SEMANTICS QUESTION BANK FOR MIDTERM TEST

I- TRUE/FALSE Questions:
1. Semantic elements are not based on spatial or topological objects.
T
2. There is difference between the real world and the conceptualized
world, or in other words there is no one-to-one correspondence
between these two worlds. T
3. All cognitive linguists identify meaning with conceptualization. F
4. The meaning of words is not a combination of the lexical
meaning and the grammatical meaning. F
5. Lexical meaning is studied by lexical semantics. T
6. Grammatical meaning is the concern of grammatical semantics. T
7. An utterance is not an act of speech or writing at a particular time
and in a particular place. F
8. Sense of a word is its meaning in terms of the rest of the
language. T
9. The reference of a word is of the entity or experience in the non-
linguistic world to which it relates in a particular utterance. T
10. Words have both denotations and connotations. F
11. The lines connecting language, mind and world represent
relations which in one way or another constitute the
meaningfulness of language. T
12. The mind-world relation studies such things as perception,
action, the mind’s bodily constitution and intentionality. T
13. The language-world relation maintains that language is the
medium by which we describe and explain reality. T
14. A feature that differentiates nouns is the semantic feature
(-/+count). T
15. Conceptual meaning refers to the logical sense of the utterance
and is recognizable as a basic component of grammatical
competence. F
16. Denotative meaning varies according to culture, historical
period, and the experience of the individual. F
17. The difference between directional antonyms is not based on an
opposition between motion toward or away from a place. F
18. Full words do not have lexical meaning. F
19. Empty words express a notion or concept. F
20. The word is signifier which stands for an object. T
21. The mind-language connection basically says that using and
understanding language is a mental activity, and this activity is
what meaningful language exists for. T
22. Formal semantics is called formal since it attempts to adapt
analytical techniques from formal logic to the study of meaning. T
23. Cognitive semantics, said to be rooted in cognitive linguistics
(starting in the 1970s), is now gaining ground and has become a
major area of interest with many adherents. T
24. Meaning is conceptualisation in a cognitive model. T
25. Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires
on account the meaning of words which tend to occur in its
environment. T
26. Categorical meaning is one part of grammatical meaning which
words derive from being a member of one category rather than
another. T
27. Words have same connotation and different denotation. F
28. Something is easy to name but there are imaginary and abstract
things such as love, hate, etc are not easy to name. T
29. Denotation is not the ability of a word to identify all those things
or objects that are correctly covered by it. F
30. Denotation of a word or expression is the invariant and
utterance-independent. T
31. There are two main approaches in semantics study. F
32. Lexical semantics is a field which deals mainly with word
meaning and relations between them. T
33. Formal semantics is called formal since it attempts to adapt
analytical techniques form formal logic to the study of meaning. T
34. Meaning is the convergence of three points: language, mind and
world. T
35. The key to meaning is the notion of truth-condition. F
36. Names of parts of human body may be used as symbols. T
37. The materials are not used for the things made of the materials.
F
38. Hyperbole expresses something in the affirmative by the
negative of its contrary. F
39. Litotes is an exaggerated statement not meant to be understood
literally. F
40. Irony expresses meaning by words of the opposite sense. T
41.. Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning captured
in a semantic theory. F
42. Pragmatics is to study speaker and hearer’s meaning or meaning
encoded and decoded by participants in a speech event. T
43. Syntax studies the structure of ill-formed phrases and sentences.
F
44. There are three types of meaning: referential, social and
affective meaning. F
45. An utterance does not contain the meaning of the sentence, the
meaning of circumstances or context. F
46. Discourse analysis is concerned with many aspects of linguistic
performance as well as linguistic competence. T
47. Discourse does not involve questions of style, appropriateness,
cohesiveness, rhetorical force, topic structure, difference between
written and spoken discourse and so on. F
48. Words are regarded as the smallest indivisible meaningful units
of a language which can operate independently. T
49. Words and word forms are not distinguished from each other. T
50. Stylistic synonyms differ in terms of their denotation. F
51. Affective meaning studies word choice conveys feelings and
attitudes.
52. The referential meaning studies the meaning of an expression is
what refers to, denotes, or stands for. T
53. The ideational theory studies the meaning of an expression is
determined by, if not identical with, its use in the language. F
54. The behaviourist theory studies the meaning of an expression is
the idea, or concept, associated with it in the mind of anyone who
knows and understands the expression. F
55. The verficationist theory studies the meaning of expression is, if
it has one, determined by the verifiability of the sentences, or
propositions, containing it. T
56. Lexical semantics is the study of systematic meaning related
connections among lexemes, and the internal meaning related
structure of individual lexemes. F
57. Dances, dancing and danced have the same grammatical
meaning and different lexical meaning. F
58. Form of one and the same word have the different lexical
meaning. F
59. Different words have different lexical meaning. T
60. Different form of the word will share the different lexical
meaning, but same grammatical meanings. F
61. Different words may share the same grammatical meaning but
different lexical meaning. T
62. Homonymy is the relation between two or more expressions
which have the same meaning but different forms. F
63. The term ‘homonymy’ is applied when one lexeme has two or
more unrelated meanings. T
64. Homonymy may be classified into full homonymy, homophones
and homographs. T
65. Homographs are identical in pronunciation only. F
66. Denotation represents the various social overtones, cultural
implications, or emotional meanings associated with a sign. F
67. New meaning of the words appears some old meanings drop out
of the language or coexist of the new one. T
68. Words change when either the denotation and connotation
experiences some sort of change. F
69. The meaning of a word or expression may change over time in
one respect: denotation. F
70. Denotation can develop in two ways: extended or narrowed. T
71. Homophones are identical in spelling only. F
72. Synonyms share a similar dennotational or connotational
meaning. T
73. There are about 7000 synonymic groups in English. F
74. Synonyms are classified into 6 kinds. F
75. Stylistic synonyms differ in terms of their denotation. F
76. Metaphor is the transference of meaning from one object to
another based on similarity between two objects. T
77. The transference may be not based on similarity of shape,
position, movement, function, colour and size. F
78. Metonymy can be defined as substitution of one word for
another with which it is associated. T
79. We cannot use the name of container instead of the thing
contained. F
80. Euphemisms use a milder expression for something unpleasant.
T
81. Phraseological synonyms differ in their collocations. T
82. Territorial synonyms are employed different regions like Britain,
Australia or the United States. T
83. Many English words were borrowed from Greek, Latin and
French. T
84. Lexical variants for one are just examples of free variation
language, in so far as they are not conditioned by the contextual
environment but are optional with speakers. T
85. Words are opposites in meanings are called antonyms.T
86. The reference of a word is of the entity or experience in the non-
linguistic world to which it relates in a particular utterance. T
87. Words have both denotations and connotations. F
88. Denotation represents the various social overtones, cultural
implications, or emotional meanings associated with a sign. F
89. New meaning of the words appears some old meanings drop out
of the language or coexist of the new one. T
90. Words change when either the denotation and connotation
experiences some sort of change. F
91. Cognitive semantics, said to be rooted in cognitive linguistics
(starting in the 1970s), is now gaining ground and has become a
major area of interest with many adherents. T
92. Meaning is conceptualisation in a cognitive model. T
93. Semantic elements are not based on spatial or topological
objects. F
94. The common characteristic of antonyms is one is marked and
the other unmarked. T
95. There are four kinds of antonyms. T
96. Complementary antonym involves two items and presuppose
that the assertion of one is the negation of the other. T
97. Metonymy can be defined as substitution of one word for
another with which it is associated. T
98. We cannot use the name of container instead of the thing
contained. F
99. Names of parts of human body may be used as symbols. T
100. The materials are not used for the things made of the materials.
F
II- Ctitical writing:
1. Discuss the distinction between polysemy and homonymy. Give
examples
 Polysemy:
 Polysemy occurs when a single word has multiple related
meanings. In polysemy, the different meanings of the word are
connected by extension or nuance. This is often due to the word's
core meaning being adapted or expanded over time to fit various
contexts, but the meanings still share a conceptual relationship.
 Example: The word "bank":
o "Bank" can mean a financial institution (e.g., "I deposited money
in the bank").
o It can also refer to the side of a river (e.g., "We walked along the
riverbank").
o The meanings here are related, as both can be associated with
holding or storing something (money or water).
 Homonymy:
 Homonymy occurs when two words share the same spelling or
pronunciation but have entirely unrelated meanings. The meanings
are distinct and there is no conceptual link between them.
Homonyms can be further classified into homophones (same
sound but different meaning) and homographs (same spelling but
different meaning).
 Example: The word "bat":
o "Bat" can refer to a flying mammal (e.g., "A bat flew out of the
cave").
o It can also refer to a piece of sports equipment (e.g., "He hit the
ball with a bat").
o In this case, the two meanings are unrelated, making "bat" a
homonym.
2. Distinguish between form and expression
 Form:
 In linguistics, form refers to the physical or structural aspect of
language. It includes the sounds, symbols (written letters), or
phonological patterns that make up words and sentences. Form is
concerned with the shape of the linguistic unit, not its meaning.
 Example: The word "cat" is composed of the phonological
form /kæt/ in speech and the written form "c-a-t" in writing. The
focus is on how the word is structured or represented.
 Expression:
 Expression refers to the way a linguistic form is used to convey
meaning, intent, or emotion. It is more concerned with the
communicative function of language—how words, phrases, or
sentences are used in context to express ideas or emotions.
Expression ties form to meaning, highlighting how language is
used to communicate thoughts.
 Example: The word "cat" can be used to express different
meanings or feelings depending on the context, such as affection
("Look at the cute cat!") or urgency ("The cat’s on the table!").
3. Discuss the distinction between lexical meaning and grammatical
meaning.
 Lexical Meaning:
 Lexical meaning refers to the specific, concrete meaning of a
word as it relates to real-world objects, concepts, or actions. It is
the meaning found in the dictionary, often associated with content
words like nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
 Lexical meaning carries the core semantic content that helps
distinguish one word from another. It reflects what the word refers
to or describes.
 Example: In the sentence, "The cat sleeps," the word "cat" has
lexical meaning as it refers to a particular animal. The word
"sleeps" has lexical meaning as it refers to the action of resting.
 Grammatical Meaning:
 Grammatical meaning refers to the abstract meaning that words
or morphemes convey based on their function in a sentence or
their relationship to other words. It typically applies to function
words (e.g., prepositions, conjunctions, articles) and grammatical
markers like tense, number, and case.
 Grammatical meaning helps structure sentences and organize
relationships between words, contributing to the overall syntactic
and functional coherence of language.
 Example: In the sentence, "The cat sleeps," the suffix "-s" on
"sleeps" shows grammatical meaning by indicating present tense,
third-person singular. The article "the" also has grammatical
meaning, marking the noun "cat" as definite (referring to a specific
cat).
Grammatical meaning is more abstract than lexical meaning. While
lexical meaning refers to the direct, specific meaning of a word,
grammatical meaning relates to the word’s role in a sentence and
is shared by a whole class of words with similar morphological
and syntactic properties. Grammatical meanings change depending
on the word’s form (e.g., tense, number, case), while the lexical
meaning remains constant. Unlike lexical meaning, grammatical
meaning isn't directly expressed by the word itself but is indicated
through grammatical features like affixes. Grammatical meaning
 often includes derivational meaning in the case of derived words,
as word formation is part of grammar.
4. Discuss the nature of semantic change.
6.3 Nature of Semantic Change
Semantic change refers to the evolution of word meanings over
time, which can occur in various ways. These changes can affect
either the denotation (the literal meaning) or the connotation (the
associated or secondary meaning) of a word or expression. The
nature of semantic change can be categorized into two primary
dimensions: changes in denotation and changes in connotation.
Changes in Denotation
1. Extension (Widening, Generalization):
o In this process, the meaning of a word broadens to encompass a
wider range of referents or contexts. For example:
 The Old English word ready initially meant "prepared for a ride,"
but it has since evolved to mean "prepared for anything."
 The word pipe originally referred to a specific musical instrument,
but now it also denotes "any long hollow tube."
o If a word transitions from a specialized vocabulary into common
usage, this is known as the generalization of meaning. For
instance:
 The term camp, which originally referred to a military
encampment, now generally means "temporary quarters."
 The word case has evolved to have a broad application, now
referring to "circumstances in which a person or thing is,"
compared to its earlier meanings in specialized contexts like law
or medicine.
o Slang and jargon words can also undergo this process:
 The slang term bootlegger (a dealer in illicit liquor) has
generalized to mean "a dealer in prohibited goods."
 Muscle in originally referred to encroaching on another gangster's
territory but has generalized to mean "to encroach or force one's
way."
2. Narrowing (Specialization):
o In contrast to extension, narrowing occurs when a word’s meaning
becomes more specific over time. Examples include:
 The word deer once referred to any animal but now denotes a
specific type of animal.
 Meat originally meant "any food" but has come to refer
specifically to "animal flesh."
 The term queen, which previously meant "wife," now specifically
refers to "the king's wife."
o This process of specialization often occurs when words from
general usage enter specialized vocabularies of particular social or
professional groups. For example, the Old English word mete
meant "food," but it has narrowed to refer specifically to "edible
flesh."
Changes in Connotation
The connotational meaning of words can also change over time,
either improving or deteriorating in value.
1. Degradation of Meaning (Deterioration):
o This process involves a negative shift in meaning or association.
For instance:
 The word story has come to imply "a lie," while fabricate can
mean "to fake or forge."
 Terms that originally had neutral or positive connotations may
take on negative meanings due to class distinctions. For example:
 The term knave, which meant "boy" or "servant," has deteriorated
to mean "rogue."
 Villain originally referred to a "laborer attached to a farm," but
now it signifies "a wicked schemer."
2. Elevation of Meaning:
o Conversely, some words undergo an elevation of meaning,
improving their connotations over time. Examples include:
 Minister originally meant "a servant or attendant" but has evolved
to signify "the head of a state department."
 The word noble, which once denoted "of aristocratic origin," now
also encompasses "of lofty character," reflecting an improvement
in its connotation.
Impact of Slang and Jargon
 When slang terms and jargon are accepted into literary language,
they often widen their meanings and may also shed negative
connotations. For example:
o The slang term rake-off originally referred to "a bribe or share in
illicit profit," but in standard usage, it can simply mean "a share of
profit" without the illicit implication.
5. Discuss the theory of naming
Summary of the Theory of Naming
1. Origin:
o The theory of naming is rooted in Plato's dialogue Cratylus,
where it is suggested that words signify objects. This idea
 primarily applies well to nouns, as they can easily point to
identifiable objects (e.g., a car).
2. Difficulties:
o A challenge with this theory is that it primarily focuses on
nouns. Other parts of speech, such as prepositions, adjectives,
and articles, complicate the application of the theory. For
example, while it is possible to visualize actions (like
"flowing"), naming such actions proves difficult.
3. Two Worlds:
o The text introduces the concept of two kinds of worlds to
explain the occurrence of certain words:
 The real world, which includes tangible objects that we can see
and interact with.
 The imaginary world, comprising entities that do not exist in
reality (e.g., unicorns, goblins, fairies).
o This distinction highlights the challenge of naming abstract
and fantastical concepts.
4. Abstract Concepts:
o The theory also struggles with naming abstract concepts like
love, hate, anger, and nonsense, which cannot be easily defined
or visualized.
Discussion
The theory of naming raises important questions about the
nature of language and how we refer to various entities in the
world. Here are some key points to consider:
 Limitations of Nouns: While nouns serve as clear referents, the
inadequacy of this theory becomes evident when applied to
other grammatical categories. The difficulty in naming actions
 or qualities suggests that language is more complex than
simple referential relationships.
 The Role of Context: The meaning of names and words often
depends on context, making it challenging to establish a
universal theory of naming that applies consistently across
different categories of speech.
 Philosophical Implications: The discussion touches on deeper
philosophical inquiries about reality and representation. If
names are not always tied to concrete objects, what does that
mean for our understanding of language, thought, and
existence?
 Abstract and Imaginary Worlds: The distinction between real
and imaginary entities emphasizes the limitations of language
in capturing all aspects of human experience. This highlights
the need for flexibility in our understanding of names and
their meanings.

6. Discuss the theory of antonyms. Give examples

Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings. Linguists
distinguish several types of antonyms:
1. Gradable Antonyms:
These are antonyms that represent contrary notions and allow for
different degrees of comparison. Examples include:
love - hate
big - small
hot - cold
fast - slow
happy - sad
2. Complementary (Binary) Antonyms:
These antonyms involve two items where the assertion of one is the
negation of the other. There is no intermediate state between them.
Examples include:
male - female
married - single
alive - dead
3. Conversive (Relational) Antonyms:
These antonyms denote a relationship where one term implies the
other in a reversed role or perspective. Examples include:
give - receive
ancestor - descendent
parent - child
left - right
4. Directional Antonyms:
These antonyms describe opposites based on direction or
movement. Examples include:
come - go
up - down
arrive - depart
5. Antonyms formed by Negative Affixes:
Antonyms can also be formed by adding negative prefixes like un-,
dis-, im-, in-, etc. Examples include:
happy - unhappy
important - unimportant
selfish - selfless
7.Distinguish between sense and reference**:
- **Sense** refers to the meaning or the mental concept of a word
or expression, independent of external objects or entities. It deals
with the relationships between words and their meanings within a
language system.
- Example: The sense of the word "dog" includes the idea of a
domesticated animal, usually four-legged, that barks.
- **Reference** refers to the actual entity or object in the real
world that a word or expression refers to. It is about the
connection between language and the world.
- Example: The word "dog" can refer to your pet dog or any
specific dog in the world.
- **Difference**: Sense is the internal meaning within the
language system, while reference is the external object or entity in
the real world that a word points to.
8. Clarify the definitions of metonymy and metaphor:
- **Metonymy** is a figure of speech in which one thing is
represented by something else that is closely related to or
associated with it. It involves substitution based on association.
- Example: "The White House issued a statement" (where "The
White House" stands for the President or the administration).
- **Metaphor** is a figure of speech where a word or phrase is
applied to something that is not literally applicable, in order to
draw a comparison or analogy.
- Example: "Time is a thief" (here, time is compared to a thief
because it "steals" moments from our lives).
 - **Difference**: Metonymy relies on a relationship of proximity
or association, while metaphor involves an analogy or comparison
between two unrelated things.
9. Distinguish between denotation and reference:
- **Denotation** refers to the primary, literal, or dictionary
meaning of a word, the objective concept or entity it directly
describes.
- Example: The denotation of "dog" is a species of domesticated
carnivorous mammal.
- **Reference**, as mentioned above, is the specific real-world
object or entity that a word refers to in a particular context.
- Example: "My dog" refers to the specific pet dog you own.

- **Difference**: Denotation is the general, abstract meaning

of a word, while reference is the specific, real-world object or
instance to which the word refers. Denotation stays constant,
while reference can change depending on the context.
10. Discuss the causes of semantic changes
1. Extra Linguistic Causes
These are connected with the development of society, changes in
social, political, economic, cultural life, and advances in science
and technology. Examples include:
 Changes in Objects or Concepts:
o For instance, the word space originally meant "extension" and
now refers to "the limitless expanses," or the word car initially
meant "a four-wheeled wagon," but now denotes an automobile.
 Shifts in Usage Context:
o Words that were once used by specific groups (like professional
jargon) can move into general usage, altering their meanings in the
process. Conversely, words in general usage may gain specialized
meanings when adopted by a particular group.
2 Linguistic Causes
These factors act within the language itself and are connected to its
structure. Examples include:
 Ellipsis or Contraction of a Phrase:
o When a phrase consists of two words, one can be omitted,
transferring its meaning to the remaining word. For example:
 The phrase "to propose marriage" can be shortened to "to
propose," with the additional context being understood.
 The word "starve" originally meant "to die" and was used with
the word hunger (to die of hunger). It eventually replaced the
phrase "die of hunger" and began to mean "suffer from lack of
food."
 Discrimination of Synonyms:
o This can occur as a result of borrowing from other languages. For
instance, the English word deer had the meaning of "animal" or
"beast," but over time, it became more specific.
.3 Psychological Reasons (Taboos, Euphemisms)
These reasons concern the avoidance of explicitly expressing
problematic concepts such as death, sex, or excretion. The
speaker’s aims can be two-fold: to make meanings slightly opaque
or to use acceptable words with neutral or positive connotations.
Examples include:
 The use of "restroom" instead of "toilet."
 The use of "African-American" instead of "black" or
"colored."

III- Gap- Filling:

A
convey pronouns sentence work
competence
see understand consider entity
words
One way of talking about this is to distinguish between (1) ………
sentence..meaning and speaker meaning. This suggests that (2) …
words…….. and sentences have a meaning independently of any
particular use, which meaning is then incorporated by a speaker
into the particular meaning she wants to (3) ………convey.. at any
one time. In this view semantics is concerned with sentence
meaning and pragmatics with speaker meaning. We can (4) see
how this distinction might be used when we (5) …consider….the
use of (6) ……pronouns…….., which as we mentioned earlier
are very dependent on contextual support. For example if someone
says to a listener 7s he awake? we would say that the listener has
to (7) ……understand……..two things, amongst others, to get
the meaning: the first is that in English sentence meaning he
means something like male (8) ………entity…. referred to by the
speaker, not the speaker and not the person spoken to', and the
second is how to (9)…work……… out who right now the speaker
is referring to by he. In this view knowing the first is part of
semantic knowledge and working out the second is a task for one's
pragmatic (10) ……competence……………...
B.
Examples 5 conditions 7 rhetorical 3
expressions 9 uses 1
figurative 2 ways 6 speakers 10
metaphorical 8 litotes 4
Non-literal (1) …………. of language are traditionally called (2)
……….. and are described by a host of (3) ……………terms
including metaphor, irony, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole and
(4) …………. We will meet (5) ………… of these terms later on.
On closer examination, though it proves difficult to draw a firm
line between literal and non-literal uses of language. For one
thing, one of the (6) ………languages change over time is by
speakers shifting the meanings of words to fit new (7) ………...
One such shift is by (8) …………. extension, where some new
idea is depicted in terms of something more familiar. "For a while
the new" expression's-metaphorical nature remains clear, as for
example in the (9) ………….glass ceiling for promotional barriers
to women, or surfing' the internet. Slightly older" coinings might
include mouse for the computer keyboard extension, or
expressions like toy boy, or junk bonds. After a while such
expressions become fossilized and their metaphorical quality is no
longer apparent to (10) …………..
C.
Sentences 5 semanticists 1 propositions 7
questions 9 applications 3
Linguists 4 things 6 logicians 2
proposition 10 statements 8
Some (1) ………. have borrowed from (2) ……….. both this notion
of proposition and the use of logical formulae. We will see various
(3) ………… of such formulae in later chapters.8 As we shall see,
some (4) ………….. employ this notion of proposition in their
 semantic analysis, often to identify a description of an event or
situation which might be a shared element in different (5)
…………. So, for example, the statement Joan made the sorbet,
the question Did Joan make the sorbet?, and the command: Joan,
make the sorbet! might be seen to share a propositional element:
JOAN MAKE THE SORBET. In this view, these different
sentences allow the speaker to do different (6)……… with the
same proposition: to assert it' as a past event; to question it; or to
request someone to bring it about. (7) …………, then, can be a
way of capturing part of the meaning of sentences. They are more
abstract than sentences because the same proposition can be
represented by several different (8) …………….. Moreover in
non-statements like (9) ……….., orders, etc. they cannot be the
complete meaning since such sentences include an indication of
the speaker's attitude to the (10) …………..
D.
forms 1 aspects 5 categories 4
classes 2 items 3
meaningfulness 10 rules 7 presupposes 6
products 9 words 8
It is common knowledge that the (1) ………….of a language are
traditionally classified into full words and empty words (see the
following chapter). Empty words belong to a wide variety of so-
called form (2) …………, which are defined in terms of their
syntactic function, rather than semantically (or lexical meaning).
For this reason, empty words are described as syncategorematic,
i.e. as (3) ……..whose meanings ''and logical function derives
from the way in which they combine with (syn-) major (4)
……….. It will be useful to know about the distinction between
the grammar of a language and its vocabulary or lexicon. These
 two (5) ………of language are complementary; every grammar
(6) ……….. a lexicon and every lexicon presupposes a grammar.
The grammar of a language is traditionally viewed as a system of
(7) ………….. which say about how lexical (8) ………..are put
together to form phrases, clauses and sentences or even discourse.
Once these rules are flouted, the (9) ……….. will be described as
ungrammatical. But as is clear, the grammaticality (or grammatical
well-formedness) is closely related to (10)………... Put in another
way, any grammatical formation may be meaningless if it is not
meaningful.

E.
Intonation 3 quotation 5 levels 7
details 9 elements 1
differences 8 sentences 4 utterances 2
view 10 voice 6
Sentences, on the other hand, are abstract grammatical (1)……….
obtained from (2) ……….. Sentences are abstract because if a
third and fourth person in the room also say Ontogeny
recapitulates phylogeny with the same, (3)……., we will want to
say that we have met four utterances of the same sentence. In other
words, (4) ……..are abstracted, or generalized, from actual
language use. One example of this abstraction is direct (5)
……….. If someone reports He said 'Ontogeny recapitulates
phylogeny', she is unlikely to mimic the original speaker exactly.
Usually the reporter will use her normal (6) ………… and thus
filter out certain types of information: the difference in pitch (7)
……….between men, women and children; perhaps some accent
(8) ……..due to regional or social variation; and certainly those
phonetic (9) ……….which identify individual speakers. Speakers
 seem to recognize that at the level of the sentence these kinds of
information are not important, and so discard them. So we can
look at sentences from the point of (10) ………… of the speaker,
where they are abstract elements to be made real by uttering them;
or from the hearer's point of view, where they are abstract
elements reached by filtering out certain kinds of information from
utterances.
F.
Occurrence 5 rules 9 categories 10
differences 2 audience 6
productivity 4 meaning 1 creativity 7
phrase 3 insights 8
Phrases and sentences also have (1) …………., of course, but an
important (2) ………between word meaning on the one hand, and
(3) ………….. and sentence meaning on the other, concerns (4)
……….. It is always possible to create new words, but this is a
relatively infrequent (5) ………….. On the other hand, speakers
regularly create sentences that they have never used or heard
before, confident that their (6) ………… will understand them.
Noam Chomsky in particular has commented on the (7) ………..
of sentence formation (for example Chomsky 1965: 7-9). It is one
of generative grammar's most important (8) ………… that a
relatively small number of combinatory (9)……….. may allow
speakers to use a finite set of words to create a very large, perhaps
infinite, number of sentences. To allow this the rules for sentence
formation must be recursive, allowing repetitive embedding or
coordination of syntactic (10) …………..
G.
Language 4 lexicon 8 parallel 6 sentence
3 component 1
issue 2 store 5 dictionaries 7 memory
10 knowledge 9
If an independent (1) ………… of semantics is identified, one
central (2) ……… is the relationship between word meaning and
(3) ……. meaning. Knowing a (4) ………., especially one's native
language, involves knowing thousands of words. As mentioned
earlier, we can call the mental (5) ……….of these words a
lexicon, making an overt (6) …………with the lists of words and
meanings published as (7) ……………….. We can imagine the
mental (8) ……… as a large but finite body of (9)…………, part
of which must be semantic. This lexicon is not completely static
because we are continually learning and forgetting words. It is
clear, though, that at any one time we hold a large amount of
semantic knowledge in (10)…………..
H-
boxes 4 levels 6 theories 3
grammar 10 product 7
linguists 1 semantics 5 writers 9
forms 2 differences 8
We saw earlier that (1) ……….identify different levels of analysis.
Another way of describing this is to say that linguistic knowledge
(2) ………. distinct modules, or is modularized. As a result, many
linguistic (3) ………. are themselves modularized, having
something like our (4) ……….. Our question, though, remains:
what kind of module is (5) ………..? The answer varies from
theory to theory. The real problem is, of course, that units at all
linguistic (6) ………..serve as part of the general enterprise: to
communicate meaning. This means that in at least one sense,
meaning is a (7) ………. of all linguistic levels. Changing one
phoneme for another, one verb ending for another, or one word
 order for another will produce (8) …………. of meaning. This
view leads some (9) ………… to believe that meaning cannot be
identified as a separate level, autonomous from the study of other
levels of (10) ………….. A strong version of this view is
associated with the theory known as cognitive grammar,
advocated by linguists.
I-
Meanings 3 redefine 6 try 5 linguists
7 definitions 4
words 1 units 10 offer 8 traps 9
have 2
It is that generally agreed the (1) …….., phrases and sentences of
language (2) ………. (3) …….. and sentences are made up of
words (phrases) and that the meaning of a sentence is the function
of the meanings of the words (and phrases) of which it is made up.
Since there are quite a whole lot of (4) ……….. of the term
"word', what I (5)……… to do is not to (6) ……… something
which has become some sort of a "nightmare" for (7) ………...
Instead, I will (8) ………. a working definition of what the word
is, fully aware of the inherent (9) ……….. Words are regarded as
the smallest indivisible meaningful (10) ……. of a language which
can operate independently.
Production 4 grammar 6 means 9
languages 10 lexemes 2
Sentences 5 speakers 3 ways 8
relationship 7 language 1
The lexicon of a (1) ……..may be thought as a set of all the (2)
………., stored in the brains of competent (3) ………., with all the
linguistic information for each lexeme that is required for the (4)
……….. and interpretation of the (5) ………. of the language -
rightly called mental grammar. For the time being, little is known
about the mental (6) ………that all speakers of a language,
presumably, have, and in particular whether there is a clear-cut
line between grammar and lexicon. However, our view is that
there exists a close (7) …….. between the grammar and the
lexicon of a language: the grammar reflects the (8)……… in
which the lexicon operates as (9) ………….. of communication
and as an instrument of thought. In other words, part of the
meaning (of the lexicon) is encoded in the grammatical structure
of (10) …………...