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English teaching and learning in China

Martin Cortazzi and Lixian Jin

Language Teaching / Volume 29 / Issue 02 / April 1996, pp 61 - 80

DOI: 10.1017/S0261444800008351, Published online: 23 December 2008

Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0261444800008351

How to cite this article:

Martin Cortazzi and Lixian Jin (1996). English teaching and learning in China. Language Teaching, 29, pp 61-80
doi:10.1017/S0261444800008351

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State of the art article
English teaching and learning in China
Martin Cortazzi School of Education, University of Leicester
and Lixian Jin Human Communication Department, De Montfort University

Chen 1991). Many students, including adult

1. Introduction learners, see English as a useful world language and
In recent years, China has seen an explosion in the study it out of personal interest. To study a foreign
demand for English. There is an impressive language, generally English, is compulsory in
commitment to ELT from both teachers and Chinese middle schools and colleges.
learners. There are now more teachers and learners In this article, we consider current issues and
of English as a foreign language in China than in any developments in ELT in China. We trace the
other country. To have significant numbers of background to current practices before reviewing
competent users of English in a whole range of the teaching of language skills, teacher training and
professions, businesses, workplaces and enterprises some research issues which have wider relevance.
has been seen by the authorities as a key element in We then discuss ELT in relation to Western teachers
China's opening wider to the outside world and the working in China and Chinese students studying in
drive to modernization (Xu 1990). Social, economic the West. Finally, we develop the concept of
and political forces are important factors in the cultures of learning in order to summarize some
massive expansion of English teaching (Hildebrandt cultural aspects which may impede (or facilitate)
& Liu 1991). On a personal level, many students developments in ELT methodology and intercultural
have high motivation to learn English. A good level communication in China. Consideration of such
of English will help considerably: to enter and issues in relation to China is a case study which has
graduate from university; to obtain better jobs, relevance to ELT elsewhere. We refer exclusively to
especially those in companies or joint ventures published work in English, where possible using
which have international connections; to read comments by Chinese writers, including some in
technical materials; and to study abroad (Zhou & Hong Kong and Taiwan.
There are certain reservations to be made
regarding generalizations about ELT in China. The
Martin Cortazzi is Senior Lecturer in Linguistics and Chinese context is almost impossible to describe; the
scale of ELT is extensive and the circumstances are
Education at the School of Education, University of
changing. This is a huge, rapidly developing country
Leicester, UK, where he has been training teachers and
with an enormous population of over 1.2 billion.
lecturing on the MA course in Applied Linguistics and There are significant differences in language
TESOL since 1979. He has also taught in Iran, teaching developments between the major cities and
China, Turkey, Lebanon and elsewhere. He is Visiting small cities, between rural towns and countryside,
Professor at Nankai (Tianjin), Renmin (Beijing) and between coastal and inland areas, between north and
Hubei (Wuhan) universities. His research interests and south, between key and non-key schools or
publications are in education, narrative analysis, universities. There is wide variation in teaching
discourse, teaching methodology and cross-cultural
quality, though there have been marked
improvements. We should not expect all classrooms
communication.
to be the same; every generalization will have
important exceptions and a number of innovative
Lixian Jin is Lecturer in Linguistics in the Human ELT projects are in progress. At the same time, there
Communication Department, De Montfort University, are clear centralizing tendencies of national
UK, and teaches general linguistics, sociolinguistics, syllabuses and exams, widely used textbooks, and
syntax and clinical linguistics. She has taught English, clear perceptions of common practice among
linguistics and TESOL teacher training courses for over Chinese teachers. While recent economic de-
ten years at universities in China, Turkey and Britain
velopment in China has been remarkable and there
is much evidence of social change, the perceptions
and is Visiting Professor at Renmin (Beijing) and
and expectations in the education system have been
Hubei (Wuhan) universities. She has publications in relatively slow to change. This is particularly
the areas of her research interests: cross-cultural reflected in the beliefs of teachers, students and their
communication, academic cultures, cultures of learning, parents about how teaching and learning should be
second language acquisition and narrative analysis. carried out and what they expect students to achieve
in their education.

Lang. Teach. 29, 61-80 Copyright © 1996 Cambridge University Press 61

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State of the art: English teaching in China
in organized lessons. Between the ages of 6 and 11
2. English in the education system or 12, pupils attend primary school. At least one
The main stages of schooling in China are shown million pupils study English from the age of 9,
in Figure 1, while Table 1 presents statistics for mostly in urban areas (British Council 1995),
enrolment in 1995. Most Chinese children go to a especially in those schools which, until 1995, were
kindergarten until they are 6. A few kindergartens designated as 'key' schools. The teaching of English
teach English using songs, games, pictures and toys at this level is restricted by the number of qualified

GENERAL
TEACHER'S NORMAL
UNIVERSITIES
COLLEGES UNIVERSITIES
(4 years; 5/6 years
(4 years) (4 years)
for certain subjects)

NORMAL
COLLEGES
(3 years)

SECONDARY SENIOR
VOCATIONAL
NORMAL MIDDLE
SCHOOLS
SCHOOLS SCHOOL
(ages 15-18)
(2/3 years) (ages 15-18)

JUNIOR
MIDDLE
SCHOOLS
(ages 12-15)

PRIMARY
SCHOOLS
(ages 6-12)

KINDERGARTENS
(ages 2-6)

refers to the next stage students progress to.

refers to the type of schools which graduates from teacher training institutions go to.
Figure 1. School/university and teacher training systems in China

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 State of the art: English teaching in China
teachers available. There is an embryonic sector of university. Chinese higher education is very much in
private schools offering English and some children flux and changes are currently taking place (Yin &
learn at home from lessons broadcast on TV or White 1994; British Council 1995). Two examples
through commercially produced videos. of such changes are the increasing numbers of 'self-
From the ages of 11 or 12, pupils attend junior paying' students and the phasing out of the state-
middle schools. In these, the study of a foreign assigned job system in favour of student freedom to
language, together with Chinese, mathematics and find their own job in the market economy.
sciences is one of the fundamental subjects of the At university level, every student must study a
curriculum. Approximately 95 per cent of students foreign language for at least two years (Yang 1990;
studying a foreign language take English (British College English Syllabus 1991). There are two
Council 1995), wherever teachers are available — this systems, one for the majority of students who are
is understandably difficult in some remote areas. A non-English majors, the other for English majors.
few students take Japanese or Russian. There are Most non-English majors choose English, receiving
some junior middle schools in major cities where about 300 classroom hours of teaching, on average.
students specialize in the study of foreign languages They are given a placement test and are then put
while studying general curriculum subjects (Ross into a suitable 'band' on a scale of six progressive
1993). The objectives of ELT at this level (Zhao & bands. Each band normally takes one semester, but
Campbell 1995) include: providing basic training in excellent students can skip bands. Those who are not
the four skills through which students will have a yet at the level of Band 1 take preliminary bands to
command of basic knowledge of English and bring them up to this level. Students are required to
develop a basic ability to use English for complete Band 4 and pass this exam to obtain their
communication; activate students' interest in final degree, but may reach Band 6 or beyond, in
learning English and cultivate good learning habits; elective advanced English courses. These two key
lay a solid foundation for further learning of English; bands (4 and 6) are tested on a nationwide basis and
provide moral, patriotic and socialist education; scores form part of a student's academic record.
develop students' ability for thinking and self-study. Average scores are important for the English
department's reputation and teachers of classes
Students are expected to learn about 1,000
receiving high scores may get a salary bonus.
vocabulary items. These who complete this stage
Postgraduate students who are non-English majors
will have received about 400 hours of English
have to pass Band 6 before gaining their
classes.
postgraduate degree. English majors also move
After an examination which includes English,
through the same system of bands but take different,
students proceed to senior middle school for 3 years ormore appropriate tests. The 1985 Syllabus (Yang
to specialized vocational schools. In both of these, 1990; College English Syllabus 1991) demands both
English is by far the most popular foreign language accuracy and fluency, but gives priority to fluency. It
and it has a key role in the national university also lays emphasis on communicative competence.
entrance examinations taken by over 2.5 million
students in 1995. After more than 900 class hours,
students are expected to have mastered basic English
phonetics and grammar, and to know a minimum of
1,200 words as active vocabulary. They should have 3. The development of English teaching
developed 'some proficiency' in the four skills and
be able to read materials slightly easier than those in The most significant change in ELT in China is the
their textbooks using a dictionary (College English rise in the number of teachers and learners. In 1957
Syllabus 1991; Zhao & Campbell 1995). However, there were only 843 full time middle school teachers
the expectations of students in the previously of English in the whole country (Ross 1992: 251-2),
designated 'key' schools are higher: to have learnt compared to 1995 figures of about 400,000 middle
2,700 to 3,000 vocabulary items and a definite school teachers of English and approximately 28,000
number of commonly used idiomatic expressions, at tertiary level (Maley 1995). By the 1990s it was
and to be able to read materials at the same level as estimated that there were well over 57 million
their textbook using a dictionary and to have school and university students studying English (Zhu
attained 'a definite speaking ability' (Ross 1993: & Chen 1991) and 150 million part time students
227). Detailed studies of teaching in middle schools learning the language (Dzau 1990a) or more
are provided by Ross (1993) and Schoenhals (1993). conservative estimates of around 200 million users of
After senior middle school, students may proceed English (Zhao & Campbell 1995) (see also Table 1
to a university. There are three main types: a normal for 1995 school and university enrolments, bearing
university, where it is intended that they should train in mind that most students will be studying English).
as teachers; a specialized university, which focuses on This development of English is informally
such disciplines as agriculture, music, meteorology supported in a variety of ways, e.g. through the
or oceanography; and a comprehensive or general media. National and provincial TV channels show

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State of the art: English teaching in China
Table 1. Attendance at educational institutions in China, 1995 (after People's Daily overseas edition
5 March1996)

SCHOOLS & SCHOOLS & FULL ADULT EDUCATION

HIGHER TIME HIGHER (including TV courses,
EDUCATION EDUCATION correspondence courses,
evening institutes)

higher education 0.145 million 2.57 million

postgraduate students
2.90 million
undergraduate students

senior middle schools 16.53 million 2.88 million

(including 9.39 million at vocational and at adult secondary specialized schools
technical schools) 76.90 million
at adult technical training schools

junior middle schools 47.28 million

5.30 million at equivalent level
primary schools 131.95 million

the news, films and other programmes in English (as reaction against direct methods, held to be
well as in other languages). There are English lessons bourgeois, grammar-translation methods were
broadcast on TV and radio which attract large established via Russian textbooks. These methods
audiences. The English language newspaper China had a deep influence on the college level Intensive
Daily has a large circulation nationwide, while Hong Reading course, which is still a major course in the
Kong has a thriving English language press. In parks 1990s (see below). In the late 1950s Russian lost its
in many large cities, 'English corners' have popularity and there was a swing to English. By the
spontaneously sprung up where people meet every 1960s many teachers of Russian were re-training as
week to practise English informally. English teachers. Chinese textbook writers sought to
Historically, the development of ELT in China develop materials and methods suited to Chinese
has had several rises and falls since the People's learners and Chinese conditions. Audiolingual drills
Republic was established in 1949. English has been became influential. Oral skills were more developed,
seen as a 'barometer of modernization' (Ross 1992). there was much use of drills and substitution tables
English has been widely accepted as a utilitarian tool and increasing use of audiovisual aids. During the
for science, technology, national development and Cultural Revolution (1966-76) ELT was disrupted.
modernization. This is sometimes in conflict with Foreign languages were considered bourgeois;
the view that English might also be a pathway to foreign films and books were banned; many English
individual and cultural transformation. The teachers, in company with other intellectuals, were
sometimes mixed feelings about ELT can be gleaned sent to the countryside for re-education. Schools
from the oft-quoted nineteenth-century saying, and universities were closed for several years. In
'Chinese learning for fundamental principles; 1977 universities began to enrol students by national
Western learning for practical application', which examinations again. ELT was seen as an important
periodically raises questions of whether learning element in reform and opening up China.
English will affect Chinese identity, whether Communicative approaches began to be known;
learning a foreign language is 'spiritual pollution', or they were also termed 'functional' or 'situational' by
whether modernization means Westernization. many Chinese teachers. In the 1980s Central China
The barometer effect can be seen in changes in TV broadcast the BBC's Follow Me and Follow Me to
ELT methodology in China (Pride & Liu 1988; Science series. These ELT programmes were seen by
Dzau 1990b; Xu 1990; Ross 1992, 1993; Yao 1993) 100 million viewers all over the country (Crystal
briefly reviewed below. In the early 1950s there was 1985); they were said to be the longest running TV
a strong influence from the (then) Soviet Union, programmes of the 1980s. The American
which was giving China economic and technical aid. programme Family Album has been popular in the
Russian became the most widely taught foreign 1990s.
language and there was a sharp decline in ELT. In The development of a more communicative
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 State of the art: English teaching in China
approach has not been simple, nor could it be, given Chinese students' and teachers' access to
the scale of ELT in China, the need for teacher textbooks published outside China has been limited.
training, and other factors mentioned below. It has Alexander's New Concept series (1967) has been
meant a reconceptualization of ELT's 'three- particularly widely used since the late 1970s, and is
centredness' (Yen 1987) or 'four-centredness' still in use in the 1990s. Like other books available,
(Cortazzi & Jin 1996): Chinese approaches to such as O'Neill's Kernel Lessons, a popular Chinese
language teaching have a long-standing concern edition was a bilingual one, with all texts, exercises
with mastery of knowledge, which is focused on theand explanations translated into Chinese. Other
four centres of the teacher, the textbook, grammar, and books, such as Alexander's Mainline Progress (1980),
vocabulary. Knowledge of English is transmitted have been used as the basis for distance learning
through the teacher, as an authority, a source of courses for part-time students, supported by specially
knowledge and an intellectual and moral example. prepared Students' Guides (Macmillan 1990).
This knowledge is also in the textbook, which is a
key element in Chinese learning; texts are taught
and learned in exhaustive detail; they are often 4. Language skills and textbooks
memorized. Grammar and vocabulary are further The influential College English Syllabus (Yang 1990;
elements of knowledge which are explained and College English Syllabus 1991), which outlines the
transmitted; students engage heavily in memorizing system of the six Bands for university ELT, lists 5,350
hundreds, even thousands, of words each year. In
contrast, current notions of ELT in the West can be
characterized, in general, as being centred on the Table 2. The College English Band System in China for
development of skills, through four rather different non-English majors, with examples of vocabulary and
foci: being centred on the learner, who will be writing targets
involved in talk and will participate in interaction, PRELIMINARY BANDS
frequendy being engaged in activities or tasks and Examples of targets
problems to raise awareness of language, particularly
of functions and uses in which practice and 1 productive vocabulary: 1,200 words
communication, rather than memorizing, is held to 2 writing: elementary training
be paramount. Many Chinese teachers of English are
well aware of communicative approaches; they i \
realize that there are such differences and see an GENERAL ENGLISH BANDS
urgent need for ELT development (Hao et al. 1990). Examples of targets
There is a widespread belief in 'eclecticism': a 1 productive vocabulary: 1,500 words
Chinese approach which attempts to combine receptive vocabulary: 2,150 words
knowledge of English with the ability to use it in writing: combine words into sentences
(simple, complex & compound)
genuinely communicative contexts, with reference
to the specific situation in China, which is held to be 2 productive vocabulary: 1,800 words
receptive vocabulary: 2,750 words
unique (Cowan et al. 1979; Wu 1983; Gui 1990; writing: combine sentences into paragraphs
Sun 1990; Sunderland 1990; Wang 1991; Li 1993;
3 productive vocabulary: 2,050 words
Yang 1994). receptive vocabulary: 3,350 words
The development of practical innovations in ELT writing: write coherent short paragraphs
is constrained by several factors, in addition to scale: 4 productive vocabulary: 2,300 words
the present examination systems in schools and receptive vocabulary: 4,000 words
colleges, which emphasizes the development of writing: write a 100-120 word guided composition
reading comprehension skills through knowledge of within 30 minutes without serious grammatical
grammar and vocabulary; perceived lack of time; the mistakes
continued use of time-honoured textbooks;
perceived limitations in resources and teacher \r
training; institutional resistance to change; and the
MORE ADVANCED GENERAL ENGLISH &
difficulty of teaching large classes which, in middle SPECIALIZED READING
schools have an average of 51 students (Ward et al. 5 productive vocabulary: 2,550 words
1995: 65). However, whether the communicative receptive vocabulary: 4,650 words
approaches (perceived by many Western ELT writing: write a 120-150 word coherent passage
teachers and by some Chinese ELT teachers as a (e.g. a letter or summary of a text) within
forward move for language learning) are necessarily 30 minutes
suitable for Chinese learners in a Chinese culture of 6 productive vocabulary: 2,800 words
learning context is a question discussed further in receptive vocabulary: 5,300 words
later sections. The immediate following sections will writing: in addition to the above, an abstract of
a thesis
consider language skills and textbooks.

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State of the art: English teaching in China
graded lexical items, together with a grammatical synonyms, paraphrases and occasional trans-
summary of frequently used structures which are lations;
difficult for Chinese students to master. There is • background notes on the text;
also, significantly, an inventory of functions and • oral reading practice exercises (early units
notions which is primarily meant to be applied to indicate intonation);
the development of oral skills. The syllabus • comprehension questions (multiple choice and
emphasizes communicative competence as well as sentence-based);
language skills. Importantly, it aims to develop • vocabulary and word-building exercises (blank-
different skills to different levels of competence. filling);
Priority is given to the development of reading • grammar exercises (e.g. cloze and sentence com-
comprehension to a 'relatively high level', including bining);
ability 'to read with ease' articles and books relevant • guided writing;
to students' own fields of specialization (College • further reading exercises (e.g. scanning).
English Syllabus 1991, p.4). Listening has a more
'intermediate' target level, while only 'basic Many students will be used to this formula from
competence' is required for writing and speaking (see their senior middle school books (e.g. Dong & Liu
Table 2 for examples of target levels). 1984) which follow a similar format (but see further
comments below).
The content of texts ranges over topics of
everyday life in the West, and accessible topics in arts
4.7. Intensive Reading and the College English and sciences. For English majors, the four-volume
textbooks series College English (Zhou & Zhang 1990), or the
The premier English course in tertiary institutions is six-volume College English (Hu et al. 1992) follow a
widely known as Intensive Reading. This course is similar format but with more vocabulary and
text-centred, but is not primarily a reading course; translation, supplementary reading, and, in Hu et al.
rather, as commonly practised, it integrates all skills more detailed phonetics and phonology, pair work
and emphasizes the meaning and use of words and and group discussion and occasional projects (e.g. to
knowledge of grammar, with some translation. Thus use simple questionnaires to ascertain peer attitudes
'intensive reading' is actually not a reading course, about the environment).
but the core foundation course in EFL in which A common teaching sequence for each unit is as
everything the teacher wants to teach (grammar, follows Pzau 1990c: 47-51; Hu, Y. 1990: 61;
vocabulary, reading aloud, etc.) is taught through a Meyer 1990: 177):
written text. As Dzau (1990c: 44) comments, 'so
important is this course that ELT in China cannot • Students prepare for a new unit by checking the
be fully understood without knowing something meanings of new words, by listening to
about the teaching materials and the teaching recordings of the text, if available, and by
methods'. practising reading the text aloud.
The Intensive Reading course has a number of • In class, the teacher will ask students to read the
goals (Wu 1990; Cortazzi &Jin in press). It enables text aloud and will check pronunciation and ask
students: general comprehension questions.
• The new words and selected grammatical points
1. to read the text aloud (or recite or paraphrase are then explained and exemplified in detail,
it) with good pronunciation; with drills and exercises involving pronun-
2. to expand their vocabulary and use new lexical ciation, translation, the use of synonyms and
items in written exercises; paraphrase.
3. to learn and practise new grammatical points • The class goes through the exercises in the
exemplified in the texts; textbook and practises further with para-
4. to speak on a range of limited subjects related phrasing, summarizing and retelling the content
to the texts; of the text.
5. to write short compositions and do translations • Some teachers will go beyond the published
based on the content and language of the exercises and will involve students in discussion,
texts. debate or role-playing, but many teachers
A six volume series of textbooks which has been believe there is no time for such activities or that
very widely used with non-English majors in recent they are difficult to organize in large classes.
yean is College English Intensive Reading (Li et al.
Both teachers and students may prepare
1991; Zhai et al. 1991). The general presentation in
extensively. The teachers go over the text and
each unit has:
grammar points, meticulously preparing expla-
• a text of one or two pages; nations in the belief that they should have
• a list of new words and phrases with English authoritative knowledge of the text, its grammar and
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 State of the art: English teaching in China
vocabulary. Students may pre-read the text carefully, students a fast reading habit step by step' (ibid.:
learning the vocabulary and memorizing the 306).
grammatical examples. Some will memorize the This style of extensive reading is developed
whole text. through the reading of brief texts (with word counts
The Intensive Reading course has been subjected to facilitate the calculation of reading speeds) or
to much comment and debate (Maley 1986; Cotton through class reading of short stories or novels. A
1990; Dzau 1990c; Everett 1990; Meyer 1990; Shen sample extensive reading course (Zhou & Chen
& Wu 1990; Yuan 1990; Yue 1990; Liu 1994; Gan 1991) has a wide range of topics. Like intensive
1994). Common points raised are that: reading texts, each text is accompanied by lists of
new words with Chinese translations and is followed
• it dominates practice and thinking about ELT; by multiple choice questions which are designed to
• it treats language in terms of knowledge of form test reading comprehension (mostly literal rather
rather than awareness of function or acquisition than implicational) and vocabulary knowledge.
of skills; There are no pre-reading tasks or other post-reading
• oral skills remain under-developed; activities, though doubtless some teachers will make
• the emphasis on teacher-centred activities puts their own.
students into a passive role of listening and
Some observers (Dzau 1990: 55-6; Kohn 1992:
memorizing;
121; Wu 1990: 294) have commented that some
• more interactive, interpretative and personal
students bring the habits learned in Intensive
aspects of language receive little attention, e.g.
Reading to Extensive Reading classes, i.e. they give
the comprehension questions in textbooks are
close attention to detail, trying to understand every
predominantly literal, with single correct
word, rather than developing other reading skills,
answers, and rarely encourage students to read
such as speed, prediction, making inferences, reading
for implications;
for appreciation and enjoyment, etc. Students may
• texts are often significantly simplified, with the have ingrained habits, learned in middle school, of
result that they become over-explicit and do not mentally translating what they read into Chinese,
call on prediction skills which limits rapid reading (Huang 1991). Timed
• there is a high proportion of literary content in reading of brief texts, encouraging skimming and
texts; many texts are irrelevant to students' scanning skills, is advocated to overcome such
future needs. habits. Many English teachers would like to devote
A number of Chinese teachers have therefore more time to extensive reading in order to widen
suggested adapting or supplementing the Intensive the range of students' reading strategies. Observers
Reading course with more communicative tasks and have also 'noticed that Chinese students' ability to
activities (e.g. Liu 1994). Others have strongly read English was remarkable, given their isolation
suggested more discourse oriented approaches from adequate sources of written English' (Kohn
(Wang & Hua 1990; Xue 1990; Wu 1992). 1992: 113).

4.3. Communicative approaches and

4.2. Extensive reading textbooks
The College English books for Intensive Reading (Li Some Chinese-produced textbooks, such as the
et al. 1991; Zhai et al. 1991) are supplemented by popular A New English Course (Li 1990), from
further widely used series: Extensive Reading, Fast Shanghai International Studies University, attempt
Reading, Focus Listening (six books each) and to integrate more communicative approaches with
Grammar (four books). Non-English majors are the more traditional Chinese methods, certain
expected, at Band 4 level, first, to read texts on elements of which 'have been useful and effective,
general topics at speeds of no less than 50 words per and so they should not be discarded altogether' (Li,
minute (wpm); secondly, for texts with new G. Y. 1990: 110). This four-level course integrates
vocabulary not exceeding 2 per cent of the total the four skills and includes dialogues focusing on
number of words, the reading speed should be language functions and interaction activities in the
around 90 wpm with 70 per cent or more accuracy form of both focused and unfocused language
in comprehension. By Band 6 level, students should use activities to 'help the students to advance
'read with ease more advanced texts on general from controlled interaction to spontaneous
topics' at 70 wpm and far less difficult texts, using communication' (ibid.: 115).
similar vocabulary criteria as above, the reading Even more explicitly communicative is the 12
speed should not be less than 120 wpm (College volume, four-level course for English majors,
English Syllabus 1991: 3-4). The two targets of Communicative English for Chinese Learners (Li 1987).
reading speeds are designed 'to emphasize the This was developed at The Guangzhou Foreign
importance of speed in reading and to develop in Language Institute between 1979 and 1986 as a
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State of the art: English teaching in China
project supported by the British Council (Allen & include: a student's book, workbook, audiotapes,
Spada 1983). This is considered 'the first textbook in wall charts and a teacher's book. The latter gives
China to be based on the communicative approach extensive guidance on how to teach each unit,
to language teaching and in China was quite sequenced in five stages of revision, presentation,
unprecedented in its content and approach to drills, practice and consolidation. These teachers'
language learning and teaching' (Dyer 1993: 24). notes could have a major function in helping teacher
The course is based on principles which would, development in China. Practice activities include
perhaps, be unsurprising elsewhere, but are relatively pair and groupwork, acting and games. The
new to many Chinese teachers. These principles students' books contain regular grammar checks and
include the following (Li 1984): appendices with pronunciation and spelling charts,
grammar summaries in English and Chinese, and
• that units are based on a series of graded tasks, words and expressions from all units with phonetic
rather than on a text; transcriptions and translations. The topics of texts
• that there are more than two kinds of reading include Chinese and Western festivals, travelling in
(intensive and extensive); China, the world's population, the pyramids,
• that students, rather than teachers, take the American and British English, good manners in
central role in learning; China and the West.
• that all four skills are constantly combined and Senior English for China (Grant & Liu 1993)
integrated in use. continues in the same format for senior middle
The books involve plenty of pair work, information school students, but has not yet replaced English
transfer, use of (semi) authentic texts from the (Dong & Liu 1984) in many schools. Topics in the
beginning, role playing, awareness raising activities new books at this level include: Disneyland, Karl
(for sociolinguistic appropriateness, e.g. in replying Marx, Bob Geldof, Chinese farming, and body
to complaints or compliments). language. In the Chinese context, these textbooks
offer considerable innovation in methodology
Yet, as Xu comments in the foreword (Li 1987:
without challenging the traditional practice too
vi),"Because the method was new in every way, it
strongly. They do, however, make increasing
met with considerable resistance from the start. It
linguistic and pedagogic demands on teachers.
not only proposed the communicative approach; it
actually viewed language itself as communication.'
The course has slowly been taken up and many
teachers are now more positively disposed towards 4.5. L is ten ing skills
its approach than when it was first compiled. It is
currently being revised, to include more explicit As mentioned, the development of listening skills in
teaching of language structure, and language English receives some emphasis in Chinese
summaries at the end of each unit (Dyer 1993). universities (College English Syllabus 1991).
Textbooks such as Step by Step (Li & Zhang et al.
1984) use authentic British and American recorded
materials to develop listening. A common teaching
pattern (Yan 1994; Courchene 1994) is that the
4.4. Recent English textbooks for schools teacher explains key vocabulary items; the tape
A new generation of ELT textbooks is now reaching recording is played, in sections or completely; the
China's schools. At pre-school level, there are books teacher asks questions orally; students complete
and tapes for parents and children (e.g. Peng & Jin multiple choice questions in workbooks; the teacher
1986; Li 1994) involving songs, games, dialogues checks students' answers, replaying the tape if
and simple routines, emphasizing speaking and necessary. Apparently, apart from vocabulary, few
listening competence. At primary level, some teachers use a framework of pre-listening, while-
schools are using Primary English for China (Lin listening and post-listening activities (Xue 1994) and
1992), a joint production between China and there is a need for teachers, or textbooks, to develop
Singapore. This four-volume course takes two years a wider variety of listening activities with a greater
for grades 5 and 6 in primary schools. It emphasizes focus on specific listening skills (Ren 1994; Yan
oral skills and the use of games and activities to 1994; Courchene 1994). An additional problem is
arouse and sustain interest. Interestingly, phonetic that the teacher's book for some courses can easily be
transcription is taught from the beginning to aid purchased by students; consequently, some students
pronunciation, which is how Chinese children start may read the answers rather than listen to them (Yan
to learn Chinese literacy, using the Chinese phonetic 1994). The range of speakers in recorded materials is
system of pinyin. much wider than a few years ago, but many students
More widely used is Junior English for China (Grant who meet native speakers still find themselves
& Liu 1992, 1993), a four-book course for junior unprepared for the variety of accents. For more
middle school students. Materials at each level advanced listening, such as listening to lectures,
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 State of the art: English teaching in China
there are also a range of cultural issues which need To some Western teachers, Chinese students'
to be tackled (Flowerdew & Miller 1995; see writing appears to be unclear, with confused logic
section 8). (Houston 1994: 100). Long-standing attempts have
been made to explain such difficulties by reference
to contrastive rhetoric, i.e. that discourse patterns are
transferred from Chinese to English. Kaplan (1962,
4.6. Grammar, writing and contrastive studies 1966) argued that East Asian writing was indirect
The teaching of grammar in China is widely seen as and, specifically, that it was influenced by the
important, as shown by the continuity of the Chinese 'eight legged' essay. This essay type was the
grammar-translation tradition in some places, and by most important part of the official examinations in
the popularity of grammar questions in teaching China for nearly 500 years, until it was abolished late
materials and examinations. Grammar teaching in the nineteenth century (Minford 1982: 389).
would appear to be teacher-dominated, with little While others have also seen signs of the continuing
opportunity for student interaction (Li 1991). influence of this essay type and its more recent
Grammar seems to be taught for its own sake, as successors (Johns 1984: 89; Cai quoted in Connor
knowledge, rather than as a means of 1996: 37-41), Mohan and Lo (1985) have disputed
communication or resource for making meaning, this, arguing that the Chinese students' difficulties
yet many students do have a good knowledge of with writing are developmental. However, others
grammar rules and are well able to produce (Lin 1986; Chou 1989; Chen 1992) have pointed
grammatically correct sentences at an advanced out problems with both Kaplan's and Mohan and
level. Some grammar books (e.g. Thomson & Lo's research: it is difficult to distinguish transfer
Martinet 1980) appear in dual language versions in errors from developmental errors, and samples of
China. writing may be unrepresentative of both students'
Huang (1992) reports detailed observations of writing and of wider traditions of literacy. Taylor
nine teachers teaching grammar: more than 85 per and Chen (1991) attempted to tackle some of these
cent of class time was taken up by teacher talk; complex issues in comparing scientific article
students' talk was only to answer questions. Whole introductions by Anglo-Americans writing in
class organization was only broken up by individual English with Chinese writing in Chinese and
work on grammar exercises. English was the English. They found a common underlying
medium of instruction, except when difficult rhetorical structure across all groups, yet there was
grammar rules were presented or contrastive significant variation: the Chinese writers tended to
examples were given in Chinese. avoid elaboration, cited fewer references and were
Many Chinese teachers and students believe less likely to use unconventional moves (of the kind
contrastive studies are helpful in understanding analysed by Swales 1990).
spoken and written errors. Many handbooks list and Other specific difficulties which Chinese students
explain common errors of Chinese students, usually have with writing in English are attributable to
in terms of LI transfer ( e.g. Bunton 1989; Boyle & combinations of language and cultural transfer and to
Boyle 1991; St Andre et al. 1993) and further the teaching of English. An example is the widely
accessible guidance can be found in Chang (1987), reported Chinese over-use or mis-use of
Tsao (1983) and the NFER guide for teaching conjunction in English (Hu et al. 1982; Tsao 1983;
Cantonese speaking learners (NFER 1981). Johns 1984; Scollon 1993; Tang & Ng 1995). This
Writing is given a relatively low priority for the problem seems to stem from the transfer of Chinese
College English bands (College English Syllabus patterns of conjunction, but students are also taught
1991) and at lower levels it tends to be confined to to use many conjunctions in English and this may
sentence production for grammar practice (see Table lead to over use. Additionally, if Chinese writers
2 above). However, many English teachers are con- defer making a main point until after the
cerned about their students problems with written background has been established, this may result in
English. They see difficulties with the limited time the use of a Chinese 'because ... so ...' or 'although ...
available for writing practice and with the common buf construction in English which can be confusing
separation of writing from reading. Some teachers (Young 1994; Scollon & Scollon 1995).
report successful activities: using students' reading as Other researchers (e.g. Arndt 1987) have noted
a source for writing development; using journal that there can be considerable variation in the
exchanges; timing writing activities; developing composing processes of individual Chinese students
peer assessment, group discussion and redrafting and that a common problem is limited awareness of
techniques (Wang & Hua; Yuan 1990; Wang 1994; the writing task.
Houston 1994). However, many teachers are un- More generally, a number of researchers
aware of such process-oriented approaches to teach- (Matalene 1985; Alptekin 1988; Hinds 1990; Young
ing writing, using pre-writing and planning activities 1994; Scollon & Scollon 1995) have noted a
or draft-redraft strategies to improve students' writing. Chinese preference for inductive modes of
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State of the art: English teaching in China
expression in which there is a delayed introduction intellectuals', 'engineers of the human soul', 'master
of the main point, which could confuse readers sculptors of the new people of the future' and
expecting a more deductive approach. This is not 'people's heroes', while teacher education is the
simply a transfer of rhetorical patterns, but is equally
'mother tool' which forms the crucial pieces in the
the influence of Chinese socio-cultural perspectives building of society (Paine 1995). Since then, there
on writing. Similarly, Chinese students seem to has been a National Teachers' Day in China,
avoid free expression of personal views, but prefer celebrated annually on 10 September.
quotation and paraphrase of others' words or the use In recent yean, however, there have been severe
of set phrases (Tsao 1983: 109; Matalene 1985: 792; shortages of qualified teachers in all subjects,
Cai quoted in Connor 1996: 39). This may stem especially English. This is because of relatively low
from literary traditions and from respect for salaries (despite recent increases) and difficult
authorities but can be interpreted as showing a lack working conditions; and because many English
of individuality and creativity or can lead to dangers teachers are tempted away from classrooms by much
of plagiarism. more lucrative employment in joint ventures and
foreign companies where their language skills are
highly valued.
4.7. Vocabulary There are various levels of teacher training, in
Many Chinese teachers of English and most students secondary normal schools, normal colleges, teacher's
stress the importance of learning vocabulary. There colleges and normal universities (see Figure 1). In
are far more books in many Chinese bookstores on training to teach English, Chinese teachers study
learning English vocabulary than on current English language and literature and an education curriculum.
Teaching practice takes up comparatively little time,
teaching approaches and methods. Indeed,
a month or so in the third or fourth years, and
memorizing English words seems to be the major
involves a collective approach in which students
activity among students of English (Zhou 1990; Yue
work in teams, jointly preparing, rehearsing,
1991; Li & Li 1991; Thome & Thome 1992). Wang
observing and analysing lessons, together with
(1986) and Chang (1990) provide learner's accounts
experienced teachers (Paine 1990).
of extensive memorization from dictionaries,
In-service courses for English teachers are
vocabulary review cards and bilingual word lists in
increasingly available in universities and colleges as
notebooks. This is reinforced by the common
the need for systematic training in current
practice in Chinese textbooks of giving the
methodologies is widely recognized. Much teacher
meanings of all new words and expressions in a
development takes place at school level, for example
reading text, usually with English synonyms and by giving teachers allocated hours to observe 'master
Chinese translations; additionally, teachers usually teachers' and discuss methodology and classroom
explain the new words before students read the text. organization after a demonstration lesson. Many
However, Communicative English for Chinese Learners teachers prepare lessons in teams, sharing ideas and
(Li 1987) deliberately does not do this, so that taking responsibility for different aspects (Ross
students will make their own lists and thereby devise 1993).
their own strategies for making inventories of
vocabulary as part of learning how to learn (Li 1990: A number of international links have assisted the
57). development of English teaching in China, in which
British, American, Canadian, Australian or New
In a recent study of Chinese students' perceptions
Zealand universities have sent specialists to train
of their methods of learning vocabulary, Cortazzi &
Chinese teachers of English, usually on in-service
Jin (1996) showed there were dramatic shifts in ways (INSET) courses, or the Chinese universities recruit
of learning between school and university: in the Western teachers directly. In fact, most of the
middle school, students relied mostly on textbooks, foreign teachers of English in China are employed
listening and speaking to teachers, notetaking, use of on INSET programmes 'irrespective of their
vocabulary cards and notebooks and translation, professional competence' (Maley 1995: 28).
while at university a much wider range of methods
A major socio-cultural gap which has been widely
was employed.
observed to affect such INSET programmes is that
'teacher training' as a term, can evoke greatly
differing expectations. For many Chinese teachers it
is taken to mean English language improvement,
5. Teacher training while for Westerners the clear emphasis is on the
Traditionally, Chinese society has given great development of ELT methodologies (Cowan et al.
importance to the role and status of teachers. This is 1979; Oatey 1984, 1990; Maley 1986; Ward et al.
underlined in contemporary China by official 1995). A solution is to acknowledge Chinese
images used to describe teachers, positively, over the expectations in more flexible approaches which will
last seventeen years: teachers are 'working class combine the two aims (White 1989; Oatey 1990).
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 State of the art: English teaching in China
Similarly, account needs to be taken of Chinese unable to do so because of situational constraints
expectations that the teacher will be a model, as will (Ward et al. 1995: 130).
the text (Sampson 1984), or that the teacher is
'dominant' and students are 'passive' (Light & Works
1984; Oatey 1984). There is increasing emphasis, on
6. Western English teachers in China
the part of Chinese teachers, of the need for active
learning strategies, more varied ELT materials and Over the past seventeen years, the State Education
current methodologies (British Council 1995). Commission of China has employed thousands of
Again, terms like 'active' or 'passive' can be Western English teachers mainly teaching in
differently interpreted: for most foreign teachers in Chinese universities. This has been funded by the
China 'activity' means verbal participation, while for Chinese government; or jointly funded with
many Chinese students or teachers it means Western organizations, e.g. the Overseas
cognitive involvement, lesson preparation, reflection Development Administration (UK), the British
and review, thinking, memorization and self-study Council, missionary groups; or by university
(Cortazzi & Jin in press). exchange programmes, e.g. the Fulbright
The most sustained and far-reaching teacher Scholarships; or by the World Bank educational
training projects involving international cooperation projects and the twinning of Western and Chinese
have been the Sino-British projects supported by universities (Brinton et al. 1989; Courchene 1994).
the ODA/British Council. Since the 1970s these The majority of the Western ELT teachers in China
projects have had the general aim of assisting China are native English speakers from the USA, the UK,
in introducing and establishing more effective Canada, Australia and New Zealand. There are
communicative teaching methodologies (Wickham some non-native English ELT teachers from
1995). In 1993-1994 there were 30 projects in 24 Belgium, Holland and Scandinavia, teaching in
institutions in 16 cities. Each project typically lasts Chinese universities and company training institutes.
3-5 years and many involve training Chinese Western teachers in Chinese institutions are
counterparts to take over the running of the project generally appointed at two levels: 'foreign expert'
in later stages. Two types of project, in particular, and 'foreign teacher'. This status difference is
have had a -wide impact: Advanced Teacher Training determined by their qualifications and experience
courses (ATTC) which are one year full-time (e.g. 'foreign experts' have a higher degree); and is
courses for tertiary teachers, and Senior Middle reflected in the higher responsibility in their post,
Schools Teacher Training courses (SMSTT), which the types of the classes they are asked to teach, their
give teachers from these schools in remote areas the salary and sometimes their living conditions. They
opportunity to earn a BA in TEFL in a two year may be involved in teacher training to university and
course. Together, these courses have produced about middle school English teachers; and/or in direct
400 graduates annually since the mid and late 1980s teaching to undergraduate and postgraduate English
respectively (Wickham 1995). They concentrate on majors and general English courses at university; or
both language improvement and methodology. in teaching ESP to Chinese technicians who work
A Chinese comment is that former ATTC alongside Western experts.
teachers are 'doing a lot of constructive work in Western ELT teachers are highly appreciated by
ELT, especially in teachers' colleges and as teacher Chinese university teachers and students. The chief
trainers themselves' (Dzau 1990b: 36). benefit they receive from Western teachers is that
As Maley (1995: 24) observes, it is often difficult Chinese teachers and students have opportunities to
for teachers who complete such courses to put new talk to native English speakers; they learn teaching
skills into practice when they return to their and learning from current developments of Western
teaching situation. A research project recently ELT methodology (Oatey 1990); they gain self-
investigated the extent that ATTC and SMSTT confidence and sociolinguistic competence from
courses might have altered the teachers professional Western teachers (Brinton et al. 1989; Li, X. 1990;
practice (Ward et al. 1995). Using questionnaires, Oatey 1990); they also broaden their views of ELT
interviews, visits, observations and video recordings, and are introduced to new ways of thinking
the project compared SMSTT graduates with their (Brinton et al. 1989) and are stimulated to develop
colleagues who had not taken the course. Results their thinking (Cortazzi & Jin 1996). Western
showed that SMSTT graduates using the standard teachers are seen as good models for pronunciation,
textbooks tended to spend less time explaining they encourage learners' oral language and self-
points of grammar and vocabulary. They spent more expression and they are seen as having authority and
time on student interaction through pair and group even superiority in teaching 'true' English (Cortazzi
work. However, they made little use of role play, &Jin in press). Western teaching, which tends to use
information gap activities or games. Most of the more communicative approaches, especially benefits
teachers said they would like to change their those who will go to English-speaking countries to
teaching methods more than they have done but felt live and study (Burnaby & Sun 1989).
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State of the art: English teaching in China
At the same time, Western teachers are aware of • the higher oral competence needed for
the success of Chinese ELT methodology, especially teachers to use communicative approaches in
in the aspect of the English reading competence of teaching and for students to participate;
Chinese students (Scovel 1983; Kohn 1992). • class sizes (often with 50 and sometimes 70 or
Burnaby & Sun (1989) state that Chinese students more students) and tight teaching schedules
have learned analytical skills, knowledge of English and tasks;
grammar through Chinese ELT methods, and • resources, e.g. the lack of authentic teaching
'English-major graduates of the Chinese system materials, and equipment such as photocopiers,
experience little difficulty in adding to their overhead projectors and computer facilities;
necessary sociolinguistic and cultural knowledge if • Chinese teachers and students have difficulties
they go to an English-speaking country' (ibid.: 227). in knowing appropriate cultural contexts;
There seems to be a clear contrast between • students have difficulties answering
Chinese and Western ELT approaches: the former spontaneous questions on language,
tends to emphasize English language knowledge, sociolinguistic or cultural differences (but can
content, teacher-centred classroom and exam results answer prepared questions fluently);
(Scovel 1983; Lo 1984; Burnaby & Sun 1989; • students cannot rely on their intuition in the
Cortazzi & Jin 1996), while the latter favours the construction of language exercises.
skills and realistic use of language, student-centred
classrooms and the process of learning (Burnaby & Chinese ELT teachers, when facing the import of
Sun 1989; Li, X. 1990; Cortazzi &Jin 1996). Many current Western ELT approaches, have complained
Western teachers have criticized Chinese efforts at that there are too many new and different methods
memorization, dismissing them as 'mechanical', 'rote for teaching English and no criteria for choosing
learning', or 'uncreative' (Cowan et al. 1979: 471; among them (Sampson 1984).
Scovel 1983: 105; Crook 1990: 31). Others have Regarding teaching difficulties Western teachers
seen this more constructively as an important have in China, Oatey (1990) pointed out that:
element in Chinese approaches to language learning Western teachers were given little advance briefing
which needs to be acknowledged or treated on either the courses or the trainees and students; if
positively (Sampson 1984: 27; Harvey 1985: 184; they received guidance, the information was often
Huang & van Naerssen 1987; Burnaby & Sun 1989: inaccurate or misleading; and consequently problems
222; Sunderland 1990: 226). Scovel (1983) arose later in course design and teaching. Other
identified three 'unresolvable problems' for
Western teachers who worked in China commented
implementing Western communicative ELT
that there was sometimes a breakdown in
approaches in the Chinese context:
information and message channelling. This seemed
to be due to the style of communication patterns in
• the Chinese testing system versus Western China, that decision makers or administrators
methodology, approaches, teaching materials, involved seem to pay little attention to detailed
curriculum, teacher-training; matters. The Chinese side might believe that such
• inappropriate expectations between Chinese details would be worked out if the direction and
and Westerners about ELT and about their aim were clear, especially when they were not
mutual roles; sure what Westerners could offer. Chinese teachers
• further misunderstanding which occurs because might also be in the same situation when a new
of the mutual unrealistic expectations. project was started and no one knew what was
These 'unresolvable problems' may become expected.
resolved in the development and reform of ELT in A recent study (Cortazzi & Jin in press) offers the
China and increasing understanding between China views given by Chinese students about Western ELT
and the West. teaching. They appreciate the input of Western
teachers who bring a useful cognitive dimension to
Burnaby & Sun (1989) also debate the reasons for
the language classroom. Students are aware of the
not implementing Western ELT methods in Chinese
different styles and influences in thinking and
contexts:
teaching from their Western teachers. They enjoy
• the wider curriculum set by the government to the oral and listening classes Western teachers
pass the national exams, which are seen as a conduct. But they believe that Chinese teachers are
major constraint on innovations; more effective at teaching vocabulary and grammar.
• the impact of traditional teaching methods, e.g. Chinese ELT teachers tend to emphasize accuracy of
those which are knowledge based, therefore expression and to use difficult vocabulary. Western
Western ways of teaching are seen as 'games', teachers seem patronizing to the students, for they
not as serious learning; oversimplify vocabulary and underestimate students'
• the low status of teachers who teach ability and they are not able to explain grammatical
communicative rather than analytic skills; rules and correct students errors. It seems that
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 State of the art: English teaching in China
Chinese students interviewed for this research argue discourse pattern of academic writing in the UK).
for a compromise arrangement for ELT teaching: They learn through struggle to adopt a
Chinese ELT teachers are used to teaching Intensive hypothetical, critical and evaluative style of writing
Reading which stresses accuracy, knowledge of which is considered academically acceptable in the
grammar and vocabulary; Western teachers give oral UK.
classes to improve fluency, use of language and Some academic issues are second language as well
sociolinguistic competence. as academic cultural matters including study skills
and academic cultural expectations and orientations.
There are different academic cultural expectations
between Chinese students and UK
teachers/supervisors on their roles, academic
7. Chinese students in the West discourses, communication skills, study skills. Many
There have been increasing numbers of Chinese of these issues are related to differing underlying
students and visiting scholars coming to the West to conceptions of social relations in education
study since 1978. The Chinese government has (Spencer-Oatey 1993). British universities have
established pre-departure language training centres begun to raise these issues in pre-sessional courses for
with the help of target countries for those who are the overseas students and in staff development
sponsored by the government sources, i.e. the State programmes. But more awareness raising activities
Education Commission and other ministries, or joint and research studies into such issues need be carried
scholarships between China and the West. The out to help Chinese students and other overseas
candidates who apply to do a degree (in most cases, students to maximize their potential when studying
a higher degree) have to pass the initial foreign in the West. Not surprisingly, many of these points
language assessment before they enter such centres (and those related to cultures of learning, see below)
and study to reach the necessary level of a language apply to Chinese children and younger students who
test (e.g. TOEFL, IELTS) requested by the target come to schools in the West, although they are
university. Chinese visiting scholars may have rarely given detailed consideration in the literature
opportunities to study pre-departure courses. Their (Taylor 1987; Wong 1988; Scarcella 1990; Wong
foreign language proficiency assessment is required 1992).
by their sponsors and they may be requested to take
the English Proficiency Test (EPT) designed in
China for their selection.
The British Council has helped the State 8. Socio-cultural issues and cultures of
Education Commission of China to establish a learning
number of English Language Training Centres in
Beijing, Shanghai, Xian, Chengdu, where British At several points we have commented on socio-
and Chinese teachers of English train Chinese cultural issues which affect ELT in China. Some of
students to achieve the requested scores for IELTS these will tend to be resolved as Chinese teachers
and prepare for their study in the UK. and learners become more familiar with the English-
Most Chinese students studying in the West are speaking world and as foreign teachers in China
considered, academically, hard working, extremely become more sensitive to local cultures. Many
intelligent with a solid foundation of knowledge, Chinese teachers now recognize the need to include
co-operating with supervisors and colleagues and social and cultural information in English classes in
studying with high motivation and determination order to strengthen learners' communicative
(Jin 1992; Jin & Cortazzi 1993; Zhang 1995). competence (Zheng 1990; Hu, W. 1990). Accessible
However, despite the high test scores, some of them information for Western teachers can be found in
still face initial language problems in listening, Hartzell (1988), Hu & Grove (1991), Sinclair &
speaking and writing; and more seriously, many of Wong (1991) and Brick (1991). Cultural
them have academic language and culture barriers information written for business people can also be
during their stay in the West (Jin 1992; Jin & useful for English teachers, most obviously for the
Cortazzi 1993; Cortazzi &Jin 1994b; Jin & Cortazzi increasingly popular business English courses
1995). (Seligman 1989; Schneiter 1992).
Their main language problems lie in the aspects of Research-based accounts of intercultural (Sino-
English pronunciation, listening comprehension, American) communication which are helpful for
oral interaction with native English speakers and both Chinese and Western teachers of English
different styles of writing. Related to their academic include Shih (1986), Young (1994) and Scollon &
studies, they may find it difficult to follow lectures Scollon (1995). These delineate discourse systems
or instructions, to take notes, or ask questions in and key features of intercultural pragmatics and
class, to interact with supervisors, to write essays or politeness. They demonstrate the influence of long-
theses 'academically' (i.e. using an accepted style or standing Confucian and Taoist traditions on
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State of the art: English teaching in China
contemporary patterns of Chinese communication, Table 3. Different emphases in cultures of
which in turn can affect the use of English language learning: China & UK
skills (Oliver 1971; Yum 1988; Jin & Cortazzi 1993,
1995; Hinkel 1994, 1995; Scollon & Scollon 1994; CHINA UK
Flowerdew & Miller 1995). Knowledge Skills
Key concepts of critical importance are the from teachers & textbooks in communicating & learning
variations that can arise from the situated use of
'face' (Bond 1991; Ting-Toomey 1994), Collective consciousness Individual orientation
'individualism and collectivism' (Triandis 1995), co-ordination, group support, personal needs, attention,
social & moral learning talent, uniqueness
'inductive and deductive' discourse patterns (Young
1994; Scollon & Scollon 1995) and 'ideologies of Teaching & learning as Teaching & learning as
discourse' and 'self-identity' (Scollon 1994, 1995; performance organization
Scollon & Scollon 1995). pace, variety, presentation, pairs, groups, activities, tasks
Both Western and Chinese English language virtuosity
researchers, teachers and learners have become Learning through practice & Learning through interaction
aware of the differences in styles, beliefs, approaches, memorization towards & construction
methods, emphases, orientations and expectations in mastery experience, activities, tasks,
the classroom itself, regarding English language preparation, repetition, initial creativity
confidence building
teaching and learning among Western teachers and
Chinese learners (e.g. Scovel 1983; Wu 1983a; Contextualized Verbal explicitness
Sampson 1984; Burnaby & Sun 1989; Kohn 1992; communication speaker/writer responsibility
Jin 1992; Jin & Cortazzi 1993; Campbell & Zhao listener/reader responsibility for communication
1994; Cortazzi &Jin 1994a, b; Pennycook 1994; Jin
Hierarchical relations Horizontal relations
& Cortazzi 1995; Cortazzi & Jin in press). Western agreement, harmony, face, discussion, argument,
teachers who have worked in Chinese educational respect informality
systems have started to question whether current
Western approaches are the most appropriate and Teacher as model Teacher as organizer
effective ones for Chinese learners since they can see expert, authority, parent, mentor, guide, helper, learner-
that Chinese approaches including grammar- friend, teacher-centred centred
translation and audio-lingual methods and the
Intensive Reading Course, have produced successful Cortazzi & Jin (1994a, b, 1996, in press) also point
English language learners and users despite their out that different cultures of learning exist in
obvious weaknesses and inadequate learning Western and Chinese educational contexts which
conditions. Chinese teachers have also raised their teachers need to be fully aware of and take into
awareness and views of ELT; some have concluded consideration while teaching English in China.
that an eclectic approach may suit present Chinese These cultures of learning include academic and
ELT situations, in which current Chinese professional expectations, perceptions, attitudes,
approaches are a base and current Western beliefs and values about what good learning is, what
approaches are used to complement the constitutes a good teacher and a good student;
shortcomings of the base. learning and teaching styles, approaches and
These views arise from the situation that one methods; classroom organization, management,
useful method or approach may not work effectively activities and behaviour. Table 3 summarizes a
in another educational and cultural context. Jin (Jin number of features of cultures of learning which can
1992; Jin & Cortazzi 1993, 1995) proposes a be contrasted between the UK and China.
Cultural Synergy model based on her research on Within each academic culture, these features are
Chinese students using English as a second language taken for granted and rarely discussed explicitly.
in UK academic settings. This model emphasizes the Raising the awareness of such possible differences
mutual awareness, understanding and acculturation may bridge the gaps and misunderstandings. English
of both British and Chinese academic cultures which language teaching and learning would benefit from
include academic orientations, expectations, roles, this explicitness when expectations, purposes,
attitudes, beliefs, discourse patterns, language, study methods, goals and assessments are clear to both
and research skills. The collaboration between both teachers (Chinese or foreign teachers of English) and
sides will bring an additional benefit which is greater learners.
than the single benefit to each side. A cultural
synergy encourages conscious awareness of
differences in learning and teaching through explicit
discussions so that both participants are clear about 9. Further developments
their expectations of each other. Therefore neither There are a number of current developments which
side loses and both sides gain. should be mentioned, including the British Overseas
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 State of the art: English teaching in China
Development Administration and British Council key universities and in the universities in Hong
projects (Wickham 1995; Maley 1995): Kong, which have substantially developed their
Examinations. These are very important in the research base in recent years. Each of the further
Chinese context, as shown by the high demand for developments listed above should be based on
English exams in the Chinese educational system systematic and continuing research, monitoring and
(e.g. the Secondary Vocational Entrance Exam; the evaluation. Current research methods training
National University Entrance Exam; College should be given to university teachers in order to
English Bands 4—6, Exams for university graduates) further their professional development and improve
and for TOEFL, IELTS, BEC (the Business English their teaching, developing the notion of teachers as
Certificate from Cambridge, specially adapted for researchers. Such courses should be available to all
China) and other exams. Reform of the College undergraduate and postgraduate students since all of
English tests are periodically discussed and a project them produce a thesis.
based in Shanghai is currently validating the College
English Bands.
Syllabus and materials production. This is much
discussed in China. Current projects related to this
area are based in Beijing, Guangzhou, Tianjin, 10. Conclusions
Shanghai, and elsewhere. As we have shown, ELT in China is highly
Distance learning. This is already well developed insignificant because of the scale of the enterprise, the
China through TV, radio and correspondence importance of the country, and the perceived role of
courses. It is reaching large numbers of teachers and English in modernization. There is much to admire
learners of English in both formal and informal in the dedication and hard work shown by English
education. Further developments are taking place in teachers and learners and in the success which many
Beijing and Nanjing, among other places. A new achieve, often in difficult circumstances. There is
British programme, Look Ahead, is being broadcast now widespread awareness of more communicative
by the Central Radio and Television University to approaches, though some caution in their
large audiences (1995) and the BBC has plans to application due to situational constraints and the
launch a beginners' radio course, The Way In. perception that some eclectic compromise with
Business English and ESP. This is an area of huge Chinese approaches to language learning is
interest, shown in the take-up of the BEC. Projects appropriate. If such a compromise is to be taken
developing ESP are based in Hangzhou and seriously then it requires greater awareness by all
Qingdao, while other projects for training participants of both Chinese- and English-speaking
professional personnel in such areas as maritime cultures of learning languages. This may well be the
studies, banking and engineering are based in fulcrum on which a suitable balance can be found.
Chongqing and Shanghai.
Translation. This has an important role in China's
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