ie Levelling 9.1, DEFINITIONS ( Ref. Fig. 9.1) Levelling. Levelling is a branch of surveying the object of which is : (1) to find the elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum, and (2) to establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a given or assumed datum. The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the second operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Levelling deals with measurements in a vertical plane. Level Surface. A level surface is defined as a curved surface which at each point is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the point. The surface of a still water is a truly level surface. Any surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth is, therefore, a level surface. Level’ Line. A level line is a line lying in a level surface. It is, therefore, normal to the plumb line at all points. Horizontal Plane. Horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to the level surface at that point. It is, therefore, perpendicular to the plumb line through the point. FIG. 9.1 (195)SURVEYING 196 It is al Horizontal Line. It is straight line tangential to the Jevel line at a point. It is also perpendicular to the plumb line, Vertical Line. It is a line normal to the level considered t0 be the line defined by a plumb line. estas feed eae Datum. Datum is any surface to which elevations are refe ic 7 affords a convenient datum world over, and elevations are commonly given as so. mul above or below sea level. It is often more convenient, however, t0 assume some other datum, specially if only the relative elevations of points are required. = i Elevation. The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its vertical distance above or below an arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum. et ifference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance between the two level surfaces in which the two points lie. cat Me ; Vertical Angle. Vertical angle is an angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane. Generally, one of these lines is horizontal. Mean Sea Level. Mean sea level is the avérage height of the sea for all stages of the tides. At any particular place it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights over a long period of 19 years. Bench Mark. Bench Mark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with respect to some assumed datum is known. It is used either as a starting point for levelling or as a point upon which to close as a check. 9.2. METHODS OF LEVELLING Three principal methods are used for determining difference in elevation, namely, barometric levelling, trigonometric levelling and spirit levelling. Barometric levelling. Barometric levelling makes use of the phenomenon that difference in elevation between two points is proportional to the difference in atmospheric pressures at these points. A barometer, therefore, may be used and the readings observed at different points would yield a measure of the relative elevations of those points. At a given point, the atmospheric pressure does not remain constant in the course of the day, even in the course of an hour. The method is, therefore, relatively inaccurate and is little used in surveying work except on reconnaissance or exploratory surveys. Trigonometric Levelling (Indirect levelling) : Trigonometric or Indirect levelling is the process of levelling in which the elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the field, just as the length of any side in any triangle can be comy relations. In a modified form called stadia levelling, comm i i difference in elevation and the horizontal distance Senior fe pola are directly computes from the measured vertical angles and staff readings, Aer Spirit Levelling (Direct Levelling) : It is that branch of Jevellin; line (perpendicular to the direction of gravit in elevation between two adjacent points, at any point is readily established by line at a point. It is commonly puted from proper trigonometric A horizontal Plane of sight tangent to level surface means of a spirit level or a level vial. In_ spiritLUBVELLING 197 levelling, a spirit level and a sighting device (telescope) are combined and vertical distances are measured by observing on graduated rods placed on the points, The method is also known as direct levelling. It is the most Precise method of determining clevations and the one most commonly used by engincers. 9.3, LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS The instruments commonly used in direct levelling are () A level (2) A levelling staff. 1. LEVEL The purpose of a level is to provide a horizontal tine of sight. Essentially, a level consists of the following four paris : @ A telescope to provide line of sight (6) A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal (© A levelling head (tribrach and trivet stage) to bring the bubble in its centre of run (@_ A tripod to support the instrument. There are the following chief types of levels : @ — Dumpy level Ww iii) Reversible level (w) () DUMPY LEVEL Wye (or Y) level Tilting level. The dumpy level originally designed by Gravatt, consists of a telescope tube firmly secured in two collars fixed by adjusting screws to the stage carried by the vertical spindle. rT] 5 i 19 al ~ es a CO} 5 3 = a a a 7 8 12 FIG. 9.2, DUMPY LEVEL 1. TELESCOPE 7, FOOT SCREWS 2. EYE-PIECE 8, UPPER PARALLEL PLATE (TRIBRACH) 3. RAY SHADE 9. DIAPHRAGM. ADIUSTING SCREWS 4. OBJECTIVE END 10. BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING SCREWS 5. LONGITUDINAL BUBBLE 11. TRANSVERSE BUBB:.£ TUDE 6. FOCUSING SCREWS 12, FOOT PLATE (TRIVET STAGE),198 SURVEYING nd the vertical spindle cast in The modern fe telescope tube a lern form of dumpy level has the telescop’ ee ae one piece and a long bubble tube is attached to the top © known as solid dumpy. . Fig. 9.2 shows the diagrammetic sketch of a dumpy fi of a dumpy level. Figs. 9.4 and 9.5 show the photographs of dumpy levels manufactured by M/s Wild Heerbruge and M/s Fennel Kessel respectively. Fig. 9.6 shows a dumpy level by M/s W.F. Stanley & Co. The name ‘dumpy level’ originated from the fact that formerly this level was equipped with an inverting eye-piece and hence was shorter than Wye level of the same magnifying power. However, modern forms generally have erecting eye-piece so that inverted image of the staff is visible in the field of view. In some of the instruments, a clamp screw is provided to control the movement of the spindle about the vertical axis. For small or precise movement, a slow motion screw (or tangent screw) is also provided. ‘The levelling head generally consists of two parallel plat or four-foot screws. The upper plate is known as tribrach as trivet which can be screwed on to a tripod. i level. Fig. 9.3 shows the section es with either three-foot screws and the lower plate is known ‘ 2 FIG. 9.3 SECTIONAL VIEW OF A DUMPY LEVEL. ie 1 BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING SCREWS 2 EYE-PIECE 12 FOOT PLATE (TRIVET STAGE) ae ear eae 13, CLAMP SCREW 4 OBJECTIVE END i SOW en as 5 LONGITUDINAL BUBBLE is mores Cone 6 FOCUSING SCREW is cee co 7 FOOT SCREWS nemnen ene 8. UPPER PARALLEL PLATE (TRIBRACH) 18 TRIPOD, 9 DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREWSLEVELLING 199 The advantages of the dumpy level over the Wye level are: () Simpler construction with fewer movable parts. (ii) Fewer adjustments to be made. (iii) Longer life of the adjustments, (i) WYE LEVEL ‘The essential difference between the dumpy level and the Wye level is that in the former case the telescope is fixed to the spindle while in the Wye level, the telescope is carried in two vertical ‘Wye’ supports. The Wye support consists of curved clips. If the clips are raised, the telescope can be rotated in the Wyes, or removed and turned end for end. When the clips are fastened, the telescope is held from turning about its axis by a lug on one of the clips. The bubble tube may be attached either to the telescope or to the stage carrying the wyes. In the former case, the bubble tube must be of reversible type. Fig. 9.7 shows the essential features of Y-level. The levelling head may be similar to that of a dumpy level. In some cases, the instrument is fitted with a clamp and fine motion tangent screw for controlled movement in the horizontal plane. Fig. 9.8 shows the photograph of a Wye level by Fennel Kessel. ‘The Wye level has an advantage over the dumpy level in the fact that the adjustments can be tested with greater rapidity and ease, However, the adjustments do not have longer life and are disturbed more frequently due to large number of movable parts. A 9 a U 7 4 42 2 3 Section A-A 7 88 FIG. 9.7. WYE LEVEL. 1. TELESCOPE 9. DIAPHRAGM ADIUSTING SCREWS SCREWS 2 EVE-PIECE 10, BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING 3. RAY. SHADE 1 WHE cu 4 OBJECTIVE. END LIP HALE OPEN 5. BUBBLE TUBE 13. CLAMP SCREWS 6. FOCUSING SCREW 14. TANGENT SCREW 1, FooT SCREW 15. TRIVET STAGE 8 TRIBRACK200 SURVEYING (ii) REVERSIBLE LEVEL A reversible Jevel combines the features of both the dumpy level and the Wye level. ‘The telescope is supported by two rigid sockets into which the telescope can be introduced from either end and then fixed in position by a screw. ‘The sockets are rigidly connected to the spindle through a stage. Once the telescope is pushed into the sockets and the screw is tightened, the level acts as a dumpy level. For testing and making the adjustments, the screw is slackened and the telescope can be taken out and reversed end for end, The telescope can also be turned within the socket about the longitudinal axis. (iv) TILTING LEVEL In the case of a dumpy level and a Wye level, the line of sight is perpendicular to the vertical axis. Once the instrument is levelled, the line of sight becomes horizontal and the vertical axis*becomes truly vertical, provided the instrument is in adjustment. In the case of tilting level, however, the line of sight can be tilted slightly without tilting the vertical axis. Thus, the line of sight and the vertical axis need not be exactly perpendicular to each other. ‘This feature, therefore, helps in quick levelling. The instrument is levelled roughly by the three-foot screws with respect either to the bubble tube or to a small circular bubble, thus making the vertical axis approximately vertical. While taking the sight to a staff, the line of. sight is made exactly horizontal by centring the bubble by means of a fine pitched tilting screw which tilts the telescope with respect to the vertical axis. 6 5 1 Hs : 5 g 12 a 4 cmt 1 rile Tg m7 13 FIG, 9.9 TILTING LEVEL. 1. TELESCOPE 7. FOOT SCREWS 2. EYEPIECE 8. TRIBRACH 3. RAY SHADE 9. DIAPHRAGM ADIUSTING SCREWS 4 OWECTIVE END 10 BUBBLE TUBE FIXING SCREWS 5. LEVEL TUDE 1. TILTING screws 6 FOCUSING SCREWS 12, SPRING LOADED PLUNGER 13, TRIVET STAGE,am sighting the staf Fig. 9.9. shows the essential features of a designed for precise levelling work, levelling can be done much quicker, however, tial that the observer should © the view of the bubble wbe while A tilting level. A tilting level is- mainly A has the advantage that due to the ti However, this advantage is not so apparent. when C igs from one instrument setting, Fig, 9,10 shows the tilting level by M/s Vickers Instruments Ltd, 9.4. LEVELLING STARE A levell it is required t take so many readin photograph of a ng stall is a straight re gular rod having graduations, the foot of the staff representing zero reading. The purpose of a level is to establish a horizontal tine of sight. The purpose of the levelling staff is to determine the (ie., foot of the staff) is above or below the fine of imo two classes : (i) Self-reading staff, and (ii) T: mount by which the station sight, Levelling staves may be divided get staff, A Self Reading Staff is the one which can be read directly by the instrument man through the telescope, A Target Sta, on the other hand, contains a moving target by staff man, (i) SELF-READING STAFF ainst. which the reading is taken There arc usually three forms of self-reading staff (a) Solid staff ; (6) Folding staff ; — (c) Telescopic staff (Sopwith pattern). Figs. 9.11 (@) and (6) show the patterns of a solid staff in English unit while (©) and (d ) show that in metric unit. In the most common forms, the mallest division N Vv 7 3 Vv 4 3 9 | = 1 7) |-=N v| 47 3) | Ev English se Metric Hundredths. Fiftioths. Centimetres. — Half-Cantimotres. FIG, 9.11. (BY COURTESY OF MIS VICKERS INSTRUMENT202 SURVEYING is of 0.01 ft. or 5 mm. However, some staves may have fine graduations upto 2. mm. ‘The staff is generally made of well seasond wood having a length of 10 feet or 3 metres. Fig. 9.12 shows a sopwith pattern staff arranged in three telescopic lengths. When fully extended, it is usually of 14 ft (or 5 m) length. The 14 ft. staff has solid top length of 4' 6" sliding into the central box of 4' 6" length. The central box, in turn, slides into lower box of 5" length. In the 5 m staff, the three corresponding lengths are usually 1.5 m, 1.5 m and 2 m, Fig. 9.13 shows a folding staff usually 10 ft long having a hinge at the middle of its length. When not in use, the rod can be folded about the hinge so that it becomes convenient to carry it from one place to the other Since a self-teading staff is always seen through the telescope, all readings appear to be inverted. The readings are, therefore, taken from above downwards. ‘The levelling staves graduated in English units generally have whole number of feet marked in red to the left side of the staff (shown by hatched lines in Fig. 9.12). The odd lengths of the feet are marked in black to the right-hand side, The top of these FIG. 9.12 TELESCOPIC STAFF FIG. 9.13 FOLDING STAFF FIG. 9.14 TARGET STAFF (BY COURTESY OF MIS VICKERS INSTRUMENTS LTD)LEVELLING a black graduations indicates the odd tenth while the bottom shows the cven tenth. The hundredths of feet are indicated by alternate white and black spaces, the top of a black space indicating odd hundredths and top of a white space indicating even hundredths. Sometimes when the staff is near the instrument, the red mark of whole foot may not appear in the field of view. In that case, the staff is raised slowly until the red figure appears in the field of view, the red figure thus indicating the whole feet. Folding Levelling Staff in Metric Units Fig. 9.15 (a) shows a 4 m folding type levelling staff (IS : 1779-1961). The staff comprises two 2 m thoroughly seasoned wooden pieces with the joint assembly. Each piece of the staff is made of one longitudinal strip without any joint. The width and thickness of staff is kept 75 mm and 18 mm respectively. The folding joint of the staff is made of the detachable type with a locking device at the back. The staff is jointed together in such a way that : (@ the staff may be folded to 2 m length. (®) the two pieces may be detached from one another, when required, to facilitate easy handling and manipulation with one piece, and (c) when the two portions are locked together, the two pieces become rigid and_ straight. A circular bubble, suitably cased, of 25-minute sensitivity is fitted at the back. The staff has fittings for a plummet to test and correct the back bubble. A brass is screwed on to the bottom brass cap. The staff has two folding handles with spring acting locking device or an ordinary locking device. Each metre is subdivided into 200 divisions, the thickness of graduations being 5 mm. Fig. 9.15 (b) shows the details of graduations. Every decimetre length is figured with the corresponding numerals (the metre numeral is made in red and the decimetre numeral in black). The decimetre numeral is made continuous throughout the staff. (ii) TARGET STAFF Fig. 9.14 shows a target staff having a sliding target equipped with vernier. ‘The rod consists of two sliding lengths, the lower one of approx. 7 ft and the upper one of 6 fi. The rod is graduated in feet, tenths and hundredths, and the vernier of the target enables the readings to be taken upto a thousandth part of a foot. For readings below 7 ft the target is slided to the lower part while for readings above that, the target is fixed to the 7 ft mark of the upper length. For taking the reading, the level man directs the staff man to raise or lower the target till it is bisected by the line of sight. The staff holder then clamps the target and takes the reading. The upper part of the staff is graduated from top downwards. When higher readings have to be taken, the target is set at top (i.e. 7 ft mark) of the sliding length and the sliding length carrying the target is raised until the target is bisected by the line of sight. The reading is then on the back of the staff where a second vernier enables readings to be taken to a thousandth of a foot. Relative Merits of Self-Reading and Target Staffs (© With the self-reading staff, readings can be taken quicker than with the target staff.SURVEYING (ii) Im the case of target staff, the duties of a target staff-man are as important aS those of the leveller and demand the services of a trained man. In the case of a self-reading staff, on the other hand, ordinary man can hold the staff concentrating more on keeping the staff in plumb. (ii) The reading with target staff can be taken with greater fineness, However, the refinement is usually more apparent than real as the target man may not be directed accurately to make the line of sight bisect the target. 9.8. THE SURVEYING TELESCOPE The optical principles of the surveying telescope are based on the fact that all parallel rays of light reaching a convex lens are bent when they Ieave it in such 2 manner that they intersect at 2 common Point, called the focus and that all the rays passing through another point called the optical centre pass through the geometrical centre of lens without bending. The surveyor’s telescope is an adaptation of Kepler's telescope which employs two convex lenses ; the one nearest to the object is called the objective and the other near the eye is called the eyepiece. The object glass provides a real inverted im: in turn, magnifies the image to produce an inverted virtual image. optical diagram of such a telescope. in front of the eye-piece which, 9.16 shows the FIG, 9.16 OPTICAL DIAGRAM OF TELESCOPE The line of sight ot line of collimation is a line which passes through the optical centre of the objective and the intersection of cross hairs. The axis of the telescope is the line which passes through the optical centres of objective and eye-piece. The cross-hairs are placed in front of eye-piece and in the plane where the real inverted image is produced by the objective. Thus, the eye-piece magnifies the cross-hairs also. ‘The distance from the objective of the image formed by it is connected with the distance of the object by the relation : (ioe Gee tus where w= distance of object from optical centre of objective distance of image from the optical centre of objective ‘f= focal length of the objective.LEVELLING 20s ‘The focal length of an objective is : t constant. The establishment of a ie i of sight, therefore, involves the following two essential conditions = ee (1) The real image must be formed in front of the eye-piece (2) The plane of the image must coincide with that of the cross-hairs. Focusing. For quantitative measurements, it is essential that the image should always be formed in the fixed plane in the telescope where the cross-hairs are situated, The operation of forming or bringing the clear image of the object in the plane of cross-hairs is known as focusing. Complete focusing involves two steps (Focusing the eye-piece. The eye-piece unit is moved in or out with respect to the cross-hairs so that the latter are clearly visible. By doing so, the cross-hairs are brought in the plane of distinct vision which depends on cye-sight of a particular person. (i) Focusing the objective. The purpose of focusing the objective is to bring the image of object in the plane of cross-hairs which are clearly visible. The focusing can be done externally or internally. The telescope in which the focusing is done by the external movement of either objective or eye-picce is known as an external focusing telescope (Fig. 9.24) and the one in which the focusing is done internally with a negative lens is known as internal focusing telescope (Fig. 9.25). Parallax. If the image formed by objective lens is not in the same plane with cross-inairs, any movement of the eye is likely to cause an apparent movement of the image with respect to the cross-hairs. This is called parallax. The parallax can be eliminated by focusing as described above. Whether internal focusing or external focusing, a telescope consists of the following essential parts : () Objective (ii) Eye-piece (ii) Diaphragm () OBJECTIVE (iv) Body and focusing device. If simple (single) lenses are used, the telescope would have various optical defects, known as aberrations, which would result in curvature, distortion, unwanted colours and indistinctness of the image, In order to eliminate these defects as much as possible, the objective and eye-piece lens are made up of two or more simple lenses. The objective (Fig. 9.17) is invariably a compound lens consisting of (a) the front double convex lens made of crown glass and (b) the back concavo-convex lens made of flint glass, the two being cemented together with balsm at their common surface. Such compound Tens is known as achromatic lens, and two serious optical defects viz., spherical aberration and chromatic aberration are nearly eliminated, (i) EYE-PIECE FIG. 9.17. OBJECTIVE. In most of surveying telescopes, Ramsden eye-piece is used. It is composed of plano-convex \enses of equal focal length (Fig. 9.18), the distance between them being (wormm SURVEYING of the focal length of either. This eye-piece gives @ flat field of view. It is also known 48 positive or non-erecting eye-piece for the —> inverted image, which is formed by the object glass, appears still inverted to the observer. Another type of eye-piece, though not commonly used, is Huygen's eyepiece. It is composed of two plano-convex lenses (Fig. 9.19), the distance between them being ‘two-third of the focal length of the larger and twice the focal length of the smaller. The chromatic ab- erration of this combination is slightly less and spherical aberration is more than that of Ramsden’s. This is also a non-erecting eye-piece. Some telescopes are fitted with special erecting eye-pieces which give a magnified but inverted image of the image formed by the objective and hence, the latter itself forms an inverted i but erect image of the original object. The eye-pi ‘The eye-piece involves the use of extra lenses. image, which is a decided disadvantage. Additional advanta; are (i) for any desired magnifying power, than the erecting telescope, (ii) the definition is certain to FIG. 9.19. HUYGEN'S EYE-PIECE mage. The result is a magnified, iece consists of four lenses (Fig. 9.20). This results in loss of brilliancy of the wges of a non-erecting telescope the length of non-erecting telescope is shorter be better because the image FIG. 9.20. ERECTING EYE-PIECE. does not have to be erected but instead is formed by an achromatic eye-piece, For all precise work, the Ramsden eye-piece is to be preferred, i fs inverted images are not a great disadvantage and > \ ‘a surveyor very soon gets used to them. z When the line of sight is very much inclined to the horizontal, it becomes inconvenient for the. eye to view through ordinary eye-piece. In such a case, a diagonal eye-piece, such as shown in Fig. 9.21 is used. Diagonal eye-piece, generally of Ramsden type, consists of the two lenses and a reflecting prism or a mirror fitted at an angle of 45° with the axis of the telescope. Such eye-piece is very much useful in astronomical observations. aLEVELLING oar (i) DIAPHRAGM ‘The cross-hairs, designed to give a definite line of sight, consist of a vertical and a horizontal hair held in a flat metal ring called reticule. In modern instruments, the reticule is an interchangeable capsule which fits into the diaphragm, a flanged metal ring held in telescope barrel by four capstan-headed screws (Fig. 9.22). With the help of these screws, the position of the cross-hairs inside of the tube can be adjusted slightly, both horizontally and vertically, and a slight rotational movement is also possible. FIG, 9.22 DIAPHRAGM AND RECTICULE. The hairs are usually made of threads from cocoon of the brown spider, but may be of very fine platinum wire of filaments of silk. In some instruments, the reticule consists of a glass plate on which are etched fine vertical and horizontal lines which serve as cross-hairs. A few typical arrangements of the lines and points are illustrated in Fig. 9.23 of which (a), (6) and (c) are used in levels. De & @) o @ wBE 0 @ o 0 FIG. 9.23. CROSS-HAIRS ‘The horizontal hair is used to read the staff and the two vertical hairs enable the surveyor to see if the staff is vertical laterally. Most telescopes are also equipped with two more horizontal hairs called stadia hairs, one above and other on equal distances below the horizontal cross-hair, for use in computing distances by stadia tacheometry. (iv) BODY AND FOCUSING DEVICE ‘The focusing device depends upon whether it is an external focusing telescope (Fig. 9.24) or an internal focusing telescope (Fig. 9.25). In the external focusing telescope, the body is formed of two tubes one capable of sliding axially within the other by means208 SURVENING ol of rack gearing with a pinion attached to the milled focusing screw. In some cases objective cell is screwed to the inner tube, so that the focusing movement is effec movement of the objective relatively to the outer fixed tube carrying the cross-hairs ar eye-piece. In other cases, the objective is mounted on the outer tube and the eye. end, carrying the eye-piece and the diaphragm, moves in focusing. FIG. 9.25. INTERNAL FOCUSING TELESCOPE. In internal focusing telescope, the objective and eye-piece are kept fixed and the focusing is done with help of a supplementary double concave lens mounted in a short tube which can be moved to and fro between the diaphragm and the objective. This short tube holding the lens is moved along and inside the tube carrying the objective by means of rack and pinion and an external milled head. Fig. 9.26 illustrates the principle underly the focusing with a negative lens. Gross-hairs FIG. 9.26. _In the absence of the negative lens B, the image will be formed at C. For the negative lens B, point C forms the virtual object the final image of which is at D (cross-hairs) For the lens A having f as the focal length 1ilod 4slyd e() LG For the lens B, having f’ as the focal length,Folding Handle (a) 4-m FOLDING TYPE () DETAILS OF GRADUATIONS LEVELLING STAFF (LS. 1779-1961) FIG. 9.15. FOLDING STAFF : (To Face Page 200)FIG, 9.6, DUMPY LEVEL (BY COURTESY OF M/S W. F. STANLEY & CO.) 18 in. Wye Level FIG. 9.8. Y-LEVEL (BY COURTESY OF M/S FENNEL KASSEL) (To Face Page 200)Wa) we above two conjugate focal equations, the distance d can be known for o When the object is at infinite distance, f equals f and d will have vantages of the internal focusing over the external focusing are as follows: = overall length of the tube is not altered during focusing. The focusing slide ‘ight and located near the middle of the telescope. Hence, the balance of is not affected and the bubble is less liable to be displaced during focusing. Risk of breaking the parallel plate bubble tube or glass cover of compass box. transiting a theodolite telescope, is eliminated. }) Wear on the rack and pinion is less due to lesser movement of negative lens. (4) Line of collimation is less likely to be affected by focusing. (5) As the draw tube is not exposed to weather, oxidation is less likely to occur and the telescope can be made practically dust and water proof. (6) In making measurements by the stadia method, an instrument constant is almost i and the computations are thus simplified. jined objective and negative lens is greater than the distance between the objective and focal plane. This extra equivalent focal length can be utilised to increase the - Iu210 or imperfection, arising from the form of curvature of the lens is known as spherical aberration | © sometimes as axial spherical aberration. The spheri aberration of a negative lens tends to neutr a that of a positive lens. Hence the positive and negative elements of an achromatic lens can be so shaped cally to eliminate spherical aberration also. (See Fig. 9.17 also), re @) Chromatic Aberration. A beam of white light is made up of seven colours—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet, Since the focal length of any single lens is different for each different colour of light, a beam of white light instead of converging at a focus after passing through a single lens, is distributed along the axis in a series of focal points. The violet ray is refracted et ba the red is refracted least (Fig. 9.28). This defect is known as chromatic Daca iduepvomanichmm F1Gu)9.28 CHROMATIC ABERRA a blurred and coloured image is formed. The chromatic 3 aberrations are of opposite signs in positive and negative lenses. It is, therefore. to make a combination lens in which the chromatic aberration of a negative lens of re Jow power is sufficient practically to neutralize the chromatic aberration of pos of relative high power. Fig 9.17 shows such an achromatic lens in which the out convex Jens is made of crown glass and the inner concavo-convex lens of The elimination of aberrations is only one of the requirements in the a telescope. The extent to which this aim is achieved determines to a considerable & the quality of telescope. The other possible defects in a single lens, i.e. coma, astigmation, curvature, etc., are of little importance to the majority of surveyors. If further information be reow'= eae should be made to any of the elementary standard text books on physss s OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TELESCOPE vices ere Of surveying telescope are as follows free from spherical eee st ase of spherical aberration, A compoun’ °* (2). Achromatism, Ana as an aplanatic combination. I - Achromation is the absence of chi ‘ Pe A compu! lens, free from chromatic aberration, is know romatic aberration. a G3) Definition. Definition, as applied Mas an achromatic combination. a sharp image. This resolving power of 4 incite oPe its capability. of FN images of objects separated by small telescope is the power to form distin The definition depends upon the eee distances and it wholly depends upon“ {0 which the defects of a single lens 8° Ing the lenses on one axisLEVELLING an (4) Mlumination or Brightness. The illumination or brightness of the image of telescope depends upon the magnifying power and the number and quality, of the lenses. Illumination is inversely proportional to magnification and number of lenses. (5) Magnification. Magnification is the ratio between the angle subtended at the eye by the virtual image, and that subtended by the object and depends upon the ratio of the focal length of the objective lens to the focal length of the eye-piece. The magnification should be proportional to the aperture (i.e to the amount of light which enters the telescope), because if the magnification is too high for the aperture, the ordinary objects will appear faint and if magnification is too low the objects will appear too small for accurate sighting. Provision of higher magnification reduces brilliancy of image, reduces the field of view and wastes more time in focusing. (6) Size of field. By field of view is meant the whole circular area seen at one time through the telescope. The field of view is not merely dependent upon the size of the hole in the cross-hair reticule, but it also increases as the magnification of the telescope decreases. 9.6. TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF A LEVEL Each surveying instrument needs two types of adjustments : (1) temporary adjustments, and (2) permanent adjustments. Temporary adjustments or Station adjustments are those which are made at every instrument setting and preparatory to taking observations with the instrument. Permanent adjustments need be made only when the fundamental relations between some parts or lines are disturbed (See Chapter 16). ‘The temporary adjustments for a level consist of the following : (1) Setting up the level (2) Levelling up (3) Elimination of parallax. 1. Setting up the Level. The operation of setting up includes (a) fixing the instrument on the stand, and (6) levelling the instrument approximately by leg adjustment. To fix the level to the tripod, the clamp is released, instrument is held in the right-hand and is fixed on the tripod by turning round the lower part with the left hand. The tripod legs are so adjusted that the instrument is at the convenient height and the tribrach is approximately horizontal. Some instruments are also provided with a small circular bubble on the tribrach. 2. Levelling up. After having levelled the instrument approximately, accurate levelling is done with the help of foot screws and with reference to the plate levels. The purpose of levelling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical. The manner of levelling the instrument by the plate levels depends upon whether there are three levelling screws or four levelling screws. (@) Three Screw Head J. Loose the clamp. Turn the instrument until the longitudinal axis of the plate level is roughly parallel to a line joining any two (such as A and B) of the levelling screws (Fig. 9.29 (a)] 2. Hold these two levelling screws between the thumb and first finger of each hand and turn them uniformly so that the thumbs move either towards each other or away from each other until the bubble is central. Jt should be noted that the bubble will move in the direction of movement of the left thumb [sce Fig. 9.29 (a)}‘SURVEYING 3. Turn the upper plate through 90°, ie, until the axis On the level passes over the position of the third levelling screw C [Fig. 9.29 (by). 4, Turn this levelling screw \, until the bubble is central, ea 5. Return the upper part @ © through 90° to its original position 5 [Fig. 9.29 (@)] and repeat step (2) till the bubble is central, 6. Turn back again through 90° and repeat step (4). 7. Repeat steps (2) and (4) till the bubble is central in both the positions. 8. Now rotate the instrument through 180° . The bubble should remain in the centre of its run, provided it is in correct adjustment. The vertical axis will then be truly vertical. If not, it needs permanent adjustment Note. It is essential to keep the same quarter circle for the changes in direction and not to swing through the remaining three quarters of a circle to the original position. (b) Four Serew Head 1. Turn the upper plate until the longitudinal axis of the plate level is roughly parallel to the line joining two diagonally opposite screws such as D and B [Fig. 9.30 (a)]. 2. Bring the bubble central exactly in the same manner as described in step (2) @) FIG. 9.29. LEVELLING-UP WITH THREE FOOT SCREWS. above, 3. Turn the upper part through 90° until the spirit level axis is parallel to the other two diagonally opposite screws such as A and C [Fig. 9.30 (b)]. 4, Centre the bubble as before. 0 D c 5, Repeat the above steps till the Q 6) bubble is central in both the positions. >, A, ’ 6. Turn through 180° to check the . permanent adjustment as for three screw instrument. han 8 i In modern instruments, three-foot OS © G screw levelling head is used in preference to a four foot screw levelling head. The @ three-screw arrangement is the better one, as three points of mpponCae atic 2 Ge ee ee for stability and the introduction of an extra point of support leads to uneven wear on the screws. On the other hand, a four-screw levelling head is simpler and lighter as @ three-screw head requires special casting called a sribrach. A three-screw instrument has also the important advantage of being more rapidly levelled. 3, Elimination of Parallax. Parallax is a condition arising when the image formed by the objective is not in the plane of the cross-hairs. Unless parallax is eliminated, accurateLEVELLING 213 sighting is impossible. Parallax can be eliminated in two steps : () by focusing the eye-piece for distinct vision of the cross-hairs, and (ii) by focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross-hairs. () Focusing the eye-piece To focus the eye-piece for distinct vision of the cross-hairs, point the telescope towards the sky (or hold a sheet of white paper in front of the objective) and move eye-piece in or out till the cross-haris are seen sharp and distinct. In some telescopes, graduations are provided at the eye-piece so that one can always remember the particular graduation position to suit his eyes. This may save much of time. (i) Focusing the objective The telescope is now directed towards the staff and the focusing screw in turned till the image appears clear and sharp. The image so formed is in the plane of cross-hairs. 9.7. THEORY OF DIRECT LEVELLING (SPIRIT LEVELING) A level provides horizontal line of sight, i.e., a line tangential to a level surface at the point where the instrument stands. The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance between two level lines. Strictly speaking, therefore, we must have a level line of sight and not a horizontal line of sight ; but the distinction between a level surface and a horizontal plane is not an important one in plane surveying. Neglecting the curvature of earth and refraction, therefore, the theory of direct levelling is very simple. With a level set up at any place, the difference in clevation between any two poitits within proper lengths of sight is given by the difference between the rod readings taken on these points. By a succession of instrument stations and related readings, the difference in elevation between widely separated points is thus obtained. SPECIAL METHODS OF SPIRIT LEVELLING (a) Differential Levelling. It is the method of direct levelling the object of which is solely to determine the difference in elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the points with respect of each other. When the points are apart, it may be necessary to set up the instruments serveral times. This type of levelling is also known as fly levelling. (b) Profile Levelling. It is the method of direct-levelling the object of which is to determine the elevations of points at measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile of the surface along that line. (0) Cross-Sectioning. Cross-sectioning or cross-levelling is the process of taking levels on each side of a main line at right angles to that line, in order to determine a vertical cross-section of the surface of the ground, or of underlying strata, or of both. @ Reciprocal Levelling. It is the method of levelling in which the difference in elevation between two points is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations when it is not possible to set up the level between the two points (@) Precise Levelling. It is the levelling in which the degree of precision required is too great to be attained by ordinary methods, and in which, therefore, special, equipment or special precautions or both are necessary to eliminate, as far as possible, all sources of error.21a TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ( Station. In levelling, a station is that point wt not where level is set up. It is the point whose elevation point that is to be established at a given elevation. : (i) Height of Instrument (H.I.) For any set up of the level, the height of instrument is the elevation of plane of sight (line of sight) with respect (0 the assumed datum. It does not mean the height of the telescope above the ground where the level stands. (iii) Back Sight (B.S.). Back sight is the sight taken on rod held at a point of known elevation, to ascertain the amount by which the line of sight is above that point and thus to obtain the height of the instrument. Back sighting is equivalent to measuring up from the point of known elevation to the line of sight. Tt is also known as a plus evel of the datum to get the sight as the back sight reading is always added to the height of the instrument. The object of back sighting is, therefore, (0 ascertain the height of the plane of sight. (iv) Fore Sight (F.S.. Fore sight is a sight taken on a rod held at point of unknown elevation, to ascertain the amount by which the point is below | the line of sight and thus to obtain the elevation of the station, Fore sighting is equivalent to measuring down from the line of sight. It is also known as a minus sight as the fore sight reading is always subtracted (except in speical cases of tunnel survey) from the height Of the instrument to get the elevation of the point, The object of fore sighting is. therfore, to ascertain the elevation of the point. (v) Turning Point (T.P.). Turning point or change point is a point on which both minus sight and plus sight are taken on a line of direct levels. The minus sight (fore sight) is taken on the point in one set of instrument to ascertain the elevation of the point while the plus sight (back sight) is taken om the same point in other set of the instrument to establish the new height of the instrument. (vi) Intermediate Station (L.S.). Intermediate station is a point, intermediate berween two turning points, on which only one sight (minus sight) is taken to determine the elevation of the station. STEPS IN LEVELLING (Fig. 9.31) There are two steps in levelling : (a) to find by how much amount the line of sight is above the bench mark, and (b) to ascertain by how much amount the next point is below or above the line of sight. nere the level rod is held and is to be ascertained or the Line of sight ELV. 219.176 2.824) 1.836 ELV. 211.940 BM. ELV. 210.852 FIG. 9.31LEVELLING Me A level is set up approximately midway between the bench nvisk (or a point of known elevation) and the point, the clevation of which is to be ascertained by direct levelling ‘A back sight is taken on the rod held at the bench mark, ‘Then HL. = Ely. of BM. + B. anal} Turning the telescope to bring into view the rod held on point B, 9 foresight (minus sight) is taken. Then Ely. = HL. - BS. wa) For example, if elevation of B.M. = 210.852 m, B. 2.324 m and FS. © 1.836 m. Then HI. = 210.852 + 2.324 = 213.176 m and Elv. of B= 213.176 - 1.836 = 211.340 m. It is to be noted that if a back sight is taken on a bench mark located on the roof of a tunnel or on the ceiling of a room with the instrument at a lower clevation, the back sight must be subtracted from the clevation to get the height of the instrument Similarly, if a foresight is taken on a point higher than the instrument, the foresight must be added to the height of the instrument, to get the elevation of the point 9.8. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING The operation of levelling. to determine the ele is called differential levelling and is usually accomplis points are at sch a distance from each other that they cannot both be within rans of he level at the same time, the difference in elevation is not found by single setting but the distance between the points is divided in two stages by turning poims on which the Staff ig held and the difference of elevation of cach of succeeding pair of such turning points is found by separate setting up of the level. ion of points at some distance apart hed by direct levelling. When two 9.100 242.024 aazo1e Ned 8. (241,202) 2.024 4 (240.604) TP.2 (240.000) (240.490) FIG. 9.32 Referring to Fig. 9.32, A and B are the two points, ‘The distance AB has been divided into three parts by choosing two additional points on which staff readings (both plus sight and minus sight) have been taken. Points 1 and 2 thus serve as turning points. The RL. of point A is 240.00 m. The height of the first setting of the instrument is therefore = 240.00+ 2.024 = 242.024. If the following. F.S. is 1.420, the RL. of TP. 1=242.024 - 1.420 = 240.604 m. By a similar process of calculations, R.L. of T.P. 2 =240.490 m and of B = 241.202 m.ae SURVEY I, 9.9. HA ‘TIONS . i ‘ND SIGNALS DURING OBSERVATIO! in busy, noisy areas, it becom, When levelling is done at construction site located holding the staff a : Is e ma stag " the Gifficult for the instrument man to give instructions (0 the hand signals are foung bi Other end, through vocal sounds. In that case, the following ° be useful (Table 9.1 and Fig, 9.33) TABLE 9.1, HAND SIGNALS ee; Signat Message Movement of left Move to my left arm over 90° (s PL % Movement of Move to my right arm over 90° | Fight Movement of left | Move top of ) am over 30° staff to my left @ 2 Movement of Move top of by ¥ Fight arm over 30°! ait to my right Extension of arm Raise height peg horizontally and or staff moving hand ¢ Upwards ® © : Extension of arm Lower height horizontally and peg or staff moving hand downvvards Extension of both Establish the arms and slightly | position @ . thrusting downwards Extension of arms Return to me and placement of hand on top of head. FIG. 9.33. HAND SIGNALS. 9.10. BOOKING AND REDUCING LEVELS There are two methods of booking and reducing the elevation of points from the observed staff readings : (1) Collimation or Height of Instrument method ; (2) Rise and Fall method. (2) HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD In this mehtod, the height of the instrument (H.1.) is calculated for each setting of the instrument by adding back sight (plus sight) to the elevation of the B.M. (First point), The elevation of reduced level of the turning point is then calculated by subtracting from H.J. the fore sight (minus sight). For the next setting of the instrument, the Al is obtained by adding the BS taken on TP. 1 to its RL. The process continues till the R.L. of the last point (a fore sight) is obtained by subtracting the staff reading from height of the last setting of the instrument, If there are some intermediate points, the Ee of those points is calculated by subtracting the intermediate sight (minus sight) from the height of the instrument for that setting.LEVELLING 217 The following is the specimen page of a level field book illustrating the method of booking staff readings and calculating reduced levels by height of instrument method. Station. BS LS. ES. Wd. RL Remarks A B c D E F 0.865 361,365, 560.500 _| B.M. on Gate 1.025, 2.105, 360.285, 559.260 1,580 558.705 Platform 2.230 [1.865 560.650 558.420 2.355 2,835 560,270 557.815 1,760 558.410 Check 6.475 8.565 558.410 Checked 6.475 560.500 2.090 Fall 2.090 Arithmetic Check, The difference between the sum of back sights and the sum of fore sights should be equal to the difference between the last and the first R.L. Thus EB.S.-EF.S.= Last R.L.- First R.L. The method affords a check for the H./. and R.L. of turning points but not for the intermediate points. (2) RISE AND FALL METHOD In rise and fall method, the height of instrument is not at all calculated but the difference of level between consecutive points is found by comparing the staff readings on the two points for the same setting of the instrument. The difference between their staff readings indicates a rise or fall according as the staff reading at the point is smaller or greater than that at the preceding point. The figures for ‘rise’ and ‘fall’ worked out thus for all the points give the vertical distance of each point above or below the preceding one, and if the level of any one point is known the level of the next will be obtained by adding its rise or subtracting its fall, as the case may be. The following is the specimen page of a level field book illustrating the method of booking staff readings and calculating reduced levels by rise and fall method : Station BS. LS. FS. Rise Fall RL Remarks A 0.865 560.500 |B.M._on_Gate| B 1.025 2.105 1.240 559.260 Cc 1.580 0.555 558.705 | Platform D 2.230 1.865 0.285 558.420 E 2.355, 2.835 0.605 557.815 F 1,760 0.595 558.410 — es [om [ag | ess | ca Fall 2.090 Fall 090 2.090ne SURVEYING cl s sum of back sights and sum of fore et f rise and the sum of fal) f last and first point. Thus, __ Arithmetic Check. The difference Sights should be equal to the difference between the sum 0 and should also be equal to the difference between the RL. oF EB.S.-ZFS.=5 Rise-¥ Fall= Last Rub. ~ First Rol. This provides a complete check on the intermediate sights also. The arithmetic check would only fail in the unlikely, but possible, case of two more errors occurring in such a manner as to balance cach other. It is advisable that on each page the rise and fall calculations shall be completed and checked by comparing with the difference of the back and fore sight column summations, before the reduced level calculations are commenced. Comparison of the Two Methods. The height of the instrument (or collimation level) method is more rapid, less tedious and simple. However, since the check on the calculations for intermediate sights is not available, the mistakes in their levels pass unnoticed. The rise and fall method though more tedious, provides a full check in calculations for all sights. However, the height of instrument method is more suitable in case, where it is required to take a number of readings from the same instrument setting, such as for constructional work, profile levelling etc. Example 9.1. The following staff readings were observed successively with a level, the instrument having been moved after third, sixth and eighth readings : 2.228 ; 1.606 3 0.988 ; 2,090 ; 2,864 ; 1.262 ;, 0.602; 1.982 ; 1.044 ; 2.684 metres. Enter the above readings in a page of a level book and calculate the R.L. of points if the first reading was taken with a staff held on a bench mark of 432.384 m. Solution. Since the instrument was shified after third, sixth and eighth readings, these readings will be entered in the F.S. column and therefore, the fourth, seventh and ninth readings will be entered on the B.S, column. Also, the first reading will be entered in the B.S. column and the last reading in the F.S. column. All other readings will be entered in the ZS. column. ‘The reduced levels of the points may be calculated by rise and fall method as tabulated RL Remarks 432.384 433.006 433.624 432.850 434.452 433.072 431.432 432.384 431.432 0.952 below :LEVELLING 219 Example 9.2. It was required 10 ascertain the elevation of two points P and Q and a line of levels was run from P to Q. The levelling was then continued to a bench mark of 83.500, the readings obtained being as shown below. Obtain the R.L. of Pand Q. BS. LS. FS. RL. Remarks 1.622 P 1.874 0.354 2,032 1.780 2,362 Q 0.984 1.122 1,906 2.824 2.036 83.500 BM. Solution. To find the R.Ls. of P and Q, we will have to proceed from bottom to the top. To find the H.J., therefore, F.S. readings will have to be added to the R.L. of the known point and to find the R.L. of the previous point, the B.S. will have to be subtracted from_the so obtained H./. as clearly shown in the table below : Station BS 1S. FS. Wd. RL. Remarks | P 1,622 84.820 3.198 | 1.874 0.354 86.340 84.466 | 2.032 [1.780 86.592 84.560 2 2.362 84.230 | 0.984 1.122 86.454 85.470 1.906 2.824 85.539 83.630 2.036 83.500 BM. Checked Example 9.3. The following consecutive readings were taken with a level and 5 metre levelling staff on continuously sloping ground at a common interval of 20 metres: 0.385; 1.030; 1.925 ; 2.825 ; 3.730 ; 4.685 ; 0.625 ; 2.005 ; 3.110; 4.485. The reduced level of the first point was 208.125 m. Rule out a page of a level field book and enter the above readings. Calculate the reduced levels of the points by rise and fall method and also the gradient of the line joining the first and the last point. Solution. Since the readings were taken on a continuously sloping ground, the maximum staff reading can be 5 metres only, and therefore, sixth reading will be a fore sight taken on a turning point and the seventh reading will be a back sight, Also, the first reading will be a back sight and the last reading will be a fore sight. The levels can be readily calculated as shown in the tabular form below: