UNIT -5

MULTIRATE DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING: Introduction, down sampling, decimation, up sampling,

interpolation, sampling rate conversion.

FINITE WORDLENGTH EFFECTS: Limit cycles, overflow oscillations, round off noise in IIR digital filters,
computational output round of noise, methods prevent overflow, trade of between round of and
overflow noise, dead band effects.

1. What is meant by Round-Off Errors in digital filters?

Ans: Round-Off Errors in Digital Filters

Round-off errors occur in digital filters due to the finite precision of digital representations. When filter
coefficients or input/output samples are rounded or truncated to fit within a fixed number of bits, errors
are introduced. These errors can lead to deviations from the desired filter response and can affect the
accuracy of the filtered signal.

2. Determine the decimated version of a signal x(n) = {2,4,6,8, 10, 12, M, 16} for
D=3 and D=4.

Ans :Decimated Version of x(n)

Decimation is the process of reducing the sampling rate of a signal. To decimate by a factor of D, we
keep every Dth sample and discard the rest.

For D=3:

* x_dec(n) = {2, 8, 16}

For D=4:

* x_dec(n) = {2, 10, 16

3. What is meant by quantization error?

Ans: Quantization Error

Quantization error is the difference between the original analog value and its quantized digital
representation. It occurs when an analog signal is converted to a digital signal with a finite number of
bits. Quantization errors can introduce noise and distortion into the digital signal.

4. Show that an interpolator is a linear system.

Ans: Interpolator as a Linear System

An interpolator is a linear system because it satisfies the following properties:

* Additivity: If x1(n) and x2(n) are two input signals, and y1(n) and y2(n) are their corresponding
interpolated outputs, then the interpolated output of x1(n) + x2(n) is y1(n) + y2(n).

* Homogeneity: If x(n) is an input signal and y(n) is its interpolated output, then the interpolated output
of ax(n) is ay(n), where a is a scalar.

These properties are fundamental characteristics of linear systems.

Essay
1. Write a short notes on Round off effects in digital filters.
Ans: Round-Off Effects in Digital Filters
Round-off effects occur in digital filters due to the finite precision of digital
representations. When filter coefficients or input/output samples are rounded or
truncated to fit within a fixed number of bits, errors are introduced.

Common Round-Off Effects:

* Quantization Noise: This is the noise introduced due to the quantization error
during the rounding or truncation process. It can be modeled as a random signal.

* Coefficient Quantization: The quantization of filter coefficients can lead to

changes in the filter's frequency response. This can result in deviations from the
desired characteristics, such as passband ripple, stopband attenuation, and phase
distortion.

* Input/Output Quantization: Quantizing the input and output signals can also
introduce noise and distortion. The effects of input quantization are often more
pronounced than output quantization.

* Limit Cycles: In certain cases, round-off errors can cause the filter to exhibit
limit cycles, where the output oscillates between a set of fixed values. This can
lead to undesirable artifacts in the filtered signal.

Strategies to Minimize Round-Off Effects:

 * Increase Wordlength: Using more bits to represent filter coefficients and signals
can reduce quantization noise.

* Use Fixed-Point Arithmetic: Fixed-point arithmetic can be more efficient than

floating-point arithmetic in terms of hardware implementation and can help to
control round-off errors.

* Choose Appropriate Filter Structures: Some filter structures, such as cascaded

integrator-comb (CIC) filters, are less sensitive to round-off errors than others.

* Use Double-Precision Arithmetic: For critical applications, double-precision

arithmetic can be used to reduce round-off errors further.

* Apply Noise Shaping: Noise shaping techniques can be used to redistribute

quantization noise to less audible frequency bands.

2. Consider a ramp sequence and sketch its interpolated and

decimated versions with a factor ‘3’.
Ans: What actually-Ramp Sequence, Interpolation, and Decimation

Ramp Sequence: A ramp sequence is a signal that increases linearly over time.
It'soften represented by a straight line on a graph.

Interpolation: Interpolation is the process of creating new data points between

existing ones. In this case, we'll be inserting new values into the ramp sequence to
increase its sampling rate.
Decimation: Decimation is the process of reducing the sampling rate of a signal.
This is often done by discarding some of the original samples.

Factor 3: This means we'll be either:

* Interpolating by a factor of 3: Inserting 2 new samples between each existing

sample.

* Decimating by a factor of 3: Keeping every third sample and discarding the rest.

Visualizing the Ramp Sequence and Its Transformations

Original Ramp Sequence:

Interpolated Ramp Sequence by a Factor of 3:

Decimated Ramp Sequence by a Factor of 3:

Note: The exact shape of the interpolated and decimated sequences will depend
on the specific interpolation and decimation methods used. Common methods
include linear interpolation and nearest neighbor interpolation for interpolation,
and simple truncation or low-pass filtering for decimation.
3. Define Decimation Interpolation and explain the process of
interpolation by factor ‘1’.
Ans:

Decimation

Definition: Decimation is a process of reducing the sampling rate of a discrete-

time signal. It involves discarding some of the original samples.

Process:

* Select a decimation factor: This determines the number of samples to discard

between each retained sample. For example, a decimation factor of 2 means
keeping every other sample.

* Apply a low-pass filter: This is done to prevent aliasing, which occurs when the
decimated signal's frequency content exceeds the Nyquist frequency of the new
sampling rate. The filter's cutoff frequency should be set to half the new sampling
rate.

* Down sample: Discard the unwanted samples according to the decimation

factor.

Interpolation

Definition: Interpolation is the process of creating new data points between

existing ones. It's used to increase the sampling rate of a discrete-time signal.

Process:

* Select an interpolation factor: This determines the number of new samples to

insert between each existing sample. For example, an interpolation factor of 2
means inserting one new sample between each existing sample.

* Up sample: Insert the required number of zeros between each existing sample
to increase the sampling rate.
* Apply a low-pass filter: This is done to smooth the signal and prevent aliasing
due to the increased sampling rate. The filter's cutoff frequency should be set to
half the original sampling rate.

Interpolation by Factor '1'

Interpolation by a factor of 1 doesn't actually change the signal's sampling rate.

It's essentially a no-operation. This might be used in specific algorithms or
applications where a consistent interpolation factor is required, even if it doesn't
alter the signal.

In essence:

* Decimation reduces the sampling rate and can be used to decrease the data
size of a signal.

* Interpolation increases the sampling rate and can be used to improve the
resolution of a signal.

* Interpolation by a factor of 1 has no effect on the signal.

4. Explain the decimation process in time domain and

frequency domain.
Ans: Decimation: A Time and Frequency Domain Perspective

Decimation is a process of reducing the sampling rate of a discrete-time signal. It's

commonly used to decrease the data size of a signal without significantly affecting
its information content.

a. Time Domain Perspective

In the time domain, decimation involves:

* Selecting a decimation factor: This determines the number of samples to

discard between each retained sample. For example, a decimation factor of 2
means keeping every other sample.

* Down sampling: Simply discarding the unwanted samples according to the

decimation factor.
This process effectively stretches the time axis of the signal, as fewer samples are
used to represent the same duration.

b. Frequency Domain Perspective

In the frequency domain, decimation can be understood as:

* Folding: When the sampling rate is reduced, high-frequency components of the

signal can be aliased, or folded back into the baseband (the frequency range from
0 to half the sampling rate). This is because the Nyquist frequency (half the
sampling rate) determines the maximum representable frequency in a sampled
signal.

* Filtering: To prevent aliasing, a low-pass filter is typically applied before

decimation. This filter removes high-frequency components that would otherwise
be folded back.

The cutoff frequency of the filter should be set to half the new sampling rate. This
ensures that the signal's frequency content remains within the Nyquist frequency
of the decimated signal.

In summary:

* Time Domain: Decimation is a simple process of discarding samples.

* Frequency Domain: Decimation can lead to aliasing if not accompanied by

appropriate filtering. The filter's cutoff frequency should be set to half the new
sampling rate.

5. Write a short notes on quantization errors in DSP.

Ans: Quantization Errors in Digital Signal Processing (DSP)

Quantization is the process of converting a continuous-valued signal into a

discrete-valued signal. In digital signal processing, this involves representing
analog values with a finite number of bits. The difference between the original
continuous value and its quantized representation is known as quantization error.
Here are some key points about quantization errors in DSP:

a. Quantization Noise: Quantization errors introduce noise into the digital signal.
This noise is typically modeled as a uniformly distributed random variable.

b. Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio (SQNR): This measures the quality of the

quantization process. A higher SQNR indicates a lower level of quantization noise
relative to the signal's amplitude.

c. Quantization Step Size: The smaller the quantization step size (the difference
between adjacent quantization levels), the finer the resolution and the lower the
quantization noise. However, a smaller step size requires more bits to represent
the signal.

d. Dithering: Adding a small amount of random noise to the signal before

quantization can help to reduce the effects of quantization noise. This technique
is known as dithering.

e. Non-Linear Distortion: Quantization can introduce non-linear distortion into

the signal, especially for large amplitudes. This can lead to artifacts such as
clipping or fold over distortion.

Strategies to Minimize Quantization Errors:

* Increase the Number of Bits: Using more bits to represent each sample
increases the quantization resolution and reduces quantization noise.

* Use a Higher Sampling Rate: A higher sampling rate can also reduce
quantization noise by providing more samples to represent the signal.

* Apply Dithering: As mentioned above, dithering can help to randomize

quantization errors and reduce their impact.

* Choose an Appropriate Quantization Method: Different quantization methods,

such as uniform or non-uniform quantization, may have varying effects on
quantization noise.
6. What are Multrate systems? List out the applications where
multirate systems are used.
Ans: Multirate Systems: Definition

Multirate Systems are digital signal processing systems that operate on

signals at different sampling rates. They involve techniques like up sampling,
down sampling, and interpolation to manipulate the sampling rate of a signal.

Applications of Multirate Systems

Multirate systems are used in various fields, including:

* Audio Processing:

* Sampling rate conversion: Converting audio signals between different

sampling rates for compatibility or quality improvement.

* Pitch shifting: Altering the pitch of an audio signal without changing its tempo.

* Time stretching: Changing the duration of an audio signal without altering its
pitch.

* Communication Systems:

* Bandpass filtering: Selecting a specific frequency band from a wider signal.

* Modem synchronization: Aligning the timing of data transmission and

reception.

* Image Processing:

* Zooming and panning: Enlarging or reducing the size of an image.

* Image interpolation: Creating new pixel values to increase the resolution of an

image.

* Video Processing:

* Frame rate conversion: Converting video between different frame rates for
playback on different devices.
 * Video editing: Manipulating the timing and content of video sequences.

* Radar Systems:

* Pulse compression: Improving the range resolution of radar signals.

* Doppler processing: Measuring the velocity of moving objects.

* Control Systems:

* Data rate reduction: Reducing the amount of data transmitted between

sensors and controllers.

* Real-time signal processing: Processing signals at different rates to meet

timing requirements.

Key Techniques Used in Multirate Systems:

* Up sampling: Increasing the sampling rate by inserting zeros between existing

samples.

* Down sampling: Decreasing the sampling rate by discarding samples.

* Interpolation: Estimating new sample values between existing samples.

* Decimation: Reducing the sampling rate by removing samples.

7. Explain the interpolation process in time domain and

frequency domain.
Ans: Interpolation: A Time and Frequency Domain Perspective

Interpolation is the process of creating new data points between existing ones. In
digital signal processing, it's used to increase the sampling rate of a signal.

a) Time Domain Perspective

In the time domain, interpolation involves:

* Upsampling: Inserting zeros between existing samples to increase the sampling

rate.

* Filtering: Applying a low-pass filter to smooth the signal and prevent aliasing.
The filter's cutoff frequency should be set to half the original sampling rate.

b) Frequency Domain Perspective

In the frequency domain, interpolation can be understood as:

* Replication: The frequency spectrum of the original signal is replicated

periodically at intervals equal to the new sampling frequency.

* Smoothing: The low-pass filter removes the high-frequency replicas, preventing

aliasing.

Key Points:

* Interpolation increases the sampling rate.

* In the time domain, interpolation involves upsampling and filtering.

* In the frequency domain, interpolation replicates the spectrum and smooths it.

* The choice of interpolation filter affects the quality of the interpolated signal.

Common Interpolation Methods:

* Linear interpolation: Interpolates values linearly between existing samples.

* Cubic spline interpolation: Uses cubic polynomials to fit the data points more
smoothly.

* Sinc interpolation: Uses the sinc function to interpolate values, providing the
best possible reconstruction but computationally expensive.

8. Explain about the sampling rate conversion by a rational

factor I/D.
Ans: Sampling Rate Conversion by a Rational Factor I/D
Sampling rate conversion is the process of changing the sampling rate of a
discrete-time signal. When the conversion factor is a rational number I/D, it
means that the new sampling rate is I times the original sampling rate, where I
and D are integers.
 Steps Involved:

Up sampling by I:

* Insert D-1 zeros between each sample of the original signal. This increases the
sampling rate by a factor of I.

* Apply a low-pass filter to smooth the signal and prevent aliasing. The cutoff
frequency of the filter should be set to half the original sampling rate.

Down sampling by D:

* Discard every D-1 samples from the upsampled signal. This reduces the
sampling rate by a factor of D.

Overall Effect:

The net effect of this process is to change the sampling rate by a factor of I/D.

Advantages of Rational Factor Conversion:

* Flexibility: Allows for a wide range of sampling rate changes.

* Efficiency: Can be implemented using efficient algorithms like polyphase filters.

Applications:

* Audio processing: Converting between different sampling rates for

compatibility or quality improvement.

* Video processing: Changing frame rates for playback on different devices.

* Communication systems: Adapting data rates to channel conditions.

Key Points:

* The choice of interpolation and decimation filters is crucial for the quality of the
converted signal.

* For efficient implementation, polyphase filters are often used.

* Rational factor conversion can be used to increase or decrease the sampling

rate.