Learning And Teaching

COURSE 3: LEARNING AND TEACHING

Unit I
Nature of learning
Syllabus
Learning: meaning and definition - elements of learning – basic principles of learning and
their implications – rote learning vs. meaningful learning – principles and techniques of
active learning and their implications – self learning.
Meaning of learning:
Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living is learning. The individual is constantly
interacting with and influenced by the environment. This experience makes him to change or
modify his behaviour in order to deal effectively with it. Therefore, learning is a change in
behaviour, influenced by previous behaviour. As stated above the skills, knowledge, habits,
attitudes, interests and other personality characteristics are all the result of learning.
1. The acquisition of knowledge or skills through study, experience or being taught
2. Learning is the act of acquiring new or modifying and reinforcing knowledge through
study.
3. Knowledge acquired by systematic study in any field of scholarly application.
4. The modification of behavior through practice, training and experience
5. Learning itself cannot be measured, but its results can be.
6. Learning is an important form of personal adaptation.
7. The activity of gaining knowledge by studying, practicing and being taught
8. Knowledge or skill gained from learning
Definition of learning:
Learning can be defined as the desired change or modification of behavior attained through
experience and environment.
According to,
 Gates (1946): “The modification in behavior to meet environmental requirements”.
 Smith H.P (1962):” Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or
weakening of old behavior as a result of experience”.
 Peel E.A (1962): “Learning is a change in the individual following upon the changes in
the environment”.
1|Page
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Murphy. G (1968): The term learning covers every modification in behavior to meet
environmental requirements”.
 Crow and Crow (1973): “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge, and
attitudes”.
 Crooks and Stein (1991): “Learning is a relatively enduring change in potentials
behavior that results from experience”.
 Baron (1995): “Learning ias any relatively permanent change in behavior potential,
resulting from experience’’.
 Scott miller: “A change that occurs in response to thinking or other sensual stimuli.”
 Stephen: “Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from
experience “
Elements of Learning
The elements of learning are
1. Face-to-face promotive interaction—refers to students talking to each other in order to share
Insights and ideas.
2. Individual responsibility—refers to holding students accountable for themselves to prevent
“free loading” in a learning group.
3. Collaborative skills—include skills necessary for effective group functioning, such as
leadership, teambuilding, and conflict resolution.
4. Group processing—refers to how well the group is functioning aside from the academic
products or performances.
5. Positive interdependence—the perception among members of the group that “we sink or
swim together.”
6. Ability:
The students’ native ability dictates the prospects of success in any purposeful activity. It
determines their capacity to understand and assimilate information for their own use and
application.
7. Aptitude:
It refers to the students’ innate talent or gift. It indicates a natural capacity to learn certain
skills.

2|Page
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

8. Interests:
Learners vary in activities that are undertaken due to a strong appeal or attraction. Lessons that
give the learners the chance to express themselves will be more meaningful and easily
absorbed
9. Family & Cultural background:
Students who come from different socio economic background manifest a wide range of
behavior due to difference in upbringing practices.
10. Attitudes:
Attitude refers to an individual perspective and disposition. Some positive attitudes are
curiosity, responsibility, creativity & persistence.
11. The learner or the pupil is involved:
Unless the pupil is prepared or enabled to learn, learning cannot take place. Learning is a
very personal experience. We cannot “give” this experience to a child.
12. The Experience:
“The experience or the situation provides that experience which causes learning”. These
situations are provided by the school in the form of subjects, activities or atmosphere and the
teacher organizes them for the pupils.
13. The teacher is the key person:
In the learning process, the teacher is the key person. He is to organize learning experiences
for children and the child would learn by reacting to such experiences. The teacher cannot
make a child learn. He can only facilitate the learning process by properly organizing
experiences and creating a conductive climate for learning, e.g., arranging facilities,
providing materials and gadgets, managing social relationships and activities which promise
rich, worthwhile productive living for children.
14. The climate:
The climate or the environment is an important element in learning in school. It can stimulate
or retard learning.
Principles of Learning:
 Learning is universal. All living beings learn.
 Learning is continuous process. It goes on from womb to tomb.
 Without learning development, does not take place in the individual.
3|Page
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 It does not allow the person to be static and rigid but makes him dynamic and flexible in
relation to the life situations.
 Most of the learning is purposive. Learning is directed to get the results and to reach the
goals.
 Learning takes place both at conscious and unconscious levels.
 Learning is possible with the adequate physical and mental maturity.
 Learning modifies one’s behavior cognitively, affectively and in psychomotor aspect. Its
scope is very wide.
 Learning prepares the learner to form new techniques of dealing with the environment.
 Learning is transferable to new situations to develop new relationships.
 Learning is also unlearning and relearning.
 Learning is possible from every context of life, media from the old and the young, from
parents and others apart from the teachers and books.
 learning is not maturation but is facilitated by maturation.
 Learning is influenced by intelligence of the learner and teaching or training given to
him.
 Learning may lead to adjustment or maladjustment, progression or regression.
 Learning develops an orientation to life and ability to deal with the complexities of life.
 Learning inspires to set new goals, new ways and means of getting new results, new
look at the things and situations of ever changing life.
Principles About Learning and Their Implications
1. Learning is purposeful and contextual. Therefore, students should be able to see the
purpose in what they are asked to learn. To create purpose, pose relevant and “essential”
questions, create meaningful challenges, conduct investigations, and/or use inquiry/problem-
based learning strategies.
2. Experts organize or chunk their knowledge around transferable, core concepts (“big
ideas”) that guide their thinking and help them to integrate new knowledge. Therefore,
content should be “chunked” and instruction framed around core ideas and transferable
processes, and not learned as separate, discrete facts and skills.

4|Page
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

3. Learning is mediated and enhanced through different types of thinking, such as

explanation, classification and categorization, inferential reasoning, analysis, synthesis,
creativity and metacognition. Therefore, students should continually be engaged in complex
thinking activities to help them deepen learning.
4. Understanding is revealed and demonstrated when learners can apply/transfer/adapt
their learning to new and novel situations and problems. Therefore, students should have
multiple opportunities to apply their learning in meaningful and varied contexts.
5. New learning is built on prior knowledge. Learners use their experiences and background
knowledge to actively construct meaning about themselves and the world around
them. Therefore, students must be helped to actively connect new information and ideas to what
they already know and build on current understanding and skill development.
6. Learning is social. Therefore, teachers should provide opportunities for interactive learning
in a supportive environment.
7. Attitudes and values mediate learning by filtering experiences and
perceptions. Therefore, teachers should understand how student attitudes and values influence
learning and help students build positive attitudes towards learning.
8. Learning is non-linear; it develops and deepens over time. Therefore, students should
revisit, refine, and revise core ideas and skills in order to develop more sophisticated and
complex learning and understanding over time.
9. Feedback enhances learning and performance. Therefore, on-going assessments should
provide learners with regular, timely, and user-friendly feedback, along with the opportunity to
use it to improve learning.
10. Learning is enhanced when a learner’s preferred learning style, prior knowledge and
interests are effectively accommodated. Therefore, teachers should pre-assess to find out
students’ prior knowledge, learning preference and interests. They should customize instruction
to address the significant differences they discover, and promote individualization through
choice and options.
11. Learning is physiological. New structures grow in the learner’s brain during learning, and
learning is the growing of new brain structures .In other words, learning and growing new brain
structures are the same thing. Teaching is like gardening: the purpose is helping students grow
their own new brain structures.

5|Page
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

12. Brain structures grow specifically for what is practiced. Brain structures that grow for on
object of learning are only for that one object. Students need practice with the target object of
learning so they can grow brain structures for (learn) it.
13. New brain structures grow with practice and processing over time. Usually new brain
structures take time to grow.
Students need sufficient time for practicing (time on task) and processing to grow their brain
structures. The time spent on this authentic work (on growing knowledge structures for the target
object of learning) is some of the most well-spent class time.
What activities are learned by the individual refer to types of learning. For example, habits,
skills, facts, etc. There are different types of learning. Some of the important and common
learning activities are explained here.
Types of Learning:
1. Motor learning:
Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The individual has to learn
them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating, driving,
climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination.
2. Verbal learning:
This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices we use. Signs,
pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We use words
for communication.
3. Concept learning:
It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning,
intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see a dog
and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept
learning involves two processes, viz. abstraction and generalisation. This learning is very useful
in recognising, identifying things.
4. Discrimination learning:
Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is
called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car,
ambulance, etc.

6|Page
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

5. Learning of principles:
Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to
manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship between two or
more concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc.
6. Problem solving:
This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities-such
as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is very useful to
overcome difficult problems encountered by the people.
7. Attitude learning:
Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We develop different
attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour
may be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards
her profession, patients, etc.
Meaningful vs. Rote Learning
Rote Learning
• Verbatim memorization of new information
• No connection between new and previous knowledge
• Rote learning (memorization) only achieves retention of new information
• Present definitions, formulas, and new information without explaining relationship with
students’ experiences
• Random presentation of new knowledge into memory with no effort to integrate new
knowledge with prior knowledge
Meaningful Learning
• Concept is fully understood by student
• New information is related to what students already know (prior knowledge)
• Meaningful learning achieves both retention and transfer, and even achieves retention
better than rote learning.
• Relate information to everyday experiences
• Deliberate effort to link new knowledge with prior knowledge
Meaningful Learning
Three conditions for Meaningful Learning to occur:

7|Page
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

1. Students: Approach the learning task with the purpose of engaging in meaningful learning
• If a learner only wants to memorize then meaningful learning cannot occur
• Application: Teach students how to engage in meaningful learning and the benefits of
meaningful learning
2. Students: Must already have background knowledge that relates to the new material
• Application: Ensure that students have foundational knowledge for a new topic
3. Educators: Lesson must be meaningful
• Application: Lesson must be carefully prepared and presented in a way that is:
– Clear
– Meaningfully related to students’ lives and prior knowledge
– Well Organized
Teaching for Meaningful Learning
• Use analogies
• Tell stories to demonstrate concepts
• Ask students for their relevant experiences
• Ask students questions beyond what you have directly taught to test their
understanding
Rote learning verses Meaningful learning

Rote Learning Meaningful Learning

Fragmented Holistic
Static Dynamic
Repetitive Original
Non-participatory Participatory
Driven by need for Parasitic Driven by love for learning Independent
Output < or =Input Output > Input
It takes long time to learn It takes short time to learn
Marks Oriented Not only marks depends on future activity
No opourtunity to understand the concept opourtunity to understand the concept
No Creativity Creativity based Learning

8|Page
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

No emotional commitement to relevent emotional commitement to relevent

new with existing knowledge new wity existing knowledge
It should not develop higher thinking It aims to develop higher thinking

No oppourtunity to solve the problem in learning oppourtunity to solve the problem in learning
There is no opportunity to use teaching learning There is opportunity to use teaching learning
materials materials

The Elements of Learning Situation

The principal elements that make teaching and learning possible and attainable are the teachers,
the learners, and a conducive learning environment. The teacher serves as the prime mover of the
educational wheel. The learners are the key participants in the learning process. The favourable
environment provides essential features and ingredients that could make headway in guiding the
processes and methodologies needed for a smooth linkage among the three. To have an effective
learning situation, these five elements should satisfy the following conditions.
I) Instructor – He should:
1. Have clear objective.
2. Know the subject matter and have it well organized.
3. Be able to communicate with learner.
4. Allow learners participation, ask for it.
5. Use a definite leaching plan.
6. Speak loudly and clearly so that all can hear and understand.
7. Be skillful in use of teaching materials and equipments.
II) Learner: Should:
1. Have need for information.
2. Be interested.
3. Be capable of learning.
4. Use the information again.
5. All learners are equipped with cognitive as well as appetitive faculties
 Ability• The students’ native ability dictates the prospects of success in any
purposeful activity. It determines their capacity to understand and assimilate
information for their own use and application.

9|Page
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Aptitude• It refers to the students’ innate talent or gift. It indicates a natural

capacity to learn certain skills.
 Interests• Learners vary in activities that are undertaken due to a strong appeal or
attraction. Lessons that give the learners the chance to express themselves will be
more meaningful and easily absorbed.
 Family & Cultural background• Students who come from different socioeconomic
background manifest a wide range of behaviour due to differences in upbringing
practices.
 Attitudes• Attitude refers to an individual perspective and disposition. Some
positive attitudes are curiosity, responsibility, creativity & persistence.
III) Subject Matter should be:
1. Related to learners need.
2. Applicable to real situation.
3. Thought intellectual levels of the learners.
4. Well organized and logically and clearly presented.
5. Challenging and satisfying.
6. Fulfilling overall objectives.
IV) Physical Facilities:
1. Free from outside destruction.
2. The room should be well lighted.
3. Adequate space for the group.
4. Arrangement of Furniture The furniture, like the table for demonstration located in
front of the room and the chairs facing it are neatly arranged with sufficient spaces
in- between for ease in moving around.
5. Display shelves for safekeeping of projects, collections and outstanding work are
located at the sides. Attached to the wall is the bulletin board for hanging posters,
announcements and illustrations about the unit being undertaken.
6. During discussions, the board in front is used for clarifying step-by-step procedures
and making clearer diagrams, illustrations and figures.
V) Teaching Equipment’s:
1. Meet the needs effectively.

10 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

2. Readily available.
3. In working order.
4. Teaching devices like globes, maps and charts are kept in nearby cabinets, together
with simple tools and materials.
5. A temporary table is placed at the right side where supplies, materials and handled
instruments are arranged, ready for the day’s lesson
VI) The Learning Environment
1. It is the place where teaching and learning can take place in the most effective and
productive manner.
2. It consists of the classroom and all the instructional features and the non-threatening
classroom climate needed in planning and implementing all teaching and learning
activities.
3. As soon as the students enter they are attracted by a clean and orderly set-up.
4. Natural light and flowing fresh air add to their comfort and ease.
5. Free from noise coming from the surroundings, students’ concentration and interest
are easily sustained.
6. The doors and windows could be opened and closed with less difficulty and noise.
7. The light fixtures are located where needed.
The nature of each of these elements their relationship to each other, their role in education
process must be thoroughly understood by the instructor and skill developed in handling them.
Effective learning situation are created through the skillful use of appropriate teaching methods
and equipment’s.
Active learning
Active learning is generally defined as any instructional method that engages students in the
learning process. In short, active learning requires students to do meaningful learning activities
and think about what they are doing.
Definition of Active Learning
• Active learning is "anything that involves students in doing things and thinking about the
things they are doing" (Bonwell & Eison).
• Felder & Brent (2009) define active learning as "anything course-related that all students
in a class session are called upon to do other than simply watching, listening and taking

11 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

notes" .
• Active learning strategies can be as short as a few minutes long.
• Active learning techniques can be integrated into a lecture or any other classroom setting
relatively easily. Even large classrooms can involve learning activities beyond the
traditional lecture format.
Principles of active learning:
1. Purposive: the relevance of the task with the students' concerns.
2. Reflective: students' reflection on the meaning of what is learnt.
3. Negotiated: negotiation of goals and methods of learning between students and teachers.
4. Critical: students appreciate different ways and means of learning the content.
5. Complex: students compare learning tasks with complexities existing in real life and
making reflective analysis.
6. Situation-driven: the need of the situation is considered in order to establish learning tasks.
7. Engaged:
Real life tasks are reflected in the activities conducted for learning. Active learning requires
appropriate learning environments through the implementation of correct strategy.
8. Learning involves the active construction of meaning by the learner

This well-established principle involves the fact that students link new information with
information that they already know. Here new and old information are assembled into
mental models. If the old information is faulty, that compromises the learning of new
information then, learning can be thought about as a process of conceptual change in which
faulty or incomplete models are repaired.
9. Individuals are likely to learn more when they learn with others than when they learn
alone.

Many faculties are very independent learners and so struggle a bit with accepting this
principle. However, it is based on “impressive results” in different disciplines “that support
the power of getting students to work together to learn.”
10. Meaningful learning is facilitated by articulating explanations, whether to one’s self,
peers, or teachers

12 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Students learn to speak the languages of disciplines when they practice speaking those
languages. That’s part of what this principle involves, but it is also true that articulating an
answer, an idea, or a level of understanding aids in learning
11. Good Practice Encourages Contacts between Students and Faculty
Frequent student-faculty contact in and out of class is a most important factor in student
motivation and involvement. Faculty concern helps students get through rough times and
keep on working.
12. Good Practice Develops Reciprocity and Cooperation among Students
Learning is enhanced when it is more like a team effort than a solo race. Good learning, like
good work, is collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. Working with others
often increases involvement in learning.
13. Good Practice Uses Active Learning Techniques
Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just sitting in classes listening
to teachers, memorizing prepackaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk
about what they are learning, write reflectively about it, relate it to past experiences, and
apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves. The range of
technologies that encourage active learning is staggering. Many fall into one of three
categories: tools and resources for learning by doing, time-delayed exchange, and real-time
conversation. Today, all three usually can be supported with “worldwide,” i.e., software
(such as word processors) originally developed for other purposes but now used for
instruction, too. We’ve already discussed communication tools, so here we will focus on
learning by doing.
14. Good Practice Gives Prompt Feedback
Knowing what you know and don’t know focuses your learning. In getting started, students
need help in assessing their existing knowledge and competence. Then, in classes, students
need frequent opportunities to perform and receive feedback on their performance. At
various points during college, and at its end, students need chances to reflect on what they
have learned, what they still need to know, and how they might assess themselves. The ways
in which new technologies can provide feedback are many — sometimes obvious, sometimes
more subtle.

13 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

15. Good Practice Emphasizes Time on Task

Time plus energy equals learning. Learning to use one’s time well is critical for students and
professionals alike. Allocating realistic amounts of time means effective learning for students
and effective teaching for faculty.
16. Good Practice Communicates High Expectations
New technologies can communicate high expectations explicitly and efficiently. Significant
real-life problems, conflicting perspectives, or paradoxical data sets can set powerful
learning challenges that drive students to not only acquire information but sharpen their
cognitive skills of analysis, synthesis, application, and evaluation.
17. Good Practice Respects Diverse Talents and Ways of Learning
Many roads lead to learning. Different students bring different talents and styles to college.
Brilliant students in a seminar might be all thumbs in a lab or studio; students rich in hands-
on experience may not do so well with theory. Students need opportunities to show their
talents and learn in ways that work for them. Then they can be pushed to learn in new ways
that do not come so easily.
Characteristics of learning environment are:
1. Aligned with constructivist strategies and evolved from traditional philosophies.
2. Promoting research based learning through investigation and contains authentic scholarly
content.
3. Encouraging leadership skills of the students through self-development activities.
4. Creating atmosphere suitable for collaborative learning for building knowledgeable
learning communities.
5. Cultivating a dynamic environment through interdisciplinary learning and generating
high-profile activities for better learning experience.
6. Integration of prior knowledge with new ones to incur rich structure of knowledge among
the students.
7. Task based performance enhancement by giving the student's a realistic practical sense of
the subject matter learnt in the classroom.
TECHNIQUES OF ACTIVE LEARNING
1. Think Pair Share:
Students ponder the answer to a question and then share their thoughts with a neighbor.

14 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

2. Role Playing:
"Each student takes the role of a person affected by an Earth science issue, such as a
volcano or a polluted lake and studies the impacts of Earth science issues on human life and/or
the effects of human activities on the world around us from the perspective of that person."
3. Discovering Plate Boundaries:
This is a group discussion method employing many aspects of cooperative learning. In
the example cited here, students use the "Jigsaw" technique to learn more about plate tectonics.
4. Peer Review:
Students review and comment on materials written by their classmates.
5. Discussion:
Promoting a successful discussion depends on correctly framing questions. Discover tips
for framing discussion questions to promote higher order thinking.
6. Problem Solving Using Real Data:
Students use a variety of data to explore scientific questions.
7. Game Based Learning:
Uses competitive exercises, either pitting the students against each other or through
computer simulations.
ACTIVE LEARNING AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS
These techniques are aimed at individual students they can very easily be used without
interrupting the flow of the class. These exercises are particularly useful in providing the
instructor with feedback concerning student understanding and retention of material.
1. The "One Minute Paper" –
This is a highly effective technique for checking student progress, both in understanding
the material and in reacting to course material. Ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper,
pose a question (either specific or open-ended), and give them one (or perhaps two - but not
many more) minute(s) to respond. Some sample questions include: “What is "scientific
realism"?", "What is the activation energy for a chemical reaction?" and so on. Another good use
of the minute paper is to ask questions like "What was the main point of today’s class material?"
This tells you whether or not the students are viewing the material in the way you envisioned.

15 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

2. Affective Response
This is similar to the above exercises, but here you are asking students to report their
reactions to some facet of the course material - i.e., to provide an emotional or evaluative
response to the material. Obviously, this approach is limited to those subject areas in which such
questions are appropriate (one should not, for instance, inquire into students’ affective responses
to vertebrate taxonomy). However, it can be quite a useful starting point for courses such as
applied ethics, particularly as a precursor to theoretical analysis.
3. Daily Journal
This combines the advantages of the above three techniques, and allows for more in
depth discussion of or reaction to course material. The teacher may set aside class time for
students to complete their journal entries, or assign this as homework. The only disadvantage to
this approach is that the feedback will not be as "instant" as with the one-minute paper (and other
assignments which you collect the day of the relevant lecture). But with this approach
(particularly if entries are assigned for homework), The teacher may ask more complex
questions, such as, "Do you think that determinism is correct, or that humans have free will?
Explain your answer.”, You might have students find and discuss reports of scientific studies in
popular media on topics relevant to course material, such as global warming, the ozone layer,
and so forth.
4. Reading Quiz
Clearly, this is one way to coerce students to read assigned material! Active learning
depends upon students coming to class prepared. The reading quiz can also be used as an
effective measure of student comprehension of the readings (so that you may gauge their level of
sophistication as readers). Further, by asking the same sorts of questions on several reading
quizzes, you will give students guidance as to what to look for when reading assigned text.
5. Clarification Pauses
This is a simple technique aimed at fostering "active listening". Throughout a lecture,
particularly after stating an important point or defining a key concept, stop, let it sink in, and then
(after waiting a bit!) ask if anyone needs to have it clarified. You can also circulate around the
room during these pauses to look at student notes, answer questions, etc. Students who would
never ask a question in front of the whole class will ask questions during a clarification pause as
you move about the room.

16 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

6. Questions and Answers

While most of us use questions as a way of prodding students and instantly testing
comprehension, there are simple ways of tweaking our questioning techniques which increase
student involvement and comprehension. Though some of the techniques listed here are
"obvious", we will proceed on the principle that the obvious sometimes bears repeating (a useful
pedagogical principle, to be sure!).
7. The "Socratic Method"
Taking its namesake from the most famous gadfly in history, this technique in its original
format involved instructors "testing" student knowledge (of reading assignments, lectures, or
perhaps applications of course material to a wider context) by asking questions during the course
of a lecture. Typically, the instructor chooses a particular student, presents her with a question,
and expects an answer forthwith; if the "chosen" student cannot answer the question presented,
the instructor chooses another (and another) until the desired answer is received.
8. Student Summary of another Student's Answer
In order to promote active listening, after one student has volunteered an answer to your
question, ask another student to summarize the first student's response. Many students hear little
of what their classmates have to say, waiting instead for the instructor to either correct or repeat
the answer. Having students summarize or repeat each other’s' contributions to the course both
fosters active participation by all students and promotes the idea that learning is a shared
enterprise. Given the possibility of being asked to repeat a classmate' comments, most students
will listen more attentively to each other.
9. The Fish Bowl
Students are given index cards, and asked to write down one question concerning the
course material. They should be directed to ask a question of clarification regarding some aspect
of the material which they do not fully understand; or, perhaps you may allow questions
concerning the application of course material to practical contexts. At the end of the class period
(or, at the beginning of the next class meeting if the question is assigned for homework), students
deposit their questions in a fish bowl. The instructor then draws several questions out of the bowl
and answers them for the class or asks the class to answer them. This technique can be combined
with others (e.g., #8-9 above, and #2).

17 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

10. Finger Signals

This method provides instructors with a means of testing student comprehension without
the waiting period or the grading time required for written quizzes. Students are asked questions
and instructed to signal their answers by holding up the appropriate number of fingers
immediately in front of their torsos (this makes it impossible for students to "copy", thus
committing them to answer each question on their own). For example, the instructor might say
"one finger for 'yes', two for 'no'", and then ask questions such as "Do all organic compounds
contain carbon [hydrogen, etc.]?". Or, the instructor might have multiple choice questions
prepared for the overhead projector and have the answers numbered (1) through (5), asking
students to answer with finger signals. In very large classes the students can use a set of large
cardboard signs with numbers written on them. This method allows instructors to assess student
knowledge literally at a glance.
11. Flash Cards
A variation of the Finger Signals approach, this method tests students’ comprehension
through their response to flash cards held by the instructor. This is particularly useful in
disciplines which utilize models or other visual stimuli, such as chemistry, physics or biology.
For example, the instructor might flash the diagram of a chemical compound and ask "Does this
compound react with H2O?”. This can be combined with finger signals.
12. Share/Pair
Grouping students in pairs allows many of the advantages of group work students have
the opportunity to state their own views, to hear from others, to hone their argumentative skills,
and so forth without the administrative "costs" of group work (time spent assigning people to
groups, class time used just for "getting in groups", and so on). Further, pairs make it virtually
impossible for students to avoid participating thus making each person accountable.
13. Discussion
Students are asked to pair off and to respond to a question either in turn or as a pair.
This can easily be combined with other techniques such as those under "Questions and Answers"
or "Critical Thinking Motivators" above. For example, after students have responded to
statements, such as "Whatever a society holds to be morally right is in fact morally right" with
'true' or 'false', they can be asked to compare answers to a limited number of questions and to
discuss the statements on which they differed. In science classes students, can be asked to

18 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

explain some experimental data that supports a theory just discussed by the lecturer. Generally,
this works best when students are given explicit directions, such as "Tell each other why you
chose the answer you did".
14. Evaluation of Another Student's Work
Students are asked to complete an individual homework assignment or short paper. On
the day, the assignment is due, students submit one copy to the instructor to be graded and one
copy to their partner. These may be assigned that day, or students may be assigned partners to
work with throughout the term. Each student then takes their partner's work and depending on
the nature of the assignment gives critical feedback, standardizes or assesses the arguments,
corrects mistakes in problem-solving or grammar, and so forth. This is a particularly effective
way to improve student writing.
SELF- LEARNING
Learning done by oneself, without a teacher or instructor.
1. Definition:
a) A way of learning about a subject that involves studying alone at home, rather than in a
Classroom with a teacher.
b) Learning done by oneself, without a teacher or instructor
c) Self-education is the act of learning about a subject or subjects in which one has had
little to no formal education.
d) A person who has learned a subject without the benefit of a teacher or formal
education; a self-taught person.
2. Importance of self-learning
The importance of the self-learning is a) Understanding How to Learn b). Learning
without External Aids, and c) Preparing for the Future a self-learning individual can aim to learn
a little bit about everything, or they can work hard toward mastering a single subject. Either way,
it is the act of taking your learning into your control. It is this drive to further you which
ultimately leads to success on a personal and financial level. Everyone can benefit from
continuing to strive for a well-rounded self-learning; this is especially true if you run your own
business.
Benefits of Self-Learning
1. Student becomes an independent thinker.

19 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

2. Student learns to accept responsibility.

3. Student gains the freedom to learn without restrictions.
4. Student earns accountability.
5. Intrinsic rewards become the focus, that good feeling inside that comes from a job
well done.
6. Student tests well because he is used to tackling problems on his own, which equals
confidence.
7. Students retain more naturally when they do the work versus parent’s spoon feeding
the information into them.
8. Students learn where to go when help is needed. There is no need to worry about gaps
in their education because if they need to know something down the road, they will
just look it up on their own.
9. Student has the courage to delve into an area of interest to study it without having to
wait for a teacher to teach it.
10. Students become more than prepared for college study, which will require motivation
and planning ahead.
11. Self-learning gives the opportunity to develop a good work ethic.
12. Self-learning allows the learner to go as deeply into a subject and interact with the
subject matter as deeply as he would like to go.
13. Self-learning enables the learner to limit the number of interests undertaken so as not
to be spread too thinly.
14. Self-learning allows the family to function as a family without emulating an
institution at home.
15. Self-learning eliminates all excuses for not reaching one's potential. It will never be
anyone else's fault if the student doesn't learn.
16. Self-learning is more fun than being taught at.
17. Self-learning means that mom can read great books rather than teacher's manuals and
text books.
18. Self-learning trains one to go to the source for information which reduces the
possibility of erroneous material.
19. Self-learning is the wave of the future now that so much information is available at
our Finger tips.
20. Self-learning means that babies and toddlers get more attention from mom because
she is not busy playing teacher.

20 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Unit II
Nature of Teaching
Syllabus
Teaching: Definition and meaning – Characteristics of good teaching – Views of great
thinkers and philosophers on teaching - Becoming a reflective teacher and his
characteristics - My goals as a teacher.

Meaning of Teaching
Teaching is a social process, to define it is very difficult, because the teaching influenced
by the political and social backgrounds of the country Teaching includes all the activities of
providing education to other. The person who provides education is called teacher. The teacher
uses different method for giving best knowledge to his students. He tries his best to make
understand students. His duty is to encourage students to learn the subjects.
Teaching means interaction of teacher and students. They participate for their
mutual benefits. Both have their own objective and target is to achieve them. Many great
teachers of world define teaching in different way and we can say that teaching is just to train the
students so that they can stand on their own foot in society.
In teaching, three main aspects come in our front
1st is teacher
2nd is students
3rd is education
Definition of Teaching :
" Teaching is a process that improve the student's seeking level more easily and it might be
overcome any situation as an easy way." Teaching is the process of attending to people’s needs,
experiences and feelings, and making specific interventions to help them learn particular things.
T- Transfering the knowledge
E- Enlighting with the present living conditions
A- Alligning with portion and real life
C- Character building
H- Healing touch offer
I - Involvement with the student in studies

21 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

N- Nurturing the thoughts into reality

G- Giving a final shape
According to,
Gage- "Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behavior potential of
another person."
Edmund Amidon -" Teaching is an interactive process, primarily involving class room talk
which takes place between teacher and pupil and occurs during certain definable activity."
Brubacher-" Teaching is an arrangement and manipulation of a situation in which an individual
will seek to overcome and from which he will learn in the course of doing so."
Skinner- Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement."
Ryans- "Teaching is concerned with the activities which are concerned with the guidance “
TEACHING: MEANING
1. The job or profession of a teacher
2. Something that is taught
3. The ideas and beliefs that are taught by a person, religion, etc.
4. The act or profession of a person who teaches.
5. Teaching is a process that improves the student's seeking level more easilyand it
might be overcome any situation as an easy way.
6. Teaching means interaction of teacher and students. They participate for their mutual
benefits. Both have their own objective and target to achieve them.
7. Teaching includes all the activities of providing education to other. The person who
provides education is called teacher. The teacher uses different method for giving best
knowledge to his students. He tries his best to make understand students. His duty is
to encourage students to learn the subjects.
8. Teaching is the process of attending to people’s needs, experiences and feelings, and
making specific interventions to help them learn particular things.

Nature and characteristics of teaching

1. The main character of teaching is to provide guidance and training.
2. Teaching is interaction between teacher and students.
3. Teaching is an art to give knowledge to students with effective way.

22 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

4. Teaching is a science to educate fact and causes of different topics of different subjects.
5. Teaching is continuing process.
6. Teacher can teach effectively, if he has full confidence on the subject.
7. Teaching encourages students to learn more and more.
8. Teaching is formal as well as informal
9. Teaching is communication of information to students. In teaching, teacher imparts
information in interesting way so that students can easily understand the information.
10. Teaching is tool to help student to adjust himself in society and its environment.
11. A capacity to explain the material plainly
12. A commitment to making it absolutely clear what has to be understood at what level and
why?
13. Showing concern and respect for students
14. A commitment to encouraging independence
15. An ability to improvise and adapt to new demands
16. Using teaching methods and academic tasks that require students to learn actively,
responsibly and co-operatively
17. Using valid assessment methods
18. A focus on key concepts, and students misunderstandings of them, rather than covering
the ground
19. Giving the highest quality feedback on student work
20. A desire to learn from students and other sources about the effects of teaching and how
it can be improved.

Common characteristics of good teaching

According to UNESCO (2004) and Scheerens (2004), the main characteristics of good teaching
relate to a number of broad categories:
 Relevance of the teaching content, in particular alignment with the curriculum.
 Sufficient learning time: this refers to the time devoted to actual teaching, as opposed to the
official hours set in the curriculum.
 Structured teaching, in which learners’ engagement is stimulated, their understanding
monitored, and feedback and reinforcement regularly provided.

23 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 A conducive classroom environment with, in particular, a task-oriented climate, mutual

respect between the students and teacher and among students themselves, orderliness, and
safety.
 Teachers with appropriate subject matter mastery, verbal intelligence, a broad teaching
repertoire, and motivation to achieve.
 What research also underlines though is that adaptability to context matters as different
countries and students may need different teaching contents (both in terms of subject matter
knowledge and of medium of instruction) and different levels of structure tailored to
students’ profile. It is therefore important to critically assess the relevance of both current
and planned objectives (in terms of the content, structure, and context of teaching and
learning) to the national situation.

Characteristics of Good Teaching

The main characteristics of good teaching are as following:
1. It gives desirable information.
2. It creates self-motivation for learning.
3. Effective planning is essential for good teaching.
4. The students remain active in good teaching.
5. It focuses on selected information.
6. It is based on democratic ideals.
7. It is sympathetic and full of pity.
8. It is directional in nature.
9. It is based on the co-operation of teacher and students.
10. It is based on previous knowledge of teacher.
11. It is progressive.
12. It includes all sorts of teachers' performances and teaching methods.
13. It produces emotional stability.
14. It attempts to adjust the students with the environment.
15. It is diagnostic and therapeutic in nature.
16. It is the best medium for preparing the next generation for the changing world order.
17. It enhances the potentialities of the students.

24 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

18. The teacher works as a philosopher, friend and a direction.

19. The teacher's class room behavior includes both direct and indirect behavior.
20. It reflects harmony between teacher and the students.
Teaching is a systemic enquiry about the ultimate realities in the universe. It is a study of general
principles and understanding of all that comes in the range of human experiences.
There are two type of teaching
1.Formal-Which is systemic deliberate direct and consciously impart by specially
2.Informal-it is teaching one get the outside of class room
Views of great thinkers and philosophers on teaching
As a philosopher, it is clear to me that teaching people how to think correctly and to use
language carefully (to work out the truth for themselves) is a pretty good start for education. The
fundamental principle of education is to understand the truth for oneself. The fundamental
principle of philosophy is to realize that all truth comes from reality. Thus, educational
philosophy must be founded on the truth of what exists.
Teaching is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without
accepting it. Those who educate children well are more to be honored than parents, for these
gave only life, those arts of living well. The educated differ from the uneducated as much as the
living from the dead.

- Aristotle
Plants are shaped by cultivation and men by education. We are born weak, we need strength;
we are born totally unprovoked, we need aid; we are born stupid, we need judgment.
Everything we do not have at our birth and which we need when we are grown is given us by
education. Child should be made free to learn from nature since society corrupts values.
There should be no formal learning, no discipline and no teaching of morals

- Jean Jacques Rousseau

The first lessons with which we should irrigate his mind should be those which teach him to
know himself, and to know how to die … and to live.
- De Montaigne
Learned we may be with another man’s learning: we can only be wise with wisdom of our own

- Euripides
25 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

What a distressing contrast there is between the radiant intelligence of the child and the feeble
mentality of the average adult.
- Sigmund Freud

You must be the change you wish to see in the world.

Basic education wherein the child was to also learn a skill/trade along with academic work.
Thus, the school was to develop as a self sufficient institution.
-Mohandas Gandhi

Education is the manifestation of the perfection already in man.

We want that education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the intellect
is expanded, and by which one can stand on one's own feet.

Teach yourselves, teach everyone his nature, call upon the sleeping soul and see how it awakes.
Power will come, glory will come, goodness will come, purity will come, and everything that is
excellent will come when this sleeping soul is roused to self-conscious activity.

Education is the manifestation of the divine perfection, already existing in man.

- Swami Vivekananda
"Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless".

-Rigved
"Human education means the training which one gets from nature".
- Panini
The widest road leading to the solution of all our problems is education.
Learning should take place in nature and from nature and not be restricted to the classroom

- Rabintranath Tagore
"Education which will offer the tools whereby one can live for the divine, for the country, for
oneself and for others and this must be the ideal of every school which calls itself national".

- Sri Aurobindo
All our world organizations will prove ineffective if the truth that love is stronger than hate does
not inspire them
-Dr. Radhakrishnan
26 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Comprehensive views of education which wood transform the human mind. According to him,
the religious spirit and the scientific attitude should form part of the same consciousness.

– J.Krishnamurti
He promoted experiential learning. He focused on the project method of learning here the
teacher is a facilitator every subject must be corrected to each them.

- John Dewey
Focus on education of young children between the ages three and seven. She believed in self –
education through development of individuality. She asserted that the gateway to knowledge is
through sense experience. Special emphasis is given to the sense of touch.

-Maria Montessori
Child must be educated in accordance with the laws of his development.

Education should enable the child to realize unity in diversity.

Creative self – activity through participation.

Development the theory and practice of play in education. He combined play and work.

-Froebel

1) Plato’s philosophy in education

Plato was born in Athens in 427 B.C in a wealthy and influential family. Plato began his
philosophical career as a student of Socrates. When the master died, Plato travelled to Egypt and
Italy, studied with students of Pythagoras, and spent several years advising the ruling family of
Syracuse. Eventually, he returned to Athens and established his own school of philosophy at the
Academy. About 387 BC, Plato founded a school in Athens, in a grove sacred to the demigod
Academus, called the Academy (which is where we get the word academics from today).
Plato’s philosophy
 Every individual should devote his life to what is best fitted for him to do.
 The important function of education is to determine what every individual is by nature
capable and fitted of doing things.
 Poor leadership will lead to wrong decision.
 Social justice is giving what is due to whom it is due.
27 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 The physical objects are not permanent representations of unchanging ideas alone give
true knowledge as they are known by mind.
 Intellectual aristocracy is the rule of intellectual elite.
 An individual who should be endowed with superior intelligence and possessed
impeccable integrity.
Works related to Education
Republic is a dialogue which discusses the education necessary to produce such a society.
It is an education of a strange sort – he called it paideia. Nearly impossible to translate into
modern idiom, paideia refers to the process whereby the physical, mental and spiritual
development of the individual is of paramount importance. It is the education of the total
individual. He discusses early education mainly in the Republic, written about 385 B.C.E., and in
the Laws, his last work, on which he was still at work at the end of his life.
Plato’s Epistemology
He distinguished between the reality presented to us by our senses sight, touch, taste,
sound and smell and the essence or Form of that reality. In other words, reality is always
changing – knowledge of reality is individual, it is particular, it is knowledge only to the
individual knower, it is not universal.
There are 3 sources of knowledge:
 Knowledge obtained from senses i.e. knowledge of objects , colours, taste, touch etc. But
Plato does not consider this as real knowledge.
 An opinion regarding any object , but this knowledge cannot be relied upon as the views
of every person differs regarding the same object.
 Knowledge through mind or wisdom – it is the highest degree of knowledge which
includes virtues like truth , goodness and beauty. This knowledge is idealistic and is
based on original thinking. The characteristic of knowledge is that it is found in the form
of universal truth.
Education System
The highest goal of education, Plato believed, is the knowledge of Good; to nurture a
man to a better human being, it is not merely an awareness of particular benefits and pleasures.
Children enter school at six where they first learn the three (reading, writing and
counting) and then engage with music and sports.

28 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Teaching Methods
Plato recommended play method at elementary level; student should learn by doing. And
when he/she reaches the higher level of education, his reason would be trained in the processes
of thinking and abstracting.
Plato wanted motivation and interest in learning. He was against the use of force in
education. "Knowledge which is acquired under compulsion obtains no hold on the mind."
According to Plato "Do not then train youths by force and harshness, but direct them to it
by what amuses their minds so that you may be better able to discover with accuracy the peculiar
bent of the genius of each."
Plato wanted a place where children love to go and stay there and they play with things
which enhance their education by playing. Plato gave importance to nursery education, as
nursery education plays a vital role in the education of man and it helps to build his moral
character and state of mind "The most important part of education is proper training in the
nursery."
Role of the Teacher
In Plato’s plan of education
 The educator is considered to have greatest importance.
 He is like torch bearer who leads a man lying in the dark cave, out of the darkness
into the bright light of the outside world.
 The teacher is thus the constant guide of the students.
 The teacher must be a person of high integrity and must possess high self worth.
 He must have pleasing personality, in depth knowledge and professional training.
 He should be deeply committed to his profession, have high sense of responsibility
and a true role model. Teachers should lead a true moral life. They should practice
what they preach.
In a nutshell, Plato’s polis (state) is essentially an educational community. It is created by
education. It can survive only on condition that all its citizens receive an education that enables
them to make rational political decisions. It is up to education to preserve the state intact and to
defend it against all harmful innovations. The aim of education is not personal growth but service
of the state, which is the guarantor of the happiness of its citizens for as long as they allow it to
be the embodiment of justice. Education must be compulsory for all.

29 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

2)Aristotle :
The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet.
Aristotle was born in 384 BC .His father was physician to the king of Macedonia. He was
a Greek philosopher and polymath. Also a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.
His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theatre, music, logic,
rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology.  Aristotle's writings
were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing ethics,
aesthetics, logic, science, politics, and metaphysics.
Aristotle and Realism:
Aristotle was a realist. Plato was an idealist. Central thread of idealism is the principle or
thesis of independence. Reality, knowledge and value exist independently of the mind. Realism
rejects the Idealist notion that only ideas are real. Believed form is within matter and change
takes place in matter. Believed a relationship exists between science and philosophy, and that the
study of one leads to the study of the other.
Science and Philosophy
For instance, studying the material aspects of an acorn should lead to a deeper, more
complex reflective thought of what an acorn is – of what it is in essence or form (Ozmon and
Craver, 2008).
Aristotle’s views
Balance is the central concept to Aristotle’s views. Saw universe as being in a balanced
and orderly fashion. Education was the means used to create a state of good citizens.
Man is a rational animal
Aristotle believed “man is a rational animal.” While animals express pleasure or pain
with their cries, man and only man is able to speak. Ability to speak allows man to be able to
determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong, what is beneficial and what is
harmful. So, how are these skills and knowledge acquired? Through education.
Education was central
A fulfilled person was an educated person. Education was essential for the self-
realization of man. The supreme good to which all men aspire is happiness.

30 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Education and learning

Aristotle believed education and learning are always about an object and should have
content. He believed a teacher instructs a learner about an object, about some knowledge, or
some discipline. Teaching and learning are always about disciplined inquiry into some aspect of
reality. A school should cultivate and develop each person’s rationality.
Knowledge and belief
Knowledge is different from belief in that knowledge is the beginning of dialectic
reasoning. Aristotle believed people make mistakes when their judgment is not found on reason.
A person cannot make a mistake if they have knowledge of something. Aristotle argued that man
should know his own weaknesses so that he would be more cognizant of what he does to make
mistakes. If he knows how he creates mistakes, he can take steps to make sure he does what it
takes to prevent mistakes from happening.
Learning
Students learned about something by practicing it over and over again until they learned
it. This was done through the practice of habituation. Idea of learning was “Practice first, theory
afterwards,” or “Do the deed and ye shall know the doctrine.”
Work begun by nature and continued by habit or exercise was completed and crowned by
instruction. This had two functions: To make action free by making it rational, and To make
possible an advance to original action. Nature and habit make men slaves, gov’d by instincts and
prescriptions. Instruction, or revelation of the grounds of action, set men free. Greeks thought of
this as the realization of manhood – or the divine in man.
Who was to be educated?
Men of noble nature. Only citizens of the state were to be educated. The role of women
was to keep house and have children. Believed women were “intellectually inferior” to men.
Marriage was simple an arrangement to procreate and rear offspring. Women were regarded as a
means and not as an end. Slaves were not educated.
Men were divided into two classes
A Governing Class, and A Governed Class ,Governing Class required education so that it
could govern the Governed Class. Governed Class required just enough education as would
enable it to obey. Only by completing these duties would each class find its usefulness and
satisfaction, or balance.

31 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

3) Mahatma Gandhi
You can't change how people treat you or what they say about you. All you can do is
change how you react to it.
Gandhiji’s educational philosophy
 Born in 1869 in Gujarat .
 Honoured by the people of india as the father of our nation  Was a complex and many
sided celebrity  Was a religious saint , a politician, a patriot and nationalist, an
economist, a great freedom fighter, and a practical educator.
 One of the most profound and original thinkers  He expressed his views practically on
every sphere of life.
 Died in 1948  Important works : An autobiography of My experiments with truth,
Satyagraha in south africa, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule
Meaning of Education according to Gandhiji
“An all round drawing out of the best in child and man- body, mind and spirit.” All round-
harmonious development. Drawing out of the best- recognizes a great potential coiled up in
human Body, mind and spirit- vision of the whole man.
Aims of Education
 To help the child to become self-supporting.
 For the preservation of culture.
 For the character building.
 To ensure all round development of the child.
 To cultivate moral,spiritual,social,ethical and aesthetic values in the child.
 To inculcate democratic ideals, leadership qualities and sense of citizenship in the
learner.
 To instill social virtues such as equality,tolerance,brotherhood,service,sympathy and
liberty in the learner.
 The ultimate aim of education is self- realization.
Curriculum
 Life centred and activity centred.
 Craft centred curriculum to train man by development of his soul.
 Craft was to be the starting point of all subjects.
32 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Craft should be in accordance with local conditions.

 He suggested domestic science for girls.
 Also includes mother tongue, arithmetic, social studies, general science, art,music
 Craft centred education leads to fullness of culture, it saves people from exploitation.
 Instills dignity of labour in the learner.  Makes schools self-sustaining to a certain
extent.
 Craft selected according to locality so that education becomes life centered.
Text Books
 Do not load children with books.
 The teacher is the real text books.
 Text books should be suitable for Indian context.
 For primary oral education is enough, as the child learns more by observation.
Methods of Teaching
 Basic Education Scheme .
 Free and compulsory education for all from 7 – 14 years
 Children should be educated through a basic craft.
 Mother tongue should be the medium of instructions.
 The basic scheme emphasizes on learning by doing method.
 In Gandhian scheme the child is kept active through creative and productive activities.
 Corelation should be established among different academic subjects.
4) Rabindranath Tagore
Don't limit a child to your own learning, for he was born in another time.
Contribution of Rabindra Nath Tagore in education
 Tagore was born on 6th may 1861 in Bengal in a prosperous family.
 His father Maharishi Debendranath Tagore, a well-known Hindu reformer and mystic
and his mother was Shrimati SharadaDevi.
 At primary level his father provided him education in Sanskrit language, Indian
philosophy & Astronomy.
 For higher education, he was sent to Bengal Academy wherein he developed an
aversion to the prevalent dull rigid and dull education.

33 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 He was then sent to England wherein he left it and further studied on his own. He
gradually started writing in magazines etc.
 He turned into a poet, dramatist, philosopher and painter. He was then awarded the title
of Gurudev.
 He got the Nobel prize in 1913 for Gitanajali. The then Indian govt.awarded him with
knighthood bestowed in1915 which he eventually gave away after the Jalyanwalabagh
incident.
 He established Vishwa bharti on 22nd sept,1921 whose aim was to create a synthesis of
the east and west. He died in 1941
Basic principles of tagore’s philosophy of education
 Harmony with all things: harmony with nature, human surroundings, and harmony in
international relations.
 His philosophy of education Is based on naturalism, humanism, internationalism and
idealism.
 Principle of freedom.
 Principle of Creative self –expression.
 Active communication with nature and man.
Concept of Education
According to Tagore, God reveals himself through nature more effectively than through
manmade institutions. Hence, the education of the child should be under natural surroundings so
that he develops love for all things around him. Education as Enlightenment: True education
brings self-realization and enlightenment., it seeks to unfold all that is good and noble to
individual
Education as developmental process:
Education according to him, is an all-round development of human faculties for attainment of
a full life. Education as harmony: According to Tagore, "That education is highest which not
only imparts information and knowledge to us, but also promotes love and follow feeling
between us and the living beings of the world.”
Aims of Education
 Physical Development.
 Intellectual Development.

34 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Moral and Spiritual Development.

 Harmonious Development.
 Utilitarian Aim.
 Development of International Understanding.
 Harmony between Individual and Social Aim
Curriculum:
Broad Based Curriculum
1. Subjects:
Literature and languages,
 Mother tongue, other Indian Languages and other foreign languages;
 Mathematics;
 Natural sciences such as Botany, zoology ,physics, chemistry,general science;
 health education; Social Sciences like geography, history,civics, economics,
and Sociology;
 Agriculture and Technical Subjects;
 Arts, Music, Dance etc.;
 Philosophy; Psychology and Religion
2.Activities and Occupations:
 Dancing
 Dramatics
 Music
 Games and Sports
 Drawing and Painting
 Excursions
 Agriculture and Gardening
 Regional Study
 Laboratory work
3.Social Service.
 Actual living and Community Service
Teaching Methodology
1.Teaching by Walking

35 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

The mind in the class room does not remain active Hence by walking the mind remains
active awake, hence the child easily grasp things “Teaching by walking is the best method of
education.
2. Discussion & Question Answer
Real education is based on real problems of life hence question- answer method is
effective wherein the teacher put the questions & ask the students to participate in discussions.
Thus they gain essential knowledge.
3. Activity Method
This method is of great importance because it activates all the faculties of the body &
mind. In Vishwa Bharti, he made compulsory the learning of handicraft. He allowed any
physical exercise or activity even during the class teaching
Role of Teacher
 Believing in purity and in his own experiences, innocence of child, the teacher should
behave with him with great love and affection, sympathy, affection.
 Instead if emphasizing on book learning, the teacher should provide conducive
environment to the child so that he engages himself in useful and constructive
activities and learn by his own experiences
 The teacher should always be busy with motivating the creative capacities of the
children so that he remain busy with constructive activities and experience.
 Education can be successfully imparted by understanding childhood and giving
oneself totally in love and union with it How the teacher is?
Contributions to Education:
 1908 he established department of women education in Shantiniketan.
 In 1901 Tagore set up a school Shantiniketan.
 Gradually over the years, it devoloped into Vishwa Bharti- an international university
 Teachers and students live together in a spirit of perfect comradeship with the motto “
where the whole world forms its one single nest.”
His Philosophy As a Vedantist:
 He had a firm belief in the philosophy of veda.
 He believed in “I am Brahma”
 There is a spiritual bond between man and man.

36 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 As an Individualist: he believed in giving right type of freedom to individual.

 Every individual is unique.
As an Idealist:
 He believed that the man should live for the ultimate truth which liberates us from from
cycle of birth and death
 Had faith in absolute values.
As a Spiritualist:
 He believed that every individual should try to attain spiritual perfection.
As a Humanist:
 He preached human brotherhood, having faith in fundamental unity of mankind.
 He remarked that ”even God depends upon man for perfecting his Universe.”
As a Naturalist:
 He considered nature as a great teacher
 God revealed himself through various forms, colors and rhythm of nature.
 Tagore’s Internationalism: He was an ardent prophet of world unity.
 He believed in world brotherhood
5) Swami Vivekananda
We are what our thoughts have made us; so take care about what you think. Words are
secondary. Thoughts live; they travel far
Vivekananda's ideas on education
 Born in 1863 in Calcutta as Narendranath Dutta.
 He found his guru in Sri Ramakrishna Paramhansa
 Shot to fame at Chicago’s Parliament of Religions in 1893
 Died in 1902 at a young age and left a treasure of writings
Life & beliefs
 Revolted against the imposition of the British system of education in India
 He renounced the world after his guru’s death
 Had a great compassion for the Indian people
 He presented a philosophy for man-making
Aims of education
 Education for self-development.

37 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Character formation
 Should build self-reliance and confidence
 Service to mankind
 Promotion of universal brotherhood
Curriculum
 Cultural heritage in terms of History, Poetry, languages, Vedantic studies
 Scientific knowledge & technological studies
 Vocational studies
 Subjects for girls
 Games, Sports & Physical education
Methods of Teaching
 Lectures, discussions, self-experience
 Developing the mind by concentration & meditation & yoga
 Individual guidance by the teacher
Role of the teacher
 To motivate, demonstrate, and persuade individuals to discover their own potential,
intellect and to properly understand their mind, body and spirit.
 Love, affection & empathy
 Dedication, commitment, understanding of the scriptures and value-based life
Contribution to education
 Revived the spirit of humanism in education
 Free and compulsory mass education
 A national system of education
 Women’s education
 Concept of equality for all
 Ramakrishna mission in 1897
 Vedanta society in San Francisco

Definition of Reflective Teaching

Reflective teaching is a process where teachers think over their teaching practices,
analyzing how something was taught and how the practice might be improved or changed for

38 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

better learning outcomes. Some points of consideration in the reflection process might be what is
currently being done, why it's being done and how well students are learning.
Reflective teaching means looking at what you do in the classroom, thinking about why
you do it, and thinking about if it works - a process of self-observation and self-evaluation. By
collecting information about what goes on in our classroom, and by analysing and evaluating this
information, we identify and explore our own practices and underlying beliefs. This may then
lead to changes and improvements in our teaching.

Reflective teaching is therefore a means of professional development which begins in our

classroom.
Becoming a reflective teacher

 Understand Your Reasons for Teaching

Identifying those who influenced you to become a teacher is a fundamental exercise in
continued excellence. Almost everyone can name two or three teachers who changed the
course of his or her life. Some found elementary school teachers who discovered their talent
and promise. Others discovered their confidence through recognition of their potential in a
specific subject. By discussing and defining the qualities of those exemplary teachers when
they were students, professionals begin to define the roots of their own teaching.

 Cultivate Ethical Behavior in Your Students and Yourself

Although many schools of discipline exist, a teacher can achieve harmony in the
classroom, but the real focus of student management lies in instilling ethical behavior.
Authentic responses to classroom interactions as well as logical consequences for
transgressions can be improved through collegial dialogue. These cannot be found in a
manual; but rather, can be cultivated in seminars and observance of other master teachers.

 Pool Both Patience and Perseverance

Stamina and endurance are needed for the long haul of teaching. This means finding
ways to remain healthy and able-minded through the stressful days. By connecting with
others who have discovered methods of physical and mental renewal, teachers have a better
chance of staying enthused about teaching despite the many inevitable setbacks during the
school year.

39 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Design Curriculum That Works

All good teaching requires excellent design and redesign, beginning with a strong
curriculum that outlines the most essential ideas. Without a forum for the continuous re-
tailoring of their curriculum, teachers are often left to work from a textbook or on-the-fly
lesson plans. Spending time in retreat with other professionals allows teachers to lay a strong
foundation for each course they teach.

 Perfect Instructional Practices and Assessment Skills

The ongoing development of instructional methods and feedback skills are critical to
excellence in teaching. Only through the careful examination of activities and assessment can
a teacher guide all students to succeed. Teachers need time with their colleagues outside the
classroom; the temporary success of "fun" activities can be a hindrance to the development of
a master teacher. By crafting performance tasks and assessing them with their peers and
mentors, teachers can refine their teaching.

 Connect Positively to the Whole-School Culture

Over time, the master teacher has the capacity to improve the whole-school culture
through excellence in teaching. Because master teaching has as its foundation the generous
impulse to assist students and colleagues, the teacher is able to fundamentally influence
others without generating resentment. The master teacher is consistently working to benefit
the school, so he or she is not in competition with colleagues or administration.
 Examines his or her own reactions to children or their actions to understand their source
 Is curious about children’s play and watches it closely
 Documents details of children’s conversations and activities
 Takes time to study notes and photos to puzzle out what is significant
 Eagerly shares stories about children’s learning with families and co-workers
 Asks co-workers and children’s families for their insights
 Reads professional literature to learn more
 Shows children photos and stories of themselves to hear their views
 Changes the environment and materials to encourage new play and learning possibilities
 Knows yourself.
 Finds the details that touch your heart and mind.

40 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Seeks the child’s perspective.

 Examines the physical and social-emotional environment.
 Explores multiple points of view.
 Considers opportunities and possibilities for next steps.
Characteristics of reflective teachers
 Reflective teachers attempt to solve classroom problems. Generally, teachers’ reflections
arise from classroom problems they face. Reflective teachers begin by identifying
classroom problems. Then they solve a particular problem by gathering information that
will help them deal with this problem.
 Reflective teachers are aware of the beliefs and values they bring to teaching. As was
pointed out earlier, teachers bring to the classroom beliefs they have about teaching and
learning based on their own educational experiences, their knowledge of educational
practices, and their personal values. Reflective teachers recognize their own values and
educational assumptions.
 Reflective teachers take part in curriculum development and are involved in school
change effort. Reflective teachers realize that what they do is part of a larger educational
context. Hence, they participate in overall curriculum planning, and they are involved in
school changes that will lead to more effective teaching and learning.
 Reflective teachers take responsibility for their own professional development. Reflective
teachers realize that becoming a more effective teacher involves continually learning
more about the content they teach and about effective pedagogical practices. Because of
this, they attend lectures and workshops and read relevant books and materials. They also
contribute to the process of professional development by sharing their reflections with
other teachers.
 The reflective educator has time set aside specifically for thinking about his professional
practice, growth needs, and students’ needs.
 The reflective teacher analyzes his own lessons to see what worked and what did not. He
makes changes as necessary. When a lesson does not go well, which will happen to
everyone, he learns from it and does not teach the lesson the same way again.

41 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 The reflective teacher recognizes the inherent differences in his classes (when he has
more than one group of students) and does not treat all classes the same by teaching
exactly the same lesson.
 The reflective teacher takes planned time within class to determine the efficacy of the
lesson and take steps to improve it, if need be.
 The reflective teacher knows both his strengths and his students’ strengths. His lessons
are designed around their strengths and areas of interest to maximize learning.
 The reflective teacher is cognizant of his own weaknesses and takes planned steps to
improve in those areas.
 The reflective teacher seeks feedback from many sources, such as other teachers,
students, parents, and administrators. He is open to constructive criticism.
 The reflective teacher understands that he cannot optimally teach students by himself.
Teaching is a complex field and it takes help from many others.
 The reflective teacher shares his experience with the understanding that it can benefit
others who may be able to learn from his experiences.
A Reflective Teacher
One who can design and implement an effective educational program by adapting his or her
teaching skills and techniques to the specific school situation
An Invariant Teacher
One who uses one approach in all teaching situations regardless of the class/school
characteristics
Comparison of Reflective/Invariant Teaching

Variable The Reflective Teacher The Invariant Teacher

Methodology Vary the methodology Employ the same methodology

according to such factors as with all classes and hope that
(1) kinds of children in the the children will eventually
class; fulfill the teacher’s
(2) purpose of the lesson; expectations
(3) ability of the children to
accept responsibility

42 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Curriculum Design curriculum for each Use predetermined curricular

unique class of children after content without considering
examining the children to such factors as children’s
determine their abilities and ability, community influences,
needs or children’s interests

Equipment and facilities Modify activities and lessons to Teach activities and lessons
available equipment and that use available equipment
facilities and facilities

Discipline Attempt to understand Assume that the children are

management problems and then misbehaving and resort to
seek the causes, modifying punitive measures to modify
teaching procedure accordingly individual and class behavior

Assessment Regularly assess the children Assess sporadically and often

and also seek constructive base assessment on whether
criticism about their teaching children liked the lesson, how
from children and colleagues long they remained interested,
and how well they behaved

My goals as a teacher
Teaching is hard work and some teachers never grow to be anything better than
mediocre. They do the bare minimum required and very little more. The great teachers, however,
work tirelessly to create a challenging, nurturing environment for their students. Great teaching
seems to have less to do with our knowledge and skills than with our attitude toward our
students, our subject, and our work
1. A great teacher respects students.
In a great teacher’s classroom, each person’s ideas and opinions are valued. Students feel
safe to express their feelings and learn to respect and listen to others. This teacher creates a
welcoming learning environment for all students.

43 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

2. A great teacher creates a sense of community and belonging in the classroom.

The mutual respect in this teacher’s classroom provides a supportive, collaborative
environment. In this small community, there are rules to follow and jobs to be done and each
student is aware that he or she is an important, integral part of the group. A great teacher lets
students know that they can depend not only on her, but also on the entire class.
3. A great teacher is warm, accessible, enthusiastic and caring.
This person is approachable, not only to students, but to everyone on campus. This is the
teacher to whom students know they can go with any problems or concerns or even to share a
funny story. Great teachers possess good listening skills and take time out of their way-too-busy
schedules for anyone who needs them. If this teacher is having a bad day, no one ever knows—
the teacher leaves personal baggage outside the school doors.
4. A great teacher sets high expectations for all students.
This teacher realizes that the expectations she has for her students greatly affect their
achievement; she knows that students generally give to teachers as much or as little as is
expected of them.
5. A great teacher has his own love of learning and inspires students with his passion for
education and for the course material.
He constantly renews himself as a professional on his quest to provide students with the
highest quality of education possible. This teacher has no fear of learning new teaching strategies
or incorporating new technologies into lessons, and always seems to be the one who is willing to
share what he’s learned with colleagues.
6. A great teacher is a skilled leader.
Different from administrative leaders, effective teachers focus on shared decision-making
and teamwork, as well as on community building. This great teacher conveys this sense of
leadership to students by providing opportunities for each of them to assume leadership roles.
7. A great teacher can “shift-gears” and is flexible when a lesson isn’t working.
This teacher assesses his teaching throughout the lessons and finds new ways to present
material to make sure that every student understands the key concepts.

44 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

8. A great teacher collaborates with colleagues on an ongoing basis.

Rather than thinking of herself as weak because she asks for suggestions or help, this
teacher views collaboration as a way to learn from a fellow professional. A great teacher uses
constructive criticism and advice as an opportunity to grow as an educator.
9. A great teacher maintains professionalism in all areas—from personal appearance to
organizational skills and preparedness for each day.
Her communication skills are exemplary, whether she is speaking with an administrator,
one of her students or a colleague. The respect that the great teacher receives because of her
professional manner is obvious to those around her.

45 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

UNIT III
BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES OF LEARNING
Syllabus

Learning – meaning of learning as defined by behaviourists – classical conditioning

(Pavlov) – Law of effect (Thorndike) – operant conditioning and shaping (Skinner) – social
learning (Bandura) - Basic assumptions of behavioural theory – strengths and limitations.

LEARNING

The process by which a relatively lasting change in potential behaviour occurs because of
practice or experience. Learning is also a process of acquiring modifications in existing
knowledge, skills, habits, or tendencies through experience, practice, or exercise.

 learning is a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to

experience
 The acquisition of knowledge.
 Knowledge gained through study.
 To gain knowledge of, or skill in, something through study, teaching, instruction
or experience. The process of gaining knowledge.
 A process by which behavior is changed, shaped or controlled.
 The individual process of constructing understanding based on experience from
a wide range of sources.
“Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience” - Gates and others

“Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as

a result of experience”- Henry, P smithLearning is…
“Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new ways of doing
things, and it operates in an individual’s attempt to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new
situations.”- Crow and Crow

“Learning is the process of progressive behaviour adaptation.” – Skinner

Nature and characteristics of learning

 Learning is the change in behaviour.

46 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Learning is a continuous life long process.

 Learning is a universal process.
 Learning is purposive and goal directed.
 Learning involves reconstruction of experiences.
 Learning is the product of activity and environment.
 Learning is transferable from one situation to another.
 Learning helps in attainment of teaching – learning objectives.
 Learning helps in the proper growth and development.
 Learning helps in the balanced development of the personality.
 Learning helps in proper adjustment.
 Learning helps in the realization of goals of life.
 Learning does not necessarily imply improvement.

BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively
observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as
nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.

Behaviourism arose as a result of the controversy between structuralism and

functionalism. Its chief proponent was J.B.Watson. He disagreed with both the structuralism and
functionalism. According to Watson, it is useless to study elements of consciousness of effects
on the different parts of the body because it does not help in the understanding of human nature.

For him, explanations of ‘why’ and ‘how’ were the all-important factor. We can
understand human nature by the study of one’s physical activities, gestures and behaviour.

The subject-matter of psychology according to behaviourists is human and animal

activity, which can be observed and measured in an objective way. The purpose of psychology is
to discover ways and means of prediction and control of human and animal behaviour.
Consciousness, if at all it exists, is not the subject for scientific study.

The unit of behaviour should be reflexes or stimulus response connections. One’s

behaviour is composed of stimulus response bond, which can be successfully analysed by
objective and scientific methods. Therefore the chief method of psychology is observation of
47 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

behaviour. Watson was an extreme environmentalist. For him, environment is much more
important than heredity in the determination of behaviour.

Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place.
Explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. A learning theory is an attempt to
describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex
process of learning. Learning theories have two chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in
providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of
learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical
problems.

PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY

 Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a major influence on the

school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism.
 Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a
learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental
stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
 To understand the nature of the process of conditioning, Pavlov performed the
following experiment.
 It's important to note that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal
before a naturally occurring reflex.
 In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a
tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food.
 By associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus (the
presentation of food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation
response.
 In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is
important to be familiar with the basic principles of the process.
1. Classical Condition (Pavlov)

In his experiment, Pavlov kept a hungry dog for a few days and then tied him to the
experimental table which was fitted with certain mechanically as far as it was possible to do so.
The observer himself remained hidden from the dog but was able to view the experiment by
48 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

means of a set if mirrors. Arrangement was made to give food to the dog through an automatic
mechanism. He also arranged for a bell to ring every time food was presented to the dog. When
the food was put before the dog and the bell was rung, there was automatic secretion of saliva
from the mouth of the dog. The activity of presenting the food accompanied with the ringing of
the bell was repeated several timed and the amount of saliva secreted was measured.

After several trials the dog was given no food but the bell was rung. In this case also, the
amount of saliva secreted was recorded and measured. It was found that even the absence of
food (the natural stimulus), the ringing of the bell (an artificial stimulus) caused the dog to
secrete the saliva (natural response).

The above experiment thus brings to light four essential elements of the conditioning
process.
1. Food is the unconditioned stimulus or (UCS). By this, Pavlov meant that the stimulus that
elicited the response occurred naturally. It generates and instinctual reflexive, unlearned
behavior, such as salivation when eating.
2. The salivation to the food is an unconditioned response (UCR), that is a response which
occurs naturally.
3. The bell is formerly a neutral sound to the dog, the conditioned stimulus (CS) because it will
only produce salivation on condition that it is presented with the food.
4. Salivation to the bell alone is the conditioned response (CR), a response to the conditioned
stim This may be symbolically presented as follows:
UCS<———————————> UCR
(Food) (Saliva)
↓ (Conditioning)
CS<————————————->CR
(Bell) (Saliva)
Principles of Classical conditioning
 Extinction: -
The process of gradual disappearance of the conditioned response or disconnection
of the S-R association is called extinction.

49 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Spontaneous recovery: -
After extinction, when a conditioned response is no longer evident, the behaviour
often reappears spontaneously but at a reduced intensity. The phenomenon – the
reappearance of apparently extinguished conditioned response after an interval in
which the pairing of conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US)
has not been repeated is called spontaneous recovery. It shows that, the learning is
suppressed rather than forgotten. As the time passes, the suppression may become so
strong that there would, ultimately be no further possibility of SR.
 Stimulus generalization: -
Responding to the stimuli in a generalized way was termed as stimulus
generalisation with reference to a particular stage of learning behaviour in which an
individual once conditioned to respond to specific stimulus is made to respond in the
same way in response to other stimuli of similar nature.
 Stimulus discrimination: -
It is the opposite of stimulus generalization. In sharp contrast to responding in a
usual fashion, the subject learn to react different in different situations. Conditioning
through the mechanism of stimulus discrimination one learns to react only to a single
specific stimulus out of the multiplicity of stimuli and to distinguish and discriminate
one from the others among a variety of stimuli present in our environment.

Implications of Classical Conditioning

 In day to day life, fear, love, hatred towards an object or phenomenon or event is created
through conditioning. \
 Most learning is associated with the process of conditioning i.e. stimulus response
association and substitution.
 The phenomenon of stimulus generalization and discrimination goes on throughout our
lives.
 Abnormality in one’s behaviour may to a great extent be the result of conditioning.
 Much of our behaviour in the shape of interests, attitudes, habits, sense of application or
criticism, mood & temperaments is fashioned through conditioning.
 Conditioning helps in learning what is desirable and also unlearning what’s undesirable

50 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

LAW OF EFFECT E.L THORNDIKE

 Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was the first American psychologist who put
forward the Trial and Error Theory of learning.
 According to Thorndike, all learning takes place because of formation of bond or
connection between stimulus and response.
 He further says that learning takes place through a process of approximation and
correction. A person makes a number of trials, some responses do not give satisfaction to
the individual but he goes on making further trials until he gets satisfactory responses.
 Thorndike conducted a number of experiments on animals to explain the process of
learning. His most widely quoted experiment is with a cat placed in a puzzle box.

Thorndike put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. The box had one door, which could be
opened by manipulating a latch of the door. A fish was placed outside the box. The cat being
hungry had the motivation of eating fish outside the box. However, the obstacle was the latch on
the door. The cat made random movements inside the box indicating trial and error type of
behaviour biting at the box, scratching the box, walking around, pulling and jumping etc. to
come out to get the food. Now in the course of her movements, the latch was manipulated
accidently and the cat came out to get the food. Over a series of successive trials, the cat took
shorter and shorter time, committed less number of errors, and was in a position to manipulate
the latch as soon as it was put in the box and learnt the art of opening the door.

Thorndike concluded that it was only after many random trials that the cat was able to hit
upon the solutions. Trial and Error Learning. An analysis of the learning behaviour of the cat in
the box shows that besides trial and error the principles of goal, motivation, explanation and
reinforcement are involved in the process of learning by Trial and Error.

Laws of Learning
Based on Trial and Error Learning Theory, Thorndike gave certain laws of Learning.
Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws
• Law of Effect
• Law of Exercise
• Law of Readiness

51 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

1. Law of Readiness
 This law refers to the fact that learning takes place only when the learner is prepared
to learn.
 No amount of efforts can make the child learn if the child is not ready to learn.
 Thus, the Law of Readiness means mental preparation for action.
 It is not to force the child to learn if he is not ready.
 Learning failures are the result of forcing the learner to learn when he is not ready to
learn something.

Educational Implications of Law of Readiness

 The law draws the attention of teacher to the motivation of the child.
 The teacher must consider the psycho-biological readiness of the students to
ensure successful learning experiences.
 Curriculum / Learning experiences should be according to the mental level of
maturity of the child.
 If this is not so, there will be poor comprehension and readiness may vanish.
2. Law of Exercise
 This law explains the role of practice in learning.
 According to this law, learning becomes efficient through practice or exercise.
 The dictum ‘Practice makes a man perfect’ goes very well with this law.
 A drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning.
 connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is
discontinued.
 Things most often repeated are best remembered
 Students do not lean complex task in a single session
Educational Implications

 Exercise occupies an important place in learning.

 Teacher must repeat, give sufficient drill in some subjects like mathematics,
drawing, music or vocabulary for fixing material in the minds of the students.
 Thorndike later revised this law of exercise and accordingly it is accepted that
practice does bring improvement in learning but it in itself is not sufficient.
52 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Always practice must be followed by some reward or satisfaction to the learner.

 The learner must be motivated to learn.

3. Law of Effect
 Stated that a connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened when the
consequences is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and the
response is weakened when the consequence is negative.
 Learning will always be much more effective when a feeling of satisfaction, pleasantness,
or reward accompanied in learning process.
 Students learn if they are being rewarded, self- satisfied through positive reinforcement.
is weakened when associated with unpleasant feeling
 Student change in behavior through punishment
Educational Implications

 This law signifies the use of reinforcement or feedback in learning.

 This implies that learning trials must be associated with satisfying consequences.
 The teacher can use rewards to strengthen certain responses and punishment to
weaken others.

OPERANT CONDITIONING AND SHAPPING (SKINNER)

Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson (1913). Skinner believed
that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable
behavior rather than internal mental events. The work of Skinner was rooted in a view that
classical conditioning was far too simplistic to be a complete explanation of complex human
behavior. He believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an
action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.

Operant Conditioning States that people learn their behavior from their history or past
experiences, particularly those that were repeatedly reinforced.
1. BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on
Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect -
Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior
53 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened).Skinner (1948)
studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals.

 Skinner developed a special apparatus known as skinner’s box.

 This box has a grid floor, a system of light or sound produced at the time of delivery of a
pellet of food, in the food cup, on the pressing of lever.
 Skinner placed a hungry rat in the box.
 In this experiment, pressure on the bar in a certain way, by the rat could result in the
production of a click and emergence of a food pellet.
 The rat was rewarded for each proper pressing of the lever.
 The rat repeated this process, and ultimately learned to press the lever as desired by the
experimenter.
B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of
behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response.

Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior.

• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the
probability of a behavior being repeated.

• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior
being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior
being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

Principles of Operant Conditioning

 All behavior is learned. Consequences result from behavior – reward and punishment
Behavior that is rewarded with reinforcers tends to recur.
 Positive reinforcers that follow a behavior increase the likelihood that the behavior will
recur.
 Negative reinforcers that are removed after a behavior increase the likelihood that the
behavior will recur.

54 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Continuous reinforcement is the fastest way to increase that behavior, but the behavior
will not last long after the reward ceases.
TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

1 Positive Reinforcement

2. Negative Reinforcement

3. Punishment Reinforcement

4. Extinction Reinforcement
1. Positive Reinforcement

Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner
box. The box contained a lever on the side and as the rat moved about the box it would
accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container
next to the lever. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being
put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they
would repeat the action again and again.

 Positive Reinforcement Giving a positive response when an individual shows positive

and required behavior.
 Think of it as adding something in order to increase a response.
 The most common types of positive reinforcement or praise and rewards.
 Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual
finds rewarding
 For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework (i.e. a
reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening
the behavior of completing your homework.
2. Negative Reinforcement

Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and
then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat
moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric
current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few
times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they

55 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

would repeat the action again and again. In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric
current by turning on a light just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to
press the lever when the light came on because they knew that this would stop the electric
current being switched on. These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and
Avoidance Learning.

 Negative reinforcement as taking something negative away in order to increase a

response.
 It is a more effective tool for motivating employee behavior.
 Negative reinforcement encourages employees to perform better so they can have an
unpleasant condition removed from their work environment.
 Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an
unpleasant experience.

4. Punishment (weakens behavior)

 Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a behavior.

 Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or
eliminate a response rather than increase it.
 It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it followsLike reinforcement,
punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after
a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting
someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.

Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.

There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

 Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is
no longer present.
 Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.
 Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.
 Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do,
punishment only tells you what not to do.

56 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

4. Extinction Reinforcement

 Extinction Reinforcement When you remove something in order to decrease a behavior,

this is called extinction.
 You are taking something away so that a response is decreased.
Schedules of Reinforcement

Imagine a rat in a “Skinner box”. In operant conditioning if no food pellet is delivered

immediately after the lever is pressed then after several attempts the rat stops pressing the lever.
The behavior has been extinguished. Behaviorists discovered that different patterns (or
schedules) of reinforcement had different effects on the speed of learning and on extinction.

Definition:

The determination of when reinforcers are applied; after every response or only after
some responses

• Two general categories of schedule are:

 Continuous Reinforcement - Every behavior is reinforced; the simplest
schedule
 Intermittent Reinforcement - Only some behaviors are reinforced
Ferster and Skinner (1957) devised different ways of delivering reinforcement, and found that
this had effects

 The Response Rate - The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e. how hard the rat
worked).
 The Extinction Rate - The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e. how soon the rat
gave up).
Skinner found that the type of reinforcement which produces the slowest rate of extinction
is variable-ratio reinforcement. The type of reinforcement which has the quickest rate of
extinction is continuous reinforcement.
1. Continuous Reinforcement

An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behaviour occurs, e.g. every
time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered and then food delivery is shut off.

57 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Response rate is SLOW

 Extinction rate is FAST
2. Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times. E.g. one
reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g. after every 5th response. For
example a child receives a star for every five words spelt correctly.

 Response rate is FAST

 Extinction rate is MEDIUM
3. Fixed Interval Reinforcement

One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response
has been made. An example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be every 15
minutes (half hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has been
made) then food delivery is shut off.

 Response rate is MEDIUM

 Extinction rate is MEDIUM
4. Variable Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For examples, gambling or

fishing.
 Response rate is FAST
 Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability
5. Variable Interval Reinforcement

Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable
amount of time has passed, e.g. on average every 5 minutes. An example is a selfemployed
person being paid at unpredictable times.

 Response rate is FAST

 Extinction rate is SLOW

58 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

SOCIAL LEARNING – (BANDURA)

 Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.
 His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and
behaviors by watching other people which is known as observational learning (or
modeling).
 Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others.
 This theory examines the processes involved as people learn from observing others and
gradually acquire control over their own behavior.
 The Social Learning Theory states that people learn from one another via observation,
imitation and modeling.
 It is often referred to as a bridge behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it
encompasses attention, memory and motivation.
 The cognitive psychologist –who appreciate the role of observation in learning are termed
as social psychologist and termed the theory of learning they propagate is known as the
social learning theory.

Bandura explains the following steps usually involved in learning

 Attending and perceiving: - observation of a role model catches the attention of a child.
 Remembering the behaviour: - The child remembers the actions and styles.
 Converting the memory into action: - The child imitates the role model. A behaviour
observed and remembered by the learner is analyzed in terms it its acceptability to the
learner. It is transformed into action only afterwards and thus the observed relevant and
accepted aspect of the model’s behaviour are imitated by the learner.
 Reinforcement of the imitated behaviour: - The child tries to change himself into the
role of a model. The behaviour of the model imitated by the learner is reinforced for
proper adoption and further continuance.

Necessary conditions for effective modeling

 Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid.

 Retention — remembering what you paid attention to.
 Reproduction — reproducing the image.

59 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Motivation — having a good reason to imitate.

Concepts of the Social Learning Theory
There are 3 core concepts of the Social Learning Theory
 People can learn through observation.
 Internal mental state is essential in the learning process.
 Learning does not necessarily lead to change in behavior.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF BEHAVIOUR THEORY

 To promote effective modeling a teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions
exist; attention, retention , motor reproduction, and motivation.
 Teachers must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model
inappropriate behaviors.
 Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially
important to break down traditional stereotypes.
 Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic
accomplishments.
STRENGTHS AND LIMITATION
What do teacher do under this theory
 To promote effective modeling a teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions
exist; attention, retention , motor reproduction, and motivation.
 Teachers must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model
inappropriate behaviors.
 Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially
important to break down traditional stereotypes.
 Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic
accomplishments.
What do students do under this theory?
 Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
 Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks.
 Students should closely observe appropriate behaviors and learn from them.

60 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

UNIT IV
COGNITIVE AND HUMANISTIC THEORIES OF LEARNING
Syllabus
Learning – meaning of learning as defined by cognitive psychologists – Insight learning
(Kohlberg) - Modes of cognitive development (Bruner) – Stages of intellectual development
(Piaget) – Learning styles (Kolb) – Self-actualization( Maslow) - Theory of a fully
functioning person ( Carl Rogers).

LEARNING

Behavioral learning theorists believe that learning has occurred when you can see changes in
behavior. The behavioral learning model is the result of conditioning. The basis of conditioning
is that a reward following a desirable response acts as are inforce and to increase the likelihood
that the desirable response will be repeated. Reinforcement is the core of the behaviorist
approach. Continuous reinforcement in every instance of desirable behavior is useful when a
behavior is being introduced.

COGNITIVE AND HUMANISTIC THEORIES

Cognitive learning theorists believe that learning is an internal process in which

information is integrated or internalized into one’s cognitive or intellectual structure. Learning
occurs through internal processing of information. From the cognitive viewpoint, how new
information is presented is important. In the first or cognitive phase of learning, the patient learns
the overall picture of what the task is and the sequences involved. In the second, or fixation
learning phase, the learner begins to gain skill in performing the task. Whether a physical task is
learned as a whole or part by part depends on its complexity.

For example, learning how to take a blood pressure is a complex task. The patient must
learn how to physically manipulate the blood pressure manometer, learn how to hear blood
pressure sounds, and understand the meaning of the sounds. Each of these tasks can be practiced
as a separate activity, then combined. In the last phase of learning, the automatic phase, the
patient gains increasing confidence and competence in performing the task. Humanist learning

61 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

theorists view learning as a function of the whole person and believe that learning cannot take
place unless both the cognitive and affective domains are involved.

The Learning and Teaching individual’s capacity for self-determination is an important

part of humanist theory. For example, humanist theory is used to help post myocardial infarction
patients regain a sense of personal control over their health care management. It is possible to
select elements of each theory that you find useful in patient teaching.

All patients grow with success and do better when achievements are recognized and
reinforced. Respecting the whole person in a supportive environment can encourage learning.
Learning is also fostered through structuring information appropriately and presenting it in
meaningful segments with appropriate feedback.

1. Choice and Control

The humanistic approach places a great deal of emphasis on students' choice and control over
the course of their education. Students are encouraged to make choices that range from day to-
day activities to periodically setting future life goals. This allows for students to focus on a
specific subject of interest for any amount of time they choose, within reason. Humanistic
teachers believe it is important for students to be motivated and engaged in the material they are
learning, and this happens when the topic is something the students need and want to know.

2. Felt Concern

Humanistic education tends to focus on the felt concerns and interests of the students
intertwining with the intellect. It is believed that the overall mood and feeling of the students can
either hinder or foster the process of learning.

3. The Whole Person

Humanistic educators believe that both feelings and knowledge are important to the learning
process. Unlike traditional educators, humanistic teachers do not separate the cognitive and
affective domains. This aspect also relates to the curriculum in the sense that lessons and
activities provide focus on various aspects of the student and not just rote memorization through
note taking and lecturing.

62 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

INSIGHT LEARNING-KOHLER

Introduction

Max Wertheimer is the father of Gestalt Theory. Later on, Wertheimer’s theory was further
refined and developed by Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. C.V.Good defines gestalt
configration, as total structure, form or shape, a term designating an undivided articulate as a
whole that cannot be made by the more addition of independent elements, the nature of each
element depending on its relationship to the whole. The term ‘gestalt’ means a whole, a total
composition. According to this theory, an individual learns an object as a whole, a single entity,
not in parts or bits. In other words, an individual’s understanding of an object comprehends the
whole object, not merely parts or bits of the object. This theory can be summed up in the succinct
statement: ‘The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.’

1. Kohler’s Experiments

In order to establish the existence of insight, Kohler conducted a number of experiments on a

chimpanzee named Sultan. Although he conducted a number of other experiments on dogs, hens,
and other creatures, his experiments with Sultan were the most noteworthy. Kohler divided his
experiment in to four steps.

 Experiment- Sultan was placed in a cage. A stick was placed in the cage and a
banana just outside the cage, but outside Sultans direct reach. Sultan made many
attempts to obtain the banana but it failed. It sat down in despair. But, after sometime
it suddenly got up, lifted the stick and used it to draw the banana towards itself.
 Experiment- In the second stage, Kohler placed inside the cage two sticks which
could be joined to each other. This time the banana was so placed that it could not be
drown by the chimpanzee towards itself with a single stick. After numerous attempts,
Sultan joined the two sticks together and succeeded in obtaining the banana.
 Experiment- In the third step, Kohler hung the banana from the roof of the cage of
such a height as to ensure that Sultan could not reach it even by jumping upwards. A
box was also placed inside the cage. After many attempts, Sultan climbed up on the
box and obtained the bananas.

63 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Experiment- In the final step, Kohler placed two boxes at one place in the cage the
banana was placed at an even high level. At first, Sultan kept on trying to reach the
banana by standing up on one box, but after numerous failures, it placed one box
upon the other and claiming quit obtained the banana.
2. Factors Influencing Insight

Many experiments have thrown light upon and established the various factors which
influence insight. Some of them are mentioned below;

 Experience - Past experiences help in the insightful solution of the problems. A child
cannot solve the problems of Modern Mathematics unless he is well acquainted with its
symbolic language.
 Intelligence – Insightful solution depends upon the basic intelligence of the learner. The
more intelligent the individual is the greater will be his insight.
 Learning Situation – How insightfully the organism will react depends upon the
situation in which he has to act. Some situations are more favorable than the others for
insightful solution. As a common observation, insight occurs when the learning situation
is so arranged that all the necessary aspects are open for observation.
 Initial Efforts or Trial and Error – Insightful learning has to pass through the process
of trial and error. Whatever an activity may be, attempts or efforts or trials always lie at
its root. This opens the way for insightful learning.
 Repetition and Generalization – After having an insightful solution of a particular type
of problem, the organism tries to repeat it in another situation, demanding similar type of
solution. The way found in one situation helps him to react insightfully in the other
identical situations.
3. Characteristics of Insight

The above mentioned experiments make it quite obvious that learning by insight has certain
characteristics of its own. They are briefly as follows;

 Insight is sudden.
 Insight alters perception.
 Old objects appear in new patterns and organization by virtue of insight.

64 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Insight is relative to the intellectual level. The higher species of animals including
human beings have more insight than the members of lower species.
 In insight, understanding is more useful than dexterity of hands.
 Previous experience is of assistance in insight. An organized perception is an
essential factor in learning.
 Maturity also affects insight as evidenced by the smoother working of insight in older
age than in adolescence.
 If the pieces essential for the solution of the puzzle are present together when
perceived, insight comes about earlier.
 Learning by insight is associative learning. Insight appears suddenly after the
manipulation of thoughts or objects for a small, through significant length of time.
 The insight gained in particular circumstances is of assistance in other circumstances.
4. Principles Involved in Insightful Learning
 Law of figure ground,
 Law of inquisitive
 Law of continuity
 Law of similarity
 Law of proximity
5. Educational Implications
 Subject matter (learning material) should be presented in Gestalt form. The plant or
flower as a whole be presented before the students and later on the parts should be
emphasized.
 In the organization of the syllabus and planning of the curriculum, the Gestalt principle
should be given due consideration. A particular subject should not be treated as the mere
collection of isolated facts or topics. It should be closely integrated into a whole.
Similarly the curriculum should reflect unity and cohesiveness.
 This theory has brought motivation in the fore-front by assigning purpose and motive, the
central role in learning process. It is goal oriented. Purpose or goals of learning should be
made clear to the students, before the teacher starts teaching.
 The greater contribution of the insight theory of learning is that it has made learning an
intelligent task requiring mental abilities. It has called a halt to the age old mechanical
65 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

memorization, drill and practice work which lack in basic understanding and use of
thinking, reasoning and creative mental powers.
 It emphasizes that the learner must be given opportunities for using his mental abilities.
Instead of telling him, how to do a work or solve a problem, he should be placed in the
position of an independent enquirer and discoverer.
 As insight depends upon capacity, all pupils are not able to use insight in an equal
measure. The teacher recognizes differences in capacity and age and understands
classroom implications of readiness.

MODES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - BRUNER

The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from
experience "generic coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly
fruitful predictions" (Bruner, 1957, p. 234).Thus, children as they grow must acquire a way of
representing the "recurrent regularities" in their environment.

So, to Bruner, important outcomes of learning include not just the concepts, categories,
and problem-solving procedures invented previously by the culture, but also the ability to
"invent" these things for oneself. Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human
capabilities and "culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities."

These culturally invented technologies include not just obvious things such as computers
and television, but also more abstract notions such as the way a culture categorizes phenomena,
and language itself. Bruner would likely agree with Vygotsky that language serves to mediate
between environmental stimuli and the individual's response.

1. The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners

In his research on the cognitive development of children (1966), Jerome Bruner proposed three
modes of representation

 Enactive representation (action-based)

 Iconic representation (image-based)
 Symbolic representation (language-based)
2. Bruner's Three Modes of Representation

66 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Modes of representation are the way in which information or knowledge are stored and
encoded in memory. Rather than neat age related stages (like Piaget), the modes of
representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they "translate" into each
other. Bruner suggested that different ways of thinking (or representation) were important
at different ages
 In contrast, Piaget emphasised that children developed sequentially through different
stages of development.
st
 The enactive mode (used in 1 18 months)
 The iconic mode (develops from 18 months)
 The symbolic mode (6-7 years onwards)
Enactive (0 - 1 years)

 The first kind of memory. This mode is used within the first 18 months of life
(corresponding with Piaget’s sensorimotor stage).
 The infant stores information in the form of muscle memories: remembering the
feel of actions.
 Thinking is based entirely on physical actions.
 Infants learn by doing, rather than by internal representation (or thinking).
 This mode continues later in many physical activities, such as learning to ride a
bike.
Iconic (1 - 6 years)

 This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental picture
in the mind’s eye). For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it.
This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to
have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal information. Information is
stored as sensory images: usually visual ones, like pictures in the mind.
 Mode begins to develop from 18 months.
 Some children develop an extreme form of this known as eidetic imagery
(photographic memory), but they usually lose it as they grow older.
 Thinking is based on the use of mental images (icons), which may be based on
sight, hearing, smell or touch.
67 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Symbolic (7 years onwards)

 This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol,
such as language. This is the most adaptable form of representation, for actions & images
have a fixed relation to that which they represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a
single class. Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified etc.,
so the user isn’t constrained by actions or images. In the symbolic stage, knowledge is
stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.
 The ability to store things in the form of symbols. Words are powerful symbols and we
can store a lot of information as verbal memory.

 This mode is acquired around six to seven years-old (corresponding to Piaget’s operation
stage).

 Representation of the world is principally through language, but also other symbolic
systems such as number and music.

Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new material to
follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for
adult learners. A true instructional designer, Bruner's work also suggests that a learner even of a
very young age is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized
appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists.

3. Educational Implications

For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to
facilitate a child's thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of
situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children.

Bruner (1960) explained how it was possible through the concept of the spiral
curriculum. This involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a
simplified level first, and then re-visited at more complex levels later on. Therefore, subjects
would be taught at levels of gradually increasing difficultly (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally,
teaching his way should lead to children being able to solve problems by themselves.

68 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Bruner (1961) proposes that learners’ construct their own knowledge and do this by
organizing and categorizing information using a coding system. Bruner believed that the most
effective way to develop a coding system is to discover it rather than being told it by the teacher.
The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct their own knowledge for
themselves (also known as a constructivist approach).

The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to
facilitate the learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lessons that help
student discover the relationship between bits of information. To do this a teacher must give
students the information they need, but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral
curriculum can aid the process of discovery learning.

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget‘s prominent work is his theory on the four stages of cognitive development.
He was one of the most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology in the
20th century whose primary interest was in biological influences on how we come to know, and
the developmental stages we move through as we acquire this ability.

The theory of cognitive development focuses on mental processes such as perceiving,

remembering, believing, and reasoning. Reasoning is the essence of intelligence, and reasoning
is what Piaget studied in order to discover how we come to know‖. Piaget believed that cognitive
development is cumulative; that is, understanding a new experience grows out of a previous
learning experience.

1. Description of Piaget’s Theory on the Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget (1973) believed children will construct an understanding of the world around
them, and will then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they
discover in their environment.

There are three elements to Piaget‘s Cognitive Development Theory:

 Schema
 The Three processes that enable the transition from one stage to another
 The four stages of cognitive development
69 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Schema

A schema is the basic building block of intelligent behaviour, a form of organizing

information that a person uses to interpret the things he or she sees, hears, smell, and touches. A
schema can be thought of as a unit of knowledge, relating to one aspect of the world including
objects, actions, and abstract (theoretical) concepts. We use schemas to understand and to
respond to situations. We store them and apply them when needed.

The Three Processes

The three processes that enable the transition from one cognitive stage to another are
assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. Educators generally view these processes as an
explanation of cognitive learning processes, not just those that lead to major shifts in cognitive
ability.

Together, assimilation and accommodation are processes of adjustment to changes in the

environment and are defined as adaptation, the continuous process of using the environment to
learn. And, according to Piaget, adaptation is the most important principle of human functioning.

70 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Piaget argued that assimilation and accommodation are two important principles underlying
cognitive development.

To explain his theory, Piaget used the concept of stages to describe development as A sequence
of the four following stages:

 Sensory-Motor Stage
 Preoperational stage
 Stage of Concrete Operations
 Stage of Formal Operations

71 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

72 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

stage of concrete operations begins when the child is able to perform mental operations. Piaget
defines a mental operation as an interiorized action, an action performed in the mind. Mental
operations permit the child to think about physical actions that he or she previously performed.
The preoperational child could count from one to ten, but the actual understanding that one
stands for one object only appears in the stage of concrete operations.

The primary characteristic of concrete operational thought is its reversibility. The child
can mentally reverse the direction of his or her thought. A child knows that something that he
can add, he can also subtract. He or she can trace her route to school and then follow it back
home, or picture where she has left a toy without a haphazard exploration of the entire house. A
child at this stage is able to do simple mathematical operations. Operations are labelled concrete
because they apply only to those objects that are physically present.

Conservation is the major acquisition of the concrete operational stage. Piaget defines
conservation as the ability to see that objects or quantities remain the same despite a change in
their physical appearance. Children learn to conserve such quantities as number, substance
(mass), area, weight, and volume; though they may not achieve all concepts at the same time.

73 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

2. Stage of Formal Operations: Ages Eleven through Sixteen

The child in the concrete operational stage deals with the present, the here and now; the
child who can use formal operational thought can think about the future, the abstract, the
hypothetical.

Piaget‘s final stage coincides with the beginning of adolescence, and marks the start of
abstract thought and deductive reasoning. Thought is more flexible, rational, and systematic. The
individual can now conceive all the possible ways they can solve a problem, and can approach a
problem from several points of view. The adolescent can think about thoughts and -operate on
operations, not just concrete objects. He or she can think about such abstract concepts as space
and time.

The adolescent develops an inner value system and a sense of moral judgment. He or she
now has the necessary -mental tools for living his life. Summarize of this theory that these stages
unfold over time, and all children will pass through them all in order to achieve an adult level of
intellectual functioning. The later stages evolve from and are built on earlier ones. They point out
that the sequence of stages is fixed and unchangeable and children cannot skip a stage. They all
proceed through the stages in the same order, even though they may progress through them at
different rates.

Educational Implication

 Difficulty Level according to age e.g., World history at not at childhood should be
taught
 Helpful in farming curriculum according to age mental ability of pupil.
 Mental level should be taken into consideration as explanation according to age
ability to groups and understand.
 Important of Physical and social environment to create good education atmosphere.
 Teacher is aware of pupil age ability and thought process.
 No abstract concept in childhood may be in adolescence (11-15yrs.)
 No complex ideas in childhood.
 More activity based

74 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 More important to motivation teacher must not provide spoon feeding give chance to
discover.
 Theory emphasis assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium teacher should try
developing that process.

KOLB - LEARNING STYLES

David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984 from which he developed his
learning style inventory. Kolb’s experiential learning theory works on two levels: a four stage
cycle of learning and four separate learning styles. Much of Kolb’s theory is concerned with the
learner’s internal cognitive processes.

Kolb states that learning involves the acquisition of abstract concepts that can be applied
flexibly in a range of situations. In Kolb’s theory, the impetus for the development of new
concepts is provided by new experiences. “Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created
through the transformation of experience”. The Experiential Learning Cycle Kolb's experiential
learning style theory is typically represented by a four stage learning cycle in which the learner
'touches all the bases'

 Concrete Experience - (a new experience of situation is encountered, or a

reinterpretation of existing experience).
 Reflective Observation (of the new experience. Of particular importance are any
inconsistencies between experience and understanding).
 Abstract Conceptualization (Reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification
of an existing abstract concept).
 Active Experimentation (the learner applies them to the world around them to see
what results).

Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages: of

(1) Having a concrete experience followed by

(2) Observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to

(3) The formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which
are then

75 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

(4) Used to test hypothesis in future situations. Kolb (1974) views learning as an integrated
process with each stage being mutually supportive of and feeding into the next.

It is possible to enter the cycle at any stage and follow it through its logical sequence. However,
effective learning only occurs when a learner is able to execute all four stages of the model.
Therefore, no one stage of the cycle is an effective as a learning procedure on its own.

1. Here are brief descriptions of the four Kolb learning styles

Diverging (feeling and watching - CE/RO)

These people are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are sensitive.
They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use imagination to solve
problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations at several different viewpoints.
Assimilating (watching and thinking - AC/RO)

The Assimilating learning preference is for a concise, logical approach. Ideas and
concepts are more important than people. These people require good clear explanation rather
than practical opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging information and
organizing it in a clear logical format. People with an assimilating learning style are less
focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are
more attracted to logically sound theories than approaches based on practical value.

Converging (doing and thinking - AC/AE)

People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to
find solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people
and interpersonal aspects. People with a converging learning style are best at finding practical
uses for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to
questions and problems.

Accommodating (doing and feeling - CE/AE)

The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on', and relies on intuition rather than logic.
These people use other people's analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach.
They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans.

76 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

2. Educational Implications

Both Kolb's (1984) learning stages and cycle could be used by teachers to critically
evaluate the learning provision typically available to students, and to develop more appropriate
learning opportunities. Educators should ensure that activities are designed and carried out in
ways that offer each learner the chance to engage in the manner that suits them best. Also,
individuals can be helped to learn more effectively by the identification of their lesser preferred
learning styles and the strengthening of these through the application of the experiential learning
cycle. Ideally, activities and material should be developed in ways that draw on abilities from
each stage of the experiential learning cycle and take the students through the whole process in
sequence.

SELF-ACTUALIZATION (MASLOW)

The growth of self-actualization (Maslow, 1962) refers to the need for personal growth
and discovery that is present throughout a person’s life. For Maslow, a person is always
'becoming' and never remains static in these terms. In self-actualization a person comes to find a
meaning to life that is important to them.

As each person is unique the motivation for self-actualization leads people in different
directions. For some people self-actualization can be achieved through creating works of art or
literature, for others through sport, in the classroom, or within a corporate setting.

Maslow (1962) believed self-actualization could be measured through the concept of

peak experiences. This occurs when a person experiences the world totally for what it is, and
there are feelings of euphoria, joy and wonder.

77 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

1. Maslow offers the following description of self-actualization

“Self-actualization” represents a concept derived from Humanistic psychological theory

and, specifically, from the theory created by Abraham Maslow. Self-actualization, according to
Maslow, represents growth of an individual toward fulfillment of the highest needs; those for
meaning in life, in particular. It was Maslow who created a psychological hierarchy of needs,
the fulfillment of which theoretically leads to a culmination of fulfillment of “being values”, or
the needs that are on the highest level of this hierarchy, representing meaning.

Maslow’s hierarchy reflects a linear pattern of growth depicted in a direct pyramidal

order of ascension. Moreover, he states that self-actualizing individuals are able to resolve
dichotomies such as that reflected in the ultimate contrary of free-will and determinism.

2. Maslow’s hierarchy is described as follows

Physiological Needs
 Mostly, literal requirements for human survival
 If not met, the human body cannot function
 Metabolic needs – air, water, food, rest
 Clothing, shelter – needed by even animals

78 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Could be classified as basic animal needs

Safty Need

 Once physical needs are met, safety needs take over

 Personal including emotional
 Health and well-being
 Financial, job security
 Safety of property against natural disasters, calamities, wars, etc
 Law & order
Social Needs

 Need to love and be loved

 Need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance

 Small groups – clubs, office teams, school/college houses

 Large groups – political parties, Sports teams, facebook

Esteem Needs

 Need to be respected by others and in turn respect them

 Sense of contribution, to feel self-valued, in profession or hobby

 Lower - respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and
attention

 Higher - self-respect, the need for strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence,

independence and freedom

Self Actualization Needs

 What a man can be, he must be

 Intrinsic growth of what is already in a person

 Growth-motivated rather than deficiency- motivated

 Cannot normally be reached until other lower order needs are met

79 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Rarely happens - < 1%

 Acceptance of facts, spontaneous, focused on problems outside self, without

prejudice

As indicated, Maslow identified self-actualizing people as individuals who are highly

creative, who have peak experiences, and who are able to resolve the dichotomies inherent in
opposite contraries such as those constituted by “freedom and determinism”, “the conscious and
the unconscious”, as well as “intentionality and a lack of intentionality.” Creativity, a hallmark
of a self-actualizing person.

THEORY OF A FULLY FUNCTIONING PERSON-CARL ROGERS

Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals, wishes, and desires in life.
When they did so self-actualization took place. For Rogers (1961) people who are able be self-
actualize, and that is not all of us, are called fully functioning persons. This means that the
person is in touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings,
continually growing and changing. In many ways Rogers regarded the fully functioning person
as an ideal and perfect man.

1. Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person

 Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative
feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defence
mechanisms).
 Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding
prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not
always looking back to the past or forward to the future..
 Trust feelings: feeling, instincts and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted.
People’s own decisions are the right ones and we should trust ourselves to make the
right choices.
 Creativity: creative thinking and risk taking are features of a person’s life. A person
does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek
new experiences.

80 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Fulfilled life: person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new
challenges and experiences.

For Rogers, fully functioning people are well adjusted, well balanced and interesting to know.
Often such people are high achievers in society.

2. Personality Development

Central to Rogers' personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept. This is defined
as "the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself". The self is the
humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is our inner personality, and can be
likened to the soul, or Freud's psyche. The self is influenced by the experiences a person has in
their life, and out interpretations of those experiences. Two primary sources that influence our
self-concept are childhood experiences and evaluation by others.

According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are
consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal self.
The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves.

The self-concept includes three components:

Self-worth (or self-esteem)

What we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in

early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.

Self-image

How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image

includes the influence of our body image on inner personality. At a simple level, we might
perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image has an effect on how a
person thinks, feels and behaves in the world.

Ideal self

This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life,
and is dynamic. The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc.
3. Self-Worth and Positive Regard
81 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive regard from
other people and self-worth. How we think about ourselves, our feelings of self-worth are of
fundamental importance both to psychological health and to the likelihood that we can achieve
goals and ambitions in life and achieve self-actualization.

Self-worth may be seen as a continuum from very high to very low. For Carl Rogers
(1959) a person who has high self-worth, that is, has confidence and positive feelings about him
or herself, faces challenges in life, accepts failure and unhappiness at times, and is open with
people. A person with low self-worth may avoid challenges in life, not accept that life can be
painful and unhappy at times, and will be defensive and guarded with other people.

Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed
from the interaction of the child with the mother and father. As a child grows older, interactions
with significant others will affect feelings of self-worth.

Rogers believed that we need to be regarded positively by others; we need to feel valued,
respected, treated with affection and loved. Positive regard is to do with how other people
evaluate and judge us in social interaction.

82 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

UNIT-V
THEORY OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
Syllabus
Constructivism – meaning and definitions - The nature of constructivist learners the role
of teachers, the nature of learning process, collaboration among learners and pedagogical
approaches to constructivism - Gagne’s eight levels of learning.

MEANING

Learning is construction of knowledge, which is based on the idea that learning occurs
when a learner actively constructs a knowledge representation in working memory. According to
this view; the learner is a sense maker whereas the teacher is a cognitive guide who provides
guidance and modeling an authentic task. The instructional designer’s role is to create
environments in which the learner interacts meaningfully with academic material, including
fostering the learner’s processes of selecting, organizing and integrating information.

Learning activities in constructivist settings are characterized by active engagement,

inquiry, problem solving and collaboration with others rather than a dispenser of knowledge a
teacher is a guide, facilitator and co-explorer, who encourage learners to question, challenge and
formulate their own ideas, opinions and conclusions. Correct answers and single interpretations
are de-emphasized. While there are commonly accepted attributes of constructivism, there are
also different interpretations of it. In general, two broad interpretations can be found among
contemporary educators: Psychological constructivism articulated by Piaget; and Social
constructivism associated with Vygotsky.

Two major issue shape these interpretations:

(i) education for social transformation; and

(ii) the degree of influence that social context has on individual cognitive development

DEFINITIONS

According to Cannella &Reiff, 1994, “Constructivism is an epistemology, a learning or

meaning-making theory that offers an explanation of the nature of knowledge and how humans

83 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

learn. It maintains that individuals create or construct their own understandings or knowledge
through the interactions and activities with which they have contact”.

According to Kroll &Boskey, 1996 “Knowledge is acquired through involvement with

content instead of imitation or repetition”.

According to Wolffe and Mcmullen, 1996, “Constructivism is primarily a theory of

learning, not a theory of teaching.”

THE NATURE OF CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNER

The importance of constructivist learner:

Social constructivism -encourages culturalism the learner to arrive at their version of the
truth, influenced by his or her background, culture or embedded worldview.

Learner is responsible:

It is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the
learner. Social constructivism thus emphasizes the importance of the learner being actively
involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility
is rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive, receptive role.

High motivation is must:

The most crucial thing regarding the nature of learner is that they should have high
motivation for learning. According to Von Glaserfeld (1989), sustained motivation to learn is
strongly dependent on the learner’s confidence in their potential for learning.

Learner is active:

The student is the person who creates new understanding for themselves. The teacher
coaches, moderates, suggests but allows the students room to experiment, ask questions, learning
activities require the students’ full participations. An important part of the learning process is
that students reflect on, and talk about their activities. Students are also helped set their own
goals and means of assessment.

84 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Learning is reflective:

Students control their own learning process and they lead the way by reflecting on their
experiences. This process makes them experts of their own learning. The teacher helps to create
situations where the students feel to ask questioning and reflecting on their own processes.
Collaborative learning:

There are many reasons for collaboration which contributes to learning. The main reason
in constructivism is that students learn about learning not only by themselves, but also from their
peers. When students review and reflect on their learning they can pick up strategies and
methods from one another.

Enquiry based learning:

The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students use inquiry
methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find solutions and
answers.

How Do Teachers Support a Constructivist Environment?

THE ROLE OF TEACHER IN THE CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM

Teacher encourages students’ initiatives and gives freedom and encouragement.

1. The teacher asks open-ended questions and waits for responses.

2. Teacher emphasizes higher-level thinking and reasoning.

3. Students are engaged in dialogue with the teacher and with each other.

4. Teacher encourages reciprocal learning environment in the classroom.

5. Teacher emphasizes on inquiry-based learning.

6. There is emphasis on problem-based learning.

7. Cognitive apprenticeships, various methods involving collaboration or group work,

cooperative learning (reciprocal questioning, Jig-saw classroom, and structured controversies)
are emphasized.

85 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

The Role of Teacher

1. The following are four phases in planning and implementing co-operative learning
lessons
2. Making decisions before the lesson begins,
3. Setting the lesson,
4. Monitoring and interviewing during group work; and
5. Evaluating the product and the process of group work.

The role of teacher in these phases is highlighted below:

1) Making decision before the lesson begins

The teacher is required to formulate academic and social objectives to be realized by

students through the co-operative lesson. Academic objectives refer to content, subject matter
and the skills to be learnt. Social objectives refer to the social interaction skills to be acquired by
the students.

2) Setting lesson

The teacher explains the academic task to the members of the group. He/she also
explains to them that they are to accomplish the academic task and to develop social skills too.
The teacher needs to ensure that students comprehend their learning task before they begin.

3) Monitoring and intervening the during group work

While the students of working, the teacher needs to move around in the class room with a
view to monitoring students’ progress and to intervene if necessary. if the teacher finds that the
student facing difficulty in accomplishing the task, they may intervene to provide them
assistance in accomplishing to task and help them to overcome the problem.

4) Evaluating the product and process of group work

The teacher needs to provide opportunities to students to evaluate the accomplishment of

the academic task and the development of social skills on the part of the students.

86 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

NATURE OF LEARNING PROCESS

Constructivist theory states that knowledge is constructed by the learner in working

memory. In this construction process the learner uses both incoming material from the
environment and prior knowledge from long term memory. SOI model is a theory of learning
that can be used to generate instructional implications.

This is called SOI model to highlight the crucial cognitive processes, S for selecting, O
for organizing and I for Integrating.

Instructional message working memory Long term memory

Pictures Images visual mental model

Prior knowledge

Selecting organizing

Words sounds verbal mental model

Selecting relevant information

The first process is the selection of relevant information for further processing. When
words and pictures are presented to learn in an instructional message, the learner represents them
briefly in sensory memories, because of the limited capacity of the human information
processing system.

Organizing incoming information:

The selected auditory representation is organized into a coherent verbal representation

and the selected images are organized into a coherent pictorial representation. In this process the
retained visual images are connected by appropriate links (such as cause and effect); likewise the
retained verbal representations are also connected. This activity takes place in working memory.
The outcome of this process is the construction of the coherent pictorial representation and a
coherent pictorial representation.

87 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Integrating incoming information

In this process students make one to one connections between corresponding elements
of the pictorial and verbal representations they have constructed using prior knowledge.

A final step in learning process is encoding in which the mental representations

constructed in working memory are stored in long-term memory for permanent retention.
COLLABORATION AMONG LEARNERS

1. There is a positive interdependence among members of a group.

2. Collaborative learning groups share common goal. They work collaborative to realize
the goal.

3. A collaborative learning group does not select its group leader. Rather leadership is
shared among its members.

4. The progress of the group as well of each individual is monitored and assessed. As a
consequence, an individual is accountable to himself/herself and the group too.

5. In collaborative learning groups, students not only accomplish the academic task but
also develop and practice social skills.

6. The teacher and / or the students evaluate the functioning of their group and formulate
a plan to improve its functioning in the next collaborative lesson session.

7. In collaborative learning sessions, students help and encourage each other with a view
to ensuring that all the members of the collaborative group accomplish the assigned
task.

8. Students are required to maintain effective working relationship among them in the
group. In the absence of such a relationship, the desired task may not be achieved.

9. Seating arrangement of the members of a group is so made that facilitates interaction

among its numbers. The interaction contributes significantly to the realization of the
goal of the group.

88 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

PEDAGOGICAL APPROACHES TO CONSTRUCTIVISM

Learning involves combining what we know with what was taught, or continually
connecting prior knowledge with new information. This prior knowledge can facilitate, inhibit or
transform learning. Research on the nature of children’s science, (the ideas and experiences
students bring into class with them), shows that the students hold their prior ideas tenaciously.
These alternative conceptions or misconceptions grow out of students’ prior experiences with the
world around them and often interface considerably with teachers’ attempts to foster learning.
Teachers need to surface students’ prior knowledge, connect to it and allow students to build
from and onto their prior knowledge. In order for the students to make use of ideas taught by
teachers in the way teachers intend, knowledge must the present itself as intelligible, fruitful and
plausible. This is a move away from a discovery approach, where students construct knowledge
solely based on their own experience to knowledge construction where students have the
opportunity to test their knowledge within a social context.

The social aspect of knowledge provides clear implications for practice. Learning is
seen to be an active process of knowledge construction and sense making. Beyond that,
knowledge is understood as a cultural artifact of people. It is created and transformed by each
individual and by groups of people. Participating in community discourse allows students to
clarify, defend, elaborate, evaluate and argue over the knowledge constructed. Many teachers
use cooperative learning as a route to building community discourse in their classrooms. The
broader knowledge base for teaching, which included content knowledge, pedagogical content
knowledge (PCK), curriculum knowledge, general pedagogy, learners and their characteristics,
educational contexts and educational purposes involves the transformation of content knowledge
by teachers in different ways that allow the learners to construct knowledge during classroom
practice.

Teachers derive PCK from their understandings of content, their own teaching practice
and their own schooling experience. As such PCK is closely intertwined with both content
knowledge and pedagogical process knowledge. Research in pedagogical content knowledge
reinforces the research in cognitive science. Teacher education programmers can enhance the
development of PCK in student teachers by modeling and sharing teaching decisions and

89 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

strategies with students. Faculty should have opportunities to demonstrate and reflect on how
they use PCK in their own teaching.

Although it is difficult to separate PCK from content knowledge, a thorough and coherent
understanding of content is necessary for effective PCK. Teacher education programmes can
assist pre-service teachers in constructing a deep understanding of disciplinary content from a
teaching perspective. A teacher education programme which balances attention to the process of
learning with the content being learned can ultimately result in helping teachers be able to
understand better both their content and the learning of their students. Often content is taught
without any attention to process, or process is taught without a deep understanding of the content
involved.

GAGNE HIERARCHY OF LEARNING OR EIGHT CLASSES OF HUMAN

INTELLECTUAL SKILLS

Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning

Robert Gagne was an American educational psychologists, best known for his conditions
of learning. His focus was on intentional or purposeful learning, which is a type of learning that
occurs in school or specific training programmes. He believed that events in the environment
influence the learning process. The theory identifies the general type of human capabilities that
are learned, in terms of behavioral changes, once the learning outcomes are identified, an
analysis of conditions of learning is done.

Hierarchical step Model of Learning

 In 1956, the American educational psychologist Robert M. Gagné proposed a system

of classifying different types of learning
 The classification is in terms of the degree of complexity of the mental processes
involved.
 He identified eight basic types, and arranged these in the hierarchy shown in fig
 According to Gagné, the higher orders of learning in this hierarchy build upon the
lower levels, requiring progressively greater amounts of previous learning for their
success.

90 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 The lowest four orders tend to focus on the more behavioural aspects of learning,
while the highest four focus on the more cognitive aspects.

Signal Learning-

This is the simplest form of learning, and consists essentially of the classical
conditioning first described by the behavioural psychologist Pavlov. In this, the subject is
'conditioned' to emit a desired response as a result of a stimulus that would not normally produce
that response. This is done by first exposing the subject to the chosen stimulus (known as the
conditioned stimulus) along with another stimulus (known as the unconditioned stimulus)
which produces the desired response naturally; after a certain number of repetitions of the double
stimulus, it is found that the subject emits the desired response when exposed to the conditioned
stimulus on its own. The applications of classical conditioning in facilitating human learning are,
however, very limited.

Stimulus-response learning.
This somewhat more sophisticated form of learning, which is also known as operant
conditioning, was originally developed by Skinner. It involves developing desired stimulus-
response bonds in the subject through a carefully-planned reinforcement schedule based on the
use of 'rewards' and 'punishments'. Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning in

91 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

that the reinforcing agent (the 'reward' or 'punishment') is presented after the response. It is this
type of conditioning that forms the basis of programmed learning in all its various
manifestations.

Psychomotor Connection learning/chaining –

This is a more advanced form of learning in which the subject develops the ability to
connect two or more previously-learned stimulus-response bonds into a linked sequence. It is the
process whereby most complex psychomotor skills (eg riding a bicycle or playing the piano) are
learned

Verbal Association Learning –

It is a form of chaining in which the links between the items being connected are verbal
in nature. Verbal association is one of the important processes in the development of language
skills.

Multiple Discrimination Learning –

This involves developing the ability to make appropriate (different) responses to a series
of similar stimuli that differ in a systematic way. The process is made more complex (and hence
more difficult) by the phenomenon of interference, whereby one piece of learning inhibits
another. Interference is thought to be one of the main causes of forgetting.
Concept Learning –

It is the learning to respond to a stimulus according to abstract characteristics such as

position, shape, colour and not according to the concrete physical characteristics.

Principle Learning –

A principle is a chain of two or more concepts. In principle learning, one needs to

associate more than one concept. This is a very-high-level cognitive process that involves being
able to learn relationships between concepts and apply these relationships in different situations,
including situations not previously encountered. It forms the basis of the learning of general
rules, procedures, etc.

92 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Problem solving –

This is the highest level of cognitive process according to Gagné. It involves developing
the ability to invent a complex rule, algorithm or procedure for the purpose of solving one
particular problem, and then using the method to solve other problems of a similar nature.

93 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Unit-VI
LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING
Syllabus
Meaning - characteristics of learner-centered teaching/learner-centered learning. Need for
learner-centered approaches in teaching advantages of learner-centered teaching vs
teacher-centered learning, teaching – Learner - centered techniques of teaching and their
advantages.

Student Centred Learning

Student-centred learning (also called student-centered learning , child-centred learning ,
or child-centered learning ) is an approach to education focusing on the needs of the students,
rather than those of others involved in the educational process, such as teachers and
administrators. Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered education, broadly
encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the
student. In original usage, student-centered learning aims to develop learner autonomy and
independence by putting responsibility for the learning path in the hands of students. Student
centered instruction focuses on skills and practices that enable lifelong learning and independent
problem-solving. Student-centered learning theory and practice are based on the constructivist
learning theory that emphasizes the learner's critical role in constructing meaning from new
information and prior experience. On the Contrary, student-centered learning requires students to
be active, responsible participants in their own learning and with their own pace of learning.
Usage of the term "student-centered learning" may also simply refer to educational mindsets or
instructional methods that recognize individual differences in learners. In this sense, student-
centered learning emphasizes each student's interests, abilities, and learning styles, placing the
teacher as a facilitator of learning for individuals rather than for the class as a whole.
Student Centred Learning
 Are actively engaged in their own learning
 Are encouraged to think independently
 Needs and interests determine course activities
 Have choices
 Have opportunities to investigate and discover

94 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Work collaboratively
 Are given authentic problems to solve
 Are assessed for learning
 Monitor their own learning
 Demonstrate understanding in a variety of ways
Meaning:
Learner-centered teaching is an approach to teaching that is increasingly being
encouraged in higher education. Learner-centered teachings do not employ a single teaching
method. This approach emphasizes a variety of different types of methods that shift the role of
the instructors from givers of information to facilitating student learning. Traditionally,
instructors focused on what they did, and not on what the students learnt Educators call this
traditional method, “instructor-centered teaching.” In contrast, “learner centered teaching” occurs
when instructors focus on student learning.
Learner-Centered Teaching /Learner -Centered Learning
Educators commonly use three phrases with this approach. Learner- centered teaching
places the emphasis on the person who is doing the learning (Weimer, 2002). Learning-centered
teaching focuses on the process of learning. Both phrases appeal to faculty because these phrases
identify their critical role of teaching in the learning process. The phrase student centered
learning is also used, but some instructors do not like it because it appears to have a consumer
focus, seems to encourage students to be more empowered, and appears to take the teacher out of
the critical role.
Five Characteristics of Learner Centered Teaching
Active learning, student engagement and other strategies that involve students and
mention learning are called learner-centered. And although learner-centered teaching and efforts
to involve students have a kind of bread and butter relationship, they are not the same thing. In
the interest of more definitional precision, I’d like to propose five characteristics of teaching that
make it learner-centered.
1. Learner-centered teaching engages students in the hard, messy work of learning.
Teachers are doing too many learning tasks for students. We ask the questions, we call on
students, and we add detail to their answers. We offer the examples. We organize the content.
We do the preview and the review. On any given day, in most classes teachers are working much

95 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

harder than students. I’m not suggesting we never do these tasks, but I don’t think students
develop sophisticated learning skills without the chance to practice and in most classrooms the
teacher gets far more practice than the students.
2. Learner-centered teaching includes explicit skill instruction.
Learner-centered teachers teach students how to think, solve problems, evaluate
evidence, analyze arguments, generate hypotheses all those learning skills essential to mastering
material in the discipline. They do not assume that students pick up these skills on their own,
automatically. A few students do, but they tend to be the students most like us and most students
aren’t that way. Research consistently confirms that learning skills develop faster if they are
taught explicitly along with the content.
3. Learner-centered teaching encourages students to reflect on what they are learning and
how they are learning it.
Learner-centered teachers talk about learning. In casual conversations, they ask students
what they are learning. In class they may talk about their own learning. They challenge student
assumptions about learning and encourage them to accept responsibility for decisions they make
about learning; like how they study for exams, when they do assigned reading, whether they
revise their writing or check their answers. Learner-centered teachers include assignment
components in which students reflect, analyze and critique what they are learning and how they
are learning it. The goal is to make students aware of themselves as learners and to make
learning skills something students want to develop.
4. Learner-centered teaching motivates students by giving them some control over learning
processes.
Teachers make too many of the decisions about learning for students. Teachers decide
what students should learn, how they learn it, the pace at which they learn, the conditions under
which they learn and then teachers determine whether students have learned. Students aren’t in a
position to decide what content should be included in the course or which textbook is best, but
when teachers make all the decisions, the motivation to learn decreases and learners become
dependent. Learner-centered teachers search out ethically responsible ways to share power with
students. They might give students some choice about which assignments they complete. They
might make classroom policies something students can discuss. They might let students set

96 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

assignment deadlines within a given time window. They might ask students to help create
assessment criteria.
5. Learner-centered teaching encourages collaboration.
It sees classrooms (online or face-to-face) as communities of learners. Learner-centered
teachers recognize, and research consistently confirms, that students can learn from and with
each other. Certainly the teacher has the expertise and an obligation to share it, but teachers can
learn from students as well. Learner-centered teachers work to develop structures that promote
shared commitments to learning. They see learning individually and collectively as the most
important goal of any educational experience.
Need For Learner Centered Approach
Strong, research evidence exists to support the implementation of learner-centered
approaches instead of instructor-centered approaches. Knowledge of this research helps
instructors defend their teaching methods to their students and to more traditional faculty peers.
A task force of the American Psychological Association integrated this research into fourteen
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles which can be summarized through the following five
domains.
The knowledge base.
The conclusive result of decades of research on knowledge base is that what a person
already knows largely determines what new information he attends to, how he organizes and
represents new information, and how he filters new experiences, and even what he determines to
be important or relevant.
Strategic processing and executive control.
The ability to reflect on and regulate one’s thoughts and behaviors is an essential aspect
of learning. Successful students are actively involved in their own learning, monitor their
thinking, think about their learning, and assume responsibility for their own learning.
Motivation and affect.
The benefits of learner-centered education include increased motivation for learning and
greater satisfaction with school; both of these outcomes lead to greater achievement. Research
shows that personal involvement, intrinsic motivation, personal commitment, confidence in
one’s abilities to succeed, and a perception of control over learning lead to more learning and
higher achievement in school.

97 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Development and individual differences.

Individuals progress through various common stages of development, influenced by both
inherited and environmental factors. Depending on the context or task, changes in how people
think, believe, or behave are dependent on a combination of one’s inherited abilities, stages of
development, individual differences, capabilities, experiences, and environmental conditions.
Situation or context.
`Theories of learning that highlight the roles of active engagement and social interaction
in the students’ own construction of knowledge strongly support this learner-centered paradigm.
Learning is a social process. Many environmental factors including how the instructor teaches,
and how actively engaged the student is in the learning process positively or negatively influence
how much and what students learn (Lambert & McCombs, 2000). In comparison studies between
students in lecture and active learning courses, there are significantly more learning gains in the
active learning courses.
Advantages of Learner Centered Teaching
 It improves learning achievement of students.
 It leads to better retention of the learnt material.
 It improves self – esteem of students.
 It facilitates interaction among group members and stimulates their thinking process
to find solution to the problems which they encounter in accomplishing the assigned
task.
 It fosters students reasoning power.
Learner centered teaching Vs Teacher centered learning
Teacher centered learning Learner centered teaching

1. Knowledge is transmitted from professor 1. Students construct knowledge through

to students. gathering and synthesizing information and
integrating it with the general skills of
inquiry, communication, critical thinking,
problem solving and so on
2. Students passively receive information. 2. Students are actively involved.

98 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

3. Emphasis is on acquisition of knowledge 3. Emphasis is on using and communicating

outside the context in which it will be used knowledge effectively to address enduring
and emerging issues and problems in real-
life contexts.
4. Professor’s role is to be primary 4. Professor’s role is to coach and facilitate
information giver and primary evaluation. Professor and students evaluate learning
together.
5. Teaching and assessing are separate. 5. Teaching and assessing are intertwined.
. 6. Assessment is used to monitor learning. 6. Assessment is used to promote and
diagnose learning.
7. Emphasis is on right answers. 7. Emphasis is on generating better
questions and learning from errors.
8. Desired learning is assessed indirectly 8. Desired learning is assessed directly
through the use of objectively scored tests through papers, projects, performances,
portfolios and the like.
9. Focus is on single discipline. 9. Approach is compatible with
interdisciplinary investigation.
10. Culture is competitive and 10. Culture is co-operative, collaborative
individualistic. and supportive.
11. Only students are viewed as learners. 11. Professors and students learn together.

Learner Centered Techniques of Teaching and Their Advantages

Integrating technology in instruction learners may offer the flexibility to extend learning
beyond that available in a formal program. Technology also offers access to new, dynamic
opportunities for interaction among students and between teachers and students. The use of
technology with adults learning can also reduce the digital divide by helping these Students
develop a basic understanding of computers and that the technology. Finally, there is evidence
that use of technology with adult learners may facilitate their progress to understand the level of
students.

99 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Principles of Selecting Technology for Instruction

Onsite Uses of technology involve learning that takes place in the classroom or computer
lab in a teacher- led, whole –group setting. Technology- based activities usually serve as a
supplement to the core curriculum and are carried out within normal course meeting times. Early
examples of onsite technology used include computer assisted instruction (CAI), which involved
the use of computers to teach vocabulary and structures (e.g., verb conjugations). This focus was
augmented by computer- assisted language learning (CALL), which emphasized second
language acquisition processes and provided opportunities for learners to work together on
specific topics and projects. Today CALL typically involves use of the computer, Internet, or
software programs to provide authentic and interactive opportunities for learning. Perhaps the
most widespread application of technology in onsite settings to date is the use of Software
programs designed for learning. Lessons are designed so that learners hear interactions in a
variety of everyday settings and explanations of vocabulary and grammatical structures, which
allows them to experience the application of the materials in real- world settings. Learners can
play recordings at different speeds and record and play back their own language (Ibarz &Webb,
2007, p.8). Versions of the software available in the United States contain course management
and assessment tools for instructor use.
Blended Uses
In Blended uses, Technology serves as a supplement to the primary course curriculum
and is used both within classes or labs and outside the classroom (e.g. in the home, library, or
community centre) without the teacher. Technologies that lend themselves to blended uses
include software such as the programs described above; computer – mediated communication
(CMC), in which learners in a program interact online among themselves or with learners in
other programs and settings and Web-based learning. There examples of Web-based learning
project- based Web learning, Web quests, and Web-based games.
Online Learning
Online learning is entirely Internet-based. While there may or may not be teacher
involvement, teachers and students rarely meet onsite. Communication and the transmission of
course content take place online.

100 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Considerations
Several issues need to be considering when using technology to support instruction in
adult education programs. With all three types of uses (onsite, blended, and online), deliberate
attempts should be made to promote group work and interaction, both online and face to face
otherwise, the use of technology may result in isolated language learning and limited
opportunities for meaningful in-person interaction.
Advantages and Disadvantages
CAI can dramatically increase a student’s access to information. The program can adapt
to the abilities and preferences of the individual student and increase the amount of personalized
instruction a student receives. Many students benefit from the immediate responsiveness of
computer interactions and appreciate the self-paced and private learning environment. Moreover,
computer-learning experiences often engage the interest of students, motivating then to learn and
increasing independence and personal responsibility for education.
Although it is difficult to assess the effectiveness of any educational system, numerous
studies have reported that CAI is successful in raising examination scores, improving student
attitudes, and lowering the amount of time required to master certain material. While study
results vary greatly, there is substantial evidence that CAI canning processes, hence learning at
all educational levels. In some applications, especially those involving abstract reasoning and
problem-solving processes, CAI has not been very effective. Critics claim that poorly designed
CAI systems can dehumanize or regiment the educational experience and thereby diminish
student interest and motivation. Other disadvantages of CAI stem from the difficulty and expense
of implementing and maintaining the necessary computer systems. Some student failures can be
traced to inadequate teacher training in CAI systems. Student training in the computer
technology may be required as well, and this process can distract from the core educational
process. Although much effort has been directed at developing CAI systems that are easy to use
and incorporate expert knowledge of teaching and learning, such systems are still far from
achieving their full potential.

101 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

UNIT VII
TEACHING IN DIVERSE CLASS ROOM
Syllabus
Meaning and definitions of diverse classroom-Teaching in a diverse classroom-
preparations of teachers of diverse classroom-Techniques of teaching in a diverse
classroom/Diverse teaching strategies for diverse learners-effective teaching in a diverse
class room-Diversity in the classroom.
Meaning and definition of diverse class room
Definition of Diversity
 The concept of diversity encompasses acceptance and respect.
 It means understanding that each individual is unique and recognizing our individual
differences.
 It includes knowing how to relate to those qualities and conditions that are different from
our own and outside the groups to which we belong yet are present in other individuals
and groups.
 We acknowledge that categories of difference are not always fixed but also can be fluid
 We respect individual rights to self- identification, and we recognize that no one culture
is intrinsically superior to another.
 It is the exploration of these difference in a safe and nurturing environment.
 It is about understanding each other and moving beyond simple tolerance to embracing
and celebrating the rich dimension of diversity contained within each individual

The concept of diversity encompasses acceptance and respect. It means understanding

that each individual is unique, and recognizing our individual differences. These can be along the
dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, age, physical
abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies. It is the exploration of these
differences in a safe, positive, and nurturing environment. It is about understanding each other
and moving beyond simple tolerance to embracing and celebrating the rich dimensions of
diversity contained within each individual.

102 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Diversity is a reality created by individuals and groups from a broad spectrum of

demographic and philosophical differences. It is extremely important to support and protect
diversity because by valuing individuals and groups free from prejudice, and by fostering a
climate where equity and mutual respect are intrinsic.
"Diversity" means more than just acknowledging and/or tolerating difference. Diversity
is a set of conscious practices that involve:
 Understanding and appreciating interdependence of humanity, cultures, and the natural
environment.
 Practicing mutual respect for qualities and experiences that are different from our own.
 Understanding that diversity includes not only ways of being but also ways of knowing;
 Recognizing that personal, cultural and institutionalized discrimination creates and
sustains
 privileges for some while creating and sustaining disadvantages for others;
 Building alliances across differences so that we can work together to eradicate all forms
of discrimination.
Diversity includes, therefore, knowing how to relate to those qualities and conditions that are
different from our own and outside the groups to which we belong, yet are present in other
individuals and groups. These include but are not limited to age, ethnicity, class, gender, physical
abilities and qualities, race, sexual orientation, as well as religious status, gender expression,
educational background, geographical location, income, marital status, parental status, and work
experiences. Finally, we acknowledge that categories of difference are not always fixed but also
can be fluid, we respect individual rights to self-identification, and we recognize that no one
culture is intrinsically superior to another.
Teaching in a diverse class room
Knowing who your students are as a group and as individuals is an important part of good
teaching. In recent years, higher education has become increasingly diverse. The variety of
students is far greater, and their needs are very different, than in the past. This module will
consider how to teach effectively in an environment of diverse learners. If you wish to facilitate
the learning process of students with a variety of backgrounds and needs, the following points
are important: Treat all students as individuals with unique strengths, weaknesses, and needs
rather than as generalized representatives of particular racial, ethnic or cultural groups. Employ a

103 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

variety of teaching styles to respond to the needs of diverse learners. Create an open classroom
that values the experiences and perspectives of all students.
1. Diversity: In Higher Education
Colleges and universities have become, in recent years, increasingly diverse institutions.
Van Note Chisom (1999) identifies the following trends to illustrate this point: Older students
now make up more than half of student population in higher education. Nationally, women
account for 54 percent of bachelor’s degree students. The presence of minority students is
growing. Students with learning or physical disabilities are being identified more frequently.
2. Learning Styles in a Diverse Classroom
Eddy (1999) describes a learning style as the way in which we prefer to organize.
However, in their most basic form, there are three main learning styles (Eddy): Auditory
learners prefer to receive ideas and information by hearing them. These students may struggle
with reading and writing, but excel at memorizing spoke words such as song lyrics. They often
benefit from discussion-based classes and the opportunity to give oral presentations. Visual
learners prefer to receive information by seeing it. Typically these students pay much attention to
detail. They are less likely to speak in class than their auditory peers, and generally use few
words when they do. Outlines, graphs, maps and pictures are useful in helping these students
learn. Kinesthetic-Tactile learners tend to learn best via movement sand touch. These students
are often labeled “hyperactive” because they tend to move around a great deal. Because they like
movement, they may take many notes and learn best when allowed to explore and experience
their environment.
It is important to note that the various styles are those preferred by learners. The fact that
we learn in many ways is further justification for utilizing variety of teaching approaches is so
important. Understanding learning styles can help you create more inclusive classrooms where
everyone has a chance to succeed.
Preparations of teachers for diverse class room
The opportunity to obtain a quality education is one of the most important points of
access in our society. In many cases, and for many reasons, children and adolescents do not have
access to an equitable education. To address this opportunity gap and at the same time meet the
important national, state, and local goals for improving learning outcomes for all students,
teachers require sophisticated professional knowledge, skills, and dispositions to have an impact

104 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

on diverse learners in diverse settings. This in turn requires a comprehensive teacher education
program that can prepare new teachers for this important work.
Techniques of teaching in a diverse class room
There are many techniques available to teach in a diverse class room.
1. Brainstorming.
In this, all diverse students will discuss a problem interestingly to arrive a solution.
2. Critical incidents.
Here, the students make nonverbal communication to explain about a critical incident that
took place in their life.
3. Acting it out.
It is also a non verbal communication which is practiced by enacting a play.
4. Mime.
In this technique, the students do miming for enacting a small skit.
5. Focus of symposium.
This is done to engage the diverse learners based on the consideration of the learners,
nature of content and desired outcome.
Here are six types of knowledge we can develop to help Diversified learners to succeed in the
classroom.
a) Learn about culture
Become aware of how the influence of your own culture, language, social interests, goals,
cognitions, and values could prevent you from learning how you could best teach your students
of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.
b) Learn about students’ culture
Understand how your students’ cultures affect their perceptions, self-esteem, values,
classroom behavior, and learning. Use that understanding to help your students feel welcomed,
affirmed, respected, and valued.
c) Understand your students’ linguistic traits
Learn how students’ patterns of communication and various dialects affect their
classroom learning and how second-language learning affects their acquisition of literacy.
d) Use this knowledge to inform your teaching

105 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Let your knowledge of your students’ diverse cultures inform your teaching. This, along
with a sincerely caring attitude, increases student participation and engagement.
e) Use multicultural books and materials to foster cross-cultural understanding
Sensitively use multicultural literature, especially children’s literature, to honor students’
culture and foster cross-cultural understanding. Be open to a variety of instructional strategies as
students’ cultures may make certain strategies (such as competitive games or getting students to
volunteer information) uncomfortable for them.
f) Know about your students’ home and school relationships
Collaborate with parents and caregivers on children’s literacy development and don’t rely
on preconceived notions of the importance of literacy within your students’ families.
Diverse Teaching Strategies for Diverse Learners with Effectiveness
Teaching in racially diverse college classrooms often leaves people feeling uncertain
about how to proceed and how to behave. Unlike the days when one teaching style fit all
students, in today's context there is pressure to acknowledge and accept students with
perspectives other than our own, to diversify our syllabi, to be more aware of classroom
dynamics, and to pay more attention to how our students are experiencing the learning process.
Our collective ability to respond to and be enriched by these challenges will determine
the success of our institutions and students. To assist faculty and teaching members seeking to
enhance learning for all students, we have put together this Tip Sheet, in the hope that it will
empower educators to create the conditions under which diversity can flourish. When teaching in
a multicultural context, we suggest that they prepare themselves in several ways. The strategies
are
 Plan the course with the multicultural classroom in mind by considering syllabi, course
assignments, examples, stories, and potential classroom dynamics.
 Find ways to make the actual classroom open and safe for all students, and to make the
material accessible to all students.
 Learn how to intervene tactfully and effectively in racially charged classroom situations
and to manage hot moments or hot topics.
 Assess conscious and unconscious biases about people of cultures other than your own.

106 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Tips for Teaching in Racially Diverse College Classrooms:

The following tips are meant to be suggestions and not guaranteed solutions for teaching
in racially diverse classrooms. Teachers should develop a range of pedagogical skills that best
serve the needs of all their students.
1. Develop a syllabus that explores multiple perspectives on the topic
 Incorporate multicultural examples, materials, and visual aids as much as possible in
lectures.
 Make sure that the expectations for the pedagogical process and learning outcomes are
stated clearly on the syllabus.
 Structure project groups, panels, laboratory teams, and the like so that membership and
leadership roles are balanced across ethnic and gender groups.
 Develop paper topics that encourage students to explore different racial and cultural
perspectives.
 Assign work of scholars from a variety of racial and ethnic backgrounds relevant to the
topic being studied.
2. Design classroom instruction and materials with a diverse group of students in mind
 Develop ground rules or norms that will guide how students are expected to interact with
each other in the classroom.
 Design classes with a clear structure (there is a method and meaning to how teaching and
learning is to occur) and flexibility (not so rigid that adjustments cannot be made).
 Consider how all students would experience the syllabus.
 Consider whether students of all cultures are likely to have a background in the material.
 Consider whether different approaches to learning are accounted for.
 Anticipate sensitive areas in the subject matter being taught.
 Think in advance about how one might handle sensitive topics or explosive moments.
3. Create opportunities to get to know your students on an individual/personal basis
 Get to know each student individually. Learn their names and how to pronounce them
correctly.
 Use eye contact with all students; be open and friendly outside of class.
 Be accessible and encourage students to meet with you during office hours.
 Interact with your students in respectful, challenging, and collaborative ways.

107 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

4. Design opportunities for students to interact with each other in respectful and meaningful
ways.
 Divide the class into smaller groups, and when appropriate, assign one person with the
responsibility of reporting on the small group's work.
 Encourage students to form study groups.
 Create opportunities for students to present their work to each other and the whole class.
5. Activate student voices.
 Create opportunities for mutual teacher-student participation so that everyone feels a
responsibility and openness to contribute.
 When appropriate, encourage students to share their thoughts about the subject,
acknowledging their statements as they are made.
 When appropriate, create opportunities for students to personalize course content with
examples from their own history so that they can make connections between ideas
 learned in the classroom and those learned through life experiences.
 Let students know from the very beginning that their thoughts have a place in the
classroom, that we all have unique perspectives, and that these different perspectives are
an important component of the learning process.
 Make it safe for everyone to voice their views by accepting all views as worthy of
consideration. Don't permit scapegoating of any student or any view. Don't leave students
alone out on a limb.
 Avoid creating situations where students are placed in the position of being
representatives of their race.
6. Generate a challenging but vibrant learning process that encourages
students to develop their creative, critical, and analytical thinking skills
 Make the classroom norms explicit.
 Keep expectations high and provide the support required to meet these expectations.
 Ask students to locate cultural or even discriminatory content in textbooks or other
materials.
 Ask students to research the position they are least comfortable with and to come
prepared to articulate a defense of that posture.
 Present all sides of an issue. Play the devil's advocate for the least popular view

108 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Create opportunities for students to link theory with practice -- that is, encourage them to
apply what they are learning with what's going on in the world.
 Use multiples modes of instruction to account for the range of learning styles that may be
present in a diverse group of students.
 Provide direct and clear feedback in an effort to demonstrate your commitment to your
students' learning.
Effective teaching in a diverse class room
Every classroom is a cultural community reflective of the disciplines and perspectives
studied the authors, the students, and the professor. One can argue that successful learning
requires an intercultural approach where students are responsible for listening and reading and
experiencing to understand both the perspectives of others peers, authors, faculty and for
understanding their own perspectives and how they acquired them. Students can come to
understand that learning is about the generation, mutual reflection, and critiquing and expanding
of ideas and concepts, and that this is most effectively done in a collaborative and
noncompetitive environment.
One effective approach to this challenge is to attend to the variety of learning styles in
any college classroom. Understanding multiple learning styles allows one to focus on individual
students' own learning styles; sub-groups within a classroom community; and the class as a
learning community.
Even in the most transformed classes, however, faculty are often unaware of the variety
of pedagogies that can produce enhanced learning for students and faculty and that can facilitate
growth in intellectual complexity and capacity. Student can also learn that there are patterns of
values, speech, preferences, and behaviors associated with different cultures, and they can learn
that there are as many differences within cultural groups as there are across different cultures.
This helps student’s break down cultural stereotypes in the society as a whole.
Diversity in the Classroom
In the day-to-day classroom is often hard to do. The goal of this teaching module is to
highlight a few of the key challenges and concerns in promoting diversity, and illustrate ways to
incorporate an understanding of diversity in the classroom and beyond.

109 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Diversity is a term that can have many different meanings depending on context. This
module will not offer a comprehensive definition of the term; instead, this module will highlight
two key areas related to diversity:
 Identify how diversity affects the classroom
 Provide practical tips for promoting an inclusive classroom
Much discussion about diversity focuses on the following forms of marginalization: race,
class, gender, and sexual orientation — and rightfully so, given the importance of these forms of
difference. In fact, students come to the university classroom with different backgrounds, sets of
experiences, cultural contexts, and world views.
However, diversity is an issue that plays a role in the classroom beyond these categories.
For example, much educational and psychological literature demonstrates that students have
diverse ways of learning. Some learn visually, through charts, graphs, tables and drawing; others
may Learn primarily through aural means (i.e. through listening to lecture); and others still may
be primarily kinesthetic (i.e. learning by doing, project work, etc.). Attention to learning
preferences is an important aspect of addressing differences among all students.
Additionally, issues of diversity play a role in how students and teachers view the
importance of the classroom and what should happen there. For example, assumptions about
what a typical student should know, the resources they have and their prior knowledge are
extremely important. Students may perceive that they do not “belong” in the classroom setting a
feeling that can lead to decreased participation, feelings of inadequacy, and other distractions.
Teachers may make flawed assumptions of students’ capabilities or assume a uniform standard
of student performance. Teachers may themselves feel out of place based on their own attributive
traits.

110 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

UNIT – VIII
LEARNING IN AND OUT OF SCHOOL

Syllabus
Purpose of learning in and out of school: what we know? and what we need to know?
Importance of observation learning out of school- out of school learning: extending
curriculum learning to the local area -approaches to learning outside the class room-
learning for outside the classroom-advantages of learning outside the classroom.

Learning inside school gives pleasure and enthusiasm to the students. It is a natural way
of learning. This learning is linked to students’ lives and a variety of different teaching methods
are used in school whereas, out of school learning consists of curricular and non – curricular
learning experiences for pupils. Out of school experiences are organized with community
partners such as museums, sport facilities, charity initiatives, and more. So, students should be
enlightened the advantages of learning in and out of school here in a detailed study.
Purpose of Learning in School
` It is a concept of traditional but it adopts the natural way of learning. It’s a pleasure to
learn inside the school rather than outside leaning. For the budding children inside learning helps
a lot to learn abundant in naturally. Students learn new and newer things only in school setting
with the help of the teachers and with models. School is where we have our first experience of
formal learning, and how things go for us here can affect how we learn throughout our lives.
When school is exciting and involving, it gives us confidence in ourselves as learners, but when
it isn’t, we can be turned off and think we can’t learn or that learning is boring. To make sure
children today and tomorrow have good school experiences to sustain their learning in future, the
Campaign works with schools and teachers to develop good practice.
1. The classroom
The classroom itself is the locus of regular and sustained interactions among Students and
teachers around curriculum. If the classroom is at the heart of students ‘opportunities to learn, the
quality of teachers’ instructional practices are of Paramount importance. Inside school Quality
instructional practices include linking learning to factors that are important in students’ lives are
taught. Different method is used to make the learning effective and interesting.

111 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Using formative and summative assessments in a systematic manner provides available

information to students and significantly improves learning and achievement. Setting objectives
and providing regular feedback (including praise) on student progress.
2.Teacher Communities
Teacher communities can affect instruction and other aspects of the classroom, and
thereby can exert an indirect influence on student outcomes. Teacher communities have a
strongly positive impact on student outcomes in the school.
3. Features of Learning in School
 Learning is linked to students’ lives
 A variety of different teaching methods are used
 Different learning styles are respected
 High expectations for all students
 Formative evaluations are used systematically
 Teachers set clear objectives, monitor progress, and provide feedback
 Opportunities for classroom participation
 Diversity and individual differences are respected
 Social and emotional learning is valued
 Positive student-teacher and student-student relationships
 Classroom management strategies are systematic
 Disciplinary strategies are consistent and non-coercive
Purpose of Learning out of school learning
Out of school learning is an educational concept first proposed by Lauren Resnick in her
1987 AERA presidential address, which consists of curricular and non-curricular learning
experiences for pupils and students outside the school environment. She points of out of school
learning is to overcome learning disabilities, development of talents, strengthen communities and
increase interest in education by creating extra learning opportunities in the real world. Out of
school learning is typically not coordinated by the school itself. Out of school experiences are
organized with community partners such as museums, sport facilities, charity initiatives, and
more. Out of school experiences can range from Service Learning to summer school and
expeditions or more commonly occur in day to day experiences at after school with creative
ventures such as arts courses and even sports. Some other examples of out of school learning are:

112 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 homework and homework clubs

 study clubs extending curriculum
 mentoring by other pupils and by adults, including parents
 learning about learning
 community service and citizenship
 residential activities study weeks or weekends
It has been found that out-of-school learning can be a great opportunity to discover and develop
talent.
Importance of Observational learning
Observation learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It
is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans,
this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social
model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher. Particularly in childhood, a model is someone
of authority or higher status.
According to Bandura's social cognitive learning theory, observational learning can affect
behavior in many ways, with both positive and negative consequences. It can teach completely
new behaviors, for one. It can also increase or decrease the frequency of behaviors that have
previously been learned.
1. Causal learning
Humans use observational causal learning to watch what other people’s actions and use
that information to find out how something works and how we can do it ourselves.
2. Apprenticeship
Apprenticeship can involve both observational learning and modeling. Apprentices gain
their skills in part through working with masters in their profession and through observing and
evaluating the work of their fellow apprentices.
3. Peer model influences
Observational learning is very beneficial when there are positive, reinforcing peer models
involved. Peers will always enhance learning. Peers observe their friends good behavior and try
to imitate.

113 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

4. Cultural variation
Cultural variation can be seen in the extent of information learned or absorbed by
children through the use of observation and more specifically the use of observation without
verbal requests for further information.
Extending Curriculum Learning to the Local Area
Learning outside the classroom can be used to facilitate Education for Sustainable
development. This includes short visits into the school grounds and local community, as well as
visits to farms, factories, offices, neighborhood science centers and natural settings such as a
forest, beach or a national park.
Providing students with high quality learning activities in relevant situations beyond the
walls of the classroom is vital for helping students appreciate their first hand experiences from a
variety of different perspectives. An experience outside the classroom also enhances learning by
providing students with opportunities to practice skills of enquiry, values analysis and
clarification and problem solving in everyday situations.
However, taking students outside the classroom requires careful planning of the learning
activities and attention to the health and safety risks that might be faced.
1. Constraints on Learning outside the Classroom
Despite the arguments in favor of learning outside the classroom, several key challenges
do need to be faced:
 Organizational factors such as the difficulty of supervising a large group of students and
providing them with the assistance they may need.
 The ‘normal’ lessons missed by teachers and students, and alterations that have to be
made to the school timetable.
 Time needed to plan a worthwhile field trip.
 Cost of transport and accommodation, if required.
 Lack of detailed knowledge of the locality.
 Safety of the students.
 Lack of necessary skills in students.
Despite these challenges it should not be forgotten that often the most meaningful and lasting
learning takes place when students are actively exploring the great variety of environments
outside the classroom.

114 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Learning outside the classroom also provides opportunities for teachers and students to get to
know each other better through interacting outside the structures of the classroom and school
grounds.
Approaches to Learning outside the Classroom
Two common approaches are
(i) Field Teaching and
(ii) (ii) Field Research.
1. Field Teaching
 Study of topic or theme in class. Teacher talk, textbook study, note taking, slide
viewing, videos, etc.
 Field observations (often teacher directed). Recording of information in the field.
Some field interpretation.
 Back in the classroom – further interpretation and explanation together – writing up
field report.
 This is the traditional approach to teaching and learning outside the classroom. It involves
taking students to a field location and delivering a mini-lecture from which students are
expected to take notes. Little opportunity exists for student input and reaction.
This approach can involve students in the careful observation and description of a scene or
activity and in suggesting possible explanations based on previously acquired information. This
approach is useful if students are inexperienced in making their own observations or if they lack
confidence in their ability to solve problems. This approach provides a structured way for them
to find their own examples as an integral part of the learning experience.
2. Field Research
 Identification of a problem as the result of direct observations; or from class work; or
from special interests of students.
 Formulation of and hypothesis as a result of reading, discussion, thinking.
 Field activities to collect data to test hypothesis.
 Data analysis – processing information.
 Hypothesis testing – accept or reject.
 Discussing and writing up of possible ways to solve the originally identified problem
using information gathered in the field.

115 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

This approach represents an inductive approach to learning. It involves observation, description

and explanation but with a problem solving focus. Students often use techniques similar to those
used in historical enquiry, geographical research or scientific explanation. This is the inductive
approach to fieldwork.
Opportunities for Learning outside the Classroom
Students can learn in a number of outside environments including:
 The school grounds and environs
 Urban centers
 The local community
 Rural and natural areas
Advantages of Learning outside the Classroom
 Learning outside the classroom supports the development of healthy and active lifestyles
by offering children opportunities for physical activity, freedom and movement, and
promoting a sense of well-being.
 Learning outside the classroom gives children contact with the natural world and offers
them experiences that are unique to outdoors, such as direct contact with the weather and
the seasons.
 Playing and learning outside also help children to understand and respect nature, the
environment and the interdependence of humans, animals, plants, and lifecycles.
 Outdoor play also supports children’s problem-solving skills and nurtures their creativity,
as well as providing rich opportunities for their developing imagination, inventiveness
and resourcefulness.
 Children need an outdoor environment that can provide them with space, both upwards
and outwards, and places to explore, experiment, discover, be active and healthy, and to
develop their physical capabilities.
 The outdoor environment offers space and therefore is particularly important to those
children who learn best through active movement. Very young children learn
predominately through their sensory and physical experiences which supports brain
development and the creation of neural networks.

116 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 For many children, playing outdoors at their early years setting may be the only
opportunity they have to play safely and freely while they learn to assess risk and develop
the skills to manage new situations
 Learning that flows seamlessly between indoors and outdoors makes the most efficient
use of resources and builds on interests and enthusiasms.
 Anyone who takes children outside regularly sees the enjoyment, and sense of wonder
and excitement that is generated when children actively engage with their environment.

117 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

UNIT – IX
TEACHER – STUDENT RELATIONSHIP
Syllabus
Meaning - Need for maintaining teacher-student relationship -inter-personal approach in
classroom management - strategies for improving student engagement in learning -
Healthy classroom management and academic achievement.

Teacher –student relationship

Meaning
It is the academic relation between teachers and their students in the teaching learning
process.
 Student–Teacher relationship is one of the most powerful elements within the learning
environment.
 Teaching had been considered as a profession of honor and everyone respected
teachers.
 But due to several factors its dignity has been severely affected.
 The education system has been totally commercialized.
 All such factors are resulting in bitterness between students and teachers.
 The modern student-teacher relationship is not defined by obedience and acceptance,
but by questioning and analysis.
 Teacher Student relationship is very significant in the process of teaching learning.
 Teachers should be imparting knowledge with concern and care to the students.
 Teacher’s role is to guide and to reflect good character.
 He is like a beacon and ladder to lead the students in the right path.
 Student should be a receptacle to receive the knowledge given by the teacher.
 Students also should be submissive and obliging always to the teacher.
Need for maintaining student-teacher relationship:
The student-teacher relationship is very important for children and adolescents for
improving their mental health. Children spend approximately 5 to 7 hours a day with a teacher
for almost 10 months a year. All of us have gone through schooling and we have had a many
number of favourite teachers. A positive relationship between the student and the teacher is

118 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

difficult to establish. Improving students’ relationship with teachers has essential, positive and
long lasting implications for student’s academic and social development.
Battistich, Schaps, &Wilson, have exposed Positive teacher-student relationships —
evidenced by teachers’ reports of low conflict, a high degree of intimacy and support, and little
dependency — have been shown to support students’ adjustment to school, contribute to their
social skills, uphold academic performance, and foster students’ resiliency in academic
performance. It is the duty of a professional teacher to bring out the potentiality of a student.
Nobody is fool and it is also foolish to call a student a fool. Sigmund Freud has told that
if a dozen children were entrusted to him, he would make one an engineer, one a doctor, one a
carpenter, one a rowdy, etc. From this, we can perceive that a students’ mental growth depends
upon a balanced feeding of constructive knowledge imparted by a teacher. Here the relationship
between the teacher and the student is strengthened in a positive way.
Necessity for teachers’ involvement and interaction
According to Birch & Ladd, it is stated that teachers who experience close relationships
with students reported that their students were less likely to avoid school, appeared more self
directed, more supportive, and more engaged in learning. The communication between the
student and the teacher serves a connection between the two and which provides a better
atmosphere for a classroom environment. A teacher then needs to understand the value of the
students' senses of belonging which can be of greater value to overall development of the
students in all aspects irrespective of the racial confrontations. By making a student like the
school, he/she reaps important social advantages such as building friendship, gaining respect for
peers and adults and learning social skills. These side by side help the student get good academic
records and performance. The student-teacher relationship is made strong by the teachers’
inspiring the students to interact constructively in the classroom situations.
Interpersonal approach in classroom management
In the interpersonal perspective, we describe teacher-student relationships in terms of two
dimensions: Control and Affiliation. Control refers to the degree to which the teacher determines
what happens in the communication with the students, whereas affiliation refers to the emotional
closeness between teacher and students or the degree to which the teacher and the students are in
harmony versus conflict. Here, the teacher delivers the goods to the students and the students

119 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

receive them. The interpersonal relationship between the students and the teachers are very
important. If this is good, educational transaction will be good.
Strategies for improving student engagement in learning.
Clearly, educators hope students will become successful learners. Teachers’ experiences
also clearly tell them that students disengage and do so for a variety of reasons – perhaps each of
which could be studied and mediated on its own. For very good reasons, a large number of
researchers have studied student’s engagement. Several types of engagement were noted–
academic, cognitive, intellectual, institutional, emotional, behavioural, social, and psychological.
Claxton (2007) summarizes his recommendations of strategies that promote Learning
engagement.
1. Language (talk about process of learning, nature of oneself as a learner,
2. Activities – a potentiating milieu (learning is both attractive and challenging;
activities and topics that stretch the learners)
3. Sit-screen thinking
4. Wild topics – rich, real, responsible (problems or projects are real, relevant, and make
a positive difference in some way
5. Transparency and involvement
6. Transfer thinking – looking for wider relevance and application
7. Progression – stronger, broader, deeper into subjects and learning
8. Modelling – walking the learning talk
Healthy classroom management and academic achievement
“Classroom management refers to those activities of classroom teachers that create a
positive classroom climate within which effective teaching and learning can occur” Teachers
who foster positive relationships with their students create classroom environments more
conducive to learning and meet students' developmental, emotional and academic needs. Here
are some concrete examples of closeness between a teacher and a student:
 A high school student chooses to share the news that he recently got a part in a
community play with his teacher because he knows that his teacher will show genuine
interest in his success.

120 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 A fourth grade boy who is struggling in math shows comfort in admitting to his teacher
that heneeds help with multiplying and dividing fractions even if most of the students in
the class havemoved beyond this work.
 Positive teacher-student relationships contribute to school adjustment and academic and
social performance.
 Positive teacher-student relationships — evidenced by teachers' reports of low conflict, a
high degree of closeness and support, and little dependency — have been shown to
support students' adjustment to school, contribute to their social skills, promote academic
performance and foster students' resiliency in academic performance.
 Teachers who experience close relationships with students reported that their students
were less likely to avoid school, appeared more self-directed, more cooperative and more
engaged in learning Teachers who use more learner-cantered practices (i.e., practices that
show sensitivity to individual differences among students, include students in the
decision-making, and acknowledge students' developmental, personal and relational
needs) produced greater motivation in their students than those who used fewer of such
practices
 Students who attended math classrooms with higher emotional support reported increased
engagement in mathematics learning. They enjoyed thinking about and solving problems
in math and were more willing to help peers learn new concepts.
Create a positive classroom climate
Be sure to allow time for your students to link the concepts and skills they are learning to
their own experiences. Build fun into the things you do in your classroom. Plan activities that
create a sense of community so that your students have an opportunity to see the connections
between what they already know and the new things they are learning, as well as have the time to
enjoy being with you and the other students. Make sure to provide social and emotional support
and set high expectations for learning.
Teacher is a friend, philosopher and guide to the students. He should have willingness to
cooperate with student and realize the divinity in the student. His job is to take care of the child
so that the young mind may be saturated with many ideas. A teacher can play a vital role in the
development of harmony among the students under his charge. The following points may guide
the teachers to have relations with students:

121 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Teacher should:
 Know his students very well. He should know their intelligence, interest, aptitude, likes
and dislikes
 Take real interest in the development of his students
 Earn respect rather than create fear in the mind of his students
 Able to come down to the level of his pupils
 Treat all the students with love and affection and be just and impartial to all irrespective
of caste, colour, creed, sex, status, religion, region, language and place of birth.
 Help the students in their intellectual, physical, social, emotional development and
promote intrinsic values which builds the character of the students.
 Promote a scientific temper and a spirit of enquiry, creative self-expression and aesthetic
sense, leadership qualities, right concepts and right attitudes towards the environment
among the students and encourage them to ask question to satisfy their curiosity
 Ensure non-truancy among the students.
 Enable the students to appreciate the nation’s cultural heritage and unity in diversity.
 Create interest towards his subject in the students. This is possible if he knows his subject
thoroughly and applies new methods and techniques of teaching.
 Be polite in talk and firm in action.
 Deal students carefully and handle them with care that will promote best efforts.
 Not permit or tolerate any misdeed on the part of students
Ways to improve teacher-student relationships.
 Get to know the students by name as quickly as possible
 Get to know some personal things about each student
 Conduct a values analysis discussion about some current event or topic.
 Provide positive comments when appropriate.
 Be positive and enthusiastic when teaching.
 Show students that you are not only interested in them but also that you care about
them
 Avoid the use of threats and punishment.
 Create a supportive classroom environment

122 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Create an environment where questions and answers-even wrong answers-are

encouraged and valued
Points to guide the teachers to have relations with students:
 Know his students very well. He should know their intelligence, interest, aptitude, likes
and dislikes
 Take real interest in the development of his students
 Earn respect rather than create fear in the mind of his students
 Able to come down to the level of his pupils
 Treat all the students with love and affection and be just and impartial to all irrespective
of caste, colour, creed, sex, status, religion, region, language and place of birth.
 Help the students in their intellectual, physical, social, emotional development and
promote intrinsic values which builds the character of the students.
 Promote a scientific temper and a spirit of enquiry, creative self-expression and aesthetic
sense, leadership qualities, Ensure non-truancy among the students.
 Enable the students to appreciate the nation’s cultural heritage and unity in diversity.
 Create interest towards his subject in the students. This is possible if he knows his subject
 thoroughly and applies new methods and techniques of teaching.
 Be polite in talk and firm in action.
 Deal students carefully and handle them with care that will promote best efforts.
 Not permit or tolerate any misdeed on the part of students

123 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

UNIT -X
TEACHING AS A PROFESSION
Syllabus
Nature of teaching - Teaching as a profession - characteristics of effective and in effective
teaching - why teaching is the most important profession –Attitude of student-teachers
towards teaching profession - Qualities of a professional teacher - Faculty development
programmes - Teaching and Learning for sustainable future.

“Teaching is a profession that lies at the heart of both the learning of children and young people
and their social, cultural and economic development. It is crucial to transmitting and implanting
social values, such as democracy equality, tolerance cultural understanding, and respect for each
person’s fundamental freedoms”
 Teaching is a process that facilitates learning.
 Teaching is the specialized application of knowledge, skills and attributes designed
to provide unique service to meet the educational needs of the individual and of
society.
 The choice of learning activities whereby the goals of education are realized in the
school is the responsibility of the teaching profession.
Nature of teaching
 The Nature of Teaching In its broadest sense, teaching is a process that facilitates
learning.
 In its broadest sense, teaching is a process that facilitates learning.
 Teaching is the specialized application of knowledge, skills and
 Teaching is the specialized application of knowledge, skills and attributes designed
to provide unique service to meet the educational needs of the individual and of
society.
 The choice of educational needs of the individual and of society.
 The choice of learning activities whereby the goals of education are realized in the
learning activities .
 The goals of education are realized in the school is the responsibility of the teaching
profession.
 school is the responsibility of the teaching profession.
124 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 In addition to providing students with learning opportunities to meet

 In addition to providing students with learning opportunities to meet curriculum
outcomes, teaching emphasizes the development of curriculum outcomes
 Teaching emphasizes the development of values and guides students in their social
relationships.
 Teachers values and guides students in their social relationships.
 Teachers employ practices that develop positive self-concept in students.
 Although the work of teachers typically takes place in a classroom setting, the direct
interaction between teacher and student is the single most important element in
teachin
Teaching as a Profession
 The continued professionalization of teaching is a long-standing goal.
 Some association continues to work to advance teaching as a goal.
 Some association continues to work to advance teaching as a profession.
 Professionalism is a complex and elusive concept; it is profession.
 The expectations for the professional practice of teachers related to interim and
permanent certification are found
 The Teaching Quality Standard Applicable to the Provision of Basic Education.
 The Teaching Quality Standard defines the knowledge,Education.
 The Teaching Quality Standard defines the knowledge, skills and attributes all
teachers are expected to demonstrate as skills and attributes
 all teachers are expected to demonstrate as they complete their professional
preparation, enter the profession and progress through their careers.
 Among all profession teaching profession is very noble and great. Professionalism is
a complex and elusive concept; it is dynamic and fluid. Six generally accepted criteria
are used to define a profession. The teaching profession fulfils those criteria in the
following ways:
 Its members have an organized body of knowledge that separates the group from all
others. Teachers are equipped with such a body of knowledge, having an extensive
background in the world and its culture and a set of teaching methods experientially
derived through continuous research in all parts of the world.

125 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Teaching profession serves a great social purpose.

Teachers carry responsibilities weighted with social purpose. Through a rigid and self-
imposed adherence to the Code of Professional Conduct, which sets out their duties and
responsibilities, teachers pass on their accumulated culture and assist each student under
their care in achieving self realization.
 There is co - operation achieved through a professional organization.
Co – operation plays an important role in the development of the teaching profession The
teaching profession has won its well-deserved place in the social order through
continuous cooperation in research, professional preparation and strict adherence to the
Code of Professional Conduct, which obligates every teacher to treat each student within
a sacred trust.
 There is a formal period of preparation and a requirement for continuous growth
and development.
Teachers are required to complete a defined teacher preparation program followed by a
period of induction or internship prior to being granted permanent certification. This
period includes support for the formative growth of teachers and judgments about their
competence. Teachers are devoted to continuous development of their ability to deliver
their service.
 There is a degree of autonomy accorded the professional.
Teachers have opportunities to make decisions about important aspects of their work.
Teachers apply reasoned judgment and professional decision making daily in diagnosing
educational needs, prescribing and implementing instructional programs, and evaluating
the progress of students.
 The profession has control or influence over education standards, admissions, licensing,
professional development, ethical and performance standards, and professional discipline.
Characteristics of an effective and ineffective teaching
The effective teachers and ineffective teacher’s characteristics were discussed as follows:
Characteristics of an effective teachers
 Have a sense of humor
 Make the class interesting
 Have knowledge of their subjects

126 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Explain things clearly

 Spend time to help students
 Are fair to their students
 Treat students like adults
 Relate well to students
 Are considerate of students' feelings
 Don't show favoritism toward students.
Characteristics of ineffective teachers
 Are dull / have a boring class
 Don't explain things clearly
 Show favoritism towards students
 Have a poor attitude
 Expect too much from students
 Don't relate to students
 Give too much homework
 Are too strict
 Don't give help / individual attention
 Lack of control
Opposite poles in classroom management were expressed, in which the ineffective
teacher either was a dominating ogre or had no control. But expert teachers would appear (a) to
have better developed schemata for classroom teaching with strong links between subject matter
and ways to teach it, (b) to be more effective lesson planners and implementers, and yet (c) to be
more flexible and reflective in meeting student needs and facilitating student social and academic
growth
Teaching is an important profession
 Teaching is a highly professional activity which demands specialised knowledge, skill
and behaviour.
 Teacher professionalism comprises competence, performance and behavior which reflect
on teachers’ personality in school and society.

127 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Professional competence is fundamental in teaching profession which includes

preparation of teacher for classroom processes, acquisition of knowledge of subject and
facilitates personality development of children.
 Competencies of an effective teacher include interpersonal communication, pedagogical
empowerment and organizational leadership.
 Professional competence results in performance of teacher in terms of overall
development of children.
 The competent teacher is supposed to perform better in the interest of the children and
society as well.
All the education commissions reports emphasis on the quality of teachers. At present
teachers are not the mere transmitters of information but facilitators in the path of students urge
for more knowledge. Over the last 8 - 12 years, huge shifts have been occurring in education that
is continuing to impact teaching and learning today. Some changes are positive, such as our
nation’s record high school graduation rate, narrowing achievement gaps, and a greater number
of students are attending college.
But all types of change particularly those that have the potential to yield the most positive
outcomes can be challenging. Change requires that we confront the status quo. It demands new
ways of approaching our work. And it takes resolve to see new beginnings through to their end.
Teachers are our nation builders—the strength of every profession in our country grows out of
the knowledge and skills that teachers help to instil in our children.And, as a nation, we must do
much, much more too fully appreciate and support their work.
With the transition to more rigorous achievement standards and better student
assessments, a focus on data to drive instruction, and the use of technology to personalize
learning, teachers are carrying an incredible amount of responsibility. They are in the midst of a
new era one with more engaging lessons and creativity and innovation, which is bringing joy
back into the classroom.
Attitude of student teachers towards teaching profession
The teacher’s roles and responsibilities have found extension outside the classroom. The
implementation of educational policies, transaction of curricula and spreading awareness are the
main areas which keep teacher in the forefront. Changing times have added new dimension to
this profession, which requires specified competencies and right attitude. Behaviour, attitude and

128 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

interest of teacher help in shaping the personality of the student. Attitude is a tendency to react in
a particular manner towards the stimuli
Teaching being a dynamic activity requires a favourable attitude and certain specific
competencies from its practitioners. Teachers’ proficiency depends on the attitude shepossesses
for the profession. The positive attitude helps teacher to develop a conductiveearner friendly
environment in the classroom. This also casts a fruitful effect on learningof the students. Attitude
being a social construct is influenced by many factors likegender social strata, age, and stream of
education and previous experience of the job.
Qualities of a Professional Teacher
 A good teacher is accountable- holding yourself to the same expectations and
standards as you hold your students
 A good teacher is adaptable - making changes to lessons or activities on the fly
because of an unforeseen situation or problem.
 A good teacher is caring- going the extra mile to ensure that every student is
successful no matter what.
 A good teacher is compassionate- recognizing that your students have problems
outside of school, and making the necessary adjustment to help them through those
issues.
 A good teacher is cooperative- the ability to work effectively with administrators,
other teachers, and parents for the good of your students.
 A good teacher is creative- taking a concept and shaping a lesson that is unique,
engaging, and dynamic.
 A good teacher is dedicated- Showing up everyday and spending the necessary time
to provide your students with the best education.
 A good teacher is determined- Finding any means necessary to reach all students no
matter the challenge.
 A good teacher is engaging- the ability to grab the attention of a classroom full of
students and to maintain their attention throughout the entirety of class.
 A good teacher is evolving- A continuous process of year over year improvement
and growth.

129 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 A good teacher is resilient- Not allowing adversity to stop you from accomplishing
your goals.
 A good teacher is resourceful-Finding a way to make things happen.
The following are the Qualities of a Teacher:
 Communication -The core quality of a good teacher is the ability to communicate their
knowledge and expertise to their students. There is a saying, “Give me a fish and I eat for
a day, teach me to fish and I eat for a lifetime.“ A teacher shares with others in a manner
that encourages effective two-way communication. Communicates personal thoughts and
feelings on a wide spectrum of issues and can listen to students in an empathetic manner.
 Create Interest - A good teacher builds knowledge of the subject, with a clarity and
understanding. Best teachers make the class interesting and relevant to the students. Good
teachers work hard to make their material relevant. Interest is the mother of the attention .
 Respect - Good teachers have a deep-seated concern and respect for the students in the
classroom. Treat everyone with the equal respect .Avoid partiality and favoritism.
 Learn Classroom Management - It’s effective discipline .It’s being prepared for class
It’s motivating your students .It’s providing a safe, comfortable learning environment
.It’s building your students’ self esteem .It’s being creative and imaginative in daily
lessons
 Positive – He or she should think positively and enthusiastically about people and what
they are capable of becoming. Sees the good in any situation and can move forward to
make the most of difficult situations when confronted with obstacles.
 Dependable –A teacher is always honest and authentic in working with others.
 Personable –He or She establishes and maintains positive mutual working relationships.
Has many ways of getting to know students as persons while building trust and
appreciation through personal interaction and involvement.
 Organized - Makes efficient use of time and moves in a planned and systematic
direction. Knows where he or she is heading and is able to help students in their own
organization and planning.
 Committed - Demonstrates commitment to students and the profession and is
selfconfident, poised and personally in control of situations. Has a healthy self-image.
 Motivational - Enthusiastic with standards and expectations for students and self.

130 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

 Compassionate - Caring, empathetic and able to respond to people at a feeling level.

Knows and understands the feelings of students.
 Flexible - Willing to alter plans and directions in a manner which assists people in
moving toward their goals.
 Individually Perceptive - Sees each student as a unique and valuable individual. Quickly
diagnoses student difficulties and assists in the management of individual situations.
 Value Based - Focuses upon the worth and dignity of human beings. Is sensitive to
community values.
 Knowledgeable - Is in a constant quest for knowledge. Keeps up in his or her specialty
areas, and has the insight to integrate new knowledge.
 Creative –A teacher is ever versatile, innovative, and open to new ideas. Strives to
incorporate techniques and activities that enable students to have unique and meaningful
new growth experiences.
 Patient - Is deliberate in coming to conclusions. Believes that problems can be resolved
if enough input and attention is given by people who are affected.
 Sense of Humour - Knows how to take the tension out of tight situations. Uses humour,
spontaneously, in a tasteful manner. Builds togetherness in the classroom, through the use
of humour.
Faculty development programmes for teachers
The professional development of teachers has received a great deal of attention in all
countries, including India, The volume of professional and research literature on in-series
education and professional development is also considerable. In comparison, the attention that
teacher education has received is marginal. Even when research and policy initiatives are
directed towards teacher education, the focus is on curriculum reform, programme structure,
institutional development, instructional resources, and the like. The content of teacher educator’s
professional development is rarely examined and critiqued.
Faculty Development Programme (FDP)
Faculty development refers to all training and education provided by an employee to improve the
occupational and personal knowledge, skills and attitudes of vested employees.It also refers to
the processes, programs and activities through which every organization develops, enhances and
improves the skills, competencies and overall performance of its employees and workers.

131 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Currently FDP reflecting its commitment to nation building through management

education and infrastructure development.
The programmes focusses on:
 Enhancing functional area expertise
 Improving one's classroom delivery both as a teacher and trainer
 Enhancing abilities for conducting meaningful research.
Need for FDP:-
 Social change and scientific advancement
 To provide the knowledge, skills, attitudes, ideals and valued essentials for the
maintenance of high quality
 opportunity for teachers to continually acquire and implement the
 Being necessary to fill gap in the past performance–
 To change or correct long-held attitudes of employee–
 Need to increase the productivity and quality of the work.–
 To motivate employees and to promote employee loyalty–
Goals
 Assist each employee to improve performance in his/her position.
 Assist each employee to acquire personal and professional abilities that maximize the
possibility of career advancement.
Steps of FDP:-
 Assess the educational needs of all staff members
 Set priority
 Develop general objectives for the staff development program
 Determine the resources needed to reach the desired objectives
 Develop a master calendar for an entire year
 Develop and maintain staff development record system
 Establish files on major educational topics
 Regularly evaluate the staff development program
Teaching and Learning For Sustainable Future
In order to develop future citizens who promote equitable and sustainable development
for all sections of society and respect for all, it is necessary that they be educated through

132 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

perspectives of gender equity, perspectives that develop values for peace, respect the rights of
all, and that respect and value work. In the present ecological crisis promoted by extremely
commercialized competitive lifestyles, children need to be educated to change their consumption
patterns and the way they look at natural resources. There is also a increasing violence and
polarization both within children and between them, that is being caused by increasing stress in
society. Education has a crucial role to play in promoting values of peace based on equal respect
of self and others. The NCF 2005 and subsequent development of syllabi and materials is
attempting to do this as well.
Teaching and Learning for a Sustainable Future is a UNESCO programme for the United
Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. It provides professional
development for student teachers, teachers, curriculum developers, education policy makers, and
authors of educational materials. The modules are divided into 4 themes as follows:
Theme1
Curriculum Rationale
These modules present an introduction to the global realities, imperatives for sustainable
development and educational issues that form the rationale of Education for a Sustainable Future.
 Exploring global realities.
 Understanding sustainable development.
 A futures perspective in the curriculum.
 Reorienting education for a sustainable future.
 5 Accepting the challenge
Theme2
Sustainable Development across the Curriculum
These modules illustrate ways in which Education for Sustainable Development can be
integrated into all areas of the curriculum, especially into cross curriculum themes such as health
and consumer education.
 Sustainable futures across the curriculum
 Citizenship education.
 Health education.
 Consumer education


133 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.
 Learning And Teaching

Theme 3
Contemporary Issues
This section illustrates ways in which a variety of curriculum themes may be recognized to
integrate an interdisciplinary emphasis on a sustainable future.
 Culture religion for a sustainable future
 Indigenous knowledge sustainability
 Women sustainable development
 Population development
 Understanding world hunger
 Sustainable agriculture
 Sustainable tourism
 Sustainable communities
 Globalization
 Climate change
Theme4
Teaching & Learning Strategies
This set of modules develops professional skills for using teaching and learning strategies
that can help students achieve the wide range of knowledge, skill and values objectives of
Education for Sustainable Development.
 Experimental learning
 Story telling.
 Values Education.
 Enquiry learning.
 Appropriate Assessment.
 Future problem solving.
 Learning outside the classroom.
 Community problem solving

134 | P a g e
APOLLO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, CHENNAI.