MAHARAJA SURAJMAL INSTITUTE

Department of Computer Applications

Unit – 1
Computer memory
(BCA-103T )

Mr. S.P. Chauhan

Asst. Prof. & Hostel Warden

S.P. Chauhan 1
 Computer Memory
Computer memory is the electronic holding place for instructions and data so that
computer’s processor can access quickly.
The data and instructions which are entered into the computer by input devices needs to
be stored in the computer memory before the actual processing, also the result after
processing and intermediate result needs to be stored in computer’s memory.
When computer is in normal operation its memory usually contains main parts of
operating system and some or all application programs and related data being used.
i.e. Computer’s memory is a device which provides the space for storing of the data and
instructions before processing, during processing and after processing. There are basically
two types of storage Primary Memory & Secondary Storage.
Generally the term memory refers to the amount of RAM installed in the computer where
as the storage refers to the capacity of hard disk.
Eg. The file cabinet represents the computer’s hard disk, which provides the storage for
all the files & information needed in office. But for a particular work we take out the
required file from cabinet on to desk is like memory in computer, as it hold the
information & data we need to handy while we are doing that work.
S.P. Chauhan 2
 Computer Memory
The various units that are used to measure the computer’s memory are as follows:
➢ Bit:- It is the smallest unit of data on a machine & a single bit can hold only one of
the two values either 0 or 1. It is represented as b. i.e.one bit = 0 or 1.
➢ Nibble:- A unit of 4 bits is known as nibble. Hence it is able to contain any binary
number between 0000 to 1111. One nibble can store 24 i.e. 16 different combinations
of bits and thus can be used to represent 16 different symbols.
➢ Byte:- A unit of 8 bits is known as byte. Hence it is able to contain any binary number
between 00000000 to 11111111. One byte can store 28 i.e. 256 different combinations
of bits and thus can be used to represent 256 different symbols. It is represented as B.
i.e. 1 Byte (B) = 8 bits.
➢ Kilobyte:- A kilobytes refers to 1024 bytes. It is represented as KB. i.e. 1KB = 210 =
1024 bytes.

S.P. Chauhan 3
 Computer Memory
The various units that are used to measure the computer’s memory are as follows:
➢ Megabyte:- It consists of 1024 kilobytes OR 10,48,576 bytes. It is the standard unit
of measurement of RAM and is represented as MB. i.e. 1MB = 210 = 1024 KB = 220
bytes.
➢ Gigabyte:- It consists of 1024 megabytes OR 1,07,37,41,824 bytes. It is the standard
unit of measurement for hard disk & is represented as GB. i.e. 1GB = 210 = 1024MB
= 230 bytes.
➢ Terabyte:- It refers to 1024 gigabytes. It is usually associated with supercomputers &
is represented as TB. i.e. 1TB = 210 = 1024GB = 240 bytes..
➢ Petabyte:- It refers to 1024 terabytes. It is represented as PB. i.e. 1PB = 210 = 1024TB
= 250 bytes..
➢ Exabyte:- It refers to 1024 petabytes. It is represented as EB. i.e. 1EB = 210 =
1024PB = 260 bytes..
➢ Zettabyte:- It refers to 1024 Exabytes. It is represented as ZB. i.e. 1ZB = 210 =
1024EB = 270 bytes. S.P. Chauhan 4
 Computer Memory
• Memory Hierarchy:- As processor is the brain of the computer where all essential
computing takes place. But unlike a human brain it has very limited memory. Thus it has to
relay on other kind of memories to hold data and instructions and to store results. The
memory in the computer system is of the three types as shown in memory hierarchy fig.

S.P. Chauhan 5
• Memory Hierarchy:- Computer Memory
i.Internal Processor Memory:-
This memory is placed within the CPU (processor) or is attached to a special fast bus. It
usually includes special registers and cash memory, both of which can be directly
accessed by the processor. It is used for temporary storage of data and instructions on
which the CPU is currently working. It is the fastest among all the memories but is the
most expensive also . It is also used to compensate for the speed gap between primary
memory and the processor.
ii.Primary Memory:-
Random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM) falls under the category
of the primary memory. This memory is also known as main memory. Every computer
comes with small amount of ROM which contains boot firmware called BIOS (Basic
input/output system). This hold the enough information to enable the computer to check
its hardware and load its operating system into RAM at the time of system booting.
RAM is the place where computer system temporarily stores its OS, application
programs and current data so that processor can access them quickly and easily. It is
volatile in nature while ROM is non-volatile. S.P. Chauhan 6
 Computer Memory
• Memory Hierarchy:-
iii. Secondary Memory:-
This memory is also known as auxiliary memory and provide backup storage for
instructions/program and data. The most commonly used storage devices are magnetic
disk. These are least expensive as well as have larger storage capacity than primary
memory.
The secondary storage devices store the instructions and data permanently and can be
removed if user wants.
It can also be used as overflow memory also known as virtual memory, when the capacity
of main memory is surpassed. But unlike the processor or main memory, secondary
memory is not directly accessible to the processor. First the data & instruction from
secondary memory have to be shifted to the main memory and then to the processor.
The CPU access the memory according to the hierarchy. When the data come from
permanent storage, firstly it goes in RAM. Because if CPU access the hard disk constantly to
retrieve every piece of required data, it would operate very slow. When the data are kept in
the primary memory, the CPU can access it more quickly. Subsequently CPU stores the
required piece of instruction & data in the processor memory to process the data.
S.P. Chauhan 7
 Computer Memory
• Storage Evaluation Criteria:- Any storage unit of a computer system is characterized
and evaluated based on the following properties:
1. Storage Capacity:- It is the amount of data, which the storage unit can store. Larger
storage capacity is desirable. As compared to secondary storage units, primary
storage units have less storage capacity.
2. Access Time:- It is the time required to locate and access data to and from the storage
unit in response to a program instruction. Faster access time is preferable. As
compared to secondary storage units, primary storage units have faster access time.
3. Cost Per Bit Storage:- It refers to the cost of a storage unit for a given storage
capacity. Lower cost is desirable. As compared to secondary storage units, primary
storage units have higher cost per bit of storage.
4. Volatile:- If the storage unit can retain data stored in it even in case of power off or
interruption of power, it is called non–volatile storage. If storage unit loses data in
case of power off or interruption of power, it is called volatile storage. Obviously
non–volatile storage is desirable. In almost all computer systems, primary storage
units are volatile and secondary storage units are non–volatile. S.P. Chauhan 8
 Computer Memory
• Storage Evaluation Criteria:- Any storage unit of a computer system is characterized
and evaluated based on the following properties:
5. Random Access:- If time taken to access a piece of data from a storage unit is
independent of the location of the data in the storage unit, it is called Random Access
Storage or Random Access Memory (RAM). Each location of RAM takes same
amount of access time. In almost all computer systems primary storage units have
random access property and secondary storage units have sequential access or direct
access property.

S.P. Chauhan 9
 Computer Memory
Computer memory on behalf of space, storage, speed etc may be categorize in four types:
i. Register Memory
ii. Cache Memory
iii. Primary Memory (RAM & ROM)
iv. Secondary Memory
➢ Registers:-
As CPU execute the instructions there is a movement of information between various
units of computer. To handle this process satisfactorily and speedup the rate of
information transfer, the CPU uses a number of special memory called registers.
i.e. Register is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer, it is not part of main
memory but located in CPU. It holds temporarily frequently used data, instruction and
memory address. All the required data pass through registers before it can be
processed.
Length of register is equal to the number of bits it can store i.e. if a register can store 8
bits, it is called 8 bit register. Now a days most of the CPU uses 32bit or 64 bit
registers. Bigger the size of register, faster a computer can process a set of data.
S.P. Chauhan 10
 Computer Memory
➢Registers:- Although the number of registers varies from computer to computer. But
some of the widely used registers that are common to all computers are described
below. Each of these registers possess the ability to retrieve information, hold it
temporarily, and pass it on as directed by the control unit.
1. Memory Address Register (MAR):- It holds the address of active memory location.
It is loaded from program control/counter register when the system reads
instruction/data from memory.
2. Memory Buffer Register (MBR):- It holds the content of the accessed memory. i.e.
information/ data to and from memory. To store data/ instruction in a memory
location, the system first transfer it to MBR and then writes it in memory from
MBR.
3. Program Control/Counter Register (PC):- It holds the address of next instruction to
be executed. Normally a system store instructions of a program in consecutive
memory locations, and execute them in sequence unless it encounters a branch
instruction. The branch instruction causes a transfer to a non–consecutive
instruction. The system transfers address part of a branch instruction to PC register
so that it becomes the address of the next instruction.
S.P. Chauhan 11
 Computer Memory
➢ Registers:-
4. Accumulator Register (AR):- It holds the data on which the system has to operate,
also hold intermediate result and result of operation performed. The system uses it
during execution of most instructions. The system returns the result of an
arithmetic operation to accumulator register for transfer to main memory through
memory buffer register (MBR). Now a days in many computers, there are more
than one accumulator registers.
5. Instruction Register (IR):- It holds an instruction while it is being executed. As
soon as the instruction stored in this register, it operation and address part are
separated. The system send the address part of the instruction to MAR, and
operation part to control unit, where it is decoded and interpreted. Finally, the
control unit generate and send command signals to the appropriate unit for carrying
out the specified task
6. Input/output Register (I/O):- It communicate with input output devices. An input
device transfers all input information to this register. Similarly the system transfer
all output information to this register and output device picks up the data for output
from here. S.P. Chauhan 12
 Computer Memory
➢ Registers:-
Execution of an instruction by CPU during program execution normally involves
following steps:
i. The control unit takes the address of the next instruction for execution from
program control register and read instruction from corresponding memory location
into instruction register.
ii. The control unit then send the operation part & address part of the instruction to the
decoder and memory address register respectively.
iii. The decoder interprets the instruction and accordingly the control unit sends
command signal to the appropriate unit for carrying out the task specified in the
instruction.
iv. As system execute each instruction, it loads the address of next instruction for
execution in program control register and repeat all above steps.

S.P. Chauhan 13
 Computer Memory
➢ Cache Memory:- As the rate at which CPU can fetch data from memory is 10 times
slower then the rate at which CPU can process data. So the performance of gets
limited due to this memory – processor speed mismatch. This performance can be
improved if we minimize the memory – processor speed mismatch by putting a
small high speed memory between CPU & main memory.
The goal of high speed memory are:
i. To help CPU to execute instruction at high speed.
ii. To help the CPU to utilize it’s hardware
Such high speed memory is called cache memory.
So Cache is an extremely fast, small memory placed
between RAM & CPU whose access time is closer to the
processing speed so that CPU has minimum access delay.
It increase the speed of processing greatly by minimizing
the memory & processor speed mismatch.
S.P. Chauhan 14
 Computer Memory
➢ Cache Memory:-
Cache memory acts as a high speed buffer between CPU and main memory by
storing temporarily very active data and instruction during processing. As shown in
fig. it hold data & instructions which are frequently used by CPU.
During processing CPU first check cache for required
data/information, if it is present in cache then it is called
cache hit and required data/information is retrieved from
cache. The time taken to access the data from cache in case
of cache hit is called Hit Latency.
If data/ information is not present in cache then it called
cache miss and the data/information is then retrieved by
CPU from RAM & also stored in cache for further references
i.e. most recently used data/instructions present in the cache
The content of cache is decided by the cache controller. The
most recently accessed information or instruction helps the
controller guess the RAM location that may be accessed next. S.P. Chauhan 15
 Computer Memory
➢ Cache Memory:-
Cache memory performance can be determine by using the factors such as: Hit
Rate, Miss Rate & Effective Access Time.

Where:

S.P. Chauhan 16
 Computer Memory
➢ Cache Memory:- Many computer system have two separate cache memories called
Instruction Cache & Data Cache. They use Instruction Cache for storing program
instructions and Data Cache for storing data. The cache memory can be categorized into
following three levels:
i. Level1 (L1) Cache:-
This cache is very closed to the processor and hence termed as L1 or primary
cache. In typical CPU primary cache ranges from 8 to 64 KB. This cache is very fast
because it runs at the speed of the processor as it is integrated into it. It is some
time called register and can work with same speed as of CPU. Each core of CPU has
its own L1 Cache.
ii. Level2 (L2) Cache:-
This cache is larger but slower than L1 cache. It is used to see recent access that is
not picked by L1 cache and ranges from 64 KB to 2 MB in size. It is also may found
on the CPU. If L1 & L2 cache are used together, then missing information that is not
present in L1 cache can be retrieved quickly from L2 cache. It may be inside or
outside of CPU, also may be shared or used separately by each core of CPU.
S.P. Chauhan 17
 Computer Memory
➢ Cache Memory:-
iii. Level3 (L3) Cache:-
This cache memory is an enhanced form of main memory present on the
motherboard between processor and main memory to speed up the processing
operation of computer. Now a days it is also used with processors (Intel core
i7) its size may be up to 12 MB. Generally it is outside of CPU and shared by all
cores of CPU.

S.P. Chauhan 18
 Computer Memory
➢ Cache Memory Key Design Issues:-
i. Cache Size:- Cache Memory is expensive as compared to the main memory,
hence its size is normally small. Its size is decided based on statistical studies,
as these studies indicate that reasonably small cache can have significant
impact on over all system performance.
Eg. A system having 1 GB of main memory may have about 1 MB of cache memory.
ii. Block Size:- It refers to the unit of data exchanged between cache & main
memory. As we increase the block size, hit ratio first increase but begins to
decrease if we further increase the block size because the probability of
reusing the newly fetched instruction/ data becomes less.
iii. Replacement Policy:- It decide which block to replaced when a new block is to
be fetched. So it will be best to replace a block that the system is least likely to
need again in the near future. The effective strategy is to replace the block that
has been in the cache longest. This policy is known as least recently used
(LRU) algorithm. So the system needs hardware mechanism to identify the
least recently used block. S.P. Chauhan 19
 Computer Memory
➢ Cache Memory Key Design Issues:-
iv. Write Policy:- It decide when the altered content of the block are written back
to main memory.
One policy may be the system write an update block to main memory as soon
as any update occur in the block.
Another policy may be, the system write all updates of block to main memory
only when it replace the block from cache. This policy minimize the memory
write operations but temporarily leave the memory in an inconsistent state.
This can happen during multiple processor operations, when multiple
processors share a common main memory and cache.

S.P. Chauhan 20
 Computer Memory
• Memory Architecture:- As we have studies that a computer’s CPU contain necessary
circuitry for data processing & controlling other components of the computer. We also
studied that CPU contain various registers for storing data & instructions, but they can
store only few bytes at a time and are just sufficient to hold one or two instructions
with corresponding data.
If instruction and data of an executing program were to reside in secondary storage
like disk, and fetched and loaded one–by–one into CPU registers as the program
execution proceeds, this would lead to the CPU being idle most of the time. This is
because there is a large speed mismatch between the rate at which CPU can process
data and the rate at which system can transfer data from disk to CPU registers. This
would lead to overall poor performance even for a computer having a fast CPU.
To overcome this problem, there is a need to have reasonably large storage space that
can hold instruction and data of the programs on which CPU is currently working. The
time to fetch and load data from this storage space into CPU registers must also be
considerably less as compared to that from disk storage to reduce the speed mismatch
problem with CPU speed. Every computer has such a storage space known as Primary
Storage/ Main Memory or simply Memory. Physically, this memory consists of some
integrated circuit (IC) chips either on motherboard or on a small circuit board attached
to the motherboard of a computer system. S.P. Chauhan 21
 Computer Memory
• Main Memory Organization:- Main memory of a computer system consists of
several small storage areas called locations or cells. Each of these locations can
store a fixed number of bits called word length of a memory. As shown in fig.
Memory is divided into N words/ locations
where N is generally some power of 2. Each
word or location has a built–in and unique
number assigned to it. This number is called
address of the location and is used to identify
the location.
Each location can hold either a data item or
an instruction but address of the location
remains same, regardless of its contents.
The first address starts at 0 and the highest address equals to the number of words
that can be stored in memory minus 1.

S.P. Chauhan 22
 Computer Memory
• Main Memory Organization:- There is an important difference between address of a
memory location & its content. A memory is like a large cabinet having as many
drawers as there are addresses in memory. Each drawer may contains some items,
it is like length of word and address of each word/ location is like the number
written on the drawer.
If we write a word say 10101010 at address 125, it is like placing the word
10101010 in the drawer 125. Reading from address 125 is like looking in the
drawer 125 and seeing its content 10101010.
i.e. We do not remove an address when we are reading but its content changes
when we write or store new word in it. Hence entering data into a storage location
is destructive of previous content, but reading data from a location is non–
destructive.
The act of writing/ entering data into a storage location is called memory write
operation, and the act of retrieving data from a storage location is called memory
read operation.
As we have listen 16-bit computer, 32-bit computer, 64-bit computer etc. They refer
to memory word length i.e. total number of bits per memory word of a computer.
More bits of a word means faster computer. S.P. Chauhan 23
 Computer Memory
• Fixed and Variable Word-Length Memory:- Memory which store the fixed number of
characters (equal to its word length in bytes) in each numbered address location is
called Fixed–Word–Length Memory. Computers which uses such memory are called
Word–Addressable. These computers always allocate storage space in multiple of
word – length.
Eg. If a word addressable computer has fixed word–length
of 4-bytes (4-characters) it will require one word (4-
bytes) to store the word “CAT” and two–words (8-bytes)
to store the word “BOMBAY” as shown in fig. Fixed–Word-Length Memory
Memory which designed to store single character at each
address location is called Variable–Word–Length Memory.
Computers which used such memory are said to be
Character–Addressable. In such computers only 3-bytes are
used to store the word “CAT” and 6-bytes to store the word
“BOMBAY” as shown in fig.
Variable–Word-Length Memory
S.P. Chauhan 24
 Computer Memory
• Fixed and Variable Word-Length Memory:-
Both Fixed & Variable Word–Length Memory computers have their own advantages
& disadvantages. Generally large scientific computers use fixed-word-length
approach for gaining the speed of calculation, while small business computers use
variable-word-length approach for optimizing the use of storage space.
In fixed–word-length computers storage space may be unused i.e. wastage of
memory space, but this will not happen in case of computer in variable-word-
length memory because it can place a character in every storage cell.
Fixed-word-length addressable computers possess faster calculating capability
because they can add two data word in a single operation. Eg. If word length of
fixed-word-computer is eight characters, then such computers can add two eight
digit number in a single operation.
Variable-word-length addressable computers can add only one digit in each
number during single operation and would need eight steps to add two eight–digit
numbers.
S.P. Chauhan 25
 Computer Memory
• Types of Memory Chips:- Memory chips are classified based on their capability to
retain stored data when power is turn off or interrupted and how easily stored
data can be easily altered. Fig given below shows the various types of memory
chips.

(RAM) (ROM)

S.P. Chauhan 26
 Primary Memory
➢ RAM (Randam Access Memory):-
It allow the computer to store data for immediate manipulation & to keep the
track what is being currently processed. i.e. it is the place in a computer where
operating system, application programs and data in current use are kept so that they
can be accessed quickly by the computer processor. It is much faster to read from
and write to than other kind of storage in the computer like hard disk.
When computer is powered off RAM loses all its content, so it is also called
volatile memory. When the power turned on again the operating system and
required files are loaded again from hard disk.
It provide random access to the bytes or data units, it means that it require same
amount of time to access information form each location, irrespective of where it
is located in it. RAM can read and write data with same speed.
It is of following two types:
i. Static RAM (SRAM)
ii. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
S.P. Chauhan 27
 Primary Memory
➢ RAM (Randam Access Memory):-
i. Static RAM (SRAM):-
It retain the content as long as power is being supplied. However as soon as power
goes down, the data are lost. It is used as cache memory due to its high speed. It does
not need to be refreshed periodically. It uses multiple transistors generally four to six
for each memory cell and does not have capacitor in each cell. Its access speed is 2
to 10 ns.
ii.Dynamic RAM (DRAM):-
It is very unstable and data continue to move in & out of the memory as long as
power is available. It must be continuously refreshed in order to maintain data. This
is done by placing on refresh circuit that rewrite data several hundred time per
second. It uses transistors and capacitors. Its access speed is 50 to 150 ns.

S.P. Chauhan 28
 Primary Memory
➢ RAM (Randam Access Memory):-
Difference between SRAM & DRAM
SRAM DRAM
It is a static memory as it does not need to be It is a dynamic memory as it needs to be
refreshed repeatedly. refreshed continuously or it will lose the data.
Its memory cell is made of 4 to 6 transistors. Its memory cell is made of one transistor and
So its cells occupy more space on a chip and one capacitor. So, its cells occupy less space on
offer less storage capacity (memory) than a a chip and provide more memory than a SRM of
DRAM of the same physical size. the same physical size.
It is more expensive than DRAM and is It is less expensive than SRAM and is mostly
located on processors or between a located on the motherboard.
processor and main memory.
It has a lower access time, e.g. 10 It has a higher access time, e.g. more than 50
nanoseconds. So, it is faster than DRAM. nanoseconds. So, it is slower than SRAM.
It consumes more power. It consumes less power.
S.P. Chauhan 29
 Primary Memory
➢ ROM (Read Only Memory):- It is also known as firmware. It is non volatile memory
i.e. it holds programs and data permanently even when computer is switched off. It
perform read only operation and does not have write capability i.e. the content of ROM
can not be altered by writing different words into it. Generally ROM designers program
ROM chip at the time of manufacturing circuits.
In computer it contain the programming that allow the computer to be booted up and
these contents are permanently stored in ROM at the time of manufacturing.
It basically contains BIOS (Basic Input Output System) which provide the information
to the processor required to boot the system. When computer turn on BIOS does the
following things:
a. Power On Self Test (POST):-
It is a program that runs automatically when system is booted and checks the major
hardware component are working properly.
b. BIOS Setup Program:-
It display the system setting and find the bootable devices, load device drivers also
initialize the registers.
S.P. Chauhan 30
 Primary Memory
➢ ROM (Read Only Memory):-
c.Bootstrap Loader:-
It is a program whose purpose is to start computer software for operation when
power is turned on and load the operating system into RAM from hard disk. BIOS
initiate the bootstrap loader.
ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven

S.P. Chauhan 31
 Primary Memory
➢ Types of ROM (Read Only Memory):-
Basically ROM can be divided in two category:
i. Manufacturer Programmed ROM
ii. User Programmed ROM
a. Programmable ROM
b. Erasable Programmable ROM/ Ultra Violet Erasable Programmable ROM
c. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM
d. Flash ROM

S.P. Chauhan 32
 Primary Memory
➢ Types of ROM (Read Only Memory):-
i. Manufacturer Programmed ROM:-
It is also called Mask ROM (MROM). It was the very first ROM in which data/instruction is
burnt in by manufacturer of the electronic equipment in which it is used. Eg. A personal
computer manufacturer may store the system boot program permanently in a ROM chip
located on the mother board of each PC.
It may be hard wired device that contain pre-programmed set of data or instructions. User
cannot erase content and are not allowed to write new contents in masked ROM.
It is also known commonly as manufacturer programmed ROM.
ii. User Programmed ROM:-
It is one in which a user can load & store read only programs & data
a. Programmable ROM:- It is also known as PROM. PROM is read-only memory that can
be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired
contents, programs, data or any information permanently in this memory using a special
device known as PROM programmer. These programs cannot be changed once they are
written to it. It is also known as one time programmable (OTP) device. The process of
writing data to the PROM involves a special piece of equipment called a PROMS.P.
burner
Chauhan 33
 Primary Memory
➢Types of ROM (Read Only Memory):-
ii. User Programmed ROM:-
b. Erasable Programmable ROM:- It is also known as EPROM. This type of ROM is
programmed in exactly the same manner as a PROM but an EPROM can be erased
and reprogrammed many times.
It can be erased simply exposing it to an ultraviolet light source for about 10-20
minutes. So it is also called Ultra Violet Erasable Programmable ROM
(UVEPROM). An EPROM eraser is not selective i.e. it will erase the entire EPROM.
EPROMs are a non-volatile memory type which once programmed, retain data for
ten to twenty years and can be read an unlimited number of times
c. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM:- It is also known as EEPROM.
In EEPROM, electric signal is used to erase the contents. In EEPROM data can be
erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing entire content, so any location can be
selectively erased and programmed. Hence the process of re-programming is
flexible, but slow. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.
S.P. Chauhan 34
 Primary Memory
➢Types of ROM (Read Only Memory):-
ii. User Programmed ROM:-
d. Flash ROM:- It is also called flash BIOS or flash memory. It is a type of constantly
powered non volatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks. It is
used to hold the control code such as BIOS in PC.
It got name as flash memory because the microchip is organized so that a section of
memory cells are erased in a single action or flash.
➢Advantages of ROM:-
i. Non-volatile in nature.
ii. Cannot be accidentally changed.
iii. Cheaper than RAM.
iv. Easy to test.
v. More reliable than RAM.
vi. Static and do not require refreshing.
vii. Contents are always known and can be verified. S.P. Chauhan 35
 Secondary Storage
As the main memory of computer system have following limitations:
➢ Limited Capacity:- Its storage capacity is not sufficient to store large volume of data.
➢ Volatile:- It loses data stored in it in case of power off or interruption of power.
To overcome the limitations of primary storage, almost all computers uses additional
memory called auxiliary memory or secondary storage. It is non volatile has lower cost
per bit stored, but it has slower speed than that of primary memory. It is used to store
large volume of data on permanent basis, which can be transfer partially to primary
memory whenever required for processing.
• It is used to store data and programs when they are not being processed.
• It includes devices like hard disk, compact disk, DVD etc.
• These devices have a larger and permanent storage capacity and they are less
expensive as compared to primary storage devices.
• They are slow as compared to primary storage.

S.P. Chauhan 36
 Secondary Storage
➢Advantages of Secondary Memory:-
• Non Volatile
• Capacity(Can storage large amount of data)
• Cost(less expensive)
• Reusability(used data many times)
• Portability(move data easily from one system to another system)
• Reliability(safe and secure)
• Convenience(can locate and access data quickly)

S.P. Chauhan 37
 Secondary Storage
➢Classification of Secondary storage devices:-

S.P. Chauhan 38
 Secondary Storage
➢ Method of Data Accessing :- There are two methods: Sequential Access & Direct
Access
i. Sequential Access:- In sequential access method computer system search the storage
device from the beginning until it finds the required piece of data.
These are the storage devices in which arrival at a desired storage location is
preceded by sequencing through other locations so the access time varies according
to the location. Eg: Magnetic Tapes.
Such devices are suitable for storing data of such applications in which most data
records need to be processed one after another. Eg. monthly pay slips
ii. Direct Access:- It is also known as random access, in this method the computer can
go directly to the information that the user wants to access and approximately equal
access time is required for accessing each location. Eg: Magnetic Dsik and Optical
Disk.
Useful for such applications, which need to access Information in a more direct
manner. Eg: Balance enquiry in a bank account, ticket booking in a train/flight
S.P. Chauhan 39
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Magnetic disk are the most popular direct access secondary storage devices. It is a
thin circular plate/platter of metal or plastic coated both side with a thin film of
magnetic material such as iron oxide, on which data is recorded as tinny, invisible
magnetized and non magnetized spots representing 1’s & 0’s. it uses binary code
usually 8 bit EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code), for
recording data.
Disk is stored in a specially designed protective envelope or cartridge or several of
them are stacked together in a sealed, pollutant or defect-free container.
We can erase old data and record new data on magnetic disks.

S.P. Chauhan 40
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Storage/ Access Organization:- Disks are place one above the other like a stack to
form a disk pack. The disk pack is mounted on a spindle/crank shaft, which is
connected to a motor & motor rotates at a very fast speed of the order of 3600 rpm.
Each disk is divided into no of
concentric circles called tracks. These
tracks are numbered consecutively
from outermost to innermost starting
from 0.
The number of tracks on a disk may
be as few as 40 on small, low-capacity
disks, to several thousand on large,
high-capacity disks. As shown in fig.

S.P. Chauhan 41
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Storage/ Access Organization:-
Each track is further divided into pie-shaped segment called sectors. There are 8 or
more sectors per track.
Typically a sector contains 512 bytes
which is the smallest unit of data
access by a disk drive i.e. If a
computer needs to change one byte
out of 512 bytes stored on a sector, it
rewrite entire sector.
i.e. Disk drives are designed to
read/write only whole sectors at a
time.
Sectors on the outer tracks are longer
than those on the inner tracks.
Storage space remains under utilized on the sectors on the outer tracks of the disk 42
S.P. Chauhan
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Storage/ Access Organization:-
To avoid the problem of under utilized storage space, some systems partition a
disk's surface in such a manner that all sectors occupy approximately the same
amount of space as shown in fig.
➢ When refer to the number of sectors generally number
of sectors per track is used. Eg. If a disk has 200 tracks
and 8 sectors per track then it has 200 × 8 = 1600
sectors with unique number.
➢ To access the piece of data from disk we need to
specify its address, which comprised of sector
number, track number & surface number when double
sided disk are used.
➢ Operating systems combine two or more sectors to form a cluster.
➢ In this case, the smallest unit of data access from a disk is a cluster, instead of a
sector. S.P. Chauhan 43
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Storage/ Access Organization:-
Read/write operations read/write a whole cluster at a time & Multiple disks are
stacked together as a disk pack. Disk pack is sealed and mounted on a disk drive
consisting of a motor to rotate the disk pack about its axis.
The disk drive also has an access arm assembly
having read/write head for each recordable
surface of disk pack. Generally disk pack does not
use upper surface of top most disk and lower
surface of bottommost disk because these surface
get scratched easily.
The access arm assembly for all disk surfaces
move together. So if read/write head serving the
1st recording surface is positioned over the 6th
track then each of the head on the arm will also
serve at position 6th track of respective surface.
This concept is called cylinder for data
organization and is used for faster data access. S.P. Chauhan 44
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Storage/ Access Organization:-
i.e. Set of corresponding tracks on all recording
surfaces of a disk pack together form a cylinder. E.g. If
there ate 150 tracks on each disk surface then there
will be 150 cylinders in the disk pack.
So disk address of data record on a disk pack consist
of sector number, cylinder number & surface number.
This addressing scheme is called CHS (Cylinder Head
Sector) addressing. It is also known as disk geometry.
Cylinder based organization achieves faster access of data as it store related records of
a file on same cylinder of a disk pack, so that in one revolution of the disk pack, the
disk drive can read/ write all records stored on a particular cylinder of all surfaces.
Storage capacity of a disk system = Number of recording surfaces × Number of tracks
per surface × Number of sectors per track ×
Number of bytes per sector
S.P. Chauhan 45
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Access Time:- Disk access time is the interval between the time a computer makes a
request for transfer of data from disk to primary storage and the time this operation
completes. To access a data item stored on disk, it must be addressed in terms of
surface number, cylinder number & sector number. A disk always write/read the
information from the begging of sector/ track. So disk access time depends on the
three parameters: Seek Time, Latency & Transfer Rate
i. Seek Time:-
It is the time required to position the read/write heads on the specified track/cylinder.
It will be maximum if arm assembly is on the outermost track and specified track
is the innermost. It will be zero, if arm assembly is already on the specified track.
i.e. It depends on the position of the arm assembly when read/write command is
received. Average seek time for most of the system is of the order 10 to 100
milliseconds.

S.P. Chauhan 46
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Access Time:-
ii. Latency:-
Once the read/write head is on the specified track, this head may wait for the
specified sector to come under it, this is called rotational waiting time or
rotational delay time or latency. i.e. The time required to spin the specified sector
under the head. It is also variable which depends on the distance specified sector
from initial position of head & rotational speed of disk. Average latency is equals
to the half the time taken by disk to rotate once.
Hence average latency of a disk system with rotational speed of 3600RPM will be
.5/3600 = 8.3 milliseconds.

S.P. Chauhan 47
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :- Access Time:-
iii.Transfer Rate:- It is the rate at which a computer read/writes data from/to disk
into memory. It is determined by the rotational speed of disk. E.g. If rotational
speed of disk is 3600 rpm and disk has 125 sectors per track with 512 bytes per
sector, the amount of data transfer in on full revolution will be 125 × 512 =
64000 bytes. So the transfer rate for the disk will be (64000 × 3600)÷60 =
3840000 bytes per sec. So the transfer rate depends on the density of data &
rotational speed of disk.
As data transfer time is negligible as compare to the seek time & latency. So average
access time for a disk system is its average seek time plus its latency. Which varies
generally any where from 10 to 600 millisecond.
As the data access time for a data item stored on disk depends on its physical
location, so it is more correct to say the disk system is a direct access storage devices
instead of random access devices because in random access time of any data is
independent on its physical location i.e. remains same.
S.P. Chauhan 48
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Hard Disk:- It is also called the hard drive or fixed disk, it is the primary secondary storage
device used in today’s computers. It consists of a stack of disk platters that are made of
aluminium alloy coated with a magnetic material and protected layers. It is tightly sealed to
prevent any dust particle which may causes head crash from getting inside. As shown in fig.
It can be external (removable) or internal (fixed) and
can hold large amount of data. Hard disk are normally
of three types:
i. ZIP/Bernoulli Disk:-
It consists of single hard disk platter encased in a
plastic cartridge. Depending on the disk drive & disk
size, storage capacity may varies from 8GB to
500GB. Its disk drive called zip drive may be
portable or fixed type. The fixed type is part of
computer system, connected to it permanently.
Portable type may be connected to the computer for the duration of use and then disconnect
and take it away S.P. Chauhan 49
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :- Hard Disk:-
ii. Disk Pack:- It consists of multiple i.e. two or more hard disk platters mounted on
a single central shaft. All disk revolve together at same speed. Its disk drive has
separate read/write head for each usable disk surface. The disk drive is of inter
changeable type and allow users to load/unload different disk packs whenever
required.
iii. Winchester Disk:- It consists of multiple i.e. two or more hard disk platters
mounted on a single central shaft. All disk revolve together at same speed. Its
disk drive has separate read/write head for each usable disk surface. Winchester
disk drive is of fixed type i.e. Its disk platters and disk drive are sealed together
and can not be separated from each other.Winchester disks have larger storage
capacity than disk packs due to the following reasons:
➢ All surfaces of all disk platters are used for data recording including upper
surface of the topmost platter & lower surface of the bottommost platter.
➢ Contamination-free environment allows Winchester disks to employ greater
precision of data recording and accessing.
S.P. Chauhan 50
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Advantages:-
i. Access Time:- In magnetic disk it is possible to access a record directly, so access
time is less in this case.
ii. Flexibility:- Stored data can be accessed sequential as well as direct.
iii. Transmission Speed:- Data transfer is fast.
iv. Reusable:- Data from a particular location can be deleted and another data can be
restored at same place. So it can be reused.
v. Storage capacity:- Store very large amount of data.
vi. Due to their low cost and high data recording densities, cost per bit of storage is low.
vii. Can be used as a shared device simultaneously shared by multiple users.
viii.Suitable for both on-line and off-line storage.
ix. Less vulnerable to data corruption.

S.P. Chauhan 51
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Disadvantages:-
i. Although the magnetic disks are usable for both random & sequential data
processing, but their usage for sequential applications is less efficient.
ii. Difficult to maintain security of information stored on magnetic disk used as
shared, on-line secondary storage device
iii. A disk crash or drive failure often results in loss of entire data stored on it.
Hence it is not easy to recover the data in case of disk failure.
iv. Some types of magnetic disks are not so easily portable
v. On cost-per-bit basis, cost of magnetic disks is low, but the cost of magnetic
tapes is even lower.
vi. Magnetic disks must be stored in a dust-free environment.
vii. Zip disks and disk packs must be labeled properly.

S.P. Chauhan 52
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Uses:-
i. For random data processing applications.
ii. As a shared, on-line secondary storage device.
iii. As a backup device for off-line data storage.
iv. Archiving of data that are not used frequently.
v. Transferring of data and programs between two computers not linked
together.

S.P. Chauhan 53
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Q. How many bytes will be there in 20GB hard disk?
Soln:- As computer uses binary maths which is base on power of 2. So memory also made
whose capacity also measured in power of 2. Hence number of bytes may be calculated
as follows:
1 KB = 210 = 1024 bytes
1 MB = 220 = 1024 × 1024 = 1048576 bytes
1 GB = 230 = 1024 × 1024 × 1024 = 1073741824 bytes
So byte in 20GB hard disk will be = 20 × 1073741824
= 21474836480 bytes
Q. If rotational speed of disk is 3600 rpm and disk has 125 sectors per track with 512
bytes per sector, then calculate the amount of data transfer rate per sec.
Soln: The amount of data transfer in on full revolution will be 125 × 512 = 64000 bytes.
So the transfer rate for the disk will be 64000 × (3600/60) = 3840000 bytes/ sec
S.P. Chauhan 54
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Q. A 10 – disk pack has 200 tracks per surface. There are 10 sectors per track and 512
bytes per sector, calculate:
a. Storage capacity of disk pack, b. Number of cylinders in disk pack, c. Number of
tracks per cylinder
Soln:-
Here let us assume all surfaces are recordable, so
Total number of surfaces = =
Total number of tracks per surface = 200 (given)
Total number of tracks =

Total number of sectors =

Total number of bytes =

S.P. Chauhan 55
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Q. A 10 – disk pack has 200 tracks per surface. There are 10 sectors per track and 512
bytes per sector, calculate:
a. Storage capacity of disk pack, b. Number of cylinders in disk pack, c. Number of
tracks per cylinder
Soln:-
Here let us assume all surfaces are recordable, so
Number of cylinders =

Total number of tracks per cylinder =

S.P. Chauhan 56
 Secondary Storage
➢ Magnetic Disk :-
Q. A magnetic disk has following Total No. of tracks =
characteristics:
i. Data storage capacity = 120MB
ii. No of track/surface = 40
iii. No of sector/ track = 1024 Total No. of surfaces =
iv. Sector size = 512 bytes
Calculate the no. of recordable surface on
the disk pack & number of disks. So number of recordable surfaces = 06
Soln:-
If we assume that data can be written on both
Total Number of bytes = 120MB side of disk, then
Number of disk =
No. of sectors =

Number of disks required = 03

S.P. Chauhan 57
 Secondary Storage
➢ Main Types of Computer Hard Disk Drives:-
Computers rely on hard disk drives (HDDs) to store data permanently. They are storage
devices used to save and retrieve digital information that will be required for future reference.
Hard disk drives were introduced in 1956 by IBM. At the time, they were being used with
general-purpose mainframes and minicomputers.
Hard drives are non-volatile, meaning that they retain data even when they do not have
power. The information stored remains safe and intact unless the hard drive is destroyed or
interfered with. The information is stored or retrieved in a direct-access manner. This implies
that blocks of data can be accessed at any time they are required without going through other
data blocks.
In terms of capacity, size, shape, internal structure, performance, interface, and modes of
storing data, we can group hard drives into five types:
1. Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment (PATA)
2. Serial ATA (SATA)
3. Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
4. Solid State Drives (SSD)
5. NVM Express
S.P. Chauhan 58
 Secondary Storage
➢Main Types of Computer Hard Disk Drives:-
1.Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment (PATA):- These were the first types of hard disk
drives to be developed. They made use of the Parallel ATA interface standard to connect to
computers.
These types of drives are the ones we refer to as
Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) and Enhanced
Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE) drives.
These PATA drives were introduced by Western Digital
and Compaq back in 1986. They provided a common
drive interface technology for connecting hard drives
and other devices to computers.
Data transfer rate can go up to 133MB/s and a
maximum of 2 devices can be connected to a drive
channel. Most of the motherboards have a provision of
two channels, thus a total of 4 EIDE devices can be
connected internally
They make use of a 40 or 80 wire ribbon cable transferring multiple bits of data
simultaneously in parallel. These drives store data by the use of magnetism. The internal
S.P. Chauhan 59
 Secondary Storage
➢Main Types of Computer Hard Disk Drives:-
2. Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA):-
These hard drives have replaced the PATA drives in desktop and laptop computers. The main
physical difference between the two is the interface.

SATA was announced in 2000 in order to provide several advantages over the earlier PATA
interface. These are reduced cable size and cost (seven conductors instead of 40 or 80)
They are actually rotary hard drives with spinning platters and a moving needle that writes
data to consecutive sectors on each platter. SATA hard drives are incredibly fast compared to
their predecessor, the PATA hard drive, and can write to the disk with an interface rate of
6Gb/s with a throughput of 600 MB/s.
S.P. Chauhan 60
 Secondary Storage
➢Main Types of Computer Hard Disk Drives:-
2. Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA):-
A single drive can range from 500 GB to 16 TB and are available at a lower cost than any of
the other drive types.
Since data is physically written to a disk, it can also become fragmented, meaning that different
sectors can be spread across different areas of the disk, slowing down the drive. They also are
vulnerable to shock and sudden movement since there are moving parts in each drive, which
makes them a poor choice for laptops.
Their method of connecting to a computer is the same. Some advantages of SATA Hard Disk
Drives are:
a. SATA drives can transfer data faster than PATA types by using serial signaling Technology.
b. SATA cables are thinner and more flexible than PATA cables.
c. They have a 7-pin data connection, with a cable limit of 1 meter.
d. Disks do not share bandwidth because there is only one disk drive allowed per SATA
controller chip on the computer motherboard.
e. They consume less power. They only require 250 mV as opposed to 5V for PATA
S.P. Chauhan 61
 Secondary Storage
➢Main Types of Computer Hard Disk Drives:-
3.Small Computer System Interface (SCSI):-
These are quite similar to IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) hard drives but they make use of
the Small Computer System Interface to connect to the computer.
SCSI is a set of standards for physically connecting and transferring data between computers
and peripheral devices. These standards define commands, protocols, electrical, optical and
logical interfaces.
SCSI drives can be connected internally or externally. Devices that are connected in a SCSI
have to be terminated at the end. Here are some of their advantages.
a. They are faster.
b. They are very reliable.
c. Good for 24/7 operations.
d. Have better scalability and flexibility in arrays.
e. Well-adapted for storing and moving large amounts of data.
f. 7 to 15 devices are allowed to connect to a single motherboard

S.P. Chauhan 62
 Secondary Storage
➢Main Types of Computer Hard Disk Drives:-
4.Solid State Drives (SSD):-
These are the latest in drive technology that we have in the computer industry. They are totally
different from the other drives as they do not consist of moving parts i.e. these disks don't have
any moving parts. Instead, all of the data is stored on non-volatile flash memory.

S.P. Chauhan 63
 Secondary Storage
➢Main Types of Computer Hard Disk Drives:-
4.Solid State Drives (SSD):-
They also do not store data using magnetism. Instead, they make use of flash memory
technology. They make use of integrated circuits or semiconductor devices to store data
permanently, at least until it is erased.
The basis for flash-based SSDs, flash memory, was invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba in
1980 and commercialized by Toshiba in 1987.
The first commercial flash-based SSD was shipped by SanDisk in 1991. It was a 20 MB SSD.
SSD are Fast, more durable, especially for laptops. But are more expensive than SATA drives
and lower disk sizes.

S.P. Chauhan 64
 Secondary Storage
➢Main Types of Computer Hard Disk Drives:-
5. Non Volatile Memory Express(NVMe):-
Non-Volatile Memory Express (NVMe) is a storage interface introduced in 2013. NVMe, is a
type of SSD that's attached to a PCI Express (PCIe) slot on a main board. These slots were
originally designed for graphics cards, so they are incredibly fast. Speeds on NVMe drives can
reach an interface rate of 32 Gb/s with a throughput of 3.9 GB/s.
The term “Express” refers to the fact that the data travels over the PCI Express (PCIe)
interface on your computer’s motherboard.
This gives the attached disk drive a more direct connection with the motherboard. This is
because data does not have to go through a Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)
controller.
NVMe drives are thus much faster than SATA drives. PCIe 3.0 which is the current generation
of the PCI Express standard has a maximum speed transfer of 985 megabytes per second
(Mbps) on each lane.
NVMe drives have been able to utilize 4 PCIe lanes, meaning a theoretical max speed of 3.9
Gbps (3,940 Mbps).
Meanwhile, one of the fastest SATA SSDs, the Samsung 860 Pro, tops out at read and write
speeds of about 560MBps. S.P. Chauhan 65
 Secondary Storage
➢Main Types of Computer Hard Disk Drives:-
5. Non Volatile Memory Express(NVMe):-
NVMe drives come in several different form factors.
The m.2 stick is the most common of these.
It is 22 mm wide and can be 30, 42, 60, 80 or
100mm long. These sticks are thin enough to lay flat
on a motherboard. This makes them perfect for small
form factor computers and laptops.
It is very fast, but there are some drawbacks to
NVMes. For starters, they are only available on
desktop PCs and are very expensive. Also, while
they can be used as secondary drives, to use it to its
full potential, it needs to install operating system on
it. Most BIOS don't support booting from NVMe at
this time. It's still possible to get one that does, but it
might mean replacing your entire main board.

S.P. Chauhan 66
 Secondary Storage
➢ Optical Disk :-
Optical disk storage system consists of a metallic or plastic disc coated with highly
reflective material. It uses the laser beam technology for reading/writing data from/to
surface. Optical disk are also known as or optical laser disc laser disc because they use
laser beam technology to write or read data from disk. They are used as a random
access medium for high capacity secondary storage.
Storage Organization:- An optical disc consists of single
spiral track that start from the outer edge spiraling inward
to the center of disc. Due to its spiral shape, it can access
large amount of data sequentially such as audio & video.
The spiral track is divided into equal-length sectors regard
less of the position of a sector from the center. Thus sectors
near centre of disc wrap around the disk longer than the
sectors on the edge of disc. As all sectors are of equal length,
it enables the data packing at maximum density over the
entire disk.
But it require more complicated drive mechanism because the rotational speed of the disk
must vary inversely with radius. S.P. Chauhan 67
 Secondary Storage
➢ Optical Disk :-
Storage Organization:-
The optical disk can store up to 6GB. But commonly used optical disks stores 600 to
700 MB of data. They come from 12.0 inch to 3.0 inch diameter. But most common
and popular is of 5.25 inch diameter.
Storage capacity of optical disk = Number of sectors × Number of bytes per sector
The 5.25-inch optical disk typically has 3,30,000 sectors each of 2352 bytes, making
its storage capacity equal to 3,30,000 × 2352=776 × 106bytes = 776Megabytes
Access Mechanism:-
Optical disk drive uses laser beam technology for reading/writing data from/to an
optical disk surface. It has two laser beam sources.
One leaser beam of greater intensity used to write data by using pits on the surface. To
write data it turn the leaser beam ON & OFF at varying rate due to which tiny pits
are burnt into metal coating of disk surface along its track.

S.P. Chauhan 68
 Secondary Storage
➢ Optical Disk :-
Access Mechanism:- Another beam of lesser density used to read the data. To read
data less powerful laser beam is strongly reflected by the coated surface known as
land and weakly reflected by the burned surface known as pit, producing the pattern
of On & OFF reflection which are converted into electronic signals of binary 1’s & 0’s
by a sensor.

Access time for an optical disk ranges from 100 to 200ms.

S.P. Chauhan 69
 Secondary Storage
➢ Optical Disk Drive :-
• Disk is mounted on an optical disk drive for reading/writing
• Drive contains all the mechanical, electrical and electronic components
• Contains a tray on which the disk is kept, read/write laser beams assembly and
motor to rotate the disk

S.P. Chauhan 70
 Secondary Storage
➢ Optical Disk Drive :-
Access Time:- Optical disk drives are slower than magnetic disk drives due to the
following reasons:
• Sectors of an optical disk are arranged on a continuous spiral track this data
organization results in slower access of a sector than in case of concentric tracks
organization. Because in concentric tracks, data access mechanism always finds
sectors on a given track at fixed distance from the center.
• In case of optical disk each sector has the same length regard less of its position from
the center. This data organization requires a more complicated drive mechanism
because disk’s speed must vary inversely with radius. This access mechanism leads to
slower data access as compared to the magnetic disk in which disk rotate at constant
speed.
• Optical disks are movable media, it is prone to scratches, dust, sticky prints etc. while
handling
• Read/write and disk assembly is not a sealed unit.
• Access time of optical disks varies in the range of 100 to 300 milliseconds. Compared
with the access time of hard disk, which varies in the range of 10 to 30 milliseconds.
S.P. Chauhan 71
 Secondary Storage
➢ Optical Disk :-
Commonly used optical disks are CD-ROM, WORM(CD-R), CD-RW & DVD.
CD-ROM:-
CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk Read Only Memory, it was a popular medium for
storing music, now a days it is also used to store data.
It is made of polycarbonate plastic having thin layer of pure aluminium coating to make
its surface reflective.
Data is store as pits i.e. depression and lands i.e. flat area on CD-ROM. It is written by
the manufacturer using laser light and can only be read, once the data written it can not
altered. Optical disk mechanism reads disk from the centre to the outer edge.
WORM/CD-Recordable(CD-R) Disk:-
WORM stands for Write-Once, Read-Many. It allow the users to create their own CD-
ROM Disk by using CD-recordable (CD-R) drive. We can use any ordinary CD-ROM
drive to read information recorded on a WORM disk by using CD-R drive.
We can also write data on WORM in multiple recording sessions. The session after the
first one are always additive and can not alter the information of earlier sessions. Such
disk are called multi session disks. It uses the laser beam technology as discussed
S.P. Chauhan 72
 Secondary Storage
➢ Optical Disk :-
CD-Read/Write (CD-RW) Disk:-
CD-RW is similar to WORM disk with facility that we can erase it previous content and
write on it multiple times. Laser beam of such disk changes the chemical properties
during writing or burn process.
A CD-RW disk usually has a life time of 100 or more erase write cycles.
Digital Video (or Versatile) Disk (DVD):-
DVD uses the same principle as CD for reading & writing the data. However the pits
are about 4.5 times dense on DVD as compared to CD and can store about 7 times more
data per side.
There are two variant of DVD. Single layer & Double layer disk. Single layer DVD has
capacity of 4.7GB and double layer disk has capacity of 8.5GB.

S.P. Chauhan 73
 Secondary Storage
➢ Optical Disk :-
Advantages:-
i. Cost per bit of storage for optical disk is very low because of their low cost and
high storage density.
ii. Use of single spiral track makes optical disk an ideal storage medium for reading
large block of sequential data such as audio or video.
iii.Optical disk drives do not have any mechanical read/write heads to rub against or
crash into disk surface, it make optical disk more reliable storage medium.
iv.Optical disk have more storage life may be upto 30years which makes them more
better storage medium for data.
Limitations:-
i. Data access speed of optical disk is slower than that of magnetic disk.
ii. Optical disk require more complicated drive mechanism.
iii.Optical disk is removable media, it is prone to scratch, dust etc while handling, so
need careful handling.

S.P. Chauhan 74
 Secondary Storage
➢ Flash Drive (Pen Drive) :-
It is a compact device generally of size of a pen, comes in different shapes and may have
different added features such as camera, built in MP3/FM radio play back for music etc.
It enable easy transport of data from one computer to another.
A user simply plugs it into USB (Universal Serial Bus) port. The computer detect it
automatically as a removable drive and user can read, write, copy, delete and move data
from or to hard disk.
The user can run applications from it
directly and carry it in pocket anywhere.
It is compatible with most PC’s, desktop
and laptop computers with USB 2.0
port.
Basically it is non volatile Electrically
Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory (EEPROM) chip. It is a highly
durable solid state storage having data
retention capability of several years i.e.
More than 10 years. S.P. Chauhan 75
 Secondary Storage
➢ Memory Cards :-
➢ Similar to flash drive, Flash memory based cards are available as removable
Storage device in different types of electronic equipment.
➢ The most popular ones are Secure Digital(SD) and Multimedia Card(MMC)
➢ These cards are used in various types of digital devices
➢ Each of these cards has its own interface and specific design features

S.P. Chauhan 76