Lecture Notes in Digital Electronics Module 1 part One

COURSE NAME: DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

LECTURER: MR. AZINWI BORIS

COURSE OUTLINE:
1. Number systems and codes
 Binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems
 Conversion from one number system to the other
 Binary codes: BCD, gray, excess – 3, 8:4:2:1; 2:4:2:1 etc
 Alpha numeric code: ASCII

2. Combinational logic
 Logic gates
 Boolean algebra
 Simplification of Boolean functions
 Applications of combinational logic

3. Sequential logic
 Flip flops
 Counters
 Registers

Module 1: Number System and Codes

A number system relates quantities and symbols.In digital system how information is represented is key
and there are different radices, i.e. number bases, that a numbering system can use.
1.1 Digital computer
Any class of devices capable of solving problems by processing information in discrete form.It operates on
data,including letters and symbols,that are expressed in binary form i.e using only two digits 0 and 1.
The block diagram of digital computer is given below:

Processor (or)
Control Unit Arithmetic unit

Storage (or)
Memory Unit

Input Output
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Lecture Notes in Digital Electronics Module 1 part One

The memory unit stores programs as well as input, output and intermediate data. The processor unit
performs arithmetic and other data processing tasks as specified by the program.The control unit
supervises the flow of information between various units. The program and data prepared by the user
are transferred into the memory unit by means of an input device such as punch card reader (or) tele
typewriter. An output device, such as printer, receives the result of the computations and the printed
results are presented to the user.
1.2 Number Representation:

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It can have different base values like: binary (base-2), octal (base-8), decimal (base 10) and
hexadecimal (base 16),here the base number represents the number of digits used in that numbering
system. As an example, in decimal numbering system the digits used are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
Therefore the digits for binary are: 0 and 1, the digits for octal are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. For the
hexadecimal numbering system, base 16, the digits are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.
2. Binary numbers
Numbers that contain only two digit 0 and 1 are called Binary Numbers. Each 0 or 1 is called a Bit,
from binary digit. A binary number of 4 bits is called a Nibble. A binary number of 8 bits is called a
Byte. A binary number of 16 bits is called a Word on some systems, on others a 32-bit number is called
a Word while a 16-bit number is called a Halfword.
Using 2 bit 0 and 1 to form
a binary number of 1 bit, numbers are 0 and 1
a binary number of 2 bit, numbers are 00, 01, 10, 11
a binary number of 3 bit, such numbers are 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111
a binary number of 4 bit, such numbers are 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111, 1000,
1001, 1010, 1011, 1100,1101,1110,1111
Therefore , using n bits there are 2n binary numbers of n bits
Each digit in a binary number has a value or weight. The LSB has a value of 1. The second from the right
has a value of 2, the next 4 , etc.,

16 8 4 2 1

24 23 22 21 20

The binary equivalent for some decimal numbers are given below.

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Binary 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011

3. Number Base Conversions

3.1 Conversion of decimal number to any number system
Step 1 convert the integer part by doing successive division using the radix of asked number systems.
Step 2 convert the fractional part by doing successive multiplication using radix of asked number system

3.2 Conversion of decimal to binary number system

The radix of asked number system is 2
Convert 8710 to ( )2
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( 1010111)2

Convert (14.625)10 decimal number to binary number

MSB
( 1110)2
1st Multiplication Iteration
Multiply 0.625 by 2
0.625 x 2 = 1.25(Product) Fractional part=0.25 Carry=1 (MSB)

2nd Multiplication Iteration

Multiply 0.25 by 2
0.25 x 2 = 0.50(Product) Fractional part = 0.50 Carry = 0

3rd Multiplication Iteration

Multiply 0.50 by 2
0.50 x 2 = 1.00(Product) Fractional part = 1.00 Carry = 1 (LSB)
(101)2
The binary number of (16.625)10 is (1110.101)2

3.3 Conversion of decimal to octal number system

The radix of asked number system is 8
Convert (264)10 decimal number to octal number

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(410)8
The octal number of (264)10 is (410)8

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Convert (105.589)10 decimal number to octal number

1 MSB

LSB (151)

MSB

LSB ( 0.4554)
The octal number of (105.589)10 is (151.4554)8

3.4 Conversion of decimal to Hexadecimal number system

The radix of asked number system is 16
Convert (1693)10 decimal number to Hexadecimal number
1693/16 = 105 Reminder (13) D (LSB)
105/16 = 6 Reminder 9
6/16 = 0 Reminder 6 (MSB)

(1693)10 (69D)16
Convert (1693.0628)10 decimal fraction to hexadecimal fraction (?)16
1693/16 = 105 Reminder (13) D (LSB)
105/16 = 6 Reminder 9
6/16 = 0 Reminder 6 (MSB)
(69D)

Multiply 0.0628 by 16
0.0628 x 16 = 1.0048(Product) Fractional part=0.0048 Carry=1 (MSB)
Multiply 0.0048 by 16
0.0048 x 16 = 0.0768(Product) Fractional part = 0.0768 Carry = 0
Multiply 0.0768 by 16
0.0768 x 16 = 1.2288(Product) Fractional part = 0.2288 Carry = 1

Multiply 0.2288 by 16
0.2288 x 16 = 3.6608(Product) Fractional part = 0.6608 Carry = 3 (LSB)
(.1013)

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(1693.0628)10 = (69D.1013)16

3.5 Conversion of any number system to decimal number system

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In general the numbers can be represented as

N= A n-1r n-1 + = A n-2r n-2 +……..+ A1 r1 + A0 r0 + A-1 r-1+ A-2 r-2+………
Where n= number in decimal
A= digit
r= radix of number system
n= The number of digits in the integer portion of number
m= the number of digits in the fractional portion of number

3.6 Conversion of binary to decimal number system

Convert ( 101.101 )2= ( ? )10

101.101
= 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 . 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2 + 1 x 2-3

=1x4+0x2+1x1. 1x(1/2)+0x(1/4) +1x(1/8)

= 4+0 +1 . (1/2)+ 0 + (1/8)

= 5 + 0.5 + 0.125
= 5 . 625
Therefore ( 1 0 1 . 1 0 1 )2 = ( 5.625 )10

3.7 Conversion of octal to decimal number system

Convert (128)8= ( ? )10
1238 = 1*82 + 2*81 + 3*80 = 64 + 16 + 3 = 73
the decimal equivalent of the number 1238 is 7310
Convert (2 1. 2 1)8= (? )10
2 1. 2 1
= 2 x 81 + 1 x 80. 2 x 8-1 + 1 x 8-2
= 2 x 8 + 1 x 1. 2 x ( 1 / 8 ) + 1 x ( 1 / 64 )
= 16 + 1 . (0. 2 5) + (0. 0 1 5 6 2 5)
= 17 + 0. 265625
= 17. 265625
Therefore (2 1. 2 1)8 = (1 7. 2 6 5 6 2 5)10

3.8 Conversion of hexadecimal to decimal number system

Convert (E F. B 1)16= (?)10

= E x 161 + F x 160. B x 16-1 + 1 x 16-2

= 14 x 16 + 15 x 1 . 11 x (1 / 16) + 1 x (1 / 256)
= 224 + 15 + (0. 6 8 7 5) + (0. 0 0 3 9 0 6 2 5)
= 239 + 0. 6914
= 239. 691406
Therefore (E F. B 1)16 = (2 3 9. 6 9 1 4 0 6)10

Convert ( 0.9D9 )16= ( ? )10

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= 0 x 160. 9 x 16-1 + D x 16-2 + 9 x 16-3

= 0 x 1. 9 x ( 1 / 16 ) + 13 x ( 1 / 256 ) + 9 x ( 1 / 4096 )
= 0 . (0. 5625) + (0. 050781) + (0. 0021972 )
= 0. (0. 6154782 )

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= 0. 6154782

3.9 Conversion of binary to octal number system

Convert (101101001)2 to ( )8
Divide the binary into group of three digits from LSB we will find the following pattern 101|101|
001 Now writing the equivalent decimal number of each group we get 5 | 5 | 1 So the equivalent
octal number is 5518

Convert 11001100.101 to ( )8
011|001|100. |101|
3 1 4 .5
So the equivalent octal number is 314.5

3.10 Conversion of binary to hexadecimal number system

Convert 111100010 to ( )16
Divide the binary into group of four digits from LSB
0001|1110|0010
Now writing the equivalent hexadecimal number of each group
1|E|2
So the equivalent Hexa decimal number is 1E216
Convert 11000011001.101 to ( )16
0110|0001|1001|.1010|
6 1 9 . A
So the equivalent Hexa decimal number is 619.A16

3.11 Conversion of octal number system to hexa decimal number system

Convert ( 25)8 to ( )16
First convert octal to binary
The binary equivalent of 25 is 010101
Divide the binary into group of four digits from LSB
0001|0101
1 5
So the equivalent Hexa decimal number is 1516

3.1 Conversion of hexa decimal number system to octal number

system Convert ( 1A.2B)16 to ( )8
First convert hexadecimal to binary
The binary equivalent of 1A.2B is 00011010.00101011
Divide the binary into group of Three digits 011|010|.|001|
010|110
3 2 .1 2 6
so the equivalent octal number is 32.1268

4. COMPLEMENTS
In digital computers to simplify the subtraction operation and for logical manipulation complements
are used . There are two types of complements for each radix system the radix complement and diminished
radix complement. The first is referred to as the r’s complement and the second as the (r-1)’s complement.
r’s Complement
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Given a positive number N in base r with an integer part of n digits, the r’s complement of N is
defined as rn-N if N≠0 and 0 if N=0

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(r-1)’s Complement

Given a positive number N in base r with an integer part of n digits and a fraction part of m
digits, the (r-1)’s complement of N is defined as rn-r-m-N

Subtraction with r’s complement

 The direct method of subtraction uses the borrow concept

 When subtraction is implemented by means of digital components, this method is found to
be less efficient. So, instead the following procedure can be followed.

The subtraction of two positive numbers (M-N), both of base r, may be done as follows.

(1) Add the minuend M to the r’s complement of the subtrahend N.

(2) Inspect the result obtained in step 1 for an end carry.
 If an end-carry occurs, discard it.
 If an end-carry does not occurs, take the r’s complement of the number obtained in step
1 and place a negative sign in front.

Subtraction with (r-1)’s Complement

 The procedure for subtraction with (r-1)’s complement is same as r’s complement except for
end-around carry.
 The subtraction of M-N, both positive numbers in base r, may be calculated in the following
manner.
1. Add the minuend M to the (r-1)’s complement of the subtrahend N.
2. Inspect the result obtained in step 1 for an end carry.
 If an end-carry occurs, add 1 to the least significant digit (end-around carry)
 If an end-carry does not occur, take the (r-1)’s complement of the number
obtained in step 1 and place a negative sign in front.

It is classified into four types they are 1’s complement , 2’s complement , 9’s complement and
10’s complement.
4.1 1’s complement representation: The 1’s complement of a binary number is the number that
results when we change all 1’s to zeros and the zeros to ones.
2’s complement representation:
The 2’s complement is the binary number that results when we add 1 to the 1’s complement.
Problems related to 1’s complement and 2’s complement :

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4.2 1’s complement subtraction

Subtraction of binary numbers can be accomplished by the direct method by using the 1’s complement
method, which allows to perform subtraction using only addition . for subtraction of two numbers we
have two cases.
1. Subtraction of smaller number from larger number and
2. Subtraction of larger number from smaller number.

1’s complement Subtraction of smaller number from larger number

Method:
1. Determine the 1’s complement of the smaller number.
2. Add the 1’s complement to the larger number.
3. Remove the carry and add it to the result.
This is called end -around carry.

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1’s complement Subtraction of larger number from smaller number

Method:
1. Determine the 1’s complement of the larger number.
2. Add the 1’s complement to the smaller number.
3. Answer is in 1’s complement form. To get the answer in true form take the 1’s complement and
assign negative sign to the answer.

Advantages of 1’s complement subtraction :

1. The 1’s complement subtraction can be accomplished with an binary adder. Therefore , this method
is useful in arithmetic logic circuits.
2. The 1’s complement of a number is easily obtained by inverting each bit in the number.
4.3 2’s complement Subtraction:
Like 1’s complement subtraction, in 2’s complement subtraction, the subtraction is accomplished
by only addition.
2’s complement Subtraction of smaller number from larger number
Method
1. Determine the 2’s complement of the smaller number.
2. Add the 2’s complement to the larger number.
3. Discard the carry.

2’s complement Subtraction of larger number from smaller number

Method:
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1. Determine the 2’s complement of the larger number.

2. Add the 2’s complement to the smaller number.

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3. Answer is in 2’s complement form. To get the answer in true form take the 2’s complement and
assign negative sign to the answer.

4.4 9's complement and 10's complement

Before knowing about 9's complement and 10's complement we should know why they are used
and why their concept came into existence. Addition of signed BCD numbers can be performed by using
9’s and 10’s complement. The complements are used to make the arithmetic operations in digital system
easier. Various topics and related problems we going to see here are

1. 9s complement
2. 10s complement
3. 9s complement subtraction
4. 10s complement subtraction

Now first of all let us know what 9's complement is and how it is done. To obtain the 9,s complement
of any number we have to subtract the number with (10n - 1) where n = number of digits in the number, or
in a simpler manner we have to divide each digit of the given decimal number with 9. The table 1. will
explain the 9's complement more easily.

Table 1. 9’s complement equivalent for decimalo numbers

9s
Decimal digit
complement

0 9
1 8
2 7
3 6
4 5
5 4
6 3
7 2
8 1

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9 0

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Now coming to 10's complement, it is relatively easy to find out the 10's complement after finding
out the 9,s complement of that number. We have to add 1 with the 9,s complement of any number to obtain
the desired 10's complement of that number. Or if we want to find out the 10's complement directly, we can
do it by following the formula, (10 n - number), where n = number of digits in the number. An example is
given below to illustrate the concept of obtaining 10’s complement

A decimal number 456, find 9's complement and 10’s complement of this number

10's complement of that no. is

In 9’s complement subtraction when 9’s complement of smaller number number is added to the
larger number carry is generated. It is necessary to add this carry to the result. ( this is called an end around
carry).when larger number is subtracted from the smaller number, there is no carry, and the result is in 9’s
compliment form and negative. This is explained with following examples.

Subtraction using 9’s complements:

Steps for 9’s complement BCD subtraction

1. Find the 9’s complement of a negative number.

2. Add two numbers using BCD addition
3. If carry is generated add carry to the result otherwise find the 9’s complement of the result.
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Subtraction using 10’s complements:

The 10’s complement of the decimal is equal to 9’s complement plus 1. The 10’s complement can
be used to perform subtraction by adding the minuend to the 10’s complement of the subtrahend and
dropping the carry. This is explained with following examples.

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Steps for 10’s complement BCD subtraction

1. Find the 10’s complement of a negative number.
2. Add two numbers using BCD addition
3. If carry is not generated find the 10’s complement of the result.

5. SIGNED NUMBERS

 Digital systems like computer, must be able to handle both positive and negative numbers.
 A signed binary number consists of both sign and magnitude information.
 The sign indicates whether a number is positive or negative.

5.1 Representation

There are three forms in which the signed integer (whole numbers) can be represented. They
include,

1. Sign – Magnitude Form – Rarely used

2. 1’s Complement Form
3. 2’s Complement Form – Mostly used

Note:

Sign bit – leftmost bit in a signed binary numbers

 0 for positive, 1 for negative

5.11 Sign Magnitude Form

 Here, leftmost bit is the sign bit.
 Remaining bits are magnitude bits.
 Magnitude bits are in true binary.

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5.12 1’s Complement Form

 In this Form, positive numbers are represented the same way as positive sign-magnitude
numbers.

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 Negative numbers, are the 1’s complement of the corresponding positive numbers.

(eg)

+25 is represented as,

00011001 → same as sign-magnitude form

-25 is represented as,

11100110 → 1’s complement of +25

5.13 2’s Complement Form

 Positive numbers in 2’s complement form are represented as same as in sign-
magnitude and 1’s Complement Form.
 Negative numbers are the 2’s complement of the corresponding positive numbers

(eg)

+25 is represented as,

00011001 → same as sign-magnitude form

-25 is represented as,

11100110 +

111001112 → 2’s complement of +25

Decimal value of Signed Numbers

(1) Sign Magnitude

 Decimal values of positive and negative numbers in this form are determined by
summing the weights in all the magnitude – bit positions.
 The sign is determined by examining the sign bit.

(eg) 1. Determine the decimal value of this signed binary number expressed in sign –
magnitude. 10010101
Soln:
 The seven magnitude bits and their powers of 2 weights are as follows.
1 0010101
↓ 26252423222120
Sign bit
 Summing weights where there are 1’s.
→ 16+4+1 = 21
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 Since, the sign bit is 1, the decimal number is -21

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(2) 1’s Complement

 Decimal values of positive numbers in this form are determined by summing
the weights in all bit postions.
 Decimal values of negative numbers are determined by assigning a negative value
to the weight of the sign bit, summing all the weights where there are 1’s and adding 1
to the result.

(eg) Determine the decimal value of the signed binary number expressed in 1’s complement
11101000

Soln:

 The bits and their powers- of- two weights are as follows.

Note: for sign bit, it is -27 (or) -128

1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0

-27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

 Summing the weights where there are 1’s

-128+64+32+8 = -24 ( if +ve, write this as the result)

 Since, it is a negative number, add 1 to the result
-24+1 = -23
(3) 2’s Complement
 Decimal values of positive and neagative numbers in this form are determined by
summing the weights in all bit positions.
 The weight of the sign – bit in a negative number is given a negative value.

(eg): Determine the decimal values of the signed binary numbers expressed in 2’s complement
from 10101010

Soln:

 The bits and their corresponding powers of -2 weights are as follows

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
-27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
 Summing weights where there are 1’s
-128+32+8+2 = -86

Range of signed integer numbers that can be Represented

 Since 8-bit (1byte) grouping is common in most computers, the illustrations are all 8-
bits. With 8-bits, we can represent 256 different numbers.
 With 16-bits (2 bytes), we can represent 65,536 different numbers.
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 With 32-bits (4 bytes), we can represent 4.295×109 different numbers.

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The formula for finding the number of different combinations of n-bits is,

Total combinations = 2n
Range of values for n-bit numbers is,

-(2n-1) to + (2n-1 – 1)

So, for 8 bits the range is,

-128 to +127

For 16 bits the range is,

-32768 to +32767 etc

5.2 Arithmetic operations with Signed Numbers

 Here, we use 2’s complement representation

Addition

 The two numbers in an addition are the addend and the augend
 The result is sum.
 There are four cases that can occur when two signed binary numbers are added.
(1) Both numbers positive.
(2) Positive number with magnitude larger than negative number.
(3) Negative number with magnitude larger than positive number
(4) Both numbers negative.

Case 1: Both numbers +ve

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Subtraction

 It is a special case of addition.

 The two numbers in subtraction are subtrahend and minuend.
 The result is the difference.
 To subtract +6 from +9, it is also equivalent to add -6 to +9.
 So, to subtract two signed numbers, take the 2’s complement of the subtrahend and add. Discard
any final carry bit.

6. BINARY ARITHMETIC
6.1 BINARY ADDITION
The binary addition table is as follows:
A+B SUM CARRY
0+0 0 0
0+1 1 0
1+0 1 0
1+1 0 1
Illustration 1:
Add (1010)2 and (0011)2
1010 (Augend)
0011 (Addend)

1101 (sum)

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The addition manipulated above as follows.

Step 1: The least significant bits are added, i.e. 0+1 =1 with a carry of 0

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Step 2: The carry in the previous is added to the next higher significant bits, i.e. 0+1+1= 0 with a carry 1.
Step 3: The carry in the previous is added to the next higher significant bits, i.e. 1+0+0 =1 with a carry 0.
Step 4: The preceding carry is added to the most significant bit i.e. 0+1+0 = 1 with a carry 0.
Thus the sum is 1101.

6.2 BINARY SUBTRACTION

The binary subtraction table is as follows:

A-B DIFFERENCE BORROW

0-0 0 0
0-1 1 1
1-0 1 0
1-1 0 0
Illustration 1:
Subtract (0101)2 from (1011)2
1011 (Minuend)
0101 (Subtrahend)

0110 (Difference)

The steps are described below

Step1: the LSB in the first column are 1 and 1. Hence, the difference is 1 - 1 = 0
Step2: The column, the subtraction is performed as 1 – 0 = 1
Step3: In the third column, the difference is given by 0 – 1 =1
Step 4: In the fourth column (MSB), the difference is given by 0 – 0 = 0 since 1 is borrowed for third
column.

6.3 BINARY MULTIPLICATION

The binary multiplication table is as follows:
A *B PRODUCT
0*0 0
0*1 0
1*0 0
1*1 1

 Binary multiplication uses add and shift process

 Binary multiplication is similar to decimal multiplication.
Illustration 1:
Multiplicand * Multiplier
10110.1x01001.1

101101
101101
000000
Partial Product
000000
101101
000000

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011010101.11 (Final product)

The steps are described below

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Step 1: The LSB of the multiplier is taken. If multiplier bit is 1, the multiplicand is copied as such and if
the multiplier bit is 0 zero is placed in all the bit positions.
Step 2: The next higher significant bit of the multiplier is taken and, the partial product is written with the
shift to the left, as in step 1.
Step 3: step 2 is repeated for all other higher significant bits.
Step 4: The partial product terms are added which gives the actual product of multiplier and the
multiplicand.

6.4 BINARY DIVISION:

The binary division table is as follows:
A÷B Result
0÷0 Not allowed
0÷1 0
1÷0 Not allowed
1÷1 1

 Binary division uses subtract and shift process

 Binary division is similar to decimal division.
 Division by 0 is meaningless.
Illustration 1:
Dividend ÷ Divisor
11011.1÷ 101
101.1 (QUOTIENT)
DIVISOR 101 √11011.1 (DIVIDEND)
101

111
101

101
101

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