Lesson I. Introduction 4.

Significance of Logic
1. What is Logic? What do we mean by How significant is Logic to our daily lives?
critical thinking? What is its significance to the nursing
profession?
Logic comes from the word Logo, or symbol
that has meaning and can be understood by
the human mind.
5. Three Mental Activities
Critical thinking refers to the utilization of the
The human mind never tires, only the body
man’s powers of reason, the power to think
because it is made of matter. Even when we
and understand anything under the sun.
sleep, the human mind is conscious
Human beings do not act without thinking
continuously. In anything we do, in a split of
and in order for us to avoid mistakes and
a second, we undergo mental activities.
perform what is right and correct, we must
analyze thoroughly the matter at hand, and 1. Simple Apprehension- this refers to
this is the process of critical thinking. the process when the mind simply and
superficially perceives things.
The habit of analyzing what is right and
correct before any action will become critical 2. Judgment- the mental process
thinking skills. whereby the mind organizes the ideas
simply perceived and concludes.
3. Reasoning- the higher form of
2. Definition of Logic and Greek philosopher
mental process that gives the meaning
Zeno
and explanation of the mind’s
Logic was derived etymologically from Greek conclusion on things.
word “logike”, and is defined by Greek
These 3 mental activities happen in a split of
philosopher Zeno, which refers to mind, idea
a second that we are not aware but ever
or concept that conveys meanings.
since we were born, our mental life also
Logic is defined as a science that studies begun.
correct thinking and correct reasoning.

6. Division of Logic
3. Philosophy & Nature of Logic
1. Inductive Logic- a mental process
Philosophy is defined as a science that deals that starts from particulars to
to study anything in this world with the universals, from parts to the whole.
illumination of the human mind, or in the
2. Deductive Logic – a mental process
light of reason.
that starts from universals to
Simply put, Logic is a branch of Philosophy particulars, from whole to the parts.
which deals with the study of what is right
and correct in things. In other words,
anything we do, it passes first to the senses
(in the body) then to the intellect (in the
human soul).
It’s the intellect not the body that
understands and gives meaning to what the
senses have sensed.
 Examples: bittersweet, sweet and sour, he-
woman, she-woman
Lesson 2: TERMS
e. Comprehension and Extension of Terms
What is a term? It is a word/phrase to
express a concept.  Comprehension – refers to our
1. Nature of Terms understanding of the term.
 Extension- refers to which we can
Terms are words with meanings, an apply our understanding of the term.
expression of an idea or a thing conceived by  General rule: The greatest is our
the human mind. comprehension, the lesser is the
extension. The lesser our
comprehension the greater is the
2. Properties of Terms extension.

a. Singular – refers to terms that Example:

specifies to one thing.
 Comprehension Extension
b. Particular – refers to terms that  Patient : onco, gastric, pedia, geria,
point to more than one thing. surgical, etc
 Gastroenteritis cancer: colon, stomach
c. Universal - refers to terms inclusive  School: elem, high school, colleges,
to all without exception. univ, public, private
 Univ in Palawan: HTU, PSU, WPU

3. Quality & Quantity of Terms

Quantity refers to the properties of terms. f. Supposition of Terms
Quality refers whether the term is negative 1. Conversion- exchanging the position of the
or positive subject and the predicate of the statement
without altering its meaning.
a. Simple conversion – simply
exchanging the placement of subject
Kinds of Terms and the predicate in the statement.
a. Univocal – terms with one meaning Example:
b. Equivocal – terms with many meanings Convertend: Some flowers are red.
Converse : Some red (things) are flowers.
Examples:
1. Light b. Accidental conversion
2. Right
3. Left 1. Convertend: All Cuyunos are
Filipinos.
c. Analogous – terms which are different but a. Converse: Some Filipinos are
are closely related to convey its meaning. Cuyunos.
 Examples: If baker is to bread, then
2. Convertend: All students are in their
carpenter is to -----. Teacher is to
uniform.
student, doctor is to patient, then
a. Converse: Some who are in their
gardener is to ---.
uniforms are students.
d. Paradoxical – terms opposite to another
but can go together to convey one meaning.
 2. Quantity & Quality of Proposition
2. Obversion- Using double negatives which
a. quantifier – indicates the quantity of
do not alter the meaning of the obvertend.
the proposition: all, some, etc.
1. Obvertend : All students are scholars. b. quality – indicates denial/negation
a. Obverse: No student is not a or affirmation.
scholar.
a. negative – indicates denial/negation
2. Obvertend: Some mistakes are Example: Today is not Tuesday.
nonreparable. He did an illegal activity.
a. Obverse: Some mistakes are b. positive - indicates affirmation or
notreparable. acceptance/conformity.
Example: He is generous and
humble.
3. Contraposition- using negative and double
negatives without altering the meaning of 3. The A, E, I, & O Propositions
the contraponend. a. Latin Affirmo = to affirm (+)
Contraponend: She is sensitive and sensible 1st vowel = A= Singular or Universal
person. +
Contraposit: She is not insensitive and not 2nd bowel = I = Particular +
non-sensible person.
Example:
1. PSU is a government university. = A
Lesson 3: The Proposition 2. Some people are charitable. = I
3. All men are equal. = A
1. Nature of Proposition 4. Most of the students are females. = I

a. Statement b. Latin Nego = to deny (~)

A statement is a declarative sentence 1st vowel = E = Singular or Universal
that which is debatable. ~
Example: 2nd vowel = O = Particular ~
1. Today is Monday. Example:
2. She is a friend to me. 1. Nobody is here. = E
3. I am a simple person with simple joys. 2. The place is 100% darkness. = E
4. All things are bright and beautiful. 3. Some flowers are not fragrant. = O
4. Almost all were not happy. = O
5. Some laws are immoral. = O
b. Quality
Statements can be positive or 4.Square of Opposition
negative. It has four sides of opposition which is
Example: usually used in critical analyses of the
 This is not for you. conflicts of among the four sides of
 The prisoner cannot be found. arguments.
 Things will never happen that way.
 He is the president of the company. A. Contrary opposition – an opposition
 Tomorrow is Saturday. between A and E or E and A.
 They are kind and generous. (universals)

c. Certainty B. Subcontraries – an opposition

a. According to form: material between I and O or O and I.
b. According to reality: formal (Particulars)
 C. Inferior Subaltern- an opposition
between Universal and its particular.
(from Universal to Particular) 2. The Constants: The Connectives

D. Superior Subaltern – an opposition a. Conjunction

between particulars and universals. con=with + junction=connect/connection
(from Particular to Universal)
Conjunctions are terms that connect one
E. Contradictory – an opposition that term to another term. These terms include
contradicts each side of the X in the the following: and, while, however,
middle of the square. moreover, although, despite, inspite, aside,
albeit, in lieu, furthermore, etc. Conjunctions
Example: Using 1= true, 0 = false & are represented with the symbol DOT (●) to
1/0 = doubtful or indeterminate or there are connect the first term to another term.
options in between, and always make the
numbered proposition as point of reference b. Disjunction
in Dis= not + junction=connect/connection
determining the truth value of the 3 sides of
the Disjunctions are terms that disconnect one
square. term from the other term, meaning, only 1
A 1. If “All men are equal.”, is true, then term is acceptable or not, never both. These
E a. “Men are never equal.”, is 0 . terms express disjunction: either or (positive)
O b. “Some men are not equal.”, is 0 . and the neither nor (negative).
I c. “ Some men are equal.”, is 1.
Disjunctions are represented with the
symbol WEDGE (v) to disconnect one
term from the other term.

c. Conditional
For easy recall for the A, E, I & O formula: Conditional terms are terms that express
Quantifier + Subject (S) + Predicate (P) conditions to be met to obtain the
A: All S are P. consequence. The condition is what we call
E: No S is P. the antecedent (ante=before/prior), and the
I: Some S are P. result, we call it the consequent. Conditional
O: Some S are not P. terms include, if – then, provided that, with
the condition that, etc.

Conditional terms are shown using the

Lesson IV. Symbolic Logic HORSE SHOE symbol (ͻ).

There are arguments or propositions that d. Biconditional

are long that most of the time, it makes Bi=two/double
tedious and confusing in determining its
truth values. Thus, we need to use the Biconditional terms are terms that show
symbolic logic. two/double conditions to obtain or execute
an action which yields a result/consequence.
1. The Symbols
a) Dot - ● These terms include but not limited to: in
b) Wedge - v case, if and only if, provided that and only
c) Horseshoe- ͻ provided that, with the condition and only
d) triple bar - ≡ with the condition, etc. Take note of the strict
e) curl - ~ for negation/negative condition indicated.
Biconditional is represented by the
symbol called TRIPLE BAR (≡).

3. The Variables
Variable represents any term. Like a
sentence or a proposition or a statement to
facilitate us to determine the truth values of
an argument. In this subject Logic, it is
logical that we follow the order of variables
we are to use. Variables can be expressed by
letters of the alphabet or by numbers. For
the sake of uniformity and to avoid
confusion, let’s use the variables p, q, r,
s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. Same with using
numbers, it should be in its order.

4. Symbolizing Statements
To determine the truth values of the
arguments/proposition, we should symbolize
first the argument using the symbolic logic.

Let’s master first the symbolizing the

statements before we compute for the truth
values. Correct symbolization yields correct
truth values.
5. Computing Truth Values of the statements
Statements have truth values; they are
either true or false.

Rules to remember:
1. In conjunction, it is only true if p & q
are both true.
2. In Disjunction, it is false if p & q are
both false.
3. In Conditional, it is false when the
consequent or the q is false & both p &
q are false.
4. In biconditional, it is false when one of
1. variables is false
Multiple Choice Fill in the Blanks
What is the origin of the word "logic"? 1. Critical thinking refers to the utilization of
a. Latin word "logos" a man’s powers of reason to avoid
b. Greek word "logike" mistakes and perform what is right.
c. Greek word "logico"
d. Latin word "logia" 2. According to Greek philosopher Zeno, logic
refers to the mind, idea, or concept that
According to the text, critical thinking involves: conveys meanings.
a. Acting without hesitation
b. Relying on emotions instead of reason 3. The intellect, not the body, understands
c. Analyzing thoroughly to avoid mistakes and gives meaning to what the senses
d. Using memory to store all information have perceived.

Philosophy is defined as: 4. Deductive logic is the mental process that

a. A science that studies anything in the starts from universals to particulars.
world in the light of reason
b. The process of organizing thoughts and True or False
reasoning 1. The human mind is capable of continuous
c. The art of persuasion and debate activity, even during sleep. TRUE
d. A field limited to abstract concepts 2. Philosophy is a branch of logic that
focuses only on physical senses. FALSE
What happens first in the process of (Philosophy studies anything with the
understanding something? illumination of reason, not just
a. The intellect organizes the idea physical senses.)
b. The body performs the action 3. Judgment is the highest form of mental
c. The senses perceive the information process among the three mental activities.
d. The human soul evaluates the idea FALSE (Reasoning is the highest form
of mental process among the three)
Inductive logic moves from:
a. Universals to particulars Short Answer
b. Parts to the whole 1. Why is critical thinking significant in daily
c. Conclusions to assumptions life and the nursing profession?
d. Specifics to unrelated specifics Critical thinking is significant because it
helps individuals analyze situations
thoroughly to avoid mistakes and make
Enumeration
correct decisions. For nurses, this ensures
1. Enumerate the three mental activities proper care, safety, and accurate
discussed in the text. assessments for patients.
1. Simple apprehension
2. Judgment 2. How does the intellect differ from the body
3. Reasoning in processing information?
The intellect is responsible for
2. Enumerate the divisions of logic and their understanding and giving
descriptions. meaning to what the senses
1. Inductive Logic: A mental perceive. The body senses
process that starts from external stimuli, but the
particulars to universals, from intellect processes and
parts to the whole. interprets them.
2. Deductive Logic: A mental 3. In what ways are inductive and deductive
process that starts from logic different from each other?
universals to particulars, from Inductive logic moves from
whole to the parts. specifics (particulars) to
generalizations (universals),
while deductive logic moves
from general principles
(universals) to specific
conclusions (particulars).