REVIEWER IN LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING  Philosophy, Science, and education are interrelated.

PHILOSOPHY The wisdom that philosphy discovers is taught and

PHILEIN- love of transmitted through the educative process.
SOPHIA- wisdom  Logic being a potent tool of philosophy is thus
 The study of fundamental questions about existence, related to the science of nursing through educative
knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. process and the different nursing processes that
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY require correct reasoning.
METAPHYSICS 4 FUNDAMENTAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF NURSES
- the area of philosophy that deals with the nature of  PROMOTE HEALTH
being and reality.  PREVENT ILLNESS
Fundamental concepts: substance, essence, truth, space,  RESTORE HEALTH
time.  ALLEVIATE SUFFERINGS
EPISTEMOLOGY
- Episteme (knowledge) Logos (science). Deals with Inherent to the performance of these responsibilities is the
human knowledge and the criteria for truth. ability to think correctly and reason out rightly.
Fundamental concepts: What is knowledge? Where does INTELLECTUAL ATTITUDES AND STANDARDS
it come from? EXPECTED FROM NURSES
AXIOLOGY ATTITUDES:
- area of philosophy that specifically deals with the  CONFIDENCE
problem of human values.  COURAGE
Fundamental concepts: what are values? are these values  CREATIVITY
rooted in reality?  CURIOSITY
LOGIC  DISCIPLINE
- the systematic treatment of relationship of ideas.  EMPATHY
Fundamental concepts: Terms, propositions, validity of  FAIRNESS
arguments.  FAITH IN REASON
COSMOLOGY  HUMILITY
- theories of the nature and origin of the universe.  INTEGRITY
Fundamental concepts: Evolitionism, creationism, space,  PERSEVERANCE
time.  RESPONSIBILITY
PHILOSOPHY OF MAN  RISK TAKING
- deals with the nature and purpose of man.  SELF-DETERMINATION
Fundamental concepts: Body-soul relation, freedom and STANDARDS:
determinism.  ACCURATE
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY  ADEQUATE
- deals with nature of society and socialization process.  BROAD
Fundamental concepts: Society, state, governance, laws.  CLEAR
THEODICY  COMPLETE
- study of nature, essence and existence of God using  CONSISTENT
human reason.  DEEP
Fundamental concepts: Deism, Agnosticism, Theism  FAIR
AESTHETICS  LOGICAL
- the study of nature and appreciation of beauty.  PLAUSIBLE
Fundamental concepts: Order, truth, designs.  PRECISE
ETHICS  RELEVANT
- the study of the morality of Human acts.  SIGNIFICANT
Fundamental concepts: Voluntariness, Freedom of the  SPECIFIC
will, moral responsibilities. ACTIVITIES OF THE HUMAN MIND/
LOGIC AS INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OPERARTIONS OF THE HUMAN MIND
Logic is the art of reasoning well. It studies methods and SIMPLE APPREHENSION
principles which are used to distinguish correct from - in simple apprehension, we grasp the essence of things.
incorrect thinking. Being a science that furnished a man The awareness or consciousness of the presence of reality
with the knowledge of the principles and rules of right leads us to the creation of ideas - the end product of
reasoning, it is an indispensable tool of philosophy in the simple apprehension.
search for wisdom. Being an art, logic may be developed, IDEAS AND CONCEPTS
perfected and refined so that man’s reasoning will lead Ideas and concepts- are abstract representation of reality.
him to truth. It focuses on the nature or essence of things. Ideas are
LOGIC AND MEDICAL SCIENCES mental signs whereby humans grasp and understand the
essences of things.
CLASSIFICATION OF IDEAS
 FIRST INTENTION validity of their connections, they are known as
- ideas that express objects not only as they are in the hypothetical propositions.
mind but also as they are in reality.  A proposition has three elements: subject, predicate
Example: The idea of a clinic, a hospital, or a house. and copula.
SECOND INTENTION PROPERTIES OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS:
- ideas that expresses what they are in the mind; concepts QUALITY
that express things that has mental existence. These - refers to the affirmation or denial of the relationship of
things exist as a result of being thought of. two terms or ideas.
Example: Pegasus, Batman, and Superman. QUANTITY
CONCRETE - refers to the extension of the subject term of the
- an idea that expresses a form as inhering in a subject. proposition.
Example: Beautiful lady, brilliant lawyer, excellent TYPES OF QUANTITIES- PARTICULAR,
teacher, and caring nurse. UNIVERSAL, SINGULAR
ABSTRACT PARTICULAR
- an idea that expresses form only, separated from its - when subject term involves only part of the whole
object. extension of the term.
Example: beauty, brilliant, excellent, and caring. example: Some nurses are patients.
ABSOLUTE UNIVERSAL
- an idea that expresses a thing as a substanceor an - when subject term involves all the extension of the term.
independent reality. example: All nurses are caregivers.
Example: man, planet, ocean SINGULAR
CONNOTATIVE - when the term involves the only extension or a specific
- an idea that expresses an accident or quality inhering in extension of the term.
a substance example: Imac is the dean of medical college.
Example: teacher, anesthesiologist, pediatrician, and TYPES OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
driver.  propositions are universal and affirmative.
POSITIVE example: all nurses are required to take the licensure
- an idea that expresses a thing according to what it is or exam.
what it has.  propositions are universal and negative.
Example: rich, educated, perfect, skilled. example: all nurses are not required to take the licensure
NEGATIVE exam.
- an idea that expresses a thing according to whom it is  propositions are particular and affirmative.
not or what it lacks. example: some nurses are required to take the licensure
Example: poor, uneducated, imperfect, unskilled. exam.
TERM- THE EXPRESSIONS OF IDEAS  propositions are particular and negative
Term is an external representation of an idea. For every example: some nurses are not required to take the
idea there is a corresponding term. Words, however, are licensure exam.
not necessarily terms. Thus, there is no one to one Hypothethical propositions
correspondence between terms and words. A word may - are propositions that state conditions, causation, or
not necessarily represent an idea but all terms are words opposition between two judgements, set if ideas, or
that contain corresponding ideas. statements.
PROPERTIES OF TERMS TYPES OF HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS:
COMPREHESION Conditional propostion
- the sum total of all qualities, which constitute the - a hypothetical proposition, which expresses a necessary
meaning of a term. relation between the antecedent or the cause, and the
Example: man = rational animal consequence or the effect. Often introduce bt the “if and
EXTENSION then” clause.
- the sum total of all individuals or objects to which the example: If man is a material being then he is mortal.
comprehesion of a term is applied. Disjuctive proposition
Example: Man = Peter, Paul, John. - a hypothetical proposition introduced by either... or and
PROPOSITIONS: THE PRODUCT OF JUDGEMENTS expresses oppositio nbetween the two elements.
PROPOSITIONS Conjuctive proposition
 are statements written or spoket that externally - a hypothetical proposition, which contains alternatives
communicate mental sentence. of which only one could be true but both could be false. It
 When propositions express assertion of the is usually introduced by “cannot be... at the same time” or
relationship or disagreements of two ideas, they are “cannot be both”.
known as categorical propositions. example: One cannot serve God and money at the same
 When they express relationship betweeb two or time.
more propositions which assert the nature and TYPES OF DISJUNCTIVE PROPOSITIONS
Contradictory Disjunctive
- when the alternatives presented are limited to only two. - a syllogism wherein at least one proposition is a
Only one can be true and only one can be false. hypothetical proposition.
example: Either you are alive or dead. example:
Contrary Disjunctive If all books are tools for learning then they must be
- when two alternatives are presented but a third is valued.
implied. Both alternatives may be false because the But all books are tools for learning;
implied one is true. Only one can be true of the two given Therefore, they must be valued.
alternatives. THEORIES OF KNOWLEDGE
example: Either he is fat or thin. EMPIRICISM THEORY
Sub-contrary Disjunctive  Empiricism means dependence upon direct
- when two alternatives are presented; however, both may experience for information. Only information
be chose because both could be true. Only one of the experienced by someone is valued, not ideas created
alternatives can be false. purely in one's mind.
example: Either he is a son or a father.  Empiricism is the belief that knowledge is based on
REASONING experience. Empiricists believe this experience can
 Is the mental act whereby the mind relates several mainly be gained through the use of the senses.
judgements to arrive at a new judgement that  Some examples of empiricism are that stone is hard,
necessarily flows from such relationship. ice is cold, and glue is sticky
 Inference is a reasoning process whereby the mind
draws the implication or conclusion from one or
more premises.
INFERENCE
 a process by which a conclusion is drawn from a
valid sequence and relationship of premises.
KINDS OF INFERENCE
INDUCTIVE INFERENCE RATIONALISM THEORY
- a form of reasoning that proceeds from particular  The theory of rationalism states that there is a
premises to general conclusion. framework of fundamental truths underlying the
DEDUCTIVE INFERENCE universe and human existence; learning is a means
- a form of reasoning that proceeds from by which human beings approach that truth,
universal/general premises to a particular conclusion. deducing new understandings based on an a priori
KINDS OF DEDUCTIVE INFERENCE knowledge base.
Immediate inference  Rationalism is the philosophy that all knowledge is
- is a kind of inference by which the mind directly draws vested in human beings, and that learning is the
the implication of one proposition to arrive at a new process of accessing that knowledge and building on
proposition without the use of medium. it. Empiricism argues that learning is experiential,
Kinds of immediate inferences: and through sensory experiences human beings
 Education or Logical Equivalence- process of accrue knowledge.
creating a new proposition that conveys the same
meaning.
 Oppositional Inference- process of establishing the
relationship of propositions having the same
subjects and predicate but different qualities or
quantities.
Mediate infrence
- the process of drawing new propositions from the SKEPTICISM THEORY
relationship of two propostions that are related through a  An attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity
medium or a middle term. Infrences are externally either in general or toward a particular object.
manifested through a syllogism.  To be skeptical is to be uncertain. This might extend
SYLLOGISMS from being doubtful about one particular idea or
- are verbal expressions of arguments that are products of claim, to denying that it is possible to know whether
reasoning or inferential thinking. anything can be known for certain.
KINDS OF SYLLOGISMS  A skeptic is a person who doesn't believe something
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM is true unless they see evidence.
- a syllogism that is made up of categorical propositions. CRITERIA OF TRUTH
example: Criteria of truth (or tests of truth) are standards and rules
All books are tools for learning; used to judge the accuracy of statements and claims. They
But the dictionary is a book; are tools of verification, and as in the problem of the
Therefore, the dictionary is a tool for leaning. criterion, the reliability of these tools is disputed.
HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM 5 THEORIES OF TRUTH
 CORRESPONDENCE THEORY to fool unsuspecting victims by concealing the error
 Correspondence theories claim that true beliefs and through representation of an apparent truth.
true statements correspond to the actual state of THE FALLACY OF RELEVANCE
affairs. This type of theory attempts to posit a - an erroneous reasoning process that presents unrelated
relationship between thoughts or statements on one or irrelevant facts or psychological factors that in turn
hand, and things or facts on the other. befog the mind and deviate it from the real issue.
 Every truth corresponds to exactly one fact THE FALLACY OF AMBIGUITY
For example: It is true that some dogs bark if the - an erroneous reasoning process which is a result of the
proposition "Some dogs bark" corresponds with the fact lack of preciseness in the meaning of language that was
that some dogs bark. used.
PRAGMATIC THEORY OPPOSITION AND RULES GOVERNING THEM
 Pragmatism means thinking of or dealing with OPPOSITIONAL INFERENCE
problems in a practical way, rather than by using -is a type of immediate inference that proceeds from the
theory or abstract principles. relationship between propositions with the same subject
 One example of pragmatic theory is John Dewey's and predicate but different qualities and /or qualities.
focus on action in education. For Dewey, children -It is the process of determining the truth of falsity of an
learn by doing rather than, for instance, merely opposite statement from the truth or falsity of a given
listening to lecture. statement.
 The main idea of pragmatism is that knowledge is
essentially related to human practice. One
implication of this view is that usefulness is a
criterion for knowledge. Pragmatism contrasts with
views of knowledge that are merely observational or
speculative.
COHERENCE THEORY
 The theory that the ultimate criterion of truth is the
coherence of all its separate parts with one another
and with experience. CONTRADICTORY OPPOSITION
 A coherence theory of truth states that the truth of - exists between two statements of diferrent qualities and
any (true) proposition consists in its coherence with quantities. Contradictory proposition cannot be both true
some specified set of propositions. and cannot be both false.
 The coherence theory of truth is a philosophical CONTRARY OPPOSITION
concept that asserts that a belief or proposition is - exists between to statements of both universal quantities
true if it coheres or is consistent with a system of but of different qualities, that is, one is affirmative and
beliefs, propositions, or concepts. This theory the other is negative. Contrary propositions may be both
emphasizes the interconnectedness and consistency false but only one can be false. So if one is true the other
of beliefs within a broader framework. is false, but if one is false the other is doubtful.
Examples of Coherence Theory of Truth: SUB-CONTRARY OPPPOSITION
 In the field of mathematics, a mathematical theorem - exists between two statements that are both particular in
is considered true if it coheres with the axioms and quantities but of different qualities. - Sub-contrary
principles of the mathematical system in which it is propositions may be both true and only one can be false.
situated. So if one is true the other is doubtful, but if one is false
 In scientific inquiry, a scientific theory is considered the other is true.
true if it coheres with empirical evidence, existing SUB-ALTERNATE OPPOSITION
scientific knowledge, and explanatory coherence - exists between two propositions that are of the same
within the broader scientific framework. quality but different in quantities, that is, one is universal
 In ethics, a moral judgment is considered true if it and the other is particular.
coheres with a system of ethical principles and SUMMARY OF RULES IN OPPOSITIONAL
values, providing a consistent and coherent ethical INFERENCE
framework. A. CONTRADICTORY OPPOSITION
FALACY 1. If one proposition is true then the other is false.
-refers to errors in the reasoning process or an argument 2. If one proposition is false then the other is true.
that has an insufficient evidence for its conclusion. It is B. CONTRARY OPPOSITION
simply lack of sequence in the inferential thinking. 1. If one is true then the other is false
Logicians, however, use the term fallacy to refer only to 2. If one is false then the other is doubtful.
arguments that are seemingly sound but upon analysis are C. SUB-CONTRARY OPPOSITION
erroneous or sound. 1. If one is true then the other is doubtful.
-The Latin term “fallere” which means “to deceive” gives 2. If one is false then the other is true.
us an idea of the true meaning of fallacy- a false D. SUB-ALTERNATE OPPOSITION
argument presented in a seemingly true fashion in order 1. If the universal is true then the particular is true.
2. If the universal is false then the particular is doubtful.
3. If the particular is true then the universal is doubtful.
4. If the particular is false then the universal is false.
FIGURE AND MOODS OF SYLLOGISM
FIGURE
- refers to the position or funciton of the middle term in
the premises. Since there are two premises in a
categorical syllogism and each of the premises has a
subject and a predicate, we can determine four possible
figures of a syllogism.
figure 1: subject- predicate middle term
figure 2: predicate- predicate middle term
figure 3: subject- subject middle term
figure 4: subject middle term
MOODS
-refers to the type of propositions used in syllogism.
Since a syllogism contains three propositions, mood refer
to any three combinations of the four types of categorical
propositions.