BASICS OF JOURNALISM PRACTICES

Module 1- 1 What is journalism? The concepts and principles of Journalism

2 News _ meaning and definitions, news values and components of news

Writing for media, News writing style _ Inverted pyramid, hourglass, Chronological

4 Basic difference between print, electronic and online journalism

What is journalism?
Journalism is the practice of gathering, assessing, creating, and presenting news and information to the
public. It serves as a vital component of democratic societies by informing citizens about events, issues,
and developments that affect their lives and the world at large. Journalists employ a variety of methods,
including research, interviews, and data analysis, to ensure their reports are accurate, comprehensive,
and fair.

The primary role of journalism Is to provide a check on power and to give voice to diverse perspectives.
This involves investigating and reporting on matters of public interest, from political corruption to social
justice issues. Journalists adhere to ethical standards, including accuracy, fairness, and impartiality, to
maintain credibility and trust with their audience.

The advent of digital media has transformed journalism, expanding its reach and methods. Online
platforms, social media, and mobile technology have made it possible to deliver news instantly to a
global audience. However, this shift has also introduced challenges, such as the spread of misinformation
and the need for new business models to support quality journalism.

The media is often called the “fourth pillar of the state,” highlighting its essential role in any community.
For people to live and work well together, they need to be informed about not just current events but
also changes in our world and how we affect our surroundings.

Journalists mainly report on current events and share important information. They also help put events
into context and encourage action. Their reports make us think about things in new ways, broaden our
imagination, and understand our world better.

Simply put, journalism helps create a shared “awareness” among people, ensuring everyone has access
to useful facts and information that affect our lives.

Principles of journalism

The principles of journalism are guidelines that help ensure the integrity and quality of journalistic
practice. These principles include:
Truth and Accuracy and Verification: Journalists must strive for accuracy by thoroughly checking facts
and sources before publishing. Verification ensures that information is reliable and trustworthy.

Fairness and Impartiality: Reporting should be balanced and unbiased, presenting all relevant sides of a
story without favoritism. This principle helps maintain credibility and trust.

Independence: Journalists should avoid conflicts of interest and maintain independence from external
pressures, including political, commercial, or personal influences, to ensure their reporting remains
objective.

Accountability: Journalists should be accountable for their work, admitting mistakes and correcting
errors promptly. This transparency builds trust with the audience.

Ethical Standards: Journalism should adhere to ethical guidelines, such as respecting privacy, avoiding
harm, and not engaging in deceptive practices. Ethical behavior helps maintain the profession’s integrity.

Public Interest: The primary focus of journalism should be on serving the public interest by providing
information that is important for the community, rather than solely for entertainment or commercial
gain.

Humanity – Journalists should do no harm. What we publish or broadcast may be hurtful, but we should
be aware of the impact of our words and images on the lives of others.

What is news
News refers to information about recent events or developments, typically reported by media
organizations such as newspapers, television channels, radio stations, and online platforms. It covers a
range of topics including politics, economics, science, culture, and local events, aiming to inform the
public about what is happening in the world.

News values
News values are the criteria used by journalists and media organizations to determine the
newsworthiness of a story. These values help decide which events and issues are reported and how
prominently they are featured. Key news values include:

Timeliness- refers to how recent an event is. News is often considered more valuable if it is current and
up-to-date. This is because people want to know about the latest developments and immediate issues
affecting them.

Proximity- relates to how close an event is to the audience geographically or culturally. Events occurring
in the local area or country are usually more relevant to readers than those happening far away.

Impact- measures the significance of an event. Stories that have major implications for a large number
of people or important sectors (like health, economy, or safety) are considered more newsworthy.
Prominence- Refers to the importance or fame of the people or institutions involved. Events involving
well-known figures, celebrities, or major organizations are more likely to be reported due to their higher
public interest.

Conflict - Involves disagreement or tension between parties. Stories with elements of conflict, such as
political disputes, strikes, or legal battles, are often more engaging and thus more likely to be reported.

Novelty- Refers to the unusual or unique aspects of an event. Stories that are rare, bizarre, or different
from the norm can attract attention because they offer something out of the ordinary.

Human interest – Human interest stories focus on personal experiences and emotional elements that
connect with the audience on a personal level. These stories often highlight individual experiences or
emotional moments

News writing style

News writing style is a specific approach used by journalists to present information clearly, concisely, and
effectively. It emphasizes clarity, brevity, and objectivity.

1. Inverted pyramid structure

This style organizes information with the most important details at the top and the least critical
information at the bottom. The idea is that readers get the essential facts quickly and can choose to read
further if they wish.

It has three parts-

Lead,

body

conclusion/ tail
Lead- The lead is the first paragraph of a news story and serves to capture the reader’s attention
immediately. It should summarize the most critical elements of the story—typically answering the 5 Ws
and H (Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How). The goal is to provide the essence of the story right
away, giving readers the key information they need to understand the main points without needing to
read further.

Body- The body of the news story provides additional details and context that support the lead. This
section elaborates on the initial summary by presenting background information, quotes, and further
explanations.

Tail/ Conclusion - The concluding part of the story, where less critical information is presented. This
section can include additional details, less important facts, or interesting side notes that complement the
main story but are not essential to the reader’s immediate understanding.

HOUR GLASS STRUCTURE

The hourglass structure is a storytelling format used in journalism that blends two approaches: the
inverted pyramid and chronological narrative. It is called the hourglass because, like an hourglass, it
starts broad at the top, narrows in the middle, and expands again at the bottom.

1. Top- The story starts with the most critical information first, just like the traditional inverted
pyramid style. This means answering the basic questions of the story—who, what, when, where,
 why, and how—right at the beginning. The goal is to give readers the essential facts quickly in
case they don’t read the whole article.

2. The Turn- This section is often referred to as the “turn” or “pivot.” It signals a transition from
providing quick facts to a more detailed storytelling mode.
This pivot might summarize the key points or introduce a new angle or perspective to lead into
the deeper narrative.

3. Bottom or Narrative
After the turn, the story expands again, often using a chronological structure or a more detailed
narrative.This part provides more context, background, quotes, or a deeper dive into the story. It
can unfold in the order the events happened, giving the story more depth and emotional weight.
 Prepared by Ashik Babu
Guest Lecturer, Media Studies Dept.
Mannnaniya College of Arts and Science

Reporting Setup of a News Paper

The Reporting Wing is the main source of information which supplies bulk of news items to
the newsroom on a daily basis. It not only reports news items, but also promotes a
newspaper as a brand. One cannot think about the existence of newsroom without a
reporting wing. In fact, both the wings are interdependent, but the charm of reporting
makes a huge difference. The following are the various categories of reporters who work in
a newspaper organization:

Bureau Chief

The Bureau Chief is a key person who leads central bureau from where a newspaper is being
published. S/he leads a group of reporting staff and assigns them duties. S/he not only
supervises them, but also tries to go through the news items submitted by reporters.

S/he co-ordinates with news wing in consultation with the news editor or chief sub editor
and also reports major developments to the editor.

S/he also leads local bureau offices where newspaper’s circulation and news fall is
substantial. These bureaus are extended branch of a newspaper house from where all the
activities, except for the printing of the newspaper are performed.

Special Correspondents

They are the senior and most experienced members of the editorial wing who cover
national and international issues. The foreign visit of President or Prime Minister, cabinet
meeting called by Prime Minister or Chief Minister and parliamentary and legislative
sessions are generally covered by the special correspondents.

Chief Reporter

The Chief Reporter covers major events in the city or district and assigns duties to reporters
and guides them. S/he also plans special stories and develops one’s information sources at
various levels so that one can report any incident at the same time. S/he also builds rapport
with officials as well as politicians so that s/he can be aware of major decisions taken by
them.

The Chief reporter keeps close contacts with the chief sub editor for better coordination of
the city edition.
 Senior Reporter:

Senior Reporter also covers major happenings in the city and assists the bureau chief and
chief reporter in smooth functioning of news coverage. In the absence of senior members in
reporting wing, s/he performs all duties such as assigning tasks to the reporters, supervising
them and coordinating with the chief sub editor in the news room.

Reporter

A group of reporters work in the newspaper organization. They have specific coverage area
according to their ability and expertise which is judged by the editor. This specific area is
called beat. If a reporter is interested in politics, s/he gets a chance to do political beat. The
reporter interested in games is assigned sports beat. Similarly business, crime, art and
culture and science beats are assigned to the reporters, who have skills, potential and ability
to do that. They are supervised and instructed by the bureau chief or the chief reporter to
file news items on time.

Stringer

Since it is not financially viable to recruit reporters in each city and area, a newspaper
house appoints a group of stringers for coverage of various areas. They provide news items
from their specific areas. They are not regular employees of a newspaper, but they provide
news on a regular basis and are paid according to the size or words written in the story.

In addition, there are some other sources that provide news items to a newspaper house
such as News Agencies, Press Release, Hand-outs and Presser issued by the different
organizations.

News Agencies

News Agencies are the main source of bulk supply of news materials including feature and
photographs. Most of the newspapers take the services of news agencies like Press Trust of
India (PTI), United News of India (UNI) and Indo-Asian News Service (IANS). Some of the
newspapers are fully dependent on them because of financial reasons.

These news agencies have international collaborations too. PTI has tied up withAgence
France Presse (AFP), Associated Press (AP) and The New York Times,while UNI has tied up
with Reuters, Xinhua, Deutsche Presse Agentur (DPA)etc. Some Hindi news agencies are PTI
(Bhasha), Univarta, Hindustan Samachar and Samachar Bharti etc.
 Prepared by Ashik Babu
Guest Lecturer, Media Studies Dept.
Mannnaniya College of Arts and Science

Photography Wing of a News Paper

The photography wing has prominent position in a newspaper organization.
Most of the newspapers have made it necessary to put a photo or logo or
cartoon (small or big depending on the size of a story) along with news items.
Even editor takes keen interest in the selection of photographs.

The big, medium and small newspapers appoint a photography team led by
Photo Editor. The following are the members of the wing:

Photo Editor

Photo Editor is the head of photography wing that is experienced and creative
enough to select best photos for newspapers of consultation with the editor.
While selecting a photo, s/he keeps news sense in mind and gives a proper
angle in tune with news presentation. S/he also assigns duties to the
colleagues for photo coverage and sometimes takes photos from news
agencies and photo library of the organization for effective presentation.

Chief Photographer

Chief Photographer is the second in command in photography wing, who

captures photos of various events. Generally, s/he covers visit of a local
politician or celebrity, public meetings, cultural programs, demonstrations,
fairs, exhibitions and accidents etc.

Photographer

A big newspaper generally recruits a good photography team with

specialization in various areas such as sports, wildlife, art and culture and
political photography. Photographers are assigned duties on the basis of their
specialization by either photo editor or chief photographer. But a photography
team consisting of 3-4 staff exists in medium and small newspapers. Here a
photographer covers almost all activities taking place in his/her area. S/he
moves to different places and takes photographs of various events
 Prepared by Ashik Babu
Guest Lecturer, Media Studies Dept.
Mannaniya College of Arts and Science

Covering Top Beats

CITY REPORTING
City reporting assignments include coverage of all important events happening in the city. It
could be a political rally, an accident, a crime incident, a book launch, a seminar, a cultural
program, a disease outbreak etc.

CITY/LOCAL NEWS
People are always interesting in knowing what is happening in their surroundings. While
they get to know about big national events through News channels and websites, they have
to rely on local newspapers or websites for local news. This is the reason why there has
been a growth in local editions of newspapers, and also some local new websites.

CRIME REPORTING
Crime news forms an important part of daily news coverage by media. Even as India is one
of the fastest growing economy in the world, there is no let down in the number of crime
incidents.
Every day, a number of incidents are reported in a city. People want to read about them.
While some crimes are about greed, violence, sex, revenge etc.

Crime reporting allows you to understand some of the basics techniques of journalism.
It helps you learn how to research for a story, how to follow a lead, how to interview people
to extract information from them and how to write your story in a way that will draw the
attention of your reader.

According to The News Manual, all crime stories carry some news value. Such as:

Seriousness: We usually assume that more serious crimes are more newsworthy. A
murder is more important than an armed assault, which is more serious than a break-and-
enter, which is more serious than a parking offence. In terms of money, the bigger the
amount stolen and the more important the crime. Remember, however, that money has a
different value to different people. The theft of $100 will be more newsworthy when it is
money taken from a poor widow that when it is stolen from a rich businessman.

Unusual nature of the crime: The more unusual crimes are generally more newsworthy. A
break-and-enter at a school may be more newsworthy than a breaking at a home, but a
burglary at a crocodile farm may be more newsworthy still.
Size of the community: Crimes are usually viewed as more important by smaller
communities. If you are a journalist on a big city newspaper, an ordinary car theft may not
be newsworthy at all. If you are a journalist in a small community, a car theft may be the
biggest news of the week. Everybody may know the owner – they may all know the car. It is
a sad fact that quite horrible crimes do not make the news in
A big city because they are so common and because the chances are small of readers

Identity of the victim or criminal:

Crimes become more newsworthy if they involve people who are themselves newsworthy.
An ordinary person attacked on the street may not be big news, but if that person is a local
chief, that will be very newsworthy. A fraud case becomes more important when it involves
a leading politician.
A robbery becomes bigger news when police reveal that the robber was an escaped
prisoner with convictions for murder and rape.
It is generally true that a crime becomes more newsworthy if there is a strong chance of it
happening again - usually because the criminal is known and likely to strike again.

As a reporter, you are required to know all details of an incident and not be biased against
anyone. Unless an accused has been convicted by a court, you must use the word 'allegedly'
while reporting an incident.
In case of crimes against women and children, you need to be especially sensitive. There are
several guidelines for reporting on women and children, that you need to follow.

REPORTING POLITICAL PARTIES AND

POLITICS, LEGISLATURE (COVERING ASSEMBLY
AND PARLIAMENT)

India is a democratic country. Constitution of India allows people the freedom of speech and
opinion and also the freedom to take part in the electoral process.
So many elections throughout the year and a robust democracy naturally generate people's
interest in politics. People want to know about developments, even controversies and
scandals in different parties. No wonder why much of the space in a newspaper caters to
political reports. This is true also about the web and TV media.

One requires a solid understanding of political realities, Constitution, history of the country
as well as the political parties to become a successful political reporter.
Because of the seriousness and knowledge required to cover politics, fresh journalists are
hardly asked to cover this beat.

In the age of paid media menace and social, it has become difficult for political remain
neutral and rid their reports from political biases. A reporter hence needs to tread carefully
if he wishes not to be labeled as an agent of a particular political party or a leader.
 Political reporting involves

 Covering political parties and leaders

 Covering elections, political rallies
 Covering state assemblies, municipal bodies and Parliament
 Covering government actions, structure
 Covering public policy issues

Tips for political reporting:

1. Be a good listener.
Often politicians will give away things in subtle ways and so you need to listen very carefully
to the words they use.
2. Have a good memory.
If you hear an interesting fact that might not be totally relevant to the story you're working
on at that moment, make an effort to remember it because you never know when it might
come in handy. Jot down things in your notepad.
3. Learn the lingo.
Politics is full of weird words. Take the time to learn them
4. Be cautious of numbers.
When you hear a statistic, start asking questions because numbers can be manipulated.
5. Don't be worried if you don't feel like an expert.
Never feel intimidated by people who knew more about a subject than we do, realized that
it is our job to ask lots of questions and find things out.
6. Try to get a straight answer.
Politicians love talking but sometimes doesn’t say very much. Be prepared to ask your
question a few times until your interviewee actually tells you something.
7. BE polite.
On TV and radio you will hear big-name interviewers giving politicians a really, really hard
time. But think carefully about the difference between tough questions and rude ones.
8. Spot a change.
Compare what people are saying now with what they've said before because a politician
changing their mind means there's a story somewhere!
9. Watch lots of news.
You need to know what politicians have been saying on other programs and you need to
know what else is going on in the world because politics touches on a lot on other issues.
10. Keep your political opinions to yourself.
You can't let your own views come across or interfere with your reporting.
LEGAL REPORTING

If you scan through a newspaper, every day you would find a number of reports of court
verdicts, proceedings of a case, condition of the judiciary, legal trends, laws of the country
etc.
Legal reporting is often used synonymously with court reporting.
However, there is a difference. All legal reports do not necessarily emanate from court.

While court judgments cover a major part of legal reports in the media, sometimes you
must have also seen interviews of lawyers, retired judges and reports on speeches by Judges
in public or court functions.

To become a legal reporter, a degree in law is preferred, but it is not always necessary if
you have interest as well understanding of the law of the land.

Court reporting at times becomes tedious. For you have to spend your day
attending important proceedings of the court and taking notes. Sometimes, if the court
room is already packed, you may have to stand through the proceedings.

While writing about court proceeding and judgments, you must be very careful with the
facts and follow court's directions strictly. If a court embargoes a judgment, you can't write
about it. If you do so, you may be held for contempt of the court.

Court judgments often run in 100s of pages. You will have to scan through it quickly and
quote significant facts for your story.

Some tips for legal reporting:

1: Operating within constraints

Courts of law are a controlled environment. Court reporters must operate within these
controls.
2: Remember who is in charge
The judge is in charge of the court and what happens inside it. The judge has to keep order
and usually has the power to imprison those who show contempt of court. That could
include you.

3: Know the local laws

Most countries have their own sets of laws covering court reporting. You must know them
inside-out. Journalists need to act within the law or they may end up in the dock
themselves.
4: Focus on the key facts
The most interesting things about any trial are usually the verdict and the sentence. These
will normally provide the lead to your story (assuming the trial has finished).
5: Avoid trying to do the judge's job
In most countries there is a presumption of "innocence until proven guilty". This should be
borne in mind while a trial is in progress and reflected in your copy.
6: Accuracy, accuracy, accuracy
Ensure you get EVERYTHING right. Check names, spellings, titles and responsibilities. Fair
and accurate journalism is the basic requirement.
7: Keep a careful note
In courts, as in all other reporting, you should make notes carefully and keep them safely.
They may be needed later if your report is disputed.
8: Never take sides
The arguments used by the prosecuting and defense lawyers should be reported in an even-
handed way, regardless of the evidence and what is said in court.
9: Courts are also theatre
Dramatic performances by the judge, lawyers or witnesses make excellent copy. Make sure
that you capture all elements.
10: Give credit where it's due
Trials often hinge on a clever piece of detective work, or advocacy. Ensure you spot these
and highlight them in your reporting.
11: Disciplined reporting
It is not particularly skillful to report everything that has been said. It is much more skillful to
use only the most interesting and significant parts of a trial.
12: Be ready with the background
Big stories need big coverage. Before the trial, discover as much background as you can and
have it ready for publication after the verdict.
13: The trial may be over but the story continues
Some of the most important elements of your story may be the interviews afterwards with
witnesses, family, police etc. Make sure you leave the court in time to get the interview

Business, Fashion & Lifestyle, Entertainment, Sports,

Specialized reporting can be said to be the next level of beat reporting. When you cover a
particular beat for a long time, you gain knowledge and familiarity that would help you in
providing insight and commentary along with the fact.

Specialist reporters or those who have command over particular areas, always in demand in
the media industry. But to become that requires years of hard work.

The best reporters are those who possess in-depth knowledge of specific issues, institutions,
areas and places. The reporters use their knowledge for crafting special stories that separate
a publication from the rest. In every newspaper, you will find specialist reporters who have
been writing about a particular subject for years.

While specialized reporting also allows you to explore your interests like sports, defense,
film, science, technology etc., you are required to develop your writing skills.
 Here are some tips:

1. Always avoid plagiarism

2. Read about your area of interest as much as you can
3. Involve yourself in discussions on subjects of your interests.
4. Try to be innovative in your writing. People like to read new perspectives and insights.
5. Be the master of your subject, but never lose an opportunity to learn. Pieces of wisdom
are all around. You just need to keep your mind open.
6. Never try to be biased or let your personal opinions reflect in your writing. For personal
opinions, newspapers have separate Op-ed pages, but special stories are still news.
7. Research before writing

REPORTING CONFLICT
(Armed and Social Conflict, Region, Community and Human Rights)

Several parts of the world, including some in India, are witnessing conflicts. A reporter's job
is to provide an unbiased report of the conflict. For this, he or she may have to dig the
reasons of the conflict, understand the history and culture of the region and nature of the
conflict.

Reporting from conflict-affected areas is always dangerous for journalists.

But then journalism is not always a cozy profession. People need to be informed about
conflicts.

Sometimes it is difficult to get access to enough facts that will make a story complete.

1: Don't write in clichés

2: Don't believe everything someone tells you
3: Don't hunt for the 'definitive truth ‘as you will have to rely on the information accessible
to you, but don't give up caution.
4: Don't get things out of context
5: Don't accept information without question
6: Don't forget the human face of suffering
7: Don't be sloppy with words
8: Don't be led by another's agenda
9: Don't ignore the local pressures
10: Don't ignore history
Introduction
News agencies often referred to as ‘wire services’ have always played
a critical role in gathering and dissemination of news to newspapers,
periodicals, radio and television broadcasters, government agencies,
and other subscribers, who by sharing costs obtain services they could
not otherwise afford. News agencies continuously track all important
happenings and keep media organizations engaged in the business of
transmission and exchange of news with latest global news agencies
briefly. For the international news they play a major role. Somehow, we
can say the role of news agencies cannot be decreases.

The concept of wire service was taken from courier pigeon service
between two cities of Europe which updates although there have been
sporadic interests in news agency studies and global information flows
especially during the decade 1960-1970. Newspapers all over the
world depend to a large extent on news agencies for general news
coverage. Even big papers do not have their own countrywide news
network. For international news their dependence is even greater.

The basic function of a news agency is to purvey news and provide

news reports of current events to newspapers and others who
subscribe to its service. The UNESCO definition of a news agency is
‘an undertaking of which the principal objective, whatever its legal form,
is to gather news and news material of which the sole purpose is to
express or present facts and to distribute this to a group of news
enterprises and in exceptional circumstances to private individuals with
a view to providing them with as complete and impartial a news service
as possible against payment and under conditions compatible with
business laws and usage.’ No modern state carts survive without an
adequate set-up of information and its judicious dissemination.
A news agency in a democratic society should provide complete,
impartial, objective, accurate, countrywide and competitive news
service free from slant, pressure of interference from any source or
quarter. It has to guard against the danger of being dominated by any
vested interests - economic, social, communal or political In India

Reuter

Reuter was established in 1851 by Paul Julius Reuter in England.

Reuter provided free trial service to the newspapers in 1858.
Founded by Paul Julius Reuters in 1849 they used pigeons or fast
runners for sending the news it also serve radio, television and
other news outlets In India they have collaboration with PTI

AP – Associated Press of America

• Founded in 1848, Rockefeeler – New York

• Initially it was called ‘Harbour News Association’ then
reorganized as ‘New York Associated Press’
• Associated Press of America in 1892
• AP has news coverage arrangements with news agencies in
Canada, UK, France, Russia and India
• Exclusive exchange programmes with Reuters and French Havas
news agency

AFP – Agency France Presse

• Oldest news agency – 1835 by Charles Louis Havas (father of

global journalism)
• Headquarter on Paris
• Regional Centre – Washington, Hong Kong, Nicosia (Cyprus)
and Montevideo (Uruguay)
• Editorial quality, reliability, worldwide coverage

• AFP Worldwide – takes in 165 countries

TASS

• Telegraph Agency of Soviet Union

• Russian Name - Telegrafnoye agentstvo Sovetskovo Soyuza
• Renamed - Information Telegraph Agency of Russia (ITAR-
TASS) in January 1992 after the collapse of the Soviet Union and
the proclamation of sovereignty by democratic Russia

United Press International

• Formed in 1907 by E.W. Scripps as the United Press (UP)

• Headquarters – Washington, DC
• Offices in Beirut, Hong Kong, London, Santiago, Seoul and
Tokyo
• UPI is owned by News World Communications, a global multi-
media co.

PRESS TRUST OF INDIA [PTI]

Founded in 1949, PTI has the advantage of being owned by a cooperative

of leading Indian newspapers independence; it symbolizes freedom from
dependency on information monopoly credibility, but competes in turn with
PTI’s own site. Having computerized operations in the 1980s, PTI
established its web-site in 1999, responding to competition from other
news sites. PTI’s site provides free access to major national,
international, sports and commercial news, and its principal purpose is
promotional. All services - text, pictures, graphics, and data - are available
to media and non-media subscribers by e-mail. The web is an additional
delivery vehicle that extends the range and reach of services.
Diversification does not depend on but is facilitated by the web. Diversified
services include PTI Features, PTI Mag (write-ups on political, social and
other subjects), PTI Data India, PTI Economic News and PTI Science
Service. PTI-Bhasha distributes PTI Mag for Hindi subscribers. The Hindi
language market grew more important following the financial collapse of
previous agencies that had served the ‘language press’ in competition with
PTI, namely Samachar Bharati and Hindustan Samachar. PTI’s Hindi
service generates less revenue than the English: Hindi newspapers are smaller,
attract less advertising, and pay this synopsis sets out to investigate the extent to
which the India newspapers rely on transnational, national regional news agencies
news-update service News Scan together with financial news services such as
Stock Scan. PTI TV produces televised news and corporate feature stories.
The agency distributes services internationally to The U.S., U.K., Australia and
U.A.E. Other new services include a domestic PR Wire Service and a news
service for mobile phone users’ .Such diversification strategies often
involve alliances. Vendors for worldwide circulation of press releases. PTI
distributes international news in India from AP and AFP, as well as AP Photos and
International Commercial Information.
The agency’s owners, representing a wide variety of different newspapers,
languages and political leanings, underpin PTI’s reputation. Recent
diversification reflects the opening up of the Indian economy but is also
driven by a sense of insecurity about the traditional client base as print
newspapers cope with their own economic the daily newscast of PTI and
UNI utilized about 10-30% of news item provided by foreign agencies for its
domestic subscribers.
15% of PTI’s foreign stories/news was published in Indian
newspapers as against 7.5% Indian news in foreign newspaper, which
indicates that foreign news papers and agencies utilized PTI news more for
keeping track of events in India than actually using it verbatim or giving credit
for using such stories. UNI in India provides news received by Reuters to its
domestic subscribers. However, no news published in foreign or Indian
newspapers have been sourced or attributed to UNI. Foreign newspapers
picked up a larger share of Indian news from Reuters than PTI. For news
about India, news agencies like ‘IANS, Own Correspondents and Agencies’
were major sources of news, which was indicative of a trend among news
agencies to repackage the news received primarily for two reasons. One to edit
the news for giving it a stamp of their own writing styles and the other to
position their own interpretation of the news as part of their respective
editorial policy.
BMC CC 410 Unit 1
 Qualities of a Reporter

The ideal reporter has the following qualities:

• A natural Curiosity
• Ample uncertainty yet childlike enjoyment and enthusiasm
• Passion for the work
• A good reporter must have a sharp news sense.
• He should not bring his own particular prejudices or interests into sub editing.
• Should have good news sense so that he can create exciting stories.
• A good reporter has to get the facts clear and in sequence in his mind or on his
copy pad.
• Judgment: The ability to take quick and right decisions.
• Calmness: Never be overexcited when major stories break. Your calm nerves are
important in objectively assessing the news and the priority it deserves.
• A Dense Skin : An ability to keep from getting upset or offended by the things other
people say and do (Criticism).
• Clarity:A reporter should have clarity of mind and expression. A person who is
confused himself cannot tell a story to others.
• Objectivity:Reporter and sub-editor should aim at objectivity while dealing with
a story. They should not allow their personal bias or ideas to creep into a story.
• Speed:In today’s world speed matters everywhere. A person who cannot work
fast cannot be a good reporter.He should think fast, decide fast and write or
type fast for he has to meet deadlines or may have to go to another
assignment.
• Punctuality: It is always better to be punctual and then wait than reach late and
ask others—a rival may misinform you or hide some important information.
• Farsightedness:An intelligent envisioning of the future helps newsmen in
general. The quality helps them in identifying processes and people who will
be important in future.
• Mobility:A reporter should be mobile. He should enjoy moving around and
should not hesitate travelling distances to get stories when required.
• A journalist should have a healthy skepticism. This means checking and
rechecking information which is very important because every story is based
on facts and evidence
• Ability to establish contacts and develop sources.
• Ability to Cope with Pressure from outside and within the News Organisation.
• Nose for news
• Language expertise
• Intelligence and courage
• Handling media equipment
• Outgoing nature
• Team spirit
• A good reporter must be able to analyze and interpret information.
• Creative
• Perseverance – Not giving up when struggling to find out information in the face of
bureaucratic inertia, subterfuge or outright opposition
• Good at Communicative skills
• Good General Knowledge: A good journalist is one who knows something about
everything. They are well-informed news junkies especially in the area of politics, current
affairs and law.
• Capable to work with others and in irregular hours
 Functions of a Reporter
Reporters are people that no media organisation can do without. A reporter’s job
is therefore a very important one.
The followings are the most common functions of a reporter:
• To Gather news
• To observe
• Finding the Angle (the right one)
• To make news reports
• To be an Active listener as well as a Person
• Covering events (e.g. International Film festival in Goa, PM visits Rangpur and
hold a meeting)
• Go to Press Conference(A major source of news is the press conference.
Leaders of political parties hold press conferences regularly. Ministers also
hold press conferences to announce various programmes and policies of the
government. Business houses arrange press conferences to launch their new
products)
• Interviewing: Interviewing people connected with an event or incident is a very
common practice used by reporters to get details
• To make quick decision
• To investigate information and report

• Watchdog of a Society

• To be socially responsible

• To maintain professional secrecy: A journalist respects the right of secrecy of every

person and he may not publish news about someone’s private life, unless they are
transparent and relevant to the public interest

• To have time management

• Attribution and Protection of Sources

• Ethical considerations and respect for ‘off the record statements’

• Follow Press laws, Ethics and Code of Conduct: Press freedom is a word that is
commonly used. By this, we mean the right to publish news without any restriction
or control. But this does not mean that anything about anybody can be published.
There are certain rules of conduct or principles of morality which we have to follow
while reporting.
 Responsibilities

Reporters have many responsibilities. These are:

• Ensuring accuracy
• cutting down unnecessary words
• making sure the story is readable and complete.
 Responsibilities

• Responsibilities towards the news organisation

• Responsibilities towards the sources

• Responsibilities towards the reader and the

society
 Towards the Readers & the
Society

• Rooting out corruption at all levels

• Drawing attention to official negligence or incompetence

• Giving a voice to sectors of society without one

• Helping the public cast votes in elections by explaining political programmes of

rival parties

• Explaining economic trends

• Scrutinising the work of the government, the courts and big companies to
highlight failures and successes:
 Towards News Organisations

• To follow the character, style and policy of your newspaper or

magazine or news agency.
 Towards the Sources

To Assure that no harm will come to them

To keep their identity a Secret

 Prepared by Ashik Babu
Guest Lecturer, Media Studies Dept.
Mannnaniya College of Arts and Science

NEWS SOURCES

News is happening all the time. Every minute of every day something newsworthy is
happening somewhere in the world. Your job as a journalist is to get information on those
events and present it to your readers or listeners. But you cannot be everywhere all the time
to see those events for yourself. So you need other ways of getting information on all those
hundreds (maybe millions) of events you cannot witness yourself. When someone or
something provides you with information, we call them a source.
Sources of information can be people, letters, books, files, films, tapes - in fact, anything
which journalists use to put news stories together. Sources are very important if you want to
report on events or issues and explain the world to your audience. Journalists try to work as
much as possible from their own observations, but this is often not possible. Some events or
issues are finished before the journalist gets there.
Some incidents are like plants which only show their stem and leaves above the ground - the
all-important roots are hidden from sight. Journalists who only report what they see can miss
much of the news unless they have sources to tell them of more details

Types of sources

Journalists should deal in reliable facts, so it is important that the sources you use for writing
stories can give you accurate information about what happened or what was said.

Reporters

One of the most reliable sources of information (although not completely reliable) are other
journalists. They may be your colleagues or reporters from a news agency which supplies
your organization. If they are well trained, experienced and objective, their reports will
usually be accurate and can be trusted. Mistakes can happen. This is why news organisations
should have a system for checking facts. A reporter's story should be checked by the news
editor then the sub-editor.

All sources, including reporters, are said to be reliable if we think they can be believed
consistently. If a source is always correct in the information they provide, we will believe
them next time. If they make a mistake, we may doubt what they say. Reliability is built up
over time.

Your personal reliability as a journalist is important. If you have a good record for fair and
accurate reporting, you will be believed. If you get a reputation for being careless in your
work or biased in your interpretation, your colleagues, readers or listeners will not be able to
rely upon you.
Primary sources

Often the source is someone at the centre of the event or issue. We call such people primary
sources. They are usually the best sources of information about their part of what happened.
They should be able to give you accurate details and also supply strong comments. Of
course, just because a person was present at an event does not mean that they are either
accurate or fair.

A word of warning here: If any of your sources, however reliable, gives you information which
is defamatory, you can still be taken to court for using it. You are responsible for deciding
whether or not to publish the defamatory material.

Written sources

Just because information is printed, that does not mean that it is reliable. With typewriters,
computers and modern technology, it is relatively easy to produce printed material. You
must look at who has produced the document. Are they in a position to know enough about
the topic and have access to the reliable facts? Do they have a reputation for reliability?

This is especially important with information on the Internet. Anyone can put information
onto the Internet and unless you know how trustworthy they are you cannot judge the
reliability of what they write.

One advantage of the Internet is that you can quickly cross-check numerous sources, but
beware: a mistake on one site can easily and rapidly be repeated by people writing on other
sites. Even major online references such as Wikipedia rely on volunteers writing the entries
and checking their accuracy and there have been numerous cases of people using entries in
Wikipedia and other online reference works to spread untruths.

Leaked documents

You may occasionally be given documents which have not been officially released to the
press. They may be given to you by someone in a company or government department who
does not want to be seen giving them to the media. We call these leaked documents.

Documents are often leaked by people who believe that the public should know the contents
(such as an environmental report), but who are unable to reveal it in public themselves,
perhaps because they do not have the authority to do so. In some cases, documents are
leaked by a person to gain an advantage over someone else, perhaps someone who is
criticized in the report.

Leaked documents are often excellent sources of news stories because they can contain
information which someone wants to keep secret. This might be a plan to do something
which the public might oppose, such as bulldozing homes to make a new road. It might be a
report on corruption within an organization which the heads of that organization do not
want to be publicly known.
If you believe that it is important to inform your readers or listeners of certain facts, you must
do that, even if the information was given to you unofficially. Of course, like any information,
leaked documents must still be checked for accuracy before they can be used.

There are also legal dangers to consider when using leaked documents. They might, for
instance, have been stolen. It is usually an offence to receive stolen property if you think it
could have been stolen, even if it is only a few sheets of paper.

Secondary sources

Secondary sources are those people who do not make the news, but who pass it on. The
official police report of an incident or comments by someone's press officer can be called
secondary sources. Secondary sources are not usually as reliable as primary sources.

Most eyewitnesses should be treated as secondary sources for journalists because, although
they are able to tell what they think they have seen, they are often not trained for such work
and can be very inaccurate, without meaning to be.

You have to assess the reliability of secondary sources and if necessary tell your readers or
listeners where the information came from

Tip-offs

Occasionally someone will call with a story tip-off but refuse to give their name. These are
said to be anonymous (meaning "no name"). These are the most dangerous sources of
information and should only be used with extreme caution. Although anonymous tip-offs
can provide good story ideas, they must never be used without a lot of checking. If they are
wrong, you will be held directly responsible unless you have checked what they said with
other more reliable sources.

Often people who ring up with a tip-off will tell you their name if asked, but on the promise
that you do not reveal their name to anyone else. You must still cross-check what they say
because, of course, you cannot quote them as your source if there is any dispute about
accuracy, for example if you are taken to court for defamation.
 Attribution

When you get information from a source, you normally need to attribute that information to
someone. Attribution means to tell your readers or listeners the name and title of the person
you interviewed or document you got the information from.

There are three levels of attribution, depending on whether your source is happy about
being publicly identified or whether they want to keep some secrecy about what they tell
you.

These three levels

On the record, which means you can use both their words and their name;

Non-attributable, which means you can use the information, but not the source's name;

Off the record, which means you cannot use either the information or the source's name.

On the record

Most information you are given will be on the record. People will tell you the details openly
and allow you to quote their names and titles. The politician making a speech, the witness
describing a crash, the police officer reporting an arrest, the company chairman defending
an increase in prices, all are usually prepared to be quoted and to give their names.

It is always best to get information on the record. You can remain accurate by using the
exact words people say.

Non-attributable

Sometimes a source will give you information on the understanding that you can use the
information but not attribute it to them.

Your source may do this for one of several reasons. Perhaps they are not officially allowed to
give you the information, but they think it could be made public. Perhaps they do not want
to be in the public eye.

For example, Politicians sometimes give non-attributable details of a plan so that they can
find out public reaction to it without any risk. If the public likes the plan, the politician can
then go on the record and claim the credit. If the public do not like the plan, the politician
can abandon it without losing face because his name was never associated with it anyway.

Off the record

You will occasionally be given information on the understanding that it is totally off the
record. Although you will have to ask your source exactly what they mean by such a phrase,
it usually means that you should not even write about what they tell you. And you must
certainly not use their name.

People usually give information off the record when they want you to understand the
background to something which is too sensitive for them to talk publicly about.

For example, you might get a tip-off of a major police operation planned for the next day
against the hide-out of a criminal gang. You ask the police chief for more information, but he
will obviously not want you to publish anything which might warn the gang. On the other
hand, he might not want to say "no comment" because you might start asking questions
somewhere else. So he might say he will tell you off the record, on condition that you do not
tell anyone else.

Using assumed names

You occasionally have to protect a source's identity by giving them an assumed name. This
arises most often when you are writing about the victims of some kind of abuse, usually in
feature articles or documentaries. These people may not mind you telling their story, but
they do not want other people to know exactly who they are

Children especially should be protected, although you can use assumed names for anyone
with a good reason to have their identity kept secret, such as alcoholics, drug addicts or
abused victims.

You must, of course, tell your readers or listeners that this is not the person's real name, but
is being used to protect them. If you use a picture them, make sure they are not recognizable
in it. If you use their voice, it is common practice in radio and television to electronically
change it so it cannot be recognized.
 Prepared by Ashik Babu
Guest Lecturer, Media Studies Dept.
Mannnaniya College of Arts and Science

Qualities of a News Reporter

 S/he must have a mastery of the written or spoken language of

the medium of expression: This will enable him/her to interact
easily with news sources, eyewitnesses or even the victims of
events.

 S/he must have a nose for news: This means the reporter or
journalist must be curious about getting news from newsy or
stale situations. A good reporter must have a natural instinct for
news and should be able to identify news from seeming

 S/he must be current and keep abreast of events and happenings:

In the media industry, yesterday’s news is stale and no more
needed. To remain relevant in the industry, therefore, the
reporter must keep abreast of happenings in and around him/her.

 A good reporter must be fair, accurate and objective in his news

writing and reporting job. Fairness, accuracy and objectivity are
news virtues, which the profession thrives on. Any attempt to
compromise any of these values makes a mess of the reputation
and credibility of the industry. These qualities of a reporter must
be jealously guarded

 A good reporter must be creative: Creativity makes the reporter

see another unique story from an already published report.
Without creativity, the reporter will remain dry, uninspiring and
boring to his readers and even his sources.
 S/he must also have the ability to dress well: A common idiom
says how you dress is how you are addressed and I add that it
also betrays your address. A good reporter must know how to
dress for the occasion otherwise he/she will be lost in the crowd
or misrepresented. Dressing well is not necessarily dressing
expensively. It only means having the right kind of dress for each
occasion or situation.

 A good reporter must have perseverance: Perseverance is having

the staying power and refusing to give up even when the
situation calls for giving up. A good reporter must have the ability
to stay longer and under stress or pressure

 A good reporter must be a “good mixer”: There is no room for

the reserved kind of reporter who cannot easily get into a
discussion with a potential news source. A good reporter should
be able to blend easily with all kinds of persons especially when
such persons are primary to getting the news he/she is pursuing
at that moment. The good reporter should be able to make
contacts, grow and maintain them.

 S/he must have a high level of comportment: The good reporter

must have self-control and high level of comportment no matter
the situation or circumstances. He/she is not expected to be
carried away easily by any surrounded situation.

 A good reporter must have the ability to embark on creative risk

and courage especially in reporting coups, wars, conflicts, crime,
disaster etc. S/he must have the ability to ferret out news
through the process of monitoring people and events.
 S/he must also possess good observatory skills and have an eye
for details: Poorly trained reporters look without seeing. The
good reporter is able to see leads and news worthy situations by
merely observing people and situations. Whenever the good
reporter looks, he/she sees. He/she is also able to taken in a lot of
details by mere observation.

 S/he must be a good listener and must have an unusual patience:

The poorly trained reporters are only interested in hearing their
voices in an interview situation. However, a good reporter is only
interested in hearing the news source talk. Therefore, listening
becomes a vital quality a reporter must possess in order to
succeed

 S/he should also possess enough idealism to inspire indignant

prose but not too much as to obstruct detached professionalism

 A good and modern reporter must be multi-skilled: S/he should

be equipped with an array of skills to meet the demands of
diverse media users

 A good and modern reporter must also have the unique quality
called enterprise: He/she should be able to work through tougher
assignments or situation by instantaneously assessing the
situation and taking decisions and steps that will give him/her
what the media organisation wants.
 Prepared by Ashik Babu
Guest Lecturer, Media Studies Dept.
Mannnaniya College of Arts and Science

Principles of Reporting

Every news story should contain four essential elements-- accuracy, attribution of
source, fairness and objectivity. These factors give credibility to a publication and at
the same time demonstrate a reporter’s sense of responsibility.

1. Accuracy
The facts in a story should be correct, down to the minutest detail. A reporter must
be precise with every bit of the details of a story Readers tend to judge a newspaper’s
credibility by their own experiences with its record of accuracy. News stories with
inaccuracies are a sign of a lazy reporter.

2. Attribution
Source identification should be as specific as possible. Use the person’s name if
possible, not merely a ‘spokesperson’. A reporter should not invent news source or
attribute information to such vague quarters like ‘an informed source’, ‘a confidential
observer’ etc. The source from which a story’s information is obtained must be clearly
identified. Failure to do so makes a reporter’s story suspect.

3. Fairness
News stories should be scrupulously fair in their presentation of information. They
should never serve the vested interests of groups or individuals. When a person
criticizes the behavior or opinion of another in a story, basic fairness requires that a
person criticized is given an opportunity to respond.

4. Objectivity
Writers should strive to keep their personal opinions out of a news story. In general
readers are unable to detect the reporter’s political beliefs, religious affiliations or
social attitudes. Every reporter will have his/her personal beliefs, interests, and
involvements but these should not be allowed to creep into the story.
At times a reporter will cover events that run contrary to those personal concerns. In
such cases, the reporter should work harder to achieve evenhandedness.
​NEWS SOURCES

🍉 Basic to all writing is having the information that you will use in the
writing process.

🍉Writing for the mass media requires that certain information be

gathered at the beginning of the writing process.

🍉A story always answers six basic questions. Who, What, When,

Where, Why and How. (The five Ws and one H)

The process of journalism begins with gathering of information.

Reporting is a talent that some people have, it is a skill that anyone can
acquire.

But takes a great deal of thought, preparation, and practice. Reporters have to
understand information and where it comes from.

They must be persuasive in dealing with sources of information. They must

also be honest and forthright.

Acquiring information for a story is an essential part of writing process.

Information is not always self-evident or readily available.

Three fundamental sources of information.

People, Records (any information written or stored so others may find it) and
personal observation.

STORED SOURCES:

Stored sources are located in many places- Government documents, company

records, magazines, and so on.

A news reporter should be familiar with the holdings of the local public
library because that can be a major source of stored information.

Modern journalists have a huge library i.e. the World Wide Web or internet.
PERSONAL SOURCES:

Most information in most news stories come from personal sources i.e. People.

Reporter spends his non-writing time with talking to people either face to face
or over telephone.

The more people he meets the variety of information he gathers.

Reporter keeps a regular contact with people from different walks of life to
have information and use them as sources. They develop a relationship of
mutual understanding. Personal sources are attributed in the news stories as
he said, she said, as per the official sources etc.

PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS:

The third major source of information for the news reporter is personal
observation. Whenever required the reporter goes and attends the event and
writes about it.
​REPORTING

TYPES OF BEAT

• Scope:

1. Political Parties

2. Internal Affairs

3. Pressure Groups

4. Elections

5. Tussles

6. Activities of Political Leaders

• Political Parties

Developments affecting National / State politics

Formation of Alliance

Extension / Withdrawal of Support

General Elections

Midterm Poll

• Source

Statements

Press Conferences

Informal Chats

Visits of Prominent Leaders

Public Meetings

Press Releases

Education Beat
• Major Beat

• Growth in Education Field

• Problem of Funding

• Campus Safety

• Religious Integration

Scope

• Educational Policies

• UGC Rules and Regulations

• Universities

• Examinations

• New Courses

• Different Boards

• Technical Institutes

• Schools and Colleges

Sources

• Press Conferences

• Academic Discussions

• Statements of Educationalists

• Press Releases

• Examination

• Distance Education Program

• Results

Film and Entertainment Beat

• Arts News

• Dance, Architecture, Visual Arts

• Heterogeneous - High Arts, Mass, Culture, Lifestyle coverage, Popular
Culture, Critical and Celebrity Journalism

Scope

• Films

• TV Channels

• Radio Channels

• Film / Television Production Units

• Film Studios

• Government Agencies

Sources

• Persons involved in Production

• Anchors

• Programmes

• Bureaucrats

• Managers

• PR Officers

• Interviews

Legal Beat

• Coverage of Judiciary

• Major Crimes and Proceedings

• Criminal Courts

• High Court

• Supreme Court

• Amendment in Laws

• Reporter

• Knowledge of Law
• Court Jurisdiction

• Court Procedures

• Hierarchy

• Types of Courts

Sources

• FIR

• Inquiry by Investigation Agencies

• Charges Framed

• Hearing

• Statement of Witness

• Pleading by Advocates

• Judgments

• Statements of Accused

Religion and Festival Beat

• Predictable Holiday Stories

• One Sided Presentation

• Presentation of Religious People

• Festivals

Scope

• Important Festivals

• Congregation

• Religious Fairs

• Religious Institutions

• Worship Places

• Religious Organizations

• Religious Conferences
• Religious Journeys

Sources

• Religious Gurus

• People Managing Religious Houses

• Organizers of Religious Meets

• Govt. Agencies / Administration

• Participant of Religious Gatherings

Environmental Beat

• Scope:

Environmental Issues

Deforestation

Pollution

Environmental Sensitive Areas

Global Warming

Sources

• NGOs (Environmental Issues)

• Environmental Department

• Environmental Activists

Sports Beat

• Scope:

Matches

Tournaments

Leagues

Clubs

Boards
Sources

• Players

• Managers

• Officials

• Spectators

• Referees

• Matches
 Prepared by Ashik Babu
Guest Lecturer, Media Studies Dept.
Mannaniya College of Arts and Science

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE PAGE LAYOUT

These principles apply to every form of visual layout, from news paper pages,web pages to e Learning
modules, to posters and magazines.

1. Balance
2. Proximity
3. Alignment
4. Repetition
5. Contrast
6. White Space

BALANCE
Balance exists in two forms: symmetrical and asymmetrical. It deals with distribution of weight. In terms
of graphics, weight is measured by the size of an element, its density, darkness or contrast, colour, and
the thickness of its lines.

Symmetrical balance means that the elements on the page are arranged in such a way, that there exists
a line or lines of reflection. Symmetry can exist horizontally, vertically, across diagonals, or any
combination of the above. Certainly, not every graphic and element on the page has to be a perfect
reflection of its counterpart, rather, the weight of the elements is considered when establishing
symmetry.

Asymmetrical balance doesn’t mean lack of symmetry. It is an arrangement of unlike objects of equal
weight on each side of the page. Whether symmetrical or asymmetrical, balance should exist unless you
are trying to evoke a feeling of dissonance or uneasiness. If you are too focused on the details, sit back
and squint your eyes as you look at the page. Establish whether the page is balanced, or if elements
should be moved around to create a better sense of harmony.
PROXIMITY
The Principle of Proximity states that to group related items on a page, you must bring them physically
close to each other. For information to be perceived as cohesive, it should be organized into groups of
related elements. This approach will make it both easier to be read and remembered. Proximity implies
a relationship. By grouping similar elements together, the page becomes more organized. The reader
understands where to begin reading, and the white space becomes more organizes as well.

ALIGNMENT
The Principle of Alignment states that nothing should be placed on a page arbitrarily; everything should
have a visual connection to something else on the page. When elements are aligned, they create a
stronger, visually cohesive unit. This will help in organizing and unifying the page.

REPETITION
Some aspect of the design should be repeated throughout the entire page. Repetition can exist in many
forms, from design elements to font, bullet list, colour, lines or shapes, or even a spatial relationship.
Repetition helps to organize the information and unify parts of the design. Repetition can exist on a
single page, or throughout a collection of pages. Corporate branding, for example, uses a repetition of
the same logo, colour scheme, font use and spacing to establish a strong corporate identity. Repetition
creates consistency.
CONTRAST
Contrast is a powerful tool to attract attention and add visual interest to your page. If two items on the
page are not exactly the same, then make them different – REALLY different!Contrast can be achieved
by combining serif and sans-serif fonts, varying boldness, line thickness, colours, shapes, sizes, spacing,
images and so on.

WHITE SPACE

White space, or negative space, is the absence of text and graphics. It doesn’t have to be white, it is
whatever colour the background of your page is. White space provides visual breathing room for
the eye, and keeps things from being too cramped, busy and overwhelming.

Although white space is the lack of information, it doesn’t mean that it’s unimportant. White space
is essential in creating an elegant appearance, composure and harmony. Novice designers often
feel compelled to fill the entire page, but it’s important to remember that in design, sometimes less
is more.

NEWSPAPER FORMATS
The three formats used in ship and station newspapers are full format, tabloid and magazine.
FULL FORMAT
A full-format (also known as broadsheet) newspaper is one that measures 16 or 17 inches wide and 21
to 22 inches deep. A full-format newspaper can be made to have five columns, six columns, seven and
one-half columns, eight columns or nine columns.

TABLOID
A tabloid newspaper is about half the size of a full-format newspaper. It measures 10 to 12 inches wide
and 14 to 18 inches deep. A tabloid format newspaper can have two, three, four, five, five and one-half
and six columns.

BERLINER
The Berliner format is an innovation in press and an alternative to the broadsheet format.[2] The name
refers to the city of Berlin.The Berliner format is slightly taller and marginally wider than
the tabloid/compact format; and is both narrower and shorter than the broadsheet format

MAGAZINE
A magazine-format (also known as compact) newspaper is about half the size of a tabloid newspaper. It
measures 7 to 8 inches wide and 10 to 11 inches deep. It can be made to have one column, two columns
and three columns