Introduction

MCM 201

NEWS WRITING AND REPORTING

This is a two-credit unit course w. It is designed to train you to become skilled in writing
publishable news copy within given deadlines. The course examines the basic definitions of
news, structure of news and journalistic formats of news presentation as well as the methods
of producing them. The course also examines the various types of leads, the inverted pyramid,
writing transitions and conclusions. For practical exposure and experience in news gathering
and reporting, you are expected to turn in news stories under given deadlines. Model news
stories will also be provided for studying and imitation. In this course, you will be encouraged to
submit news stories and articles to the metropolitan media for publication.

This Course Guide is for distance learners enrolled in the B.A. Mass Communication programme
of the National Open University of Nigeria. It provides you with the necessary information
about the contents, process, and materials needed for the mastery of the subject matter of this
course. This Course Guide also specifies the amount of time you are required to spend on each
unit and guides you on how to about your tutor-marked assignments (TMAs). You are advised
to attend the tutorial classes to discuss your difficulties with your facilitators. I strongly
recommend that you go through this Course Guide and complete the feedback form at the end
before you begin your study of the course. The feedback form must be submitted to your
facilitator alongside your first assignment. Although this Course Guide provides answers to
some questions, which you may come across in this course; however, do not hesitate to contact
your study centre if you have further questions. It is my honest expectation that at the end of
this course, you will have been familiar with the nitty-gritty of writing and reporting news in
today’s media industry.

What You will Learn in This Course

This course is meant to expose you to the fundamental requirements of writing and reporting
news in a modern media organisation. It is designed to train you to become skilled in writing
publishable news copy within given lifelines. It is also expected that you will better appreciate
the basic definitions of news, structure of news and journalistic formats of news presentation
as well as the methods of producing them after going through this course. Furthermore, this
course will give you insight into the different (and/or similar) techniques of writing for the print
media, broadcast media as well as the specialised skills for advanced and specialised kinds of
writing and reporting in modern journalism. It is also expected that you will become familiar
with some basic requirements of journalistic practice such as qualities of

news writer/reporter. This course will expose you to elements of good quality journalism,
general rules for news writing, how to conduct news interviews, what makes for poor writing
and the various components of a news story, legal and ethical requirements of enjoying a
healthy career in the media industry, and so on.

Course Aims

The primary aim of this course is to inculcate in you the appropriate skills for news writing and
reporting generally as well as introduce you to basic requirements for writing or reporting for
either the print media of communication or the broadcast media of communication. Another
primary objective of this course is to introduce you to the fundamental skills required for
specialised and advanced writing and reporting especially for the print media of
communication. However, a secondary but rather vital aim of this course is also to expose you
to the preliminary legal and ethical requirements of enjoying a healthy career in the media
industry especially in Nigeria.

Course Objectives

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

 Define news what news is

 Identify elements of news and news values
 Outline and discuss qualities of a good news writer or reporter
 Identify and discuss what motivates reporters
 Identify the components of a typical news story
 Outline and discuss the general rules/guidelines for news writing or reporting
 Identify elements of good quality journalism and the elements by which news stories
are evaluated before selection
 Define various types of news interviews and discuss how to conduct a typical news
interview
  Define and explain the meaning and importance of lead in news writing
 Identify and explain the dos and don’ts of both print and broadcast news copies
 Write acceptable and publishable copies for the contemporary media
 List and discuss standard reporting and news gathering techniques
 Carry out interviews with new media technologies equipment
 Identify and discuss some specialised beats as well as the skills required to write or
report from such beats
 Discuss press freedom, the underlying issues, press laws as well as the ethics of media
practice at an introductory level.

Module one

General Introduction

1. What is News? /Elements of News Values and News Virtues

2. Qualities of a News Reporter
3. What Motivates a News Reporter?
4. General Rules for News Writing

Module Two

The Basics

1. Elements of Good Writing/ What Makes for Poor Writing

2. Conducting Interviews
3. News Gathering and Sources
4. Journalese

Module Three

News Writing and Reporting for the Print Media

1. The Lead
2. The Story Structure/Components of the Story
3. Types of News Stories
4. The Qualities of a Good News Story
5. Reporter’s Checklist

Module Four

News Writing and Reporting for the Broadcast Media

1. Criteria for Selecting Broadcast Stories

 2. Style
3. Features/Structure of a Broadcast News Story
4. Writing a Broadcast Copy

Module Five

Specialised Reporting

1. Introduction to Specialised Reporting

2. Reporting from the Beats
3. Online Reporting
4. Follows

Module Six

Advanced Reporting

1. Science and Technology Reporting

2. Reporting Sports
3. Political Reporting
4. Economy and Business Reporting
5. Reporting Crime, Accidents and the Courts

Module Seven

The Reporter, The Law and Ethical Issues

1. Press Freedom
2. Basic Press Laws
3. Ethical Issues in Media Practice

MODULE ONE — GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1. What is News?/Elements of News Values and News Virtues

2. Qualities of a News Reporter
3. What Motivates a News Reporter?
4. General Rules for News Writing

Unit one

1. What is News?
2. Elements of News Values
 3. Determinants
4. The Components of News
5. News Virtues

INTRODUCTION

At this level of your academic life and studies, it is obvious one of the words you have
accustomed to is NEWS. Each day, the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) gives you
the Network News at 7am, updated again at 4pm and 10pm. The same goes for the Nigerian
Television Authority (NTA) News at Dawn, Network News at 9pm, and so on. And with the era
of private broadcast stations, the airwaves are now replete with all kinds of news. The same is
not left out in the print media where the primary content is news. Therefore, it is common to
hear “Here is the News at 7 read by Funmi Makanna.” “This is CNN with the News on the Hour”.
On and on like that you are bombarded with news bulletins for upward of 18 hours a day. In
addition, every morning you hear vendors hawking and distributing their newspapers with all
kinds of techniques. In fact, before you stepped into the Department of Mass Communication,
NOUN, for this course on News Writing and Reporting, you were already familiar with the pillars
(or some of them at least) on which newspaper work is based. Therefore, for this course, before
we delve into the rudiments of News Writing and Reporting, we must first and foremost
understand what is news and the nature of news.

OBJECTIVES

At the end this unit, you should be able to:

define news

identify and describe elements of news values

identify and describe news virtues

identify and explain the determinants and the components of news.

1. What is News?

News is one of the most difficult issues to define in mass communication. There are almost as
many definitions of news as there are journalists. Even laymen in the streets can readily come
up with acceptable definitions of news. In general terms, news is very relative and depends on
what one thinks is news. At any given moment, millions of events happen simultaneously
throughout the world. “Obasanjo sacks Education Minister”, “FRA Williams dies,” “Super Eagles
thrashes Gabon,” “Obama wins Re-election, Clinton in Sex Scandal, and so on are potentially
news. However, they do not become news until some reporters give an account of them. In
other words, news is the account of an event, not the event itself.

We can now consider some definitions given by scholars and media professionals thus:

William S. Maulsbyl defined news thus:

News is an accurate, unbiased account of the significant facts of a timely happening that is of
interest to the readers of the newspaper that prints the account.

William G. Bleyer defines it like this:

News is anything timely that interests a number of people; and the best news is that which has
the greatest interest for the greatest number.

Mitchel Chainley defined news as:

The timely report of facts or opinions that hold interest of importance, or both for a
considerable number of people.

Prof. Charles Coates defined it thus:

News is what interests the reader, the viewer, the reporter, the editor, the producer, their
spouses and their neighbours. News is what affects their diets and their lives.

Sam Zelman of CNN says:

News is what is important because of its impact on society; it is what people need to know and
what they want to know.

There have been other numerous definitions of news but interwoven in all of this is the fact
that news must be something of interest to a significant number of people. In this regard, the
nature of news is always changing because community interests and standards are always
changing. For instance, the Western definition of news emphasises an event that is out of the
ordinary, exciting, sensational, and of the “manbiting dog” variety. According to Lord
Northcliffe, who revolutionised journalism in England between 1890 and 1920 (incidentally he
died a raving lunatic but very wealthy), “if a dog bites a man, it is NOT news, but when a man
bites a dog, it is News.”

This definition has since influenced Western journalists and media in the reportorial duties. To
them, news is made in the developing countries only when there are scandals, coups, civil wars,
uprisings, natural disasters, and so on. Western norms and values maintain that “bad” news is
better than “good” news. That is why when 100 planes take off from a base to a destination and
99 of them arrive safely and one crashes, the 99 that arrived safely will not be mentioned or
reported but much noise will be made about the only one that crashed. That is news for the
Western mass media and audience.

However, for this course, I will define news as an accurate, unbiased account of a current,
timely event, which is reported in the mass media and is significant to a large number of people
in a locality. Furthermore, in contemporary thinking, today’s news is about real life, real people,
real events, real places or real issues in a real world reported in real time using any available
means of communication. Agbese (2008) also sees news as finding out and publishing the
things people do not want others to know and second, anything that will make people talk.

2. Elements of News Values

While definitions of news vary, the main determinant of what can be considered as news is
“INTEREST.” To be news, an account of an event must be of interest to the readers, listeners or
viewers. Interest in a story is determined by the news values. The elements that determine
news values may be subdivided into two groups.

2. News Determinants

A determinant is a factor that sets the character of something, in this case, news. The
determinants of news are as follow.

Timeliness

Proximity/geographic location

Prominence/personality involved

Consequence/impact/significance

Human interest

Novelty

Conflict

Necessity

a. Timeliness

Today’s news may be stale tomorrow. Therefore, to attain that reader – viewer or listener
interest or appeal, facts must be fresh. However, some issues of great impact are timeliness.
Therefore, the best time to tell an important story is as soon as it happens or as soon as
possible.

b. Proximity/Geographic Location

Distance between the news item’s place of origin and its place of publication determines its
degree of reader – appeal, and the limits of reader – interest. Usually, the nearer an individual
is to the location of a news event, the more relevant it becomes for him/her. This is referred to
as geographic proximity.

c. There are two types of proximity:

• Geographical Proximity - This has been described above.

• Proximity of Interest

An account of students’ unrest in Kano will definitely interest students in Owerri than a
businessman in Kano.

This is referred to as proximity of interest.

d. Prominence/Personality Involved

All men may be created equal, but some are more equal and more newsworthy than others. In
fact, “names make news” goes a cliché. However, names do not always make news. Still,
happenings that involve well-known people or institutions are likely to be interesting even if not
very important.

e. Consequence/Impact/Significance/Magnitude

How many people an event or idea affects and how seriously it affects them determine its
importance as news, as well as the extent to which the information may be useful. Again, an
item or event may give rise to thought not because of itself but because of its probable
consequences – its significance.

f. Human Interest

Interest in human beings and events because they concern men and women in situations that
might confront anyone else, is called human interest. In a general way, human-interest stories
might be defined as those stories that arouse an emotion in the reader/ listener/ viewer and
evoke emotional response.

g. Novelty
This sounds like human interest but shows some differences. The unusual makes news. The
bizarre makes news too. Remember the-manbite-dog principle. The principle applies here. The
first flight to the moon was big news, so was Sandra Day O’ Connor’s appointment as the first
woman Justice of the United States Supreme Court. The day a female becomes the Vice
President of the US it will be the biggest news around the globe. “Firsts,” “Lasts,” and “Only”
have always been newsworthy. So also are stories of freak occurrences and scientific or
pseudoscientific phenomena.

h. Conflict

Nearly every story on each of our front pages is a report of conflict. Conflict is a central feature
of most news. Sometimes it is physical, as in wars or sports. Sometimes it is more subtle and
sophisticated like political conflicts.

i. Necessity

The seven earlier discussed news values involve people, events and situations that call out for
coverage. The value of necessity is, however, the journalist’s making (Mencher, 2010).
According to the Mencher (2010), the journalist has discovered something he or she feels it is
necessary to disclose. The essential element here is that the journalist considers a situation to
be something everyone should know about and usually it is a situation that needs to be
exposed and remedied.

3. The Components of News

So far, we have been discussing the determinants of news. In this section, we shall be
examining the components or the contents of news. A component is a constituent part of
something. They tend to have more news values or higher news values than stories that lack
them. The more of news components you find in a story, the higher the news worthiness of
such a story.

Many items could easily fall into the components of news. However, we shall discuss eight that
always sell a story anytime it is a content of such story. The eight components of news are:

Age

Animal

Sex

Conflict

Money
Children

Beauty

Human interest

4. News Virtues

Now that what news is and what determines readers’ interest in a story have been discussed,
reporters should strive to make the news they publish or broadcast win the credibility and
confidence of their readers and listeners by adhering firmly to the triple news virtues.

These triple news virtues are:

Truth

All news stories must represent factual events and personalities. The reporter should also
ensure that the facts of the News are truthful to the best of his/her knowledge before
publishing or broadcasting such story.

Objectivity

Objectivity presupposes that the reporter presents the reader with all sides of an issue,
presents all the facts and allows the reader to decide what these facts mean. For a story to be
objective, it must be devoid of a reporter’s biases and prejudice. It must not also be slanted or
editorialised.

Accuracy

This is the last news virtue. Accuracy is a pillar on which every story rests. A news story can be
regarded as accurate if all names, ages, addresses and direct quotations in the story are
accurate or correct. The only way to meet this requirement is for the reporter to check,
doublecheck or even triple-check his facts before going to the press.

Assessment Exercise

Discuss the elements of news values and why you think they are important in determining a
story’s relevance.

CONCLUSION

Definitions of news change with time, place and who is defining it. Many media organisations
and individual journalists also define news differently partially influenced by their varying
backgrounds. However, what constitutes news values remains constant-interest. This interest
comes in form of values. In conclusion, Thomas Griffith famous quote [cited in Mencher (2010)]
becomes relevant here: “Journalism is in fact history on the run. It is history written in time to
be acted upon; thereby not only recording events but also at times influencing them.
Journalism is also the recording of history while the facts are not all in.”

SUMMARY

This unit focused on news and what constitutes news values and virtues. In this unit, you were
specifically taught about the various definitions of news, bringing up different perspectives; the
eight elements of news values and the triple news virtues, which must be present for news
stories to have credibility, relevance and wide acceptance.

ASSIGNMENT

Why do we have many and different definitions of news?

Discuss the major reasons why necessity made the list of news values.

Which among the news values must be present for a news story to have credibility? Justify your
selection.

REFERENCES

Agbese, D. (2008). The Reporters’ Companion. Lagos: Newswatch Books Limited.

Hule, B. D. & Anderson, D.A. (2003). News Writing and Reporting for Today’s Media. Boston:
McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Mencher, M. (2010). Mencher’s News Writing and Reporting (11th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill
Higher Education.

Obe, J. (2005). Reporting Diverse Areas: A Concise Text. Akure, Nigeria: SMC.

UNIT TWO QUALITIES OF A NEWS REPORTER

1. Qualities of the News Reporter

INTRODUCTION

Reporters write stories, report events and happenings in and around the society. They provide
the core of news stories that are published daily in our commercial newspapers or broadcast in
the electronic media. As there is no substitute for good reporting, so also there is no substitute
for good reporters. G

ood reporter are great asset for their media organisation.

They are the ear and the eye of their medium.

It is what they reports that the audience will know about.

The reporter touches lives with his report.

OBJECTIVES

At the end this unit, you should be able to:

 Identify who a reporter is and what differentiates them from other media practitioner
 Identify qualities a good reporters
 Differentiate between a good reporter and a bad one.

Qualities of the News Reporter

Some of the major qualities that make a good reporter are discussed below.

They must have a mastery of the written or spoken language of the medium of expression: This
will enable him/her to interact easily with news sources, eyewitnesses or even the victims of
events.

They must have nose for news: This means the reporter or journalist must be curious about
getting news from newsy or stale situations. A good reporter must have a natural instinct for
news and should be able to identify news from seemingly events that may not be considered
newsworthy by everyone else.

They must be current and keep abreast of events and happenings: In the media industry,
yesterday’s news is stale and no more needed. To remain relevant in the industry, therefore,
the reporter must keep abreast of happenings in and around him/her.

A good reporter must be fair, accurate and objective in his news writing and reporting job.
Fairness, accuracy and objectivity are news virtues, which the profession thrives on. Any
attempt to compromise any of these values makes a mess of the reputation and credibility of
the industry. These qualities of a reporter must be jealously guarded.

A good reporter must be creative: Creativity makes the reporter see another unique story from
an already published report. Without creativity, the reporter will remain dry, uninspiring and
boring to his readers and even his sources.

They must also have the ability to dress well: A common idiom says how you dress is how you
are addressed and I add that it also betrays your address. A good reporter must know how to
dress for the occasion otherwise they will be lost in the crowd or misrepresented. Dressing well
is not necessarily dressing expensively. It only means having the right kind of dress for each
occasion or situation.

A good reporter must have perseverance: Perseverance is having the staying power and
refusing to give up even when the situation calls for giving up. A good reporter must have the
ability to stay longer and under stress or pressure.

A good reporter must be a “good mixer”: There is no room for the reserved kind of reporter
who cannot easily get into a discussion with a potential news source. A good reporter should be
able to blend easily with all kinds of persons especially when such persons are primary to
getting the news he/she is pursuing at that moment. The good reporter should be able to make
contacts, grow and maintain them.

They must have high level of comportment: The good reporter must have self-control and high
level of comportment no matter the situation or circumstances. He/she is not expected to be
carried away easily by any surrounded situation.

A good reporter must have the ability to embark on creative risk and courage especially in
reporting coups, wars, conflicts, crime, disaster etc.

They must have the ability to ferret out news through the process of monitoring people and
events.

They must also possess good observatory skills and have an eye for details: Poorly trained
reporters look without seeing. The good reporter is able to see leads and news worthy
situations by merely observing people and situations. Whenever the good reporter looks,
he/she sees. He/she is also able to taken in a lot of details by mere observation.

They must be good listener and must have an unusual patience: The poorly trained reporters
are only interested in hearing their voices in an interview situation. However, a good reporter is
only interested in hearing the news source talk. Therefore, listening becomes a vital quality a
reporter must possess in order to succeed.

They should also possess enough idealism to inspire indignant prose but not too much as to
obstruct detached professionalism (Ragged Right cited in Agbese, 2008).

A good and modern reporter must be multi-skilled: they should be equipped with an array of
skills to meet the demands of diverse media users (Mencher, 2010).

A good and modern reporter must also have the unique quality called enterprise: He/she
should be able to work through tougher assignments or situation by instantaneously assessing
the situation and taking decisions and steps that will give him/her what the media organisation
wants.

A good reporter must also have the strength of character to lead a disrupted personal life
without going absolutely haywire (Ragged Right cited in Agbese, 2008).

CONCLUSION

Good reporters are great assets to their media organisations. Not everyone who went to a
journalism school usually turns out to become a good reporter. This is the primary reason they
are always sought after anywhere they could be found. According to Sid Bedingfield, President,
Fault Line Productions (cited in Mencher, 2010), “Reporting is the essential ingredient in good
journalism. Everything else is dressing….The reporter is the engine that drives the newspaper,
the contributor who makes the newscast worthwhile.

SUMMARY

This unit specifically dealt with the qualities a good reporter who wants to work in a reputable
media organisation must have. Fifteen of such qualities were discussed in this unit. Further
readings may bring up some more.

ASSIGNMENT

As an aspiring reporter identify and discuss five solid qualities you think you must possess to be
able to assume a reportorial role in a Newspaper organisation.

The Nigerian media industry is a unique media terrain. Discuss 10 relevant and time-tested
qualities that will help you survive as an upcoming reporter.

REFERENCES

Agbese, D. (2008). The Reporters’ Companion. Lagos: Newswatch Books Limited.

Hule, B. D. & Anderson, D.A. (2003). News Writing and Reporting for Today’s Media. Boston:
McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Mencher, M. (2010). Mencher’s News Writing and Reporting (11th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill
Higher Education.

Obe, J. (2005). Reporting Diverse Areas: A Concise Text. Akure: SMC.

UNIT 3 — WHAT MOTIVATES A NEWS REPORTER?

INTRODUCTION
Reporters populate most media organisations but not all of them win the Pulitzer Prize. Those
who do are usually motivated by something to do the extra, which results in awards and peer-
recognition. This unit therefore focuses on the seven motivating factors identified by Byron
Calame, the Public Editor of New York Times (cited in Mencher, 2010).

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• identify the motivating factor for news reporter.

Byron Calame cited in Mencher (2010) identified seven motivating factors while working and
competing with more than a 100 reporters in his successful career as a reporter and editor.

1. Being first with new facts or fresh insights

Every reporter really desires to be the first to get the news out. The socalled old fashioned
scoops are still fashionable even in today’s media industry. Being the first gives them a sense of
fulfillment and originality.

2. Pursuing stories that can have impact

Successful reporters are usually motivated by the desire that their outputs changed the course
history. Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein of the famed Watergate Scandal are examples of
reporters in this class.

3. Wining prizes

This is a little controversial because most journalists argue that their stories were not motivated
by prize and awards. But a careful look at the work of journalists suggests this is one of the
motivating factors.

4. Impressing sources

According to Byron Calame, most of the journalists remain highly motivated to impress their
sources with the accuracy, fairness and depth of their work.

5. Finding out what’s really happening

According to Byron Calame, “A fundamental motivation of reporters is the curiosity that drives
them to get to the bottom of a confusing or complicated situation and to find patterns that help
explain it to readers. Making sense out of chaos-especially when you can do it first-is something
many reporters find rewarding.”
 6. Telling stories in a compelling way

Most reporters who aim to the top are usually moved to tell their stories in a way that their
listeners or audiences are compelled to see to the end of the story.

7. Getting on the front page

Any reporter who spends five months in a media organisation, say newspaper, and does not get
on the front page of the paper, may be regarded as not doing well. Front page stories are big
stories in the judgment of editors. So, reporters strive to have a sense of fulfillment that their
story was considered big and good to make a front page. The feeling is always rewarding and
unexplainable.

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

In your own words, discuss five factors that drive reporters to success.

CONCLUSION

In life, there must be something that drives you to fulfillment. The same is applicable to careers
especially in the media industry. Reporters are not amongst the richest in the society and the
profession is not very financially rewarding especially in Nigeria. There must be something then
that drives reporters in this part of the world to be courageous and take creative risks. These
factors are what we attempted to discuss in this unit.

SUMMARY

In this unit, we considered the various factors motivating reporters and journalists alike to
career growth and fulfillment. These factors were from the work of Byron Calame, the Public
Editor or Ombudsman of The New York Times. Seven of such motivating factors were identified
and discussed in this unit.

ASSIGNMENT

In your own assessment, suggest two other factors that you think motivate reporters that were
not discussed in this unit.

Defend the argument that winning prizes does not motivate reporters.

REFERENCES

Agbese, D. (2008). The Reporters’ Companion. Lagos Nigeria: Newswatch Books Limited.
Mencher, M. (2010). Mencher’s News Writing and Reporting. (11th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill
Higher Education.

UNIT FOUR — GENERAL RULES FOR NEWS WRITING

INTRODUCTION

The success of any profession depends on the quality of rules and regulations guiding such a
profession and concerted efforts to ensure such regulations are not tampered with. In this unit,
we shall be considering the general and basic rules that guide news writing and reporting.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify not less than 20 rules that guide news writing and reporting.

1. Do not pass a verdict or make a judgment: It is not your duty as a reporter or writer to pass a
verdict or make judgment. Just gather the facts of the story, present them to your audience and
let them decide on whose side they will want to go.

2. Do not editorialise: Leave editorialising to the editorial writers. News reports must be as
straightforward and objective as possible.
3. void the use of unfamiliar jargon: Do not assume that your audience understands the
meanings of the unfamiliar jargons you are using. Always use familiar words.
4. Keep yourself and other reporters out of the story: Keep yourself and other colleagues
out of the story unless you and them are an essential part of the news.
5. Avoid the use of “told me,” “told this writer” or “told our reporter: The phrase “in an
interview will serve your purpose. There must be perfect accuracy in writing and
reporting: When in doubt, leave it out.
6. There must be no willful distortion of facts in either news or headlines: Never tamper
with the facts of a story no matter the benefits that may accrue to you as a result. This is
an unforgivable offence in journalism. Any reporter who tampers or fabricates the so-
called facts of a story is “finished” in the industry. You become leprous, untouchable and
unemployable.
7. Guard against publication of libelous statement: The good reporter is the one who lives
to write another report and see the fame of the previous reports come to him. Avoid
writing your way into jail. Libelous statements should be avoided because of its capacity
to keep you in jail and close down your media organisation because of insolvency
resulting from the inability to pay court fines.
 8. Always use simple words: News writing and reporting are not the platforms to impress
anybody with long sounding and big words. Always use the nearest simple word. A good
news report is the one the average reader reads and understands.
9. All news copies must be typewritten and double-spaced: The era of hand-written copies
is gone. Therefore, a reporter must know how to type his story using the computer. It
must also be typed in double space so that sub-editors and editors will be able to edit
the copy.
10. The first page must carry the reporter’s surname, a slug line and date in the top left
hand corner: Slug lines must be short- preferably one word.

Start your story halfway down the first page: You must give enough space for your superior
editorial staff to work on your copy.

Leave at least one-inch margin at left, right, top and bottom of each page: Do not overcrowd
the pages. Leave appropriate margins as required.

Each page must be numbered or lettered: The correct letter or numeral is in the form of “B copy
next” or “page 2 next.” This type of numbering must appear at the bottom right hand corner of
each page except the last.

The end of a story must be marked by a centred “30” or “***” or “#.”

11. Always make your lead interesting: Guard against misleading leads. Leads sell a story.
Therefore, to get and keep the attention of your audience, the lead must be interesting.
12. Use the inverted pyramid format when writing your news story: This is the generally
accepted format for writing news reports because it presents the most important
elements of a story in the first few paragraphs. The format also makes it easy to cut
stories from the bottom without losing any substance of the story.
13. You must quote accurately: Use quotes only where necessary to brighten up your story.
Please, do not overdo this in your copy.

Always read your copy carefully and connect all typographical spelling and grammatical
mistakes before turning it in: This is a primary rule even in ordinary or everyday writing. No
amount of haste could justify a badly written copy.

Your copy must be submitted in duplicate and both copies must be properly edited.

Never underline words or phrases or titles of books in your copy.

A seasoned reporter and publisher, do not exaggerate, do not over-dramatise, beware of

adjectives.
Use the active voice and be natural and conversational when you write

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Identify at least 10 rules guiding writing a good copy of news and report.

CONCLUSION

The media industry is an organised industry and so there must rules and regulations guiding
how copies are written and filled for publication. Some of these rules may differ from country
to country but the underlying fact is that they make for good writing. Any report that lacks
these rules or some of them will definitely turn out rejected by a reputable editor or media
organisation.

SUMMARY

This unit focused on the rules that make for a good copy. It is believed that you are now familiar
with these rules after going through this unit.

ASSIGNMENT

Identify 10 rules of news writing and argue that they should be retained even beyond this
century.

MODULE TWO — THE BASICS

Unit One — Elements of Good Writing/What Makes for Poor Writing?

Unit Two — Conducting Interviews

Unit Three — News Gathering and Sources

Unit Four — Journalese

UNIT ONE

— ELEMENTS OF GOOD WRITING

— WHAT MAKES FOR POOR WRITING?

1. Elements of Good Writing

 Precision
 Clarity
  Pace
 Transitions
 Sensory Appeal
 Analogies

INTRODUCTION

A good reporter must first and foremost be a good writer. This is because his writing skills are
needed in his news writing and reporting job as a journalist. A poor writer can never make a
good news writer or reporter. Good news writing begins first from understanding the elements
of good writing and applying them in our writing assignments. This is the focus of this unit.
Good writing has six characteristics, which are called elements of good writing.

OBJECTIVES

At the end this section , you should be able to:

 Identify the rules or elements of good writing and demonstrate a reasonable skill in the
use of such element
 Identify and discuss the elements that could constitute poor writing.

Elements of Good Writing

1. Precision

A good writer must always obey the rule of precision. Words should be used and they should
mean exactly what you intend them to mean. You should never use for example “uninterested”
when you mean

“disinterested”, nor should you use “farther” for “further”. For instance, if you report that fire
has destroyed a house, you mean it must be rebuilt, not repaired. If you say fire fighters donned
oxygen masks to enter a burning building, you are impugning either their intelligence or yours.
Oxygen is dangerous around fire; fire fighters use their tanks.

Words are the tools of your trade and the writer can use only certain words in certain
situations. In addition, the writer can choose from many words. That freedom can be both
exhilarating and dangerous.

2. Clarity

All news reports and stories must be clearly written. Every reporter should be aware of the
following when attempting to write clear stories.
Use simple sentences and familiar words.

Use correct grammar and punctuation.

Structure the story to have a beginning (lead), middle (body) and end (conclusion).

Make use of the active voice.

Avoid adjectives and exaggeration.

3. Pace

Good writing must have a pace appropriate to the content. Sentences and words give a story
mood. Short sentences convey action, tension and movement. A series of long sentences
conveys a more relaxed mood; long sentences slow down the reader. Between these two
extremes are sentences of varying lengths, and good writers use them all. Not all sentences
should be long or short. Nor should they all be of medium length. An abrupt change in sentence
length draws attention to the sentence. Try it sometimes.

4. Transitions

Good writing uses transitional devices that lead the reader from one thought to the next. A
transition is a bridge, which assures the reader that the writer has a sense of direction. A
transition can be a word, a phrase, a sentence or a paragraph. Common transitions are “and,”
“but” and “however.”

5. Sensory Appeal

Good writing must appeal to the reader’s senses. Good writing appeals to one or more of our
five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch.

6. Analogies

Good writing uses analogies. Analogies permit writers to show similarities and contrasts.
Similes and metaphors are often used to achieve this purpose. Where the simile compares one
thing to another, a metaphor says one thing is another. With similes and metaphors, writers
draw word pictures.

What Makes For Poor Writing?

 If the story shows dull writing: Dull writing never makes good copy. To avoid this always
use active voice and make your write up conversational and lively.
 If the story is not interesting: Interest is a constant variable in selecting a story as good.
Any uninteresting story will sure pass off as a clear evidence of poor writing.
  If the story is too vague, abstract or unclear: Vague and abstract stories will always be
rejected on the platform of poor writing. To make your stories interesting, it must be
clear and unambiguous.
 If there are too many stories already on the subject: Your story could be rejected as
poor if you are writing on what every other person has written on. This is even
worsened by the fact that you did not bring in any new or fresh facts to your writing.
Therefore, avoid writing on what every other person has written on if you do not want
your report to be considered poor.
 If the story is a piece of propaganda or resembles one: Any attempt to pass off a piece of
propaganda for a news report or story will definitely be rejected as poor writing.
 If the story is trivial: Trivial and unimportant stories are likely to be rejected as poor
writing or evidence of it. Write on important issues that will interest majority of your
audience.
 If the story is not in good taste: Any writing that offends public morality or shows
evidence of bad taste in the choice of words and phrases will be rejected as poor
writing.
 If the story runs against the policy of the newspaper or its style guide: Every media
organisation has a style guide- a body of rules that guides how a particular media
establishment intends to present its reports and stories. Any violation of the style guide
will send your paper to the editor’s wastebasket.
 If the story has too many figures and statistics: People naturally hate stories with too
many figures and statistics. If your story is, for instance, about a budget proposal, find a
creative way of presenting.
 If the story is free publicity stunt: A story that is free publicity stunt usually tries to trick
readers with an advertising matter in a form of a news story. Readers and editors
normally abandon such stories.

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss five elements that must be available before you could consider writing as good.

Why will an editor or writer regard a story as poor writing?

CONCLUSION

Knowing how to write generally is the first practical step to knowing how to write for media
organisations. The elements of good writing therefore serve as fundamental pillars upon which
good writing rests.

SUMMARY
This unit focused on the elements of good writing. Six of such elements were discussed. Also
discussed in this unit are the elements that could make one’s writing turn out poor. About 10 of
such were also discussed in this unit.

ASSIGNMENT

Defend the argument that the presence of the elements of good writing will definitely return a
copy as good.

Discuss the major reasons why a copy may turn out as poor writing.

REFERENCES

Bonder, F. F., Davenport, J. R., & Drager, M. W. (2005). Reporting for the Mass Media (8th ed.).
New York: Oxford University Press.

Brooks, B.S.; et al. (1998). News Reporting and Writing. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Charnley, M. (1996). Reporting. Toronto: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Hule, B. D. & Anderson, D.A. (2003). News Writing and Reporting for Today’s Media. Boston:
McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Ogunsiji, M.A. (1989). Introduction to Print Journalism. Lagos: Nelson Publishers Limited.

Sonaike, S.A. (1987). Fundamentals of News Reporting. Lagos, Nigeria: John West Publications.

Stovall, J. G. (2006). Writing for the Mass Media. New York: Pearson Education.

Walker, S. (1975). News Writing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

UNIT 2 — CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS

1. Types of Interviews

2. Preparing and Conducting the Interview

3. Phrasing the Questions
4. Establishing Rapport with a Source
5. How to Ensure Accuracy in an Interview
a. Techniques to Ensuring Accuracy
b. Other Techniques to Achieving Accuracy
6. Quotes and Attributions
a. What to Quote Directly
b. Problems in Direct Quotation
 c. Correcting Quotes
d. Attributing Direct and Indirect Quotes
e. Guidelines on How to Attribute Information
7. Handling On and Off-the-Record Information
a. Guidelines for Citing Sources

INTRODUCTION

The interview is the art of meeting people and asking them questions with a view to eliciting
information on specific issues or happenings. Generally, a reporter conducts interviews when
he needs information about events or issues of public significance. The interview is a
journalist’s tool for digging out facts and its importance in the news gathering process cannot
be over-emphasised.

OBJECTIVES

At the end this unit, you should be able to:

 prepare and carry out a successful interview

 identify the different types of interviews and how to organise them
 establish rapport with an interviewee
 quote and attribute correctly
 handle on- and off-the-record information more professionally.

Types of Interviews

1. Exclusive Interview

This refers to an interview exclusively conducted by a reporter without any other reporter
participating in it.

2. Panel Interview

In this interview, more than one reporter from a particular media establishment participates in
the interview.

3. Telephone Interview

This is conducted through the telephone especially now that telecommunication industry in
Nigeria has improved greatly.

4. Personality Interview
This is conducted with the view to gathering information concerning a person whose life’s
activities the reporter wants to write about. Most personality interviews are usually done on an
exclusive basis.

5. On-the-Spot Interviews

This refers to situations when reporters ask other persons impromptu questions, usually
people who are important in government, visiting dignitaries, social celebrities, top military
officers, academics, big business persons etc. The interview is usually transit in nature and takes
place during stop over at the Airport, venue of events, and so on.

6. Group Interviews

Many reporters from different media organisations participate in this type of interview. It is
usually a question-and-answer session during press conferences, press briefings, and so on.

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Identify and discuss five types of interviews usually conducted in the Nigerian media industry
today.

2. Preparing and Conducting the Interview (Interview

Skills)

The reporter who wants to conduct an interview must “Be

Prepared.” The first step is to identify the subject of the interview and the personality to be
interviewed. As a reporter, you must establish the need for the interview. You must also have a
good idea of the kind of information you seek, so that everything that is given to you will not
seem like what you are looking for. Having identified the subject and the person to be
interviewed, you go ahead and book an appointment with the interviewee. You can book
appointment through the telephone, you can go to his/her office or visit him/her at home as a
last resort. Make sure you book an appointment first.

If the interviewee wants to know why you want to interview him/her, you could give him/her a
general idea and nothing more. It is unprofessional to give out your entire questions to the
interviewer ahead of time. You will end up with canned answers.

You then prepare you questions and arrange them in order of importance. You are not
expected to forward the questions to the interview before the interview date.
Do a thorough background research on the subject matter and familiarise yourself with the
historical background, social and economic activities of the interviewee. His political leanings
and hobbies must not be overlooked.

On the day of the interview, arrive at the venue of the interview on time at least 15 minutes
before the interview. This gives you a cool start.

Listen and listen well. Let the interviewee do the talking and encourage him by nodding your
head, but do not overdo this. Do not interrupt to offer your opinion, but you can ask necessary
follow-up questions when the need arises.

You should watch out for the interviewee’s emotional tone level (ETL) as the interview
progresses. The ETL may fluctuate from time to time due to the intensity of the interview. If the
ETL is too high, you should try to bring it low by asking trivial questions. If it is too low, you
should try to raise it by asking sensitive and breath-taking questions.

If you are conducting the interview with a microphone or tape recorder, always hold it yourself.
Never allow your interviewees to hold the microphone otherwise they will take over the control
of the interview.

When the interview reaches the central theme, the question should be short and delivered at a
time. Try to make the interviewee answer the central questions.

Never feel intimidated about the personality you are to interview. Do not forget you are not
there in your own capacity, you are representing majority of the audience and your media
organisation. Therefore, be confident. It gives you a cool and calculated head.

The first question is very vital. Settle for a simple, non-committal question. This will help to
reduce any tension already in the atmosphere.

Do not ask dead-end questions. Dead end questions do not require detailed answers. They may
end up with YES or NO kind of responses.

Do not be prosecutorial in your approach. Remember the interviewee is not on trial and you are
not a lawyer or judge.

Do not lecture the interviewee; ask your questions as straightforward as possible.

Take note of the tape recorder, midget or any other electronic device you are using as anything
they can easily develop fault.
At the end of the interview, you should not hesitate to thank the interviewee and assure him
that you may call again if the need arises for further clarification about issues raised in the
interview.

Finally, when writing your story, never forget the off-the-record rule as some information might
have been given to you off record. Never abuse privileges and confidences. Such abuses hinder
the growth of the industry.

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Discuss 10 vital skills a budding reporter needs to have in conducting interviews.

3. Phrasing the Questions

The way an accomplished lawyer asks questions determines whether the lawyer will win his
case or not. The journalist faces the same challenge. Reporters have missed many stories
because they did not know how to ask questions. By the phrasing of the question, many
reporters signal the response they expect or prejudices they have. There are basically two ways
a reporter could phrase his/her questions to get the desired results. The first is through the
open-ended questions and the second is through the close-ended question.

Open-Ended Questions

Open-ended questions allow the respondent some flexibility. In response to an open-ended

question, the source often reveals more than he or she realises or intends to. Open-ended
questions are less direct and less threatening. They are more exploratory and more flexible.
However, if you want a person’s biographical data, do not say “Tell me about yourself”.

Close-ended Questions

Close-ended questions are designed to elicit specific responses. Instead of asking a previous
employee to appraise a Minister-designates’ managerial competence, you may ask, “How well
does Chief Ekeanyanwu listen to the people who work for him?” “Does he explain his
decisions?” When you ask vague questions, you may likely get vague answers. By asking a
specific question, you are more likely to get a specific answer.

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Discuss four benefits close-ended questions have over open-ended questions.

4. Establishing Rapport with a Source

The right chemistry produces an interview that is fun for both parties. When John Lindsay was
the mayor of New York, the AP’s Pett opened an interview with the question, “Would you want
your daughter to marry a mayor of New York?” Lindsay roared in laughter and Pett had a great
interview.

Rapport is the relationship between the reporter and the source and is very crucial to the
source of the interview. The relationship is sometimes relaxed, sometimes strained. Often it is
somewhere in between. The type of relationship you try to establish with your source is
determined by the kind of story you are writing.

There are several approaches to establishing rapport with a source (These approaches also
serve as interview approaches). They include:

You can start off with small talk and allow the familiarity to graduate to the level you could take
advantage of and then bring up the major issues of the interview.

Bring up something humorous about the interviewee you have found out during your research
and which you think can interest the interviewee in your opening statements. This may be the
small talk that will create the needed rapport for you.

Ask about something you know the source will want to talk about. If he is a premiership fan and
ready to bet his life over Chelsea, take advantage and talk about the Chelsea versus Man U
penultimate game that may decide who wins the EPL 2023 Season. Once he identifies he has
same addictions and hobbies like you, he creates the rapport for you to talk to him.

Show sources what you have in common. This will support the Number 3 point made above.

Empathise with your sources or subjects. Do not be judgemental. Sometimes, it may help to put
yourself in their shoe and feel their pains. This may draw you closer during the interview
process.

Conduct the interview where the source feels most comfortable. When you create such a
relaxed mood for him, he comes out as if he has known you for a long time. The ultimate
outcome may a great interview for you.

Where you sit in relation to the person you are interviewing could also be important in
determining the kind of rapport you develop. Unless you are deliberately trying to make the
interviewee feel uncomfortable, do not sit directly in front of him/her. Permit your sources to
establish eye contact if and when they wish.

Tape recorders ensure accuracy of quotes, but they make many speakers self-conscious or
nervous. Try to place it in an inconspicuous spot and ignore it.
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Discuss four practical things you need to do to establish a rapport with a source you are about
to interview.

5. How to Ensure Accuracy in an Interview

Accuracy is a major problem in all interviews. Both the question and the answer may be
ambiguous. You may not understand what is said and you may record it incorrectly too. You
may not know the context of the remarks and your biases may interfere with the message.

a. Techniques to Ensuring Accuracy

To ensure accuracy, the following techniques could be adopted.

Observing: Some reporters look but do not see. As a reporter, when you look, please, observe.

Understanding: Understanding what you see is crucial to the news gathering process, so also is
the understanding of what you hear. Never assume you understand. Make sure you do.

Ignorance is never an excuse in law.

Asking Follow-up Questions: If you understand what the source is saying, you should show this
by asking meaningful follow-up questions.

b. Other Techniques to Achieving Accuracy

Encourage the speaker to add more details.

Another devise to making the source talk is not a question at all; it is a pause.

Before you leave, ask if there is anything you forgot to ask. Put the burden on the source. You
are also doing him a favour by giving him the chance to contribute to direction of the interview.

Quickly review your note and check facts, especially dates, numbers, quotes, spellings and
titles.

As a matter of courtesy, tell the source when the story might appear.

Remember that the interview may be over, but your relationship with the source still stays.

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Discuss the primary techniques adopted by reporters to achieve accuracy.

6. Quotes and Attributions

Introduction: Direct quotes add colour and credibility. By using direct quotes, you are putting
your audience directly in touch with the speaker. Like a letter, direct quotes are personal. Not
everything people say should be put into direct quotes. You need to learn what to quote
directly, when to use partial quotes and when to paraphrase. You must also learn how and how
often to attribute a remark because some information may not excuse you from a possible libel
suit. Therefore, you must also learn to deal with off-the-record quotes and background
information.

a. What to Quote Directly

Brief, precise and relevant quotes spice up any story. However, you can overdo a good thing.
You need direct quotes in your story, no doubt but you also need to develop your skill in
recognising what is worth quoting. Make use of the following guidelines:

Use direct quotes when someone says something unique.

Use direct quotes when someone says something uniquely.

Use direct quotes when someone important says something important.

b. Problems in Direct Quotation

Paraphrasing quotes: Some quotations need verifications while others need clarification. Do not
quote someone unless you are sure of what that person means. The best way to avoid
confusing and unclear quotes or needlessly long wordy quotes is to paraphrase.

Partial quotes: It is also much better to paraphrase or to use full quotes than to use
fragmentary or partial quotes. Example:

The Vice-Chancellor said lecturers should “turn off” unnecessary lights and “lock up” before
closing for the day.

This sentence will be better off without quotation marks. Again, partial quotes often contain an
ellipsis inside them to tell the reader that some of the words of the quotes are missing.
Example:

“I have come here tonight … and I have crossed state lines … to conspire against the
government”.

This practice at times may be justifiable, but you should not keep the reader guessing and
wondering what is missing.

c. Correcting Quotes
None of us regularly speaks in perfect, grammatical sentences. The same persons when writing
down his remarks presumably would write grammatically and correctly.

Therefore, it is accepted practice on many newspapers to correct grammar and to put a

person’s remark into complete sentences. This has, however, brought some controversy. The
question is “Would you fix a quote to make the person you are quoting sound grammatical?”
Here are some opinions and answers from renowned reporters.

Columnist James Kilpatrick: Sure. It is elementary courtesy, and every one does it. You don’t
change the substance of your subject’s thought, of course. You could make anyone in politics
look ridiculous if you quoted him verbatim all the time with all the ands, ifs, buts, and ors.

Jack Newfield, former Senior Editor for Village Voice: No, I don’t. New York political leader
Meade Esposito’s colorfulness comes from his lack of grammar.

The AP Style Book: According to this style, quotations normally should be corrected to avoid the
errors in grammar and word usage that often occur unnoticed when someone is speaking but
are embarrassing in print.

Use of Obscenity: On most newspapers, some things people say are never permitted in print,
even if they are said uniquely. Newspapers rarely print obscenities, profanities or vulgarities
unless they are essential to the story. For instance, obscenities are not used in the Washington
Post except with the approval of a top editor. However, if it is a “Hardcore” obscenity referring
to the body and sexual or excretory functions, The Washington Post’s Style Book calls for the
first letter followed by dashes. E.g. He called the President a “f--king fool”

d. Attributing Direct and Indirect Quotes

In composition and creative writing classes, you may have been told to avoid repeating the
same words. This is not so in news writing and reporting especially for the word “said”.
Reporters and editors prefer forms of the verb “to say” in most instances, even if they are
repeated throughout a story. There are reasons for doing so:

‘Said’ is Unobtrusive – Not easily noticeable and hides in the news columns and calls no
attention to itself.

‘Said’ is Neutral - It has no connotations.

‘Said’ is Objective – It does not depict the reporter’s biases.

e. Guidelines on How to Attribute Information

1. If a direct quote is more than one sentence long, place the attribution at the end of the first
sentence. Example:

• The bus overturned at least three times,” the policeman said. “None of the twenty passengers
was hurt. Luckily, the car did not explode to flames.

2. Do not follow a fragment of a quote with a continuing complete sentence of quotation. For
example:

WRONG: - The Vice-Chancellor said the time had come “to turn off some lights. We all must do
something to conserve electricity.”

RIGHT: - "The time has come to turn off some lights,” the Vice Chancellor said. “We must all do
something to conserve electricity.”

Always separate partial quotes and complete quotes.

3. The First time you attribute a direct or indirect quote, identify the speaker fully. Example:

• The Vice-Chancellor of Covenant University, Prof Aize Immonokhome Obayan, said students
will no longer be allowed to wear jean trousers to lectures.

4. Do not attribute direct quotes to more than one person, as in the following:

• “The bullets came out from everywhere,” witnesses said. “The protesters had guns, even the
children amongst them.”

You can however eliminate the quotation marks, if indeed any witness made the statement.
Never make up a source and never invent a quote for anonymous witnesses. It is dishonest,
inaccurate and inexcusable.

5. In stories covering past news events, use the past tense in attributing, and use it throughout
the story. However, stories that do not report on news events, such as features, may be
effective if the attributions are consistently in present tense. Example:

• “‘I like being the mayor,’ she says”

You are indicating that she still enjoys it.

6. Ordinarily, place the noun or pronoun before the verb in attributions. Example:

• “Everything is under control,” the Inspector General of Police said.

7. If you must identify a person by indicating a long title, it is better to begin the attribution with
the verb. Example:

• “I enjoy the new position,” says Prof. Prince Izedonmi, Dean of Post Graduate Studies,
Covenant University.

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

How would you handle errors in direct quotation?

Discuss the guidelines in attributing information.

7. Handling On and Off – the – Record Information

Introduction: Sometimes a speaker or source may not want to be quoted at all – directly or
indirectly. Therefore, you must learn to use sound professional judgement in handling them. If
you agree to accept their information, you must honour their request to remain off the record.
Breaching that confidence destroys trust and credibility.

Guidelines for Citing Sources

Not naming sources is dangerous for two important reasons:

Such information will lack credibility and make the reporter and the newspaper suspect.

The source may be lying.

The following distinctions are made regarding sources and attributions:

Off-the-Record: This means you cannot use the information given to you no matter the
situation or pressure of breaking out with a scoop.

On Record: This means you can use the information as well as attribute it to the source. This is
the ideal situation you must get your sources to give you information. Anything outside this is a
risk.

Not for Attribution: This means you may use the information but may not attribute it to the
source. You must take responsibility for the use of the information.

On Background: This means you may use the information but with a general title for a source.
Example: “A Presidential Aide”, “A Senior Official”. The real source’s name must be mentioned.

On Deep Background: This means you may use the information, but you must say it on your
own and take responsibility.
Please note that there is currently no universal agreement on these terms as different
practitioners in different circumstances interpret them differently. Therefore, your obligation is
to make sure you and your sources understand each other. Set the ground rules ahead of time.
Clarify your terms and make sure you know the policy of your paper on such matters.

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

Discuss the guidelines for citing sources.

CONCLUSION

The interview remains one of practical ways a reporter uses to gather news and information in
the course of his/her assignment. It is necessary therefore for every reporter to learn the skills
of interviewing and apply them where and when necessary.

SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt:

the meaning of interviewing

the art of interviewing

different types of interviews

the techniques and skills required to carry out an interview and the various ways to quote and
attribute information that comes from interviews.

ASSIGNMENT

Is interviewing and art or a science? Please, justify your answer with valid argument.

Discuss five primary types of interviews a news reporter could carry out in the course of his/her
assignment.

Discuss 10 effective approaches to carrying out a successful interview.

REFERENCES

Agbese, D. (2008). The Reporters’ Companion. Lagos: Newswatch Books Limited.

UNIT Three — NEWS GATHERING AND SOURCES

1. Predictable Sources
 2. Unpredictable Sources
3. Anticipated Sources
4. How to Find Story Idea
5. Checking the Facts of a Story
6. How to Handle Sources
7. Developing Your Sources

INTRODUCTION

To define news is one thing to get it is another. To gather news the reporter must know where
and when to look for it, what and whom to see, why and how to verify the facts he assembled
and when and how to use the information he has gotten to write a story. News gathering is the
major occupation of both cub and experienced reporters. This is the major reason greater
attention will be paid to it in this unit.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

explain the meaning of news gathering and its vital role in the daily reportorial duty of a
journalist

differentiate the types of sources available to the reporter and how to deal with them

discuss how to find the story idea, especially during periods of news “scarcity”

discuss how to cross-check the facts of your story

discuss how to develop and grow your sources.

News Gathering and Sources

Every story begins as a stream does “from a source”. You cannot find a great story today that
does not have a story. This reminds me what one of my great Professors told me “every PhD
has a story!” Such stories also have a beginning. This is the major reason most persons who are
unfamiliar with the news gathering process often wonder how reporters gather and assemble
their information, how do they get access to information and information sources, and how do
they sustain the daily publication of news in their media organisations. This shall be our concern
in this section. There are three broad categories of sources of news stories thus:

Predictable Sources

Unpredictable Sources
Anticipated Sources

Predictable Sources

These are sources that regularly service the news industry either because of their function that
make their activities of public interest or by their nature that help generate events that attract a
large number of people. Predictable sources include diary of news, published reports in form of
newspapers, magazines, journals, and handouts, broadcast on Radio/TV and prepared
speeches. It also includes active or dramatic newsbreaks, which include news from the police,
hospitals, fire service, hotels, schools, religious organisations, labour and political associations.
With predictable sources, you are sure to get something from there all the time.

Unpredictable Sources

This means a nose for news that borders on the ability, training, exposure and experience of the
reporter to determine what news is and report it accordingly. Unpredictable sources are the
likely sources where breaking news or tips that could lead to scoop could come from.

Anticipated Sources

This is similar to predictable sources except for the fact that anticipated sources are restricted
to planned events that a reporter knows will definitely happen. Such events include a national
day celebration, budget speech and special anniversaries, workers’ day, and so on.

No matter the sources of getting news, a good reporter should have the ability to listen, see and
possess attributes of a good interviewer. These are needed in dealing with those sources.

In summary, a reporter gets news by:

Going to the scene of the news event and observe events unfold;

Talking to people who witnessed the event as it happens or what you will consider as using eye
witness accounts;

Consulting secondary sources like records, reports, documents, files, and so on to cross check
and corroborate facts and figures.

Sources could also be human in nature, physical or online. Human sources are those personal
contacts you have build over time. They are also authorities and people involved in news
events. The physical sources are consists of records, documents, reference works, and so on.
The online sources include a vast array of human and physical sources, from academics to
government data (Mencher, 2010).
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Discuss the various ways a reporter could gather news of an event he or she did not witness.

How to Find the Story Idea

How to find the story idea has always pricked the mind of reporters especially during lull
period. However, the imaginative reporter will discover in this section that the story idea could
be obtained from a lot of places. For instance, readers sometimes bring story ideas to the
newspaper office. Most of these story ideas are the result of an active imagination, a lively
curiosity and assistance from friends. Journalists soon learn to recognise how stories written for
other publications can be written for their own. They get in the habit of carrying a little
notebook to jot down ideas when something somebody says strikes a responsive chord.
Sometimes even for good journalists, the wellspring of ideas sometimes dries up. Therefore,
take note of these 10 sources of story ideas. They are good for anytime and anyplace. They
were compiled from the earlier version of Mencher (2003).

Other People

As a journalist, you meet many people from time to time. What are they discussing when they
are not discussing business? What have they heard lately? Journalists have to listen even if it
means eavesdropping while having a cup of tea. What do you think interest people? There is no
better source of story ideas than the people you meet while you are offduty or on duty. They
are, after all, your readers. Therefore, take note of others and always try to find out what is on
their mind. Whenever you look, try to see beyond your nose.

Other Publications

News stories are sometimes recycled across the country by different media organisations in
different ways. Read other newspapers, magazines, books, pamphlets and the house journals
and newsletters of businesses and organisations. Please note that all stories cannot fit in every
community. You have to know your own readership. A story about urban renewal will definitely
attract more attention in urban area than in rural area. When you are reading other
publications for ideas, remember that you should not duplicate a story in your own newspaper
report verbatim; only look for idea from which to develop your story.

News releases

Releases from public relations persons are valuable sources of story ideas. Try to follow up on
some of these regular releases that come to your media organisation. You may never know
where they will take you to or predict the end.
Social services directory

Many cities and localities have a composite listing of all agencies providing social services.
These listings could throw up different kinds of ideas about the society, which a reporter could
follow through. You should therefore take note that each of those agencies and their clients
could lead to a potential story.

Government reports

Aso Rock is the Nigerian seat of Government. On a daily basis, information and statistics flow
from such a place. However, behind every piece of statistics is a person. Every person is a
potential story. The census report for instance contains not only the number of people in a
community, but also their income and education, how many cars they own, whether they rent
or own a house, and so on. Such census reports tell much more. Therefore, find out what and
why, and you have for yourself a treasure chest of stories.

Stories in your newspaper

Many a stream has yielded gold nuggets after the first wave of miners have left. Newspapers
sometimes play hit-and-run journalism. Always ask yourself, whenever you read a report in a
newspaper, if the human interest angle has been reported adequately. When your newspaper
is concentrating on the election winners, maybe you can get an interesting story by talking to
the losers and their supporters. In addition, when the unemployment statistics are reported in
your newspaper, remember that behind each of those numbers is a name of a person without a
job and probably a family to support.

Advertisements and Yellow Pages

Advertisements especially classifieds, could be valuable sources of story ideas. Look through the
Yellow Pages too. You may stumble on a good story idea.

Wire copy

Whenever you go through the stories from the wire services, do not forget to ask yourself if
there are any stories that can be localised amongst them. When a wire service story for
instance describes the increase in the rate of inflation, you should ask yourself how the people
in your community would be affected. Always look for a local angle or slant.

Local Newspapers

Do not ever brush off local news tips. Your readers may be more interested in them than the
so-called national news stories.
You

In the final analysis, you are the one who must be alert enough to look and listen to what is
going on around you. Always raise posers for yourself and attempt to answer them. Remember,
reporters who are attuned to people rather than institutions will find the world around them a
rich and fertile source of human interest. Do not tune out. Look and see!

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

As a resourceful reporter, discuss where you will look for story ideas in times of lull.

3. Checking the Facts of a Story

A lot of places and information are available for the reporter who is very thorough in his job
and desires to verify every fact that goes into his story before publication. Some of these
avenues are found in the reference manuals maintained in most newsrooms or in newspaper
libraries. Below is a list of some of the avenues and places available for the reporter to check,
crosscheck or even triple-check his facts before going to press.

Local and Area Telephone Directories: This could be used to verify the spelling of names and
addresses, and so on. They are usually reliable, but they are not infallible.

City/Town Directories: These provide the same information as the telephone directory but also
provide information on the occupations of citizens and the owners or managers of businesses.

State Manuals/Brochures: These sources provide information on various government agencies.

Maps of the City: County, State, Nation and World Local maps are usually posted in the
newsrooms. Others may be found in atlases.

Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations: This will help you not to quote anyone out of context or state a
quotation as anonymous when it actually has an author.

National Assembly Records, Gazettes and Hansards: These are where Government
establishments and parastatals store its official information for retrieval and reference.

Facts on File (Facts on File Inc): This is a weekly compilation of news from metropolitan
newspapers.

Guinness Book of World Records: Anybody who has done any notable thing and probably what
no one has done before is usually listed in Guinness Book of World Records.

Current Biography: You no longer need to worry that you can find the date of birth of a notable
personality or his middle name or even place of birth. Check current biographies.
Trade and Professional Journals and Newsletters: This will obviously contain useful information
on businesses and related matter.

Reader’s Guide and Reader’s Digest: Any reporter who is not reading Reader’s Guide or
Reader’s Digest is obviously missing out on an important information loaded book that could be
useful to the modern reporter.

Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language:

This is a good reference material for journalists.

Who’s Who (St Martin’s, New York): This source of facts shows who is who as published by St.
Martin’s.

Who’s Who in America (Marquis): This source also shows who is who in America.

World Almanac and Book of Facts: A book where you may probably find any meaningful thing
you are looking for.

These useful publications and others not mentioned here, enable reporters to verify data and
so avoid unnecessary embarrassment caused by avoidable and recognisable errors.

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Identify and discuss 10 useful places to verify facts as a reporter.

4. How to Handle Sources

Journalists and the profession rely heavily on dependable sources to succeed with the
reportorial assignment. One of the trade secrets of any reporter/journalist is the contact with
people who confide what is happening in their places of work and interest, whether in politics,
business or society. As such, sources are as necessary as notebooks. Here are some suggestions
on how to manipulate and/or manage sources.

Use Sources as Starting Points for Some Stories

Use sources as starting points for your story but not the end point. Always double and triple
check with other public and private sources before going to press or on air. Do your research
and you will find the supporting facts that corroborate your story or questions the credibility
and thus reliability of the facts you are about taking to the public sphere.

Maintain a Skeptical Attitude

Do not be reluctant to discard sources’ tips if they cannot be substantiated. It is a healthy
skeptical attitude that gets you out of trouble in the long run.

Be Careful with Confidential or Anonymous Sources

You must be careful with sources who give you information in confidence. The Off-the-record
rule must be obeyed. In practice, you will sometimes have certain things only if you agree to go
off the record and listen without quoting. If what the source said is true, you can verify it later
from other sources or facts. Once you have promised to keep a source’s comments confidential,
do not break your promise. Be careful not to blunder into suggesting who your source is by
some inadvertent reference that can be traced to your source. This could lead to dry up of
sources for the industry.

Be Aware of Many Editors Attitude and Behaviour

The granting of secrecy to a source is an open invitation to exaggerate, embroider, embellish or

slant. Some reporters have found ways to avoid using unnamed sources. One method is to read
back the quote you want to use to diminish the source’s anxieties and fears. A second
technique is to take the time to discover documents that prove the source’s allegation. If you
can corroborate any information given to you of the record, you could go ahead and use such
information without attributing it to your confidential sources.

5. Developing Your Sources

As you meet more people and learn from your community, you should continually update your
records of contacts. They come in handy sometimes. Try to develop a bookkeeping method for
keeping tracks of your contact. Developing sources differ from one journalist to another.

Here are some tips on how to develop a source.

Keep a File Box of 3×5 Cards: Use one card for each source. Be sure to list the telephone
numbers of both office and home or keep the same information in a small notebook you can
carry with you or use both the file and the notebook. Sometimes it pays to leave your address
and phone numbers with your source so that he can always call you up when something that is
newsworthy turns up, since you as a journalist cannot be everywhere at the same time.

Always Review Your Card or Notebook from Time to Time: People are always moving. They are
either changing jobs or location. You need to update your notebook from time to time or you
will find out you just have a record of useless data.

Sometime you call your contacts just to say hello. Do not call them only when you want to use
them.
If you can afford it, sometimes take your contacts to lunch, dinner, and so on. Know their kids
and spouse’s names, birthdays and anniversaries.

Build a healthy relation based on trust and confidence with sources. If they grow to trust you,
they will not have problems talking to you when something important turns up.

You can also reverse the process. Whenever any useful information comes to you, make it a
habit to pass on such to your sources. When they get tips too, they will pass them on to you. It
is a mutual thing.

CONCLUSION

Journalists have a common saying that a reporter can never be better than his or her sources.
Reporters therefore spend quality time looking for and cultivating contacts that could become
useful to them in the course of their assignment as reporters. Cultivating and developing
sources becomes necessary for every reporter who wants to remain in the business.

SUMMARY

This section discussed the place of sources in the news gathering process. How to look for
sources, cultivate them and grow them were the major highlights of this unit. It is expected that
you now know much about sources and the news gathering process as an upcoming reporter.

ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the news gathering procedure and mention five places to verify your facts before
turning them out to your editor.

Will all your sources be reliable? How would you handle sources to ensure they do not get you
into trouble?

REFERENCES

Stovall, J. G. (2006). Writing for the Mass Media. New York: Pearson Education.

Walker, S. (1975). News Writing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

UNIT 4 — JOURNALESE

Newsroom Terminologies

INTRODUCTION

The media profession, like every other notable profession, has its language. This is sometimes
referred to as jargons or technical terms associated with the profession. For the media industry,
the technical language is called Journalese. Journalese is the language of the art of journalism.
This will be the preoccupation of this unit. However, attention will only be paid to those
terminologies associated with the newsroom where reporters and writers usually domicile.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

list and explain the technical words, phrases and terms commonly used in the newsroom by
reporters, writers and their editors.

Most of the definitions provided in this section were compiled from the Press Association,
Reporters’ Companion, Mencher (2010), online searches and media related dictionaries.

Add: Additional news matter to a story already written or is about to be written.

Assignment: This is an order to a reporter to cover an event. Assignment is the day’s job given
to a reporter to cover by his or her news editor or direct boss.

Attribution: This means the identification of the person being quoted in the reporter’s story.
You only attribute a story to a source if he or she gives such information on record.

Actuality: This is an on-the-scene report in broadcasting.

Airtime: The time at which a programme is broadcast.

Audio: Sound

Background: Information that may be used by a writer entirely on his own responsibility and
cannot be attributed even to a “reliable source”. The reporter can only use information given
on background on his or her own risk.

Banner: These are headlines written across or near the top of most newspaper page. It is also
called a Streamer or Streaming headline.

Beat: This is the area assigned to a reporter for regular coverage. A beat could be a place or a
subject. For instance, State House

Correspondent has the State House as his/her beat while Energy Correspondent has issues
related to energy as his or her beat. In the US, beat could also be regarded as an exclusive story.

Break: This is when a news development becomes known and available.

Beeper: A telephone conversation or interview recorded for later playback on air.

Body type: The type in which most of the newspaper is set, usually 8- or 9-point type.

Bulletin: News of the day as presented in each of the media organisations.

By line: This refers to the name of the author of a story or the name of the reporter who wrote
a particular story.

Bulldog: This is an early edition, usually the first of a newspaper’s edition for the day.

Caps: This refers to capital letters or uppercase letters.

Caption: This is synonymous with cutline. It is the explanatory lines above or below a
newspaper photograph, illustration or diagram.

Column: This refers to the vertical division of the news page which is usually divided into about
five or more columns. It could also be regarded as a signed article of opinion or strong personal
expression by an expert.

Copy: This refers to the news story or report.

Copy Flow: This refers to the flow of a news story from the reporter to the news desk and to
the editor who makes the final decision as to use the story or not.

CAR: This is an acronym for Computer Assisted Reporting- the use of online databases and
other related resources for the of a news story. Some refer to it as Database Journalism while
others call it Precision Journalism.

Crony Journalism: This kind of reporting and coverage ignores or treats lightly negative news of
about friends and acquaintances.

Continuity: This refers to all radio and television scripts besides commercials

Cue (Noun): This is a signal to an announcer, a newscaster or production personnel to

participate in a broadcast.

Cub: This term is used to describe a beginning reporter.

Cutaway: This refers to the transition shot from them to another. It is used to avoid jamb cut.

Deadline: This refers to the time in which a reporter, editor or desk must have completed
scheduled work for the day.

Dateline: This refers to the name of the city or town and date, which are placed at the
beginning of stories not of local origin.
Credit line: This is line designates, if necessary, the source of a story or cut “By NAN–News
Agency of Nigeria”.

Dry: This refers to a period lacking in news. It is also called a lull period.

Dolly: This refers to a camera platform.

Dub: This refers to the transfer of one videotape to another.

Exclusive: This refers to a story that is printed solely by one newspaper or an individual. This
could also be called a “scoop”.

Edition: This refers to one version of a newspaper per day.

Editorial material: This means all materials in the newspaper that is advertising related.

Enterprise copy: This is a story often covered by a reporter. It is like a news story but digs
deeper than the usual news story.

Establishing shot: This is a wide shot used to give the viewer a sense of the scene of action.

Fade: This refers to either physical or mechanical lowering of a voice or music to smooth a
transition between sounds.

File: To send a story to office usually by wire or telephone or to put news services on the wire.

Filler: This refers to minor news materials used to fill up spaces in the newspaper. It is also
called column closers and shorts.

Flag: This is the printed title of a newspaper on page 1. It is also called logotype or nameplate.

Folo: This is a story that follows up a particular theme in a news story format.

FM: This refers to Frequency Modulation.

Freelance: This refers to an unattached writer, reporter, photojournalist or columnist who

writes for a media organisation for a fee.

Graf: This is an abbreviation for paragraph.

Handout: This is the term for written publicity or special interest news sent to a newspaper
firm.

HFR: This abbreviation stands for “Hold for Release” material that cannot be used until it is
released by the source or at a designated time. It is also used to tag a story as “embargoed”.
Jump: This means continuation of a story from page one to another page.

Kill: This refers to elimination of a news story or refusal to use it because it is not news worthy.
This also means to spike a story.

Log: This refers to schedule of broadcasting.

LTK: This abbreviation stands for “lead to come” usually placed after the slug. This means the
lead will be supplied later.

Make up: This is also called layout or design. This is the arrangement of body type, headlines,
and illustrations into pages.

Masthead: This is refers to the heading on the editorial page that gives information about the
newspaper. This is sometimes confused with Flag or Nameplate.

Must: This is the designation placed on a copy to indicate that it must be run or published.

More: This is the designation used at the end of a page of copy to indicate there are one or
more additional pages.

Morgue: This refers to the newspaper library, where published stories photographs and
resource materials are stored for reference purposes.

Mix: Combining two or more sound elements into one.

Montage: This refers to series of brief shots of various subjects to give a single impression or
communicate one idea.

News hole: This refers to a space in a newspaper allotted to news, illustrations and other
nonadvertising material.

O/C: This stands for “On camera.” It used to describe a reporter delivering copy directly to the
camera without covering pictures.

Outtakes: These scenes are discarded for the final story.

Op-ed page: Abbreviation for the page opposite the editorial page.

Precede: A story written prior to an event. It could also be referred to as the section of a story
preceding the lead.

Put to bed: Closing the forms of an edition.

Rewrite: To write a story a second time to make it better or to condense it.

Sacred cow: Slang for a subject or story in which the publishers or editors are interested and
which must be printed.

Scoop: See exclusive.

Slug: The word or words placed on a copy to designate the story. This is usually placed in the
top left hand corner of the page.

Stringer: A correspondent, not a regular staff member of the media organization, who is usually
paid per story. Could also be regarded as a freelancer.

Stet: Let it stand, restore.

SOF: “Sound on Film recorded” simultaneously with the picture.

SOT: “Sound on Tape” recorded simultaneously with picture on tape.

Split page: Front page of an inside section. Also known as the break page, second front page.

Text: Verbatim report of a speech or public statement.

Tip: Information passed to a reporter, often in confidence.

Trim: To reduce a news story carefully.

Update: This is a story that brings the reader up-to-date on a situation already in the news.

V/O: Reporter’s voice over pictures. Also called “voice over.” • VTR: Videotape recording.

Wire services: This is a synonym for press agencies or news agencies. Media organisations
usually subscribe to these agencies for news stories, and so on.

CONCLUSION

It is important for every reporter to familiarise his or herself with the above newsroom
terminologies in order to remain connected to fellow reporters in and out of the newsroom.
Proper understanding by all makes communications very easy.

SUMMARY

This unit dealt with terminologies commonly used in the newsrooms across the globe. It is
expected that you can now identify 80 of these and explain them.

ASSIGNMENT

Identify 20 core newsroom terminologies and explain their meaning.

REFERENCES

Bonder, F. F.; Davenport, J. R. & Drager, M. W. (2005). Reporting for the Mass Media (8th ed.).
New York: Oxford University Press.
MODULE 3