or--«>,
sides inequality to test Monotonicity of f(x) .
(b) Indeterminate forms of the type 0 , "" or "" - "" are reduced to
1 f(a)
o 00
forms of the type 0 or 00 by algebraic transformations. i
j I
(e) Indeterminate forms of the type 1"', ",,0 or 0° are reduced to
forms of the type 0, "" by taking logarithms or by the
transformation If(x)]+(x) _ e+(x)·tnf(x). I
I,
~ x a
•i• i ;; f(a) > f(a - h)
increasing at x - a
x-a
f(a +h) > f(a)
L -__________________________________ ~E E~ ________________ ~ ______________ ~

144 145
 Mathematics Handbaok
Mathematics Handbook
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that f(c) - O.
(e) Derivative test for Increasing and decreasing functions y y
at a point:
(I) If f(a) > 0 then f(x) is increasing at x-a.
(H) If f(a) < 0 then f(x) is decreasing at x ~ a.
(IU) If f(a) ~ 0 then examine the sign of f(a') and f(a-).
(1) If f(a') > 0 and f(a-) > 0 then Increasing o • c b x
(2) If f(a') < 0 and f'(a-) < 0 then decreasing (a) (b)
y y
(3) Otherwise neither increasing nor decreasing.
Note : Above rule is applicable only for functions that are
differentiable at x ~ a. ·~· ..i .., ·~·· . .. .

2. MONOTONICIlY OVER AN INTERVAL :

I•

,.
, .
"
II •

.,
•
•
••
I
·· ,. .,
o • c b x
(a) A function f(x) is said to be monotonically increasing (MI) in (a , b) (c) (d)
if f(x) " 0 where equality holds only for discrete values of x i.e. Conclusion: II I is a differentiable lunction then between any two
f(x) does not identically become zero for x E (a, b) or any sub
consecutive roots oll(x) - 0, there is atleast one root 01 the equation
interval.
f(x) - O.
(b) f(x) is said to be monotonically decreasing (MO)in (a, b) if f(x) " 0
where equality holds only for discrete values of x i.e. f(x) does 5. lAGRANGE'S MEAN VALUE THEOREM (LMVT) :
not identically become zero for x E (a, b) or any sub interval. y Tangent parallel to chord
Let I be a function that
• By discrete points, we mean that points where f(x) ~ f)
does not form an intelVal. Il i!
satisfies the following
hypotheses:
.~ ___ : .....J
Note : A function is said to be monotonic if it's either increasing or J
1 (i) I is continuous in a

3.
decreasing.
SPECIAL POINTS : 1 1 closed interval la, b]

~
(a) Critical points: The pOints of domain for which f(x) is equal
to zero or doesn't exist are called critical points.
(b) Stationary points: The stationary pOints are the points 01
IJ
!
l
('d) I is differentiable in the
open interval (a, b).
Then there is a number c
c b x

domain where f(x) - 0 . i j in (a, b) such that f'(c) = f(b) - I(a)

Every stationary point is a critical point. I b- a

I
II "
4. ROLLE'S THEOREM:
(a) Geometrical Interpretation:
Let f be a function that satisfies the following three hypotheses :
~ Geometrically, the Mean Value Theorem says that somewhere
(a) 1 is continuous in the closed Interval (a, bl. :;
between A and B the curve has at least one tangent parallel to
(b) f is differentiable in the open interval (a, b) " i chordAB.
(e) f(a) - f(b) EL-________________~-
~- ______________-JE 147
146
 (b) Physical Interpretations :
MAXIMA-MINIMA
If we think of the number (f(b) - f(a))/(b - a) as the average
change in f over [a, bl and f(c) as an instantaneous change, then
the Mean Value Theorem says that at some interior point the 1. INTRODUCTION:
instantaneous change must equal the average change over the (a) Maxima (Local maxima) :
entire interval. absolute maximum
No greater value of f.
Also a relative maximum relative maximum
6. SPECIAL NOTE : No greater value of f.
near by
Use of Monotonidly in Identifying the number of roots of the equation B
in a given interval. Suppose a and b are two real numbers such
that, I
(a) f(x) & its first derivative f(x) are continuous for a :<; x :<; b. I
(b) f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs. R
absolute minimum
I
No smaller value of f. 1
(e) f(x) is different from zero for all values of x between a & b. Also a relative
minim m
Then there is one & only one root of the equation f(x) = 0 in (a, b). x=a

A function fIx) is said to have a maximum at x = a if there

exist a neighbourhood (a - h, a + h) - (al such that
f(a) > fIx) V x E (a - h, a + h) - fa)

i
1
J
~
1
(b) Minima (Local minima) :
A function fIx) is said to have a minimum at x = a if there
.exist a neighbourhood (a - h, a + h) - fa} such that
J
I
f(a) < fIx) V x E (a - h, a + h) - (a)

I
j
!
i
~
(c) Absolute maximum (Global maximum) :
A function f has an absolute maximum for global maximum) at
c if f(c) ;, fIx) for all x in D, where D is the domain of f. The
number f(c) is called the maximum value of f on D.

I" I,
(d) Absolute minimum (Global minimum) :
A function f has an absolute minimum at c if fIe) " fIx) for all x in
~ D and the number fIe) is called the minimum value of f on D.
• I
The maximum and minimum values of f are called the extreme
I EL-__________________________________
values of f. ~

~- ____~E 149
148
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
(b) Second derivative test:
Note that :
(I) the maximum & minimum values of a function are also known If f(x) is continuous and differentiable at x - a where I'(a) - 0
as local/relative maxima or local/relatIve minima as and I"(a) also exists then for ascertaining maxima/minima at
these are the greatest & least values of the function relative x = a, 2"" derivative test can be used -
to some neighbourhood of the point in question.
(I) If f"(a) >0 =:ox = a is a point of local minima
(II) the term 'extremum' or 'turning value' Is used both for maximum
or a minimum value. (8) If f"(a) < 0 =:0 X = a is a point of local maxima
(111) a maximum (minimum) value of a function may not be the
greatest (least) value In a finite interval. (iii) If f(a) = 0 =:0 second derivative test fails. To identify
(Iv) a function can have several maximum & minimum values & maxima/ minima at this point either first
a minimum value may be greater than a maximum value. derivative test or higher derivative test can
(v) local maximum & local minimum values of a continuous function
be used.
occur alternately & between two consecutive local maximum
(c) n'" derivative test:
values there is a local minimum value & vice versa.
Let f(x) be a function such that f(a) = f(a) = f"(a) = ...... = f ~l (a) = 0
(vi) Monotonic function do not have extreme points.
*
& f"(a) 0, then
2. DERIVATIVE TEST FOR ASCERTAINING MAXIMA/ (i) If n is even & f"(a) > 0 =:0 Minima, f"(a) < 0 =:0 Maxima
MINIMA: (ii) If n is odd, then neither maxima nor minima at x = a
(a) First derivative test : 3. USEFUL FORMULAE OF MENSURATION TO REMEMBER:
Find the point (say x ~ a) where fIx) ~ 0 and
(1) If f'(x) changes sign from positive to negative while graph of
the function passes through x - a then x = a is said to be a •} •} (a)
(b)
Volume of a cuboid = ebh .
Surface area of a cuboid = 2 (fb + bh + hf).
~ (c) Volume of a prism': area of the base x height.
point of local maxima. & 1
(iI) If fIx) changes sign from negative to positive while graph of !
j
1 (d) Lateral surface area of prism = perimeter of the base x height.
Total surface area of a prism = lateral surface area + 2 area of

i Ii
the function passes through x = a then x = a is said to be a (e)
point of local mlnlma. the base (Note that lateral surfaces of a prism are al\ rectangles).
y y
(I) Volume of a pyramid ="31 area of the base x height.
j
~ >~ ~ < o ' i j = ~ (perimeter of the base) x
/[~ ~ p (g) Curved surface area of a pyramid

I ~ >o 1 I5 slant height.

o~- x-a
x ~-
0 x-a
Note: If f '(x) does not change sign i.e. has the same sign in a certain
complete neighbourhood df a, then fIx) Is either strictly increasing
X
I
~
~
•,
j
(h)
(Note that slant surfaces of a pyramid are triangles).
1
Volume of a cone = "3 1t r'h .
CUlVed surface area of a cylinder = 2 1t rho
(I)
or decreasing throughout this neighl>Rur
not an extreme value of f.
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~-E
, ~od implying that f(a) is
t E~ ________________ = 2 1t rh + 2 1t r'.
0) Total surface area of a cylinder______________
~

151
~

150
 Mathematics Handbook
Handbook
5. SOME STANDARD RESULTS:
4
(k) Volume of a sphere ~ "3 1tr3 .
(a) Rectangle of largest area inscribed in a circle is a square.
(I) Surface area of a sphere ~ 4 !l r'.
(b) The function y = sinmx coS' x attains the max value at x = tan - 1 J¥
(m) Area of a circular sector ~ ~ r' e, when e is in radians.
(e) If 0 < a < b then Ix - al + Ix - bl ~ b - a and equality hold when
(n) Perimeter of circular sector ~ 2r + reo x E la , bJ.
4. SIGNIFICANCE OF 1lIE SIGN OF 2ND ORDER DERIVATIVE If 0 < a < b < c then Ix - al+lx - bl+lx - CI2: c - a and equality
hold when x = b
AND POINT OF INFLEcnON:
If 0 < a < b < c then Ix-al+lx -bl+lx -cl+lx- dl 2: d -a and
The sign of the 2"" order derivative determines the concavity of
equality hold when x E (b,c).
the curve.
If f'(x) > 0 V X E (a, b) then graph of fIx) is concave upward in (a, b). 6. SHORTEST DISTANCE BElWEEN TWO CURVES :
Similarly if f'(x) < 0 V X E (a, b) then graph of fIx) is concave Shortest distance between two
downward in (a, b). non-intersecting curves
always along the common
--.-.........
..-...:::.."'"""""Sisti::::::::·
~ ~ normal. (Wherever defined)
I,
'
concaved
upwar s
,I,
·i downW&rds i,
··· ,,
: . I ,,
• b • b

Point of Inflection: y J I!
A point where the graph of a function ~
I i

I
has a tangent Une and where the concavity
I
;
p
changes is called a point of inflection. Point of
For finding point of inllect!on of any function, inflection
, ~-+ X
dy
compute the solutions of dx' = 0
0
j i
j
i j
d2 I

I, ,I•
or does not exist. Lei the solution is x A a, if sign of dx~
changes about this point then it is called point of inflection.
,
d' y d'y
Note: If at any point dx' does not exist but sign of dx' changes • •
about this point then it is also called point of inflection. ! EL-________________~-
~- 152
__~E 153
 Mathematlc5 Handbook I' Mathematics Handbook
Note:
(i) The point P (x" Y,) will satisfy the equation of the curve & the
TANGENT & NORMAL
equation of tangent & nonnal line.
(H) If the tangent at any point P on the curve is parallel to the
1. TANGENT TO THE CURVE AT A POINT : axis of x then dy/ dx = 0 at the point P.
(ill) If the tangent at any point on the curve is parallel to the axis
The tangent to the curve at 'P' is the line through P whose slope
of y, then dy/ dx is not defined or dx/dy = 0 at that point.
is limit of the secant's slope as Q --> P from either side.
(iv) If the tangent at any point on the curve is equally inclined to
both the axes then dy/dx = ± l.
(v) If a curve passing through the origin be given by a rational integral
Seants algebraic equation, then the equation of the tangent (or tangents)
p
at the origin is obtained by equating to zero the tenns of the lowest
degree in the equation. e.g. If the equation of a curve be
x' - y' + x' + 3x'y -y' =O, the tangents at the origin are given
by x' - y' = 0 i.e. x + y = 0 and x - y = 0
4. ANGLE OF INTERSECflON BETWEEN TWO CURVES :
2. NORMAL TO THE CURVE AT A POINT :
Angle of intersection between two curves is defined as the angle
A line which is perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact
between the two tangents drawn to the two curves at their pOint
is called normal to the curve at that point.
3. THINGS TO REMEMBER :
I! •
jj
~
of intersection. If the angle between two curves is 90· then they
are called ORTHOGONAL curves.
(a) The value of the derivative at P (xI'Y') gives the slope of the ~ 5. LENGTH OF TANGENT, SUBTANGENT, NORMAL &
! 1 SUBNORMAL :
tangent to the curve at P. Symbolically
!
I
y: f(xi

f'(x,) = ~] = Slope of tangent at P(xl' y,) = m(say). i

Il
(X l _1111

(b) Equation of tangent at (xl' y,) is ;

!
i
J ,
~l'

I I••
y-y, = : ] (x-x,)
(XI'YI)

I
1
(c) Equation of normal at (X" Y,) is ; Y - Yl - - d ] (x - x,) .
, ~TO-'+x
y
i ~ Length of subtangent
. dx (XI ,\Id
1 E~
i __________________________________
subnormal ~

~-E 154 155

Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook

y,Jl+lf '(x,ll'
(a) Length of the tangent (P1l ~
f'(x , )
y, If f & F are function of x such that F' (x) = fIx) then the function F is
(b) Length of Subtangent (MT) ~ f'(x , )
called a PRIMITIVE OR ANTIDERIVATIVE OR INTEGRAL of

(e) Length of Normal (PN) ~ y, J'l+-[- -f '(-x-.)-]-;;-, fIx) w.r.1. x and is written symbolically as

(d) Length of Subnormal (MN) ~ y, f'(x, ) Jf(x)dx = F(x)+c <::> ~(Fx) + c} = f(x). where c is called the
dx
6. DIFFERENTIALS : constant of Integration.
The differential of a function is equal to its derivative multiplied 1. STANDARD RESULTS:
by the differential of the independent variable. Thus if, y - tanx (ax + b)"+1
then dy ~ sec' x dx. In general dy ~ f'(xldx or df(x) - f(xldx (i} flax + b)"dx = + c; n",, - l
a(n + 1)
Note:
(I) d(c) ~ 0 where 'c' is a constant
(il) f~ ax + b
= .! a ( nl ax+b l+c

(U) d(u + v) ~ du + dv (HI) d(uv) ~ udv + vdu (III) Jeax+bdx = .!e

a
ax b + c +

(Iv) d(u - v) = du - dv (v) d(~ ) = vdu - udv 1 aPx +q

faP"+qdx = - - - ( a > 0) +c
•
(Iv)
v v' p Cna

(vi) For the independent variable 'x', increment tJ. x and differential i: I (v) f sin(ax + b)dx = - .!cos(ax + b) + c
a
dx are equal but this is not the case with the dependent variable ~
!
'y' i.e. tJ.y 0# dy.
.'. Approximate \EWe of y..hen inaement tJ.x is given to indeperrlent I i (vi) f cos(ax + b)dx = .! sin(ax + b) + c
a
j
variable x in y - f(xl Is Y + tJ.y - f(x + tJ.x) - !(x) + ~ .tJ.x I
j
I
'1
,
(vii) ftan(ax + b)dx = .! en sec(ax + b) + c
a

(vU) The relation dy = f(x) dx can be written as dy = f'(x) ; thus I l (viii) fcot(ax + b)dx = .! Cnsin(ax + b) +c
a
. dx
I 1
the quotient of the differentials of 'y' and 'x' is equal to the
•
!••
(Ix) J sec 2 (ax + b)dx = .! ta n(ax + b) + c
derivative of 'y' w.r.t. 'x'.
~ a

, ~ (x) fcos ec 2 (ax + b)dx = -.!cot(ax + b) + c

•• a
j
i E
(xl) fcosec(ax + b).cot(ax + b)dx = -.! cosec(ax + b) + c
a
L -________________~-E
156 157
Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook
2. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION :
(xU) Jsec (ax + b).tan(ax + bjdx = .!.sec(ax + b) + c
a (a) SubRitutlon or change of independent variable :
(xlII) Jsecxdx = enlsecx+tanxl+c
Integral I = Jf(x)dx is changed to JI(<I>(t)4>'(t) dt, by a suitable
·OR Jsecxdx = en tanl~ + ~I + i: substitution x - 4> (t) provided the later integral is easier to integrate.
(xlv) Jcosecxdx = e n~osecx-tl+ Some standard sub8titutIon :

OR Jcosec xdx = en Itan~1 + cOR -Cn (cosecx + cotx)~ (1) r

J!I(x) I '(x)dx
f'(x)
OR J [I(x))" dx put fIx) - t & proceed.
(xv) J dx sin-l~+c
~a2 _ x2 a (2) J 2 dx ,J dx ,J~ax2+bc dx
ax +bx+c ~ax2+bc
(xvi) f 2dx 2 1 -1 X
- tan -+c
Express ax 2 + bx + c in the lorm 01 perfect square & then
a +x a a

(xvii) f dx 1 -1 X
-sec -+c
apply the standard results.
x~2 2
_a a a
(3) I fx + q dx,I px+q dx
(xviii) J dx c n[x+~2aJ +c
ax + bx+c ~ax 2 +bxc-
~x2 + a2 Express px + q - A(differential coefficient of denominator) + B.
f dx cn[x+~2-aJ
(xix)
~x2 _ a2 +c
, i!
(4) JeX[l(xl+ I'(x))dx = eX.f(x) + c

(xx) fa dxx -en

1 - -
a+x 1 1 +c i (5) I[I(x) + xf'(x))dx = x I(x) + c
2 _ 2 2a a-x ! J (6) J dx n EN , take xn common & put 1 + x-o - t.
!
(xxi)
f dx ~fnl x - a I+c
I i xIx" + 1)
x2 _a 2

I Ii
2a x+a

(xxii) f
I 2 2 X I 2 2 a . -1 X
va -x dx=-va -x +-sm -+c
2
(7) J n
dx ("-IX n EN , takex oorrunon&put 1 + X-O = t"
2 2 a x2(x"+1) "
i
(xxiII) f~x2 + a 2dx = ~x2 + a2 + ~ fn( x + ~x2 2
+ a ) +c j
j (8) Ix"(l+x")
dx 1/ ,take xn common and put 1 + x-o - t.
! "
(xxiv) f~X2
(xxv) fea' .sinbxdx= 2
e ax
a ... b
- a 2dx =

2 (asinbx-bcosbx)+c
~X2 _a 2 _ a; e n(x+~2 ~a)+c
I,,
I
i
I• .
1
OR Jasin
OR

2 x+ bstn::'os x + c cos 2 x
Ja+ bcos 2 x
dx

(xxvi) feax .cos bxdx = -ie:...""-;o.(a,cQ!;bx+ bsin bx) + c

L -______________ ~ ________________ ~E
! E~
2 x & put tan x - t.
Multiply Nr & Dr by sec______________
________________ ~ ~

158 159
 Handbook

(16) To integrate ISin m xcosn x dx.

o J dx ~ OR J dXJ · OR' J dx ,
(I) 'If m is"odd positive integer put cos x = t.
(1) . a+bsinx . a+bcosx ..
a+bsinx+ccosx
(iI) If n is odd positive integer put sin x = t
Convert si\1es & cosines into their respective tangents
(iii) If m + n is negative even integer then put tan x = t.
, . x
of half the angles, put tan '2 = t (Iv) If m and n both even positive integer the n use
. 2 l - cos2x 2 1+cos2x
(11) Ja.cosx + b.si.n x+c dx. ' " SIn x= 2 ,cos x = 2
p.cosx+q.sInx+r
. . d
Express Numerator (N') '" I(D,) + m dx (0') + n & proceed.
(b) Integration by part: Iu.v dx = u Iv dx - ~ ~. Iv dX] dx

where u & v are differentiable functions.

(12) Jx4 +x Kx+ 1 + 1 dx OR Jx4 +x Kx 1 + 1 dx '
2
2
2
-
2
Note: While using integration by parts, choose u & v such that

where K is any constant. (i) Ivdx & (ii) I[ ~ .Iv dx] dx is simple to integrate.

1 1 This is generally obtained, by keeping the order of u & v as per

Divide Nr & Dr by x2 , then put x - - = t OR x + - = t the order of the letters in IlATE, where; I-Inverse function ,
-
. respectively & proceed
x . x
L-Logarithmic function, A-Algebraic function, T-Trigonometric
function & E-Exponential function .
dx
J(ax + b),Jpx f dx .put. px+q-,
.2 (e) Partial fraction: Rational function is defined as the ratio of
(13) + q & (ax J
i
2 + bx +c),Jpx + q , - PIx)
! two polynomials in the form Q(x) , where PIx) and Q(x) are
1 polynomials in x and Q(x) ;t O. If the degree of PIx) is less than
(14) 1
J
1 the degree of Q(x), then the rational function is called proper,

I
1
I
i i
I
otherwise, it is called improper. The improper rational function
can be reduced to the proper rational functions by long division
. PIx) PIx) PI (x)
process. Thus, if Q(x) Is improper, then Q(x) = T(x) + Q(x) ,

j PI (x)

II
where T(x) is a polynomial in x and Q(x) Is proper rational
function. It Is always possible to write the integrand as a sum of
simpler. rational functions by a method called partial fraction
;;;
•
i•i
decomposition. Alter this, the Integration can be carried out

J dx
,J(x - a)(x _ Il) ; put x - a - . t
2
or x - 13 - t2.
1
EL-__________________________________
easily using the already known methods. ~

~-E 160
161
 Mathematics Handbook
S. No. Fonnoftbe Fonnoftbe
rational function partiaJ &action
DEFINITE INTEGRATION
px' +qx+r A B C
1. -+--+-
(x-a)(x-bXx-c) x-a x-b x-c 1. (a) The Fundamental TheOrem of Calculus, Part 1 :
px' +qx+r A B C If f is continuous on la, bl, then the function g delined by
2. -+--+- x
(x_a)' (x-b) x-a (x-a)' x- b
g(x) = jl(t)dt a" x "b

3.
px'+qx+r A Bx+C •
(x-a)(x' +bx+c) x-a + x' +bx+c is continuous on la , bl and differentiable on (a, b), and g'(x) = f(x).

where x2 + bx + c cannot be factorised further (b) The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 :
b
Note: If I is continuous on la , bl, then jf(x)dx = F(b) - F(a) where F is
In competitive exams, partial fraction are generally found l7y Inspection •
any antiderivative of f, that is, a function such that F '= I.
l7y noting following fact :
b

1 1 (1 1) Note: If j f(x)dx = 0 ~ then the equation I(x) = 0 has atleast one

(x-aXx-fl) (a-fl) x-a x-fl . •
It can be applied to the case when x2 or any other function is there in root lying in (a,b) provided I is a continuous function in (a,b).
b
place of x.
J ..
2. A definite integral is denoted by JI( x)dx which represent the a rea
Example: • ordinates x = a, x = b and the
! ! bounded by the cUlVe y - I(x), the
1 1(2 t+11 t+31)
----- 2
ltake x - t)
J
J
!
!
2.
x·axis . ex. J sinxdx = 0
J
II
o
3. PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRAl. :

~1)-
1 b b b
(2)
x'(x' + 1) - :.(:. - x' :. -(:. - /+1) ! (a) JI(x)dx = JI(t) dt ~ JI(x)dx does not depend upon x. It is
j i • • o
!
H:· - ) a numerical quantity.
1
(3)
x3 (x' + 1) /+1)- :3 1
xIx' + 1) •
j b •
(b) JI(x)dx = - JI(x)dx

~- ______~E
,"
J ~~
• :;

1•
•
b

•
, b

•
b
(e) jf(x)dx = jl(x)dx + jf(x)dx , where c may lie inside or outside
,
the interval la, bJ. This properly to be used when I is piecewise
contiJiuOllS in
162 E
163
 Mathematics Handbook

, M. •
, • [0; if [(x) is an odd function Where K ~ {% if both m and n are even (m, n EN) ,
(eI) J f(x)dx'= J[f(x) +'f(-x)Jdx = 2'Jf ' dx ' '1 f( ' . f' 1 otheJWise
_, 0 . . (x)_ ;' ". x)Is an even unction
o, ,.
b b
, , 5. DERIVATIVE OF ANTIDERIVATIVE FUNCTION (Newton·
(e)
, .
If(x)dx = If(a + b - x)dx , In particular If(x)dx = If(a - x)dx
o 0
Leibnitz Formula) :
If h(x) & g(x) are differentiable functions of x then,

2, . " [2 ff(x)dx ; if f(2a - x) = f(x) d h(x)

(f) j f(x)dx = jf(x)dx + jf(2a - x)dx = 0 . - J f(t)dt = flh(x)].h '(x) - flg(x)].g '(x)
o. 0 , ~ • 0 ; if .f(2a-x)=-f(x) dx 9(X)

nT T
(g) If(x)dx = n If(x)dx , (n E I) ; where 'T' is the period of the
6. DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS UMIT OF A SUM :
b
o 0
function i.e. f(T + x) = f(x) Jf(x)dx = ~hlf(a)+ f(a + h) + f(a + 2h) + ... .. + f( a + n -lh)J
a
T+x T
Note that: I f(t)dt will be independent of x and equal to If(t)dt n- 1 .
Umh I f(a + rh) = Jf(x)dx where b - a
1
~ nh
, 0 h -tDC r=O 0
b+nT b
(h) I f(x)dx = If(x)::tx where !(x) is periodic with period T & n E l. If a =0 & b ~ 1 then, Urn hI f(rh)
n-l 1
= If(x)dx ; where nh =1

Il ii
a+nT a n---»<7.l r=O 0

(1)
no •
~
(I) I f(x)dx = (n - m) If(xldx, (n, m E ~ if f(x) is periodic with peri<X! 'a'. OR Urn -
n- 1 ( ) 1
If..':.. = If(x)dx .

i
J n-+7.: n f "' ) n 0
rna 0 ~

4. WAllI'S FORMUlA : 1 ESTIMATION OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL :

(a) .IoI2 . SlflX

n dx = .II2cosxX=-
0
d .:c(n'-~1);,3
n ....:=(10~r
..::'
n(n - 2) ..... (1 or 2)
2:::.) K I
!
j
j
7.
(a) If f(xl is continuous in la, bJ and it's range in this interval is 1m,

MJ, then m(b - a),;; J f(x)dx ,;; M(b - a)

b

n12 if n is even i j a
j

I
h
were K=
{1 if n is odd b b

(b)
.12
I sinn x.cos
o
m
xdx

= [(n -l)(n - 3)(n - 5) .... 1 or 2j[(m -l)(m - 3) .. .. 1 or 2) K

I•
:;
i;; E~-
,
I
>
(b) Iff(x) ,;; $(x) fora ,;;X,;; bthen Jf(x)dx ,;; JcjJ( x)dx

(c)
,
b
If(x)dx ,; IIf(x) ~x .
____ .
b

~
a ,

______________ ~
(m+n)(m+n-2)(m+n-4) .... 1 or 2
~- ____~E 165
164
 Mathematics Handbook
Ma'"emotlcs Hcmdboolc
b
(d) If f(x) ~ 0 on the lnIerval la,b), then ff(x)dx ~ O. DIFFERETIAL EQUATION
•
(e) fIx) and g(x) are two continuous function on la, b) then
1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:
2
Iff(x)g(X)dxl s ff (x)dx f g2 (X)dx An equation that involves independent and dependent variables and
the derivatives of the dependent variables is called a DIFFERENTIAL
8. SOME STANDARD RESULTS : EQUATION.

./2 _/ 2 2. SOLUTION (PRIMITIVE) OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:

(a) f log sin xdx = - ~log2
2
= f logcosxdx Finding the unknown function which satisfies given differential
0 0
equation is called SOLVING OR INTEGRATING the differential
b b-a equation. The solution of the differential equation is also called its
(b) j(xldx = -2- a, bEl PRlMmVE, because the differential equation can be regarded as a
• relation derived from it.

3. ORDER OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION:

The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest
differential coefficient occurring in it.

J
!
J
I
J
4. DEGREE OF DIFFEREl\ITIAL EQUATION :
The degree of a differential equation which can be written as a
j 1 polynomial in the derivatives is the degree of the derivative of the

I I
highest order occurring in it, after it has been expressed in a form
free from radicals & fractions so far as derivatives are concerned,
! ~
thus the differential equation:
j
j !
y) [d
m

dx: JP +~(x , y) [ddx 1m-;( J]' + ......... .

m

I
f(x, -
o is of order

I
~ ;;
m & degree p.
Note that in the differential equation ey" - xy" + y = 0 order is three
;;
"ii 1 but degree doesn't exist.
i E~ ________________ ~ ______________ ~

~- ________~E 167
166
 Mathematics Handbook Matliematlcs -Handbook

5. FORMATION'OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION: (i) xdx + ydy = rdr

If an equation'in indep ~ ndet · and dependent variables having some (il) dx' + dy' = dr' + r'de'
arbitrary constant is given, then a differential eqUation Is obtained (iD) xdy - ydx = r' de
as follows: :r , . If x = r sec e & y = r tan e then
(a) Differentiate the given equation w.r.t the independent variable
x dx -y dy = r dr and x dy - y dx = r' sec e de.
(say x) as many times as the number of arbitrary constants in it.
d .
(b) Eliminate the arbitrary constants : TYPE-3: -.JI. = f(ax+by+c), b",O
dx
The eliminant is the required differential equation .
To solve this, substitute t = ax + by + c. ,.Then the equation
. Note: A differential equation represe'1ts a · family of cur..ves all reduces to separable type in the variable t and x which can be
satisfying some common pro~ties. This can be considered
solved.
as the geometrical interpretation of the differential equation.
,dy 2
Consider the example (x + y) dx = a
6. GENERAL AND PARTICUlAR SOLUTIONS:
(b) Homogeneous equations :
The solution of a differential equation which contail1s a number of
independent arbitrary constants equal to the order of the differential dy f(x,y)
equation is called the GENERAL SOLUTION (OR COMPLET!' A differential equation. of the form dx = (x, y) , where f(x, y)
<I>

INTEGRAL OR COMPLETE PRIMI1lVE). A solution obtainable from

the general solution by giving particular values to the constants is & <I> (x , y) are homogeneous functions of x & y and of the same
called a PARTICULAR SOLUTION. degree, is called HOMOGENEOUS. This equation may also be

7. ELEMENTARY TYPES OF FIRST ORDER & FIRST DEGREE

I! I
~ reduced to the form ~ = g( ; ) & is solved by putting y = vx
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS: J 1
(a) Variables separable: J I so that the dependent variable y is changed to another variable

i I
v , where v is some unknown function, the differential equation
TYPE-I : If the differential equation can be expressed as ; is transformed to an equation with variables separable. Consider
f(x)dx +g(y)dy = 0 then this is said to be variable - separable type.
!
A general solution of this is given by If (x) dx + I 9 (y) dy
where c is the arbitrary constant. Consider the example (dy/dx)
= c ;
II ~
j
the example dy + y(x+y)
dx x'
°
I I
(e) Equations reducible to the homogeneous form :
= ex-<; + x2 .e-Y .

TYPE-2: Sometimes transformation to the polar co-ordinates

~
facilitates separation of variables. In this connection it is
convenient to remember the following differentials. If x = r cos
~
i
;; ••
i then the substitution x = u + h, y = v + k
9, y - rsin 9 then, ______________________________________
~-E 168 169
E~ ~
 Mathematics Handbook ·
Mathematics Handbook (b) Equations reducible to linear form :
transfonn to ~ homogeneous type in the new
variables u and v where h and k are arbitrary constants to be The equation : + Py = Q.y" where P & Q are function, oh,
chosen so as to make the given equation homogeneous.
(I) If a,b,-a,b,-O, then a substitution u - a,x+b,y transfonns is reducible to the linear form by dividing It by y" & then
the differential equation to an equation with variables substituting Y-'-Z. Consider the example (x'y'+xy)dx=dy.
separable.
(U) If b, +a, ~ 0 , then a simple cross multiplication and
substituting d(xyl for xdy + ydx & integrating tenn by tenn The equation : + Py = Q'/' Is called BERNOUU'S EQUATION.
yields the result easily.
9. 11IAJECTORIES :
dy
x-2y+5 dy 2x+3y-l
A curve which cuts every member of a given family of curves
Consider the examples dx = 2x + Y_ 1; dx = 4x + 6y - 5
according to a given law is called a Trajectory of the given family.
dy 2x-y+l
& -~ Orthogonal trajectories :
dx 6x-5y+4
A curve making at each of Its points a right angle with the curve of
(ill) In an equation of the fonn : yf(xy)dx + xg(xy)dy = 0 the the family passing through that point Is called an orthogonal trajectory
variables can be separated by the substitution xy - v. of that family.
8. UNEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS: We set up the differential equation of the given family of curves.
Let it be of the form F(x, y, y1 - 0
A differential equation is said to be linear if the dependent variable
The differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories Is of the form

I
& its differential coefficients occur in the first degree only and are
not multiplied together.
The nth order linear differential equation is of the fonn ;
dny dn-'y
a o (xl - - +a, (xl - - _, + ........ + an (xl.
i J
J
1
The general integral of this equation ~,(x y, C) - 0 gives the family

I
dxn dxn
i of orthogonal trajectories.

I
y ~ $ (xl, where a o (xl, a, (x) .... a,(x) are called the coefficients of Note:
the differential equation. Following exact differentials must be remembered

d(~)
(a) Unear differential equations of first order : xdy-ydx
j (I) xdy + y dx = d(xy) (Ii)
x'

I•
The most general form of a linear differential equations of first
j
~
i, d(~)
ydx -xdy xdy+ydx
order is + Py = Q , where P & Q are functions of x. (Iv) d(enxy)
(ill) y'
xy
j
To solve such an equation multiply both sides by e jP"" . Then

the solution of this equation will be ye

jPdx = JQe jPdx dx + c •~
0;
E~
i dx+dy
(v) d(l n(x+y))
________________
x+y ~
. xdy-ydx
(vi) d(
______________
xy
e n~) ~

171
~- ______~E
170
 Mathematics Handbook ~ ~l 111athematlcs .Handbook

. -----
.,
(vii) ydx - xdy =d(l~) •vill)· xd y' - ·yuX
(
~ · = d ( tan- 1 y.) AREA UNDER THE CURVE
xy y
- -
x' + y'
. x

(Ix)
ydx - xdy =
,,' + y'
d(tan - t~)
y
(xl xdx, + ydy
x +y
,- -d[en ~' x +y 'J 1. The area bounded by the curve
y = fIx), the x·axis and the ordinates
xdy + ydx ye' dx-e' dy x = a & x = b is given by,
x'y' y' b b
A = f(~)dx = fydx. x
xeYdy-eYdx ,. • •
x' ,
-'
2. If the area is below the x·axis then A is negative. The convention is

to consider the magnitude only i.e. A = Ify dx I in this case.

. -

3. The area bounded by the curve y

x = fly), y·axis & abscissa y = c,

dy
y = d is given by,
y=c I-~"_
d d
Area = f XdY = ff( y)?y
:1
i

!
I
I J 4.
,
Area between the curves y = fIx) &
o

y = g(x) between the ordinates x - a

II
I y-flx)

I
& x = b is given by, y-g(xl
b b

-j A= ff(x)dx - ,fg(x)dx
j
I b

I
f(f(x) - g(x)]dx

I•• ~
•
i
5. Average value of a function y - f (x) w. r. I. x over an interval a ,; x ,;
1 b
bis defined as: y(av) = b-a ff(x)dx .
to '. I
~- ______~ -E EL-'~ 173
17'Z
 Mathematlca Handbook Handbook
6. CURVE TRACING :
The following outline procedure is to be applied in Sketching the VECTORS
graph of a function y - !(x) which in tum will be extremely useful to
quickly and correctly evaluate the area under the curves.
1. Physical quantities are broadly divided in two categories viz (a) Vector
(a) Symmetry: The symmetry of the curve is judged as follows :
Quantities & (b) Scalar quantities.
(I) If all the powers of y in the equation are even then the
(a) Vector quantities :
curve is symmetrical about the a~is of x.
Any quantity. such as velocity. momentum. or force . that has
(H) If all the powers of x ar even, the curve is symmetrical
both magnitude and direction and for which vector addition is
about the axis of y.
defined and meaningful; is treated as vector quantities.
(III) If powers of x & y both are even, the curve Is symmetrical
(b) Scalar quantities :
about the axis of x as well as y.
(Iv) If the equation of the curve remains unchanged on A quantity, such as mass, length, time, density or energy, that
interchanging x and y, then the curve is symmetrical about has size or magnitude but does not involve the concept of
y ... x. direction is called scalar quantity.
(v) If on interchanging the signs of x & y both the equation of 2. REPRESENTATION :
the curve is unaltered then there is symmetry in opposite ~:;tare represented by directed straight line , /0
quadrants.
(b) And dy/dx & equate it to zero to find the points on the curve magnitude of a~ lal ~ length PQ / ' ..
where you have horizontal tangents. p
direction of a = P to Q.
(c) And the points where the curve crosses the x-axis & also the
y-axis.
(d) Examine if possible the intervals when I(x) is increasing or
I
J
"• £
~
i
3. ADDITION OF VECTORS:
(a) It is possible to develop an Algebra of Vectors which proves

decreasing. Examine what happens to 'y' when x ~ 00 or - 00. J 1, useful in the study of Geometry, Mechanics and other branches

I ~
of Applied Mathematics.
7. USEFUL RESULTS : (i) If two vectors a & Ii are
(a) Whole area 01 the ellipse, x' /a' + y' Ib' - 1 is 11 abo 11 ~ ~

Ij
represented by OA & OB ,
(b) Area enclosed between the parabolas oj - 4 ax & x' = 4 by is a + Ii
i then their sum is a
16ab/3. ~ vector represented by eX:
(c) Area included between the parabola y'
y ~ mx is Sa'/3m'.
= 4 ax & the line
I
<
~
•
I
~
•i•
(ii)
, where OC is the diagonal
of the parallelogram OACB.
a + Ii ~ Ii + a (commutative)
0

(Iii) (ii + Ii) + 0 = ii + (Ii + 0) (associativity)

~ ________________ ~ ________________ ~E
I E~ ________________ ~ ______________ ~

174 175
•
Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook

(b) Multiplication of vector by scalars: (I) Free vectors: If a vector can be translated anywhere in space

(i) m(a) = (a)m = ma (ii) m(na) = n(ma) = (mn)a without changing its magnitude & direction. then such a vector
is called free vector. In other words, the initial pOint of free
(iii) (m + n)ii = ma + na (iv) m(a + b) = ma + mb
vector can be taken anywhere in space keeping its magnitude
4. (a) ZERO VECTOR OR NULL VECTOR :
& direction same.
A vector o f zero magnitude i.e. which has the same initial &
te rminal point is called a ZERO VECTOR. It is denoted by 6. (g) Localized vectors : For a vector of given magnitude and
(b) UNIT VECTOR: direction . if its initial point is fixed in space. then such a vector
/\ vector o f unit magnitude in direction of a veclor a is called is called localised vector. Unless & until stated, vectors are
treated as free vectors.
unit vector along a and is denoted by a symbolically a = . a .
Iii I
5. POSITION VECTOR:
y
(c) COLLINEAR VECTORS I ('t 0 be a fixed ongin, then 1he posItion
Two vectors are said to be collinear if their supports are parallel A
\'cctor 01 a roint P is the vector OP. If
disregards to their direction. Collinear vectors are also called
Parallel vectors . If they hilve the same direction t eyare named u & u al'e position vectors 01 l WO
o ,
poinl A and B. lj;pn.
as like vectors otherwise unlike vectors.

Symbolically two non zero vectors ii & 5 are collinear if and J

only if. a = I ~b, where K E R ," 6. ~f"CTt ON FORMULA:
J
(d) COPlANAR VECTORS l~ a &. C,;;. ~njcp0si1;rl\Et:-$of'·.,C
,i ', sA · Bthen ILep.v.
A given number of vectors are called coplanar if their supports of a roi'!' vA-, C', di',l;des AS tP H-,e ra1:c r'l: n is given by
are all parallel to the same plane. t, }
,
fib + mE
r - ----.
j min
Note that "TWO VECTORS ARE ALWAYS COPLANAR ". •
(e) EQUALITY OF TWO VECTORS:
1 .'
7. veCTOR EQUATION O F A LINE
~ h
'j

Two vectors are said to be equal if they have 1 ,

.~ Pnr2metric ve(10r equation of a l:"le passi:1g through two pain! .AU~ )

(i) the same length, 1j t &: B!l' :!> gJ'"er b~' i :;o,· aof H,b a} where 1 is a paramel(,1 If the

(ii) the same or parallel supports and 'C fcSf II"0'..lgl f; e poin A ',a & IS pa'a!ie I e !he vect ol b tlwr
(iii) the same sense .
E ~ ________________________________________ ~

L -_ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~- -IE
176 177
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
OF THREE l
(Ill) If a = a,; + a 2 + a 3 k

(a) Three points A, B, C with position vectors a, b , c respectively a.b = a,b, + a 2b2 +a 3 b3
are coUinear, if & only if there exist scalars x, y, z not aU zero
lal = J a,' + a,' +a; ,Ibl = Jb,' + b2' + b;
Simultaneously such that ; xii + yb + zc = 0 , where x + y + z - 0
(Iv) - Ia llbl sa.bs la l lbl
(b) Three pOints A, B, C are collinear, if any two vectors
(v) Any vector a can be written as, a = (a.i)i+(a .])j +(a.k)k
AB, BC, CA are parallel.
(vi) A vector in the direction of the bisector of the angle between
9. SCAlAR PRODUCT OF lWO VECTORS (DOT PRODUCT): _ a b
the two vectors a & b is I a I + I b I . Hence bisector of the
(a) 1i.b =11i IIbl cosS (O S SS1t),S is angle between a & b,
angle between the two vectors a & b is 1..(a + b) , where
Note that if e is acute then a, b > 0 & if e is obtuse then
A E R' . Bisector of the exterior angle between a & b is
a ,b < 0
1..(a -b) ,1..E R'
(b) a,a =11i 1';' a', a,b=b .a (commutative) a. (b +c)=a ,b+a.c
(vii) lii±bl'= lal' + Ibl' ±2ii.b
(distributive)
(vIlI) la+b+c l'= lal' +Ibl' + Icl' +2(a.b+b. c+c.a)
(c) a ,b=O¢'>a.lb ; (a, b;<O)

i.- . ik"~
10. VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS (CROSS
.. U-ii"k.k-L PRODUCT):
"f
()
- a,b
e Projectionof aonb- - ,
Ib I
- )
I b I
~
~
]
(a) If a & b are two vectors &
Projection of a on b 6 is the angle between them,
! j
Note:
i then axb =lallblsin6fl ,

i
i
(i) The vector component of a along b i.e,
where fl is the unit vector

l
- (a,b)b- d ndiula
a, = b') an perpe c r
i perpendicular to both a &
~
j j b such that a, b & ii. forms
6 j

I. I•
- =a-
to b i.e, a, - (ab',b)b- a right handed screw system .
(b) Lagranges Identity : For any two vectors a & b·,
(8) The angle $ between a& b is given by < • (a x b)' =Ial'lif -(a.b)' = I~· ~ · ~I
...
-
a,b "~ iEL-____________________________________ a.b b .b
cos .. = I a II b I 0,; $'; 1t I
~

~- __~ ________________~E 179

.' 178
 Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook
(e) Formulation of vector product in terms of scalar product: The (h) Vector a rea:
vector product a x bis the vector c , such that (i) If a, b & c a re the pv's of 3 points A , B & C then

(ii) o.a= O; c. b = O and the vector area of triangle ABC = ~ [a x 5 + 5 x c+ c x a ] .

(iii) a, ii , c form a right handed system The points A, B & C are collinear if a x b + 5 x c+ c x a = 0
(d) a x f:i = 0 ¢;. a & ii are parallel (collinear) (a" 0, f:i" 0) (ii) Area of any quadrilateral whose diagonal vectors are d, & d,
i.e. a = Kb ,where K is a scalar is given by ~ Id , xCi,I· Area of 1I = % l axb l
(i) a xii" ii x a (not commutative)
11. SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO UNES
(ii) (rna) x ii = ax(mii) = m(a x ii) where m is a scalar.
Lines which do not
(iii) a x (ii + c) = (a x 5) + (a x c) (distributive) intersect & are also
(vi) ; x ; = ) x ) = kx k = 0 not parallel are
called skew Unes. In
; X) = k, ) x k = ;, k x ; =)
o ther words the
(e) If a = a t;+a 2 )+a 3 k & Ii = b t; + b2 ) +b3 k then lines which are not
coplanar are skew
; k
lines. For Skew lines
ax 5 = at a2 a3 ,-
b, b2 b3 J j the direction of the
! ! shortest distance vector would be perpendicular to both the lines.
(f) Geometrically I a x ii i = area of
axb 1 1_ / J 1
i! The magnitude of the shortest distance vector would be equal to that
the parallelogram whose two adjacent ·b _-=~),.
V",,-- i ~

of the projection of AB along the direction of the line of shortest

- a
I,
;,
sides are represented by ii & ii.
,~
~

distance, LM is parallel to p x q
(g) (i) Unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a & b is
I 1 ~ ~ ~

~ i.e. LM I Projectio n of AB o n LMI

n =± ax~ J
j j
Iii x bl I Projection of AS on pxq I
(ii) A vector of magnitude 'r' & perpendicular to the plane of
_ rIa x b)
ii & b is ± - ---
I Il ~

AB.(p x q)
pxq
1(5 - a) (p x q) 1
IPx q I
la x b I
•~
i"
_ . laxiil (a) The two lines directed along p & q will intersect only if shortest
(iii) If e is the angle between a & b then SIO e = - - - -
L -__________________________________ I a II bl
i E~
distance = 0
________________ ______________
~ ~

180 181

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 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
are
i.e. (b - a). (j) x q) ~ 0 i.e. (b - a) lies in the plane containing a,b& c is [a b Cl.
(h) Remember that :
j) & q ~[(b-i) j) q]~O
(i) [a-b b - c c-aJ=O
(h) IftwoImesaregivenl1y 1', ~a,

:SJ' :,
+K,b
(ii) [a+b b+c c+aj = 2[a b cJ
& 1'2 ~ a2 + K2b i.e. they
a.a a.b a.c
are parallel then, d ~ bx(a ~, -a)1 a, ----+- (iii) [a b cf = [a xb bxc exaj- b.a b.b b.c
I Ibl c .ii c.b C.c
12. SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT / BOX PRODUCT / MIXED 13. VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT :
PRODUCT:
Let ii, b & c be any three vectors, then that expression ii x (b x c)
(a) The scalar triple product of three vectors a, b & c is defined is a vector & is called a vector triple product.
as: (a x b).c =1 a II b II c I sin Scos <I> (a) a x (b x c) - {a .c)b-(ii.b)c
where S is the angle (b) (ii x b) x c = (ii . c)b - (b . c)ii
between a & b &
<I> is the angle between
(c) (a x b) x c * ii x (b x 0)
axb & c. (tisalso 14. LINEAR COMBINATIONS / LINEAR INDEPENDENCE AND
defined as [a b c), .. DEPENDENCE OF VECTORS ;:

spelled as box prcx:iuct.

(h) In a scalarmple prodtx:t the position of dot & cross can be interchanged
I
~
!
~
Linear combination of vectors:
Given a finite set of vectors ii, b, c ,..... ... .. . then the vector
I
i.e. a, (b x c) ~ (a x b). c OR [a b c) ~ [b c a) ~ [c a b) 1 r = xii + yb + zc + ............ is
1 I called a linear combination of
(e) a . (bxc)~ - a,(cxb) i.e. [ii be) = -[acb) j
j
a, b, c ,........ for any x, y, z ....... E R . We have the follOwing results:
(d) If a , b , c are coplanar ~
linearly dependent.
[a b c) ~ 0 => a, b , care .iI x
(a) If XI ' X2,· · .. nare n non zero vectors, & kl' k2,.. ..kn are n

(e) Scalar product of three vectors, two of which are equal or parallel I j scalars & if the linear combination kl XI + k2x2 + .. ... knxn -0

is 0 i.e. [a b c) = 0
I ~ => kl = 0, k2 = O...... kn = 0 then we say that vectors
j
1 XI' x2 ,··· ,xn are linearly independent vectors

i•
(f) [ijk) = l;[Ka b c) ~ K[a b c);((ii+b) c d) = [ii c d)+[bc d)
(g) (I) The Volume of the tetrahedron OABC with 0 as origin & ~"<~ (b) If XI' x2 , ••••.• ,xn are not linearly independentthen they are

i•
said to be linear dependent vectors. i.e. if
the pv's of A, Band C being ii, Ii & c are given l1y •
• kl XI' k2x 2 + .... ... knxn - 0 & if there exists at least one k, 0 *
V =!6 [ii b c)
i E~
then XI' x2"" xn are said to be______________
________________ ~
linearly dependent. ~

~- ____________~E 183
182
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook

(c). Fundamental theorem in plane : let ii,

collinear vectors. then any vector i'
5 be non zero, non
coplanar with ii, 5 can be
i_ ~ ~ ~ ~;E GEO~TRY J
expressed uniquely as a linear combination of ii, b i.e. there 1. DISTANCE FORMULA :
exist some unique x, y E R such that xii + yb = i' The distance between two pa ints A (X I' y" zl) and B (x" y" z,) is
(d) Fundamental theorem in space : let ii, b, c be non- given by AB = JI(x, - XI)' + (Y2 - YI )2 + (z, - Zl )' J
zero, non·coplanar vectors in space. Then any vector i' , can
2, SECTION FORMULAE :
be uniquely expressed as a linear combination of ii, 5, c i. e.
Let P(x" Yl' Zl) a nd Q(x" y" z,) be two points and let R (x, y, z) divide
Th e re exist some unique x. y, z E R such that
PQ in the ratio m l : m,. Then R is
i' = xii+yb +zc.
15. COPlANARITY OF FOUR POINTS: mlz, + m"ll
m 1 +m 2 )
Four points A, B, C, D with position vectors ii, 5, c, d respectively
If (m / m, ) is positive, R divides PQ internally and if (m/m, ) is
are cop1.~nar if and only if there exist scalars x, y, z, w not all zero
negative, then externally.
simultaneously such that xii + yb + zc + wd = 0
where, x + y + z + w = 0 Xl + X2 Yl + Yz ZI + Z2 )
Mid point of PQ is given by ( - 2- ' - 2- ' - 2-
16. RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS :
If ii·, 5, c & ii', 5' , c' are two sets of non coplanar vectors such 3. CENTROID OF A TRIANGLE :
that ii. ii' = 5. 5' = c . c· = 1 then the two systems are called !• Let A(x l , YI' Zl)' B(x 2 , y" z,), C(x 3 ' Y3' z3) be the vertices of a triangle
Reciprocal System of vectors. ~ ABC. Then its centroid G is given by
!
5x c - - -b ,
Note: ii' = _ 5' = ,.c~xa c' a x • G = ( Xl + X2 + X3 Yl + Y2 + Y3 ZI + z~ + Z3)

17. TETRAHEDRON:
ia b c) ia 5 c)

(i) Lines joining the vertices of a tetrahedron to the centroids of the

ia 5 c)
i
-

I
4,
3
DIRECTION COSINES OF LINE:
' 3

If et, p, Ybe the angles made by a line with

'

opposite faces are concurrent and this point of concurrecy is called ~ x-axis, y-axis & z-axis respectively then
the centre of the tetrahedron. ~ COSet, cosp & cosy are called direction

I•
(8) In a tetrahedron, straight lines joining the mid points of each pair cosines of a line, denoted by I, m & n
of opposite edges are also concurrent at the centre of the respectively and the relation between t,
tetrahedron. m, n is given by [' +m2 +n2 = 1
(iii) The angle between any two plane faces of regular tetrahedron is ;; • D. cosine of x-axis, y-axis & z-axis are respectively
cos-' .!. , i 1,0, 0; 0, 1, 0; 0, 0, 1
__________________________________
~-
3 ____~ ______________~E
185
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 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
9. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO UNES :
5. DlREcnON RATIOS:
Let ebe the angle between the lines with d.c. ' 5 II' m" n l and 12 , m 2 ,
Any t.hree numbers a. b, c proportional to direction cosines e, m, n
are called direction ratios of the line.
C m n
D.R.'s of two lines then angle e between them is given by
i.e. ;;- = b = ~

It Is easy to see that there can be infinitely many sets of direction

ratios for a given line.
10. PERPENDICULARITY AND PARALLEUSM:
6. RElATION BElWEEN D.C'S & D.R'S :
Let the two lines have their d.c.'s given by II ' m l , n l and 12 , m 2 , n,
f m n
-:=:;:-=-
abc respectively then they are perpendicular if 9 = 90 0 i.e. cos 9 = 0, i.e.

c' m' n' " + m' + n'

.. 7 = b' = ? a' + b' + C'

1= ±a. ±b ±c
Also the two lines are parallel if 9 = ° t
C2
m
i.e. sin e = 0, i.e. --L = _I =_1
m2
n
n2
,fa' + b' + C' , m ~ ,fa' + b' + C' n ~ -,J"F"",=+=b"'"=+=c"""
a Note:
If instead of d .c.'s, d.r. ' 5 a J> b l , c i and a 2 , b" Cz are give n, then
7. DlREcnON COSINE OF AXES : the lines are perpendicular if ala z + blbz + clC Z = 0 and parallel
Direction ratios and Direction cosines of the line joining i! i
~
if a/a z = b /b z = c/c2 '

two points: J 11. EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT UNE IN SYMMETRICAL

1
1 FORM:

I
Let A(x" y" ',) and B(x" y" 2,) be two points, then d,r.'s of AB are (a) One point form: Let A(x l , YI' ZI) be a given point on the

x, - x" y, - y,,', -', and the d.c.'s of AB are'!' (x, - x,),

r
.!.r (y, - y,), tJ straight line and I, m, n the d.c's of the line, then its equation is

_I = _y-y
x-x
_ z-z
_I =_ _I = r (say)
! j
r = ~(l:x,
( m n
.!.r (', - ',) where - x, )' J =1 AB 1 I ~ It should be noted that p(x i + Ir, YI + mr, ZI + nr) is a general point
j

I••
on this line at a distance r from the point A(x l , YI ' Zl) i.e. AP = r.
8. PROJEcnON OF A UNE ON ANOTHER UNE :

Let PQ be a line segment with P(x" y" ',) and Q(x y" 'l) and let L
"
I
~
!
,
One should note that for AP - r; I, m, n must be d.c.'s not d.r.'s.
II. a, b, c are direction ratios of the line, then equation of the line
is
x-x y-y
_ _I = _ _
z-z
1 = __ 1 =r but here AP .. r
be a straight line whose d.c.'s are I, m, n. Then the length of projection
"
;;
t abc
~
of PQ on the line L is 1e(x, - x,) + m (y, - y,) + n ('l - ',) 1
______________________________________ ~E
1 E~ __ ~ ____________ ~ ______________ ~

187
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 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
(b) Equation the line through two pointsA(xl> Y" (b) Plane Parallel to the Coordinate Planes:

X - XI Y - Yl Z - Zt
(i) Equation of y-z plane is x ~ O.
is - - - = - -- = - - -
X 2 -X I Y2- Y' z2- Z I (ii) Equation of z-x pla ne is y ~ O.
(iii) Equat.ion of x-y plane is z ~ O.
12. FOOT, LENGTH AND EQUATION OF PERPENDICUlAR
(iv) Equation of the plane parallel to x-y plane at a distance c is
FROM A POINT TO A LINE:
z ~ c. Similarly, planes parallel to y-z pla ne and z-x plane are
Let equa tion of Ihe line be
respectively x ~ c and y ~ c.
x- x Y- Y z-z
-(-' =-- m
' =--'n
=r (say) ... .. ..... (i) (c) Equations of Planes Parallel to the Axes :
and A (a, p. y) be the point. Any p oint on the line (i) is if il ~ 0 , the plane is parallel to x-axis i.e. equation of the plane
P(l r + Xl' mr + Y" nr + 2,) .... ...... (ii) parallel to x-axis is by + cz + d ~ O.
If it is the foot of the perpendicula r, from A on the li ne . then AI> is.L
to the line , so e(er + x, - a ) + m (mr + Y, - P) + n (nr + Z, - y) =
i.e . r = (a - x, ) f + (P - Y,) m + (y - ZI) n
° Similarly, equations of planes parallel to y-axis a nd parallel 10
z-axis are ax + cz + d ~ 0 and ax + by + d ~ 0 respectively.
(d) Equation o f a Plane in Intercept Form :
since f2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1
Equation of the plane which cuts off intercepts a. b, c from the
Putti ng this value of r in (ii), we gel the foot of perpendicular fro m
X \1 Z
point A 10 the li ne axes is - +- _.- -I- - = 1 .
a lJ c
Length : Since fool of perpendicula r P IS known , lenglh of (e) Equatio n of a Plane in Normal Form :
perpendicula r. If the length of the perpendicular distance of the plane from
1.
AP =J ilI n X, - a )2 + (mr + Y, - f3)' +(nr+ 2, -y)'] 1f the origin is p and direction cosines of this perrendicular are (I.
• m, 0), t',en the equation of the plane is Ix + my +- nz = [0.
Equation of perpendicular is given by i, (f) Vectorial form of Normal equation of plane:
x -a y-~
,, If rl is a unit vector norma] to the lJlane from the ori~n lO the
~
r1ane flnd d be the perpendicular distance of plane from origin
13. EQUATIONS OF A PLANE:
I
f then its vector equation is r.n::;; d .
The equation of every plane IS of the firsl degree i e. of the form r (g) Equation of a Plane through three points:
ax + by + C2 + d = 0, in which a, b c are constants. where a' + b" + c· '" ! The eouation of the plane through three non-collinear points
o (i.e. a. b. c T 0 Simultaneously)
I x y z 11
(a) Vector form of equat ion. of p ane :
If • be Ihe pOSition vector of a point Of' the plane and ii be a
V2ctOl normal to the plane then it" s vectorial equal;on is gi~en
i
~
,
',x t - Yl ' z\).
, (
,x:!' Y? z2
)(
X 31 }'3 ' Z3/ IS
,. x,
~. "
y,
y,
z, : !
Z2 11
I
0

h>, (): - a),1i

=- 0 => r.n
~- d where (J
L -_ ____________ _____________.________
i:1 1 Lel "'~c
~E
~ ~:L
)< ,
"1 Z J

189
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 Mathematics Handbook Handbook
14. ANGLE BETWEEN lWO PlANES : 17. POSITION OF lWO POINTS W.R. T. A PlANE :
Consider two pianes ax + by + cz + d = Oanda'x + b'y + c' Z + d' = O. Two points p(x ,. y" z,) & Q(x.,. y,. z, ) are on the same or opposite sides
Angle between these planes is the angle between their normals. of a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 according to aX I + by, + cz, + d &
ax, + by, + cz, + d are of same or opposite signs.
aa'+bb'+cc'
cos a = r=';;==;:='7'"(=;'==;;==;:>
.Ja' + b' + c' .Ja " + b " + e " 18. IMAGE OF A POINT IN THE PlANE :
p
Planes are perpendicular if aa' + bb' + ee' = 0 and they are parallel Let the image of a point p(x" y" z,)
if a/a' = bib' = eN.
in a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
Planes parallel to a given Plane :
Equation of a plane parallel to the plane ax + by + ez + d = 0 is Q(x 2 , Y2. Z2 ) and foot of perpendicular
ax + by + ez + d' = O. d' is to be found by other given condition.
of point P on plane is R(x,. Y,. z,). then
15. ANGLE BElWEEN A LINE AND A PlANE:
x-x y-y z-z
Let equations of the line and plane be _ _l = _ _l = __l and
f m n
ax + by + ez + d = 0 respectively and a be the angle which line
makes with the plane. Then (1</2 - a) is the angle between the line
(b) x, -
a
XI y, - YI = Z, - 21 = _2 ( ax I + bYI +.rzl +
b c · a' + t:' + c'
d)
and the normal to the plane .
19. CONDITION FOR COPLANARITY OF lWO LINES:
So
.a
Sin = r=;~i":'7
at +bm+cn
J(a' + b' +c' )J(C' + m' + n')
I "!~ ~
Let the two lines be
! 1 x-a y_A z-y
Line is p';'l'allel to plane if e = 0

I I
~ : _ _" _' = _ _
] e1 m] n]
I
•......... (i)
i.e. if al + bm + en = O.
x-a, y-J}, z-y ,
Line is .1 to the plane if line is parallel to the normal of the plane
}
and --=--=--
e m, n2 , ..... ... .. (ii)
I
i.e. if ~ =~ m =.:.n j I (1 2 - 0. 1 132 -131 y, -YI
(
I j These lines. will coplanar if (I ml nl =0
16. CONDITION IN ORDER THAT THE LINE MAY LIE ON THE
GIVENPlANE:
I , J
e, m, n,

,1
~
~ ~
x - a) Y -13 1 Z - Yl
Theline x- XI = Y-YI = Z-ZI will fie on the plane Ax + Ely+Cz + D= 0
e m n 'i the plane containing the two lines Is £1 ml nl =0
;;
if (a) Ai + 8m + Cn - 0 and (b) Ax, + Byl + CZ + D - 0 C, m, n,
~ ________________ ~
l
______________ ~E
E~ __________________________________ ~

190 191
 A2~O.p5ERPNDICUl(FMT FROM THE
Mathematics Handbook

PLANE :
Perpendicular distance p, of the point A(x l , Yl' zl) from the plane [ : ' :~aI " .sLJ§ J
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by
1. SOME BASIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS
I aX I + byl + CZI + d I
p = -'-.J7:(=:a';= +;,\b=: , :=+dc",)~ (a) An Experiment : An action or operation resulting in two or
more outcomes is called an experiment.
Distance between two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d l - 0
(b) Sample Space : The set of all possible outcomes of an
experiment is called the sample space, denoted by S. An element
of S is called a sample point.
21. A PLANE THROUGH THE UNE OF INfERSEcnON OF (e) Event : Any subset of sample space is an event.
TWO GIVEN PlANES : (d) Simple Event : An event is called a simple event if it is a
Consider two planes Singleton subset of the sample space S.
u " ax + by + cz + d = 0 and v " a' x + b' y + C' Z + d' = O. (e) Compound Events: It is the jOint occurrence of two or more
The equation u + AV = 0, Aa real parameter, represents the plane simple events.
passing through the line of intersection of given planes and if planes (f) Equally Likely Events: A number of simple events are said
are parallel, this represents a plane parallel to them. to be equally likely if there is no reason for one event to occur
22. BISECTORS OF ANGLES BETWEEN TWO PLANES : in preference to any other event.
(g) Exhaustive Events: All the possible outcomes taken together
Let the equations of the two planes be ax + by + cz + d = 0 and J
a l x + b l y + c I z + d l = O. ! J !i
in which an experiment can result are said to be exhaustive
J or disjoint.
Then equations of bisectors of angles between them are given by
i (h) Mutually Exclusive or Disjoint Events: If two events cannot

I
ax+by+cz+d ± alx + bly + clZ +d l ~

•
J(a' + b' + c') J(a ~ + b~ +c~) i <
occur simultaneously, then they are mutually exclusive.
If A and · B are mutually exclUSive, then A r. B = $.
(I) Complement of an Event: The complement of an event A,
(a) Equation of bisector of the angle containing origin: First }
make both constant terms positive. Then +ve sign give the i denoted by A, A' or N, is the set of all sample points of the

I!
~ space other then the sample points in A.
bisector of the angl.e which contains the orig!n.
(b) Bisector of acute/obtuse angle : First making both constant
1 2. MATHEMATICAL DEFINITION OF PROBABIUlY
terms positive, Let the outcomes of an experiment consists of n exhaustive mutually
aa l + bb l + cC I > 0 ~ origin lies In obtuse angle ~ exclusive and equally likely cases. Then the sample spaces S has
~ ~ n sample points. If an event A consists of m sample points, (0 :5
aa l + bb l + ccl < 0 ~ origin lies in acute angle
I i m :5 n), then the probability of event A, denoted by PtA) is defined
~-E 192
E~ __~IDbe __________________~
193
, \
Ma Mathematics Handbook

Let S ~ at' a, •.......• a, be the sample space General form of addition theorem
For n events A I' A" A3, ... ... A, in S , we have
n
(a) P(S) ~ - = 1 corresponding to the certain event. P(AI u A, U A3 U A, ... .. ... u A,)
n
,
(b) P(q,) ~
o
- ~ 0 corresponding to the null event 4> or impossible = LP( A ;)- LP( A;n Aj)+ L P( A ;n A jn A.l .. . ..
n i=- } i<j i<j < k
event.
(e) If A, ~ (a,). i ~ 1 •.... .• n then A, is the event corresponding + (-1)'- 1 P(AI n A, nA3 ... .. n AJ
1 (b) If A and B are mutually exclusive, then PIA n B) = 0 so that
to a single sample point a,. Then PIA,) = -. PIA u B) = PIA) + P(B) .
n
(d)O s P(A) s 1
5. MULTIPLICATION THEOREM
3. ODDS AGAINST AND ODDS IN FAVOUR OF AN EVENT : Independent event:
Let there be m + n equally likely. mutually exclusive and exhaustive So if A and B are two independent events then happening of B
cases out of which an event A can occur in m cases and does not will have no effect on A.
occur in n cases. Then by definition of probability of occurrences Difference between independent & mutually exclusive event:
m (i) Mutually exclusiveness is used when events are taken from same
m+n experiment & independence when events one takes from
n different experiment.
The probability of non-occurrence = (ii) Independent events a re represented by word "and" but mutually
m+n
exclusive events are represented by word "OR".
:. P(A) : P(A') = m : n IE
Thus the odd in favour of occurrences of the event A are defined I
~ ~
(a) When events are independent:
P(AIB) = PIA) and P(B/A) = P(B), then
by m : n i.e. P(A) : P(A' ); and the odds against the occurrence of ~
J
the event A are defined by n : m i.e. p(A') : P(A).
J ] P(A n B) = PIA). P(B) OR P(AB) = PIA) . P(B)
•
ADDmON THEOREM
(a) If A and B are any events in S. then
P(A u B) = PIA) + P(B) - p(A ~ B)
I
l
il
j
(b) When events are not independent
The probability of simultaneous happening of two events A and
B is equal to the probability of A multiplied by the conditional
Since the probability of an event is a nonnegative number. it i probability of B with respect to A (or probability of B multiplied
~ j
follows that by the conditional probability of A with respect to B) i. e
PIA u B) s PIA) + P(B)
i P (A n B) = P (A) . P(B/ A) or P (B) . P (AlB)

, I•
For three events A. Band C In S we have
P{ A u B u C) ~ PIA) + P(B) + PIC) - PIA n B) - P(B ~ C) ~ OR
- p(C ~ A) + PIA ~ B ~ C). •i
J
• P (AB) = P(A) . P (BI A) or P (B) . P (AlB)
E~ ______________ ~ ______________________ ~

~- ______~E 195
194
, Mathematic. Handbook
Mathematics Handbook The mean, the variance and the standard deviation of binomial
(e) ProbabUity of at least one of the n Independent events
distribution are np, npq, ~npq .
If P, ' P, , P3 ' ....... P, are the probabilities of n independent
events A, , A" A3 ..... A, then the probability of happening of 9. SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS
at least one of these event is (a) Let A and B be two events, then
I-I( I-p,)( I-p, ) ..... (l-p"lJ (I) PIA) + P(A-) = 1
p(A, + A, + A3+ ..... + A,) = I-P(A, )P( A, ) P(A 3) ... . p( A, ) (il) PIA + B) = 1 - P(A-B)
6. CONDmONAL PROBABILITY :
(IU) P(A/B) = P(AB)
If A and B are any events in S then the conditional probability of P(B)
B relative to A is given by
. (Iv) PIA + B) = P(AB) + P(A-B) + P(AB)
P(B n A)
P(B/ A) = PIA) If PIA) *- 0 (v) A c B ::) PIA) " P(B)
7. BAYE'S THEOREM OR INVERSE PBOBABIUTY: (vi) P (A- B) = P(B) - P(AB)
Let A A, ... ", A, be n mutually exclusive and exhaustive events
of the" sample space S and A is event which can occur with any (vii) P(AB) " PIA) P(B) " PIA + B) " PIA) + P(B)
(vlH) P(AB) = P(A) + P(B) - PIA + B)
of the events then P -A' ) =,P(A)P(A
' / A)
,
(
A L P(A,)P(A / A,) fIX) P(Exactly one event) = P (A B) + P (A- B)
,-, J = PIA) + P(B) - 2P(AB)= PIA + B) - P(AB)
8. BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION FOR REPEATED TRIALS
Binomial Experiment : Any experiment which has only two
outcomes is known as binomial experiment.
i! i
1
(x) P(neither A nor B) = P(A-B) = 1 - PIA + B)
(xl) P (A- + B) =1 - P(AB)
J
Outcomes of such an experiment are known as success and failure. 1 (h) Number of exhaustive cases of tossing n coins simukaneously
J !
i i
Probability of success is denoted by p and probabillty of failure by q. (or of tossing a coin n times) = 2"
:. p + q = 1 (e) Number of exhaustive cases of throwing n dice Simultaneously
If binomial experiment is repeated n times, then i (or throwing one dice n times) = 6"
(p + q)n = nco qn + nC1pqn-l + nC 2p 2qn-2 + ..... + nCr pT qn- r + ...... . i
I j (d) Playing Cards :
+ 'C, p' - 1
(a) Probability of exactly r successes in n trials 'C,p'q' - ,
j i (I) Total Cards: 52(26 red, 26 black)

I.
=

(b) Probability of at most r successes in n trails = t ' C, P"q'-'

i (H) Four suits : Heart, Diamond, Spade, Club - 13 cards each
>. a 0
, < •• (iH) Court Cards : 12 (4 Kings, 4 queens, 4 jacks)
(e) Probability of atleast r successes in n trails = L' C, p' q' -" • i (Iv) Honour Cards : 16 (4 ________________
________________ aces, 4 kings, 4 queens, 4 jacks)
r ~ trials' :: p q' __ i
E~ ~ ~

(d) Probability of having I" success at the - 1.

~- __~ ____________ ~ ~E 197
196
Mathematics Handbook ' Handbook

(e) Probability regarding n letters and their envelopes :

STATISTICS
If n letters corresponding to n envelopes are placed in the .,'
envelopes at random, then
1 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY:
(I) Probability that all letters are in right envelopes = -; . An average value or a central value of a distribution is the value 01
n.
1 variable which is representative of the e ntire distribution, this
(iI) Probability that all letters are not in right envelopes = 1 - n! representative value are called the measures of central tendency.
(Iii) Probability that no letters is in right e,nvelopes Generally the following five measures of central tendency.
(a) Mathematical average
=~-+ .... +(-l)"~ (i) Arithmetic mean (ii) Geometric mean
2! 3! 4! n!
(Iv) Probability that exactly r letters are in right envelopes (iii) Harmonic mean
(b) Positional average
= .! [ ~ - ~+ - ... .. +(-l)" -, _ 1_] (i) Median (ii) Mode
. r! 2! 3! 4! (n-rl! 1. ARITHMETIC MEAN :
(I) For ungrouped dist. : If xl' x,, .. .... x, are n values of variate
x, then their AM, X is defined as

_ x, +X, + ..... +x,

.. x = -'---"----"-
1
X
!
! = n"X
:::::::) ~XI
n n

J 1
(ii) For ungrouped and grouped freq. dist.: If xl' x" .... x,are
1 i values 01 variate with corresponding frequencies I.. I" ... I, then
~
I
i
II
their AM, is given by

,
j j _
X
fix , +f, x, + .... +f,x,
=--'---'---"--'----"--"- i=l where N = If;
j ~ f, +f, + .... +f, N i=1

i I
~
(iii) By short method :
Let d, = x, - a
'i
•
:0
Efid i

L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~E
I E~
! ..
________________
x"'" a +
N
where a is assumed mean
~ ________________ ~

198 199
 ~
Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook

(Iv) By step deviation method : 2. MEDIAN:

The median of a series is the value of middle term of the series when
dj xj-a
Let u~- · ~- the values are written in ascending order. Therefore median, divided
' h h an arranged series into two equal parts.

-x=a+ (LfiUi)h
--
N
Formulae of median:
(i) For ungrouped distribution: Let n be the number of variate

r
in a series then
(v) Weighted mean: If WI' w" ...... w" are the weights assigned to
the values XI' x" ..... x" respectively then their weighted mean is ( n; 1 term , (when n is odd)
defined as

Weighted mean ~
_W-,I_X..!"_+W.,; 2 X~ , ,-+_ .._.._,+_w-'"'-x",," j=1
[Ii)
Median ~

Mean Of( rand % (%+1 r

For ungrouped freq. dist. : First we prepare the cumulative
terms, (when n is even)

frequency (c.f.) column and Find value of N then

i= 1

(vi) Combined mean : If XI and x2 be the means of two groups

(N; I)' term, (when N is odd)
having n I and n, terms respectively then the mean (combined mean)
of their composite group is given by combined mean Median~

n,x, + n 2x 2 Mean of ("2N)" (N)'"

"2
and +I terms. (when N is even)
n, +n,
;! 11 (iii) For grouped freq. dist : Prepare c.f. column and lind value 01
If there are more than two groups then,
f N
2' then find the class which contain value of c.f. is equal or just
comb·med mean = _n..!,1X--,-,+_n..!,1x_2,-+_n2'_x,,-
, _+_"_" l
n l +n,+n, +.... 1 1 greater to N/2, this is median class
j
(vii) Properties of Arithmetic mean :
• Sum of deviations of variate from their A.M. is always zero
i.e . ~(x , - x) ~ 0, ~f,(x , - x) ~ 0
I
j

I
I
j :. Median ~ t +
(N-F)
2
f
x h

• Sum of square of deviations of variate from their AM. is

minimum i.e. ~(x , - x)' is minimum
j
J
ij where f - lower limit of median ~ Ias
f - freq. of median class

I,
F - c.l. 01 the class preceeding median class
• If x is the mean of variate x, then AM. of (x, + ).,)
AM. of (Ax) ~ Ax
~ x + A.
I
j 3. MODE:
h - Class interval 01 median class

AM . of (ax, + b) ~ a x + b (where A, a, b are constant) <

"ii • In a Irequency distribution the mode is the value of that variate which
• AM. is independent of change of assumed mean i.e. it is not have the maximum frequency
effected by any change in assumed mean . i ______________________________________
L---------______~-JE 200 201
 Handbook Mathematics Handbook
(I) Range: The difference between the greatest and least values of
Method for detennining mode:
variate of a distribution, are called the range of that distribution,
(i) For tmgrouped dlst. : The value of that variate which is repeated
If the distribution is grouped distribution, then its range is the
maximum number of times difference between upper limit of the maximum class and lower
(ii) For ungrouped freq. dIst. : The val~e of that variate which limit of the minimum class,
have maximum frequency.
' . f difference of extreme values
(iii) For grouped freq. dlst. : Arst we find the class which have maximum AIso , coe fflelent 0 range - - - - - - - - - - - - -
frequency . this is model calss sum of extreme values
(H) Mean deviation (M.D.) : The mean deviation of a distribution
is, the mean of absolute value of deviations of variate from their
statistical average (Mean, Median, Mode),
If A is any statistical average of a distribution then mean deviation
where e-lower limit of model class
about A is defined as
f0 - freq. of the model class
1, - freq. of the class preceeding model class
f, - freq. 01 the class succeeding model class Mean deviation _ -';<0'-'_ __ (for ungrouped dis!.)
h - class interval of model class n
4. RElATION BETWEEN MEAN, MEDIAN AND MODE:

In a moderately asymmetric distribution following relation between ,

mean, median and mode of a distribution. It is known as imprical ! ; Mean deviation = -';-"',------- (for freq. dis!.)
N
formula. ~ !
J ! Note:- Is minimum when it taken about the median
Mode = 3 Median - 2 Mean
1 I
I ;
Note : (i) Median always lies between mean and mode Mean deviation
Coefficient of Mean deviation -
(ii) For a symmetric distribution the mean, median and mode A
are coincide.
J (where A is the central tendency about which Mean deviation Is taken)
I
5. MEASURES OF DISPERSION: j I (ill) Variance and standard deviation : The variance of a
The dispersion of a statistical distribution is the measure of deviation of j j distribution is, the mean of squares of deviation of variate from

II
its values about the their average (central) value. their mean, It is denoted by cr' or var(x),
Generally the following measures 01 dispersion are commonly used. The positive square root of the variance are called the standard
(i) Range deviation. It is denoted by cr or S.D.
(ii) Mean deviation •
;;
~
•
(iii) Variance and standard deviation i t
EL-___ Hence standard deviation = + ..jvariance
________________________________ ~

~- · 202
__~E 203
 Mathematics Handbook Mathematics Handbook
variance : 6. MEAN SQUARE DEVIATION:
(I) for ungrouped d1st. : The mean square deviation of a distrubution is the mean of the square
of deviations of variate from assumed mean. It is denoted by 5 '
, I:(x i - X)' L(X _a)' Ld'
cr = . Hence 5' = ' = -- ' (for ungrouped dis!.)
, n n n

,
'n
I:xi _, I:xi
n
I:xi
cr- - - - - x = - - - -
n
, '()' 7.
5 , __ Lfi (x i -a)'
N
RELATION BETWEEN VARIANCE AND MEAN SQUARE
Lf;d; (for freq. d)
N
h d, = (x,-a)
is!., were

DEVIATION:

cr d' __ ~d n
_(I:d
n
i )'
where d,- x,- a cr' = L~d ; _(L~i )'
(6) For &eq. dlst. : Lfd
cr' =s'-d' , whered=x-a=-'-'
N
I:fi (Xi - X)' => s2 =a2+d 2 ~s20'
cr', = Hence the variance is the minimum value of mean square deviation of
N
a distribution
, I:fiX~ 8, MATHEMATICAL PROPERTIES OF VARIA.IICE :
_ , -I:fix: (I:fiXi
-) '
cr , - -N - - (x) --
N N t
• Var.(x, + A) = Var.(x,)
Var.(Ax,) = A' .Var(x)
Jl }
!
Var(ax, + b) = a' .var(x,)
cr' = I:f,d: _ (I:fid i )' where A. t a, h, are constant
d N N I !
• x,. x,
Ii ,j If means of two series containing n" n, terms are and

(I:~U . their variance's are cr;. cr; respectively and their combined mean
0'2
"
:!II
I:fU'
h2 - '-'-
[ N
- - ' )']
N
where u,= t
d
j i
is x then the variance cr' of their combined series is given by
following formula
j j
(iii) Coefficient of S. D. - =cr j ~

Coefficient of variation -
x

=crx x 100 (In percentage)

I
~
1
I•
Note :- 1j2 _ 0; = (J~ - h2 (J~
~
•
,
•1"
~ ________________ ~ ______________ ~E

E
204 205
 Mathematics Handbook
5. TRUTH TABLE:
MATHEMATICAL REASONING Conjunction Disjunction Negation

1. STATEMENT: p q pl\q p q pv q

ffG]
T T T T T T <-P)
A sentence which is either true or false but cannot be both are called a
T F F T F T T F
statement. A sentence which is an exclamatory or a wish or an imperative
F T F F T T F T
or an interrogative can not be a statement.
F F F F F F
If a statement is true then its truth value is T and if it is false then its truth
Conditional Biconditional
value is F
p q p~q (p~q)l\ ~p)
2. SIMPLE STATEMENT : P q p~q q~p
T T T or pBq
Any statement whose truth value does not depend on other statement T T T T T
T F F
are called simple statement. F T T T F F T F
3. COMPOUND STATEMENT : F F T F T T F F
F F T T T
A statement which is a combination of two or more simple statements
Note : If the compound statement contain n sub statements then its
are called compound statement
truth table will contain 2" rows.
Here the simple statements which form a compound statement are Imown LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE:
as its sub statements Two compound statements 5 1(p, q, r...) and 5,(p, q, r " .. ) are said to be
4. WGiCAL CONNECllVES : logically equivalent or simply equivalent if they have same truth values
for all logically possibilities
The words or phrases which combined simple statements to form a
Two statements 51 and 5, are equivalent if they have identical truth
compound statement are caUed logical connectives.
table i.e. the entries in the last column of their truth table are same. If
S.N. Cbnnectives Symbol Use OperatIon statements 51 and 5, are equivalent then we write 51 " 5,
l.
2.
and
or
1\

v
p 1\ q
p v q
conjunction
disjunction
i.e. Ip --+ q E- PV q I
3. not - or - p or p' negation TAUTOLOGY AND CONTRADICTION:
4. If .... then ..... ~or-+ p=:.q Impttcation or (i) Tautology: A statement is said to be a tautology if it is true for all
or p~q conditional logical possibilities
5. If and only if (Iff) ~or p~q Equivalence or i.e. its truth value always T. it is denoted by t.
orp ~ q Bi-conditional (Ii) Contradiction: A statement is a contradiction if it is false
for all logical possibilities.
.: 206 207
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
i.e. its truth value always F. It is denoted by c.
. . -(p B q) = -[(p -> q) 1\ (q ...; p))
Note: The negation of a tautology is a contradiction and negation =-(p->q) v -(q->p)
of a contradiction is a tautology = (p 1\ -q) V (q 1\ -p)
8. DUAIJTY: Note : The above result also can be proved by preparing truth table for
Two compound statements SI and S2 are said to be duals of each other -(p ~ q) and (p 1\ -q) V (q 1\ -p)
if one can be obtained from the other by replacing 1\ by v and v by 1\ 11. ALGEBRA OF STATEMENTS:
If a compound statement contains the special variable t (tautology) and If p, q, r are any three statements then the some low of algebra of
statements are as follow
c (contradiction) then obtain its dual we replaced t by c and c by t in
addition to replacing 1\ by v and v by 1\ . (I) Idempotent Laws :
(a) p l\ p=p (b) p v p =p
Note:
(ii) Comutative laws :
(i) the connectives 1\ and v are also called dual of each other. (a) p l\ q = q l\ p (b) p v q=q v p
(ii) If S'(p,q) is the dual of the compound statement S(p,q) then (IU) AssocIative laws :
(a) S'(-p , -q) " -S(p, q) (b) -S'(p , q) "S(-p, -q) (a) (p 1\ q) Ar = p 1\ (q Ar)
(b) (p v q) v r = p v (q v r)
9. CONVERSE, INVERSE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE OF THE
(Iv) Distributive laws :
CONDmONAL STATEMENT (p -+ q):
(a) p 1\ (q V r) = (p 1\ q) V (p Ar)
(I) Converse : The converse of the conditional statement
(b) p 1\ (q 1\ r) = (p 1\ q) 1\ (p 1\ r)
p--+qisdefinedasq ..... p ".
i
(H) Inverse: The inverse of the conditional statement p ..... q is ~
defined as -p --+ -q 1
I
J
(c)
(d)
p v (q Ar) = (p v q) 1\ (p V r)
p v (q v r) = (p v q) v (p v r)

I
(v) De Morgan Laws :
(\H) Contraposltive: The contraposltive of conditional statement j
(a) - (p 1\ q) = -p v -q
p --+ q is defined as -q ..... ..:p
10. NEGATION OF COMPOUND STATEMENTS:
If p and q are two statements then
1
j
I
j
(b) -(p v q) = -p 1\ -q
(vi) Involution laws (or Double negation laws): -(-p) = p
j (vii) Identity Laws : If p is a statement and t and c are tautology
(I) Negation of conjunction: -(p 1\ q) " -p v -q j j and contradiction respectively then
(U) Negation of disjUnction: -(p v q) " -p 1\ -q
(\H) Negation of condltlonal : -(p -+ q) " p -q
I
~ I (a) p 1\

(viii) Complement Laws:

t=p (b) p v t = t (c) P 1\ C = C (d)p v c = p

1\
, =c =t
(iv) Negation of biconditional : - (p .... q)" (p 1\ -q) V (q 1\ -pi
•i• :;
;;
(a) p 1\

(c) H) = c
(-p) (b) p v (-p)
(d)(-c) =t
~-
we know that p .... q" (p ..... q) 1\ (q --+ p)
____________~E E~
I ____________________
(Ix) Contraposltive laws: p -> q = -q __
-> -p ________ ~ ~ ~

208
209
 Handbook Mathematics Handbook

12. QUANTIRED STATEMENTS AND QUANTIRERS :

The words or phrases "All", "Some", "None", 'There exists a" are ex·
amples of quantifiers.
A statement containing one or more of these words (or phrases) is a
SET :
c:::
A set is a collection of well defined objects which are distinct from each
quantified statement.
other
Note: Phrases 'There exists a" and "Atleast one" and the word "some"
Set are generally denoted by capital letters A. B. C ..... etc. and the
have the same meaning. elements of the set by a. b. c .... etc.
NEGATION OF QUANTIRED sTATEMENTS: I! a is an element of a set A. then we write a E A and say a belongs
(1) 'None' is the negation of 'at 1east one' or 'some' or 'few' to A.
Similarly negation of 'some' is 'none' I! a does not belong to A then we write a j!; A.
(2) The negation of "some A are B" or 'There exist A which Is B"
SOME IMPORTANT NUMBER SETS:
Is "No A are (Is) B" or "There does not exist any
N = Set of all natural numbers
A which Is B".
= 11. 2. 3. 4 ..... )
(3) Negation of "All A are B" is "Some A are not B",
W = Set of all whole numbers
= 10. 1. 2. 3 ..... )
Z or I set of all integers
i
I.... -3. -2. -1. O. 1. 2. ;3 ..... I
J
I
}
! Z+
=

= Set of all +ve integers

I !
= 11. 2. 3..... I = N.
J I Z- Set of all -ve integers

I
=

II
= (-1. -2. -3 ..... )
Z0 - The set of all non-zero integers.
= 1±1. ±2. ±3 ..... )
I j Q = The set of all rational numbers.

I
j
<
"
;;
I• •
i
R
= {~:P . qEI .q *O}
= the set of all real numbers .
i E~
R-Q = The set of all irrational numbers
__________________________________ ~

~- __~E 21'1
210
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook
Proper subset : If A is a subset of 8 and A " 8 then A is a proper
METHODS TO WRITE A SET : subset of 8. and we write A c 8
(I) Roster Method : In this method a set is described by listing
Note-l : Every set is a subset of itself i.e. A ~ A for all A
elements, separated by commas and enclose then by curly brackets
Note-2 : Empty set ~ is a subset of every set
(8) Set Builder From : In this case we write down a property or
Note-3 : Clearly NeW c Z c Q e R e C
rule p Which gives us all the element of the set
Note-4 : The total number of subsets of a finite set containi"ng n elements
A = Ix : p(x)}
is 2 n
TYPES OF SETS :
Universal set: A set consistlng of all possible elements which occur
Null set or Empty set : A set having no element in it is called an
in the discussion is called a Universal set and is denoted by U
Empty set or a null set or void set it is denoted by or I }+ Note : All sets are contained in the universal set
A set consisting of at least one element is called a non-empty set or Power set : Let A be any set. The set of all subsets of A is called
a non-void set. power set of A and is denoted by PIA)
Singleton : A set consisting of a single ~ Iemnt is called a s,ingleton Some Operation on Sets :
set. (i) Union of two sets : A u 8 = Ix : X E A or X E 81
FInite Set : A set which has only finite number of elements is called
Iii) Intersection of two sets : A n 8 = Ix : X E A and x E 81
a finite set.
(iii) Difference of two sets : A. - 8 = Ix : X E A and x l1' 81
Order of a finite set : The number of elements in a finite set is called
the order of the set A and is denoted DIA) or n(A). It is also called liv) Complement of a set : A' = Ix : x l1' A but x e; U) = U - A
~ Iv) De-Morgan Laws: IA u 8)' = A' (") 8'; IA (") 8)' = A' u 8'
cardinal number of the set.
Infinite set : A set which has an infinite number of elements is called i t
•
(vi) A - (8 u C) = (A - 8) (") (A - C); A - (8 (") C) = (A - 8) u (A - C)
an infinite set. ! 1 (vii) Distributive Laws : A u (8 n C) = IA u 8) n IA u C); A (") (8 u C)
J
Equal sets : Two sets A and B are said to be equal if every element
1 J = (A (") B) u (A (") C)
of A is a member of B, and every element of B is a member of A. (viii) Commutative Laws: A u 8 = 8 u A ; . A (") 8 = 8 (") A
If sets A and B are equal. We write A = B and A and B are not equal
thenA .. B
Equivalent sets : Two finite sets A and B are equivalent if their number
I
!
J
1
j
(ix) Associative Laws : (A u 8) u C = A u (8 u C); (A n 8) (") C
= A (") (8 (") C)
I } (x)
of elements are same I
I, A u~ =A;uU

I
i.e. n(A) = nIB)
(xi) A (") 8 ~ A ; A(")8~
Note : Equal set always equivalent but equivalent sets may not be equal
Subsets : Let A and B be two sets if every element of A is an element
~ (xii) A ~ Au8;~ u 8

B, then A is called a subset of B if A is a subset of B. we write i •i (xiii)

(xiv)
A ~

A ~
8~A

8~Au=
(") 8=A

Ak B j EL-________________~-
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~-E
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212
 Mathematics Handbook
Mathematics Handbook SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS ON NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN SETS :
Disjoint Sets : If A , 6 and e are finite sets, and U be the finite universal set, then
IF A n B = ~, then A, B are disjoint. (i) n(A u 6) = n(A) + n(6) - n(A n 6)
Note : A n A' - ~ :, A, A' are disjoint. (ii) n(A u 6) = n(A) + n(6) ~ A , 6 are disjoint non-void sets.
Symmetric Difference of Sets : (iii) n(A - 6) = n(A) - n(A n 6) i.e. n(A - 6) + n(A n 6) - n(A)
At.B=(A-B)u(B-A) (iv) n(A A 6) = No. of elements which belong to exactly one of A or 6
• (AT - A ~ n((A - 6) u (6 - A))
• A ~ B .;:. B' ~ A' ,- \ = n(A - 6) + n(6 - A) [ .; (A - 6) and (6 - A) are disjoint)
If A and B are any two sets, ,then ) ~ = n(A) - n(A n 6) + n(6) - n(A n 6)
(i) A-B=AnB' ( \'0 = n(A) + n(6) - 2n(A n 6)
(il) B-A - BnA' ~ n(A) + n(6) - 2n(A n 6)
(iii) A-B=A.;:.AnB=+ (v) n(Au6uC)
(iv) (A-B)uB-AuB = n(A) + n(B) + n(C)- n(A n 6)- n(Bn C)-n(An C) + n(A n 6 nC)
(v) (A-B)nB-+ (vi) Number of elements In exactly two of the sets A, 6, e
~ ~-uNn
= n(A n 6) + n(B n C) + n(e n A) - 3n(A n 6 n C)
Venn Dlagrame : (vii) number of elements in exactly one of the sets A , 6 , e

UCJ) I
- n(A) + n(6) + n(C) - 2n(A n 6) - 2n(B n C) - 2n(A n C)
+ 3n(A n 6 n C)
(viII) n(A' u 6') - n((A n 6)1 - n(U) - n(A n 6)

AuB
i 1
(Ix)
(x)
n(A' n 6) - n((A u 6)1 - n(U) - n(A u 6)
If A j , A2 .... .. . ~ are finite sets, then

I
J
i n(QA,) = t,n(A,) - "tt,n n(A, nA J)

A-B B-A
I I
1
j
+ L
lSI<J<ksn
n(A, nA J n Ak)- .... +(-lj"-'n(A, nA, n ..... An )

Clearly(A-B)u(B-A)u(AuB)=AuB ~

001, II
.-----=u J

••;;

~
A'
.p, A u A'
, Note: A n A' =
__________ __ ~
(At.B)=~-

~
- U
u (B-A)

______________
Disjoint Sets

~E
, "
EL-__________________________________
215
~

214
 Mathematics
Mathematics
Identity Relation: Let A be a set. Then the relation IA = {(a, a) : a E AI
RELATIONS on A is called the identity relation on A.
In other words, a relation IA on A is called the identity relation if every
element of A is related to itself only.
INlRODUCTION : Reflexive Relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if
Let A and B be two sets. Then a relation R from A to B is a subset of A x B. every element of A is related to itself.
thus, R is a relation from A to B <=> R ~ A x B. Thus, R on a set A is not reflexive if there exists an element A E A such
Total Number of Realtions: Let A and B be two non-empty finite that (a , a) i! R.
sets consisting of mana n elements respectively. Then A x B consists of Every Identity relation is reflexive but every reflexive ralation is not
m'1 ~ rde pairs. So total number of subsets of Ax B is 2m, . identity .•
Symmetric Relation : A relation R on a set A is said to be a symmetric
Domain and Range of a relation: Let R be a relation from a set A
relation iff
to a set B. Then the set of all first components or coordinates of the
(a, b) E R ~ (b, a) E R for all a, b E A
ordered pairs belonging to R is called to domain of R, while the set of all
i.e. aRb ~ bRa for all a, b, E A.
second components or coordinates of the ordered pairs in R is called
Transitive Relation: Let A be any set. A relation R on A is said to be
. the range of R.
a transitive relation iff
Thus, Domain (R) - {a : (a , b) E R} (a, b) E Rand (b, c) E R ~ (a , c) E R for all a, b, c E A
ana, Range (R) - {b : {a, b) E R} i.e. aRb and b R c ~ aRc for all a, b, c E A
It is evident from the definition that the domain of a relation from A to B Antisymmetric Relation: Let A be any set. A relation R on set A is

I
is a subset of A and its range is a subset of B. ~ said to be an antisymmetric relation iff
Inverse Relation : Let A; B be two sets and let R be a relation from a (a, b) E R and (b, a) E R ~ a = b for all a , b E A
set A to a set B. Then the inverse of R, denoted by R-l , is a relation from J Equivalence Relation : A relation R on a set A is said to be an
B to A and is defined by J equivalence relation on A iff
(I) it is reflexive i.e. (a, a) E R for all a E A
R-l - {(b, a) : (a, b) E R} J!
Clearly, (a, b) E R ¢> (b, a) E R-l I (ii) it is symmetric i.e. (a, b) E R ~ (b, a) E R for all a, b E A
(iii) it is transitive i.e. (a, b) E Rand (b, c) E R ~ (a, c) E R for all
Also, Dom(R) - Range(R-l) and Range'(R) = Dom (R-l) a, b, c E A.
TYPES OF RElATIONS: i ft is not neccessary that every relation which is symmetric and transitive
In this section we intend to define various types of relations on a given J is also reflexive.

I"
setA.
Void Relation: Let A be a set. Then $ k A x A and so it is a relation
on A. This relation is called the void or empty relation on A.
Universal Relation : Let A be a set. Then A x A k A x A and so it is •
a relation on A. This relation is called the universal relation on A. ; •t
~- __________ ~ ______________ ~E
EL-________________~-
217
216