MAC 142

INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

Course Team Mr. Akpede, Kaior Samuel (Course

Developer/Writer) – Nasarawa State University
Dr. Josef Bel-Molokwu (Course Editor) – Enugu
State University of Technology
Dr. Oladokun Omojola (Course Reviewer) –
Covenant University, Ota
Christine I. Ofulue, Ph.D (Programme Leader) -
NOUN
Dr. Chidinma Henrietta Onwubere (Coordinator) -
NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

MAC 142 COURSE GUIDE

© 2018 by NOUN Press

National Open University of Nigeria
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URL: www.nou.edu.ng

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed 2010, 2018

ISBN: 978-978-8521-12-9

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MAC 142 COURSE GUIDE

CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction …………………………………..……………………. iv
Course Aims …………………………………..…………………… iv
Course Objectives …………………………………….……………. iv
Understanding the Course……………………………..…………… iv
Course Materials ………………………………………..…………. v
Study Units …………………………………………………….….. v
Textbooks and References……………………………………….… vi
Assignment File …………………………………………………… vi
Final Examination and Grading …………………………………… vi
Course Marking Scheme …………………………………………... vi
Presentation Schedule……………………………………………… vii
Course Overview ………………………………………………….. vii
How to Get the Most from this Course …………………………… viii
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials ………………………………….. ix
Summary …………………………………………………………... x

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MAC 142 COURSE GUIDE

INTRODUCTION

This is MAC 142: Introduction to Radio and Television. The course is a

three-credit course for undergraduate students in Mass Communication.
The material has been developed in accordance with the National Open
University of Nigeria guidelines. The course guide is an attempt to give
you an insight to the course. It also provides you with basic information
not only on the organisation but also on the requirements of the course.

COURSE AIMS

The principal aims are to introduce you to the basic elements of Radio
and Television production. This aim will be achieved by:

(i) introducing you to the principles and practice of Radio and

Television production
(ii) arming you with the history and origin of Radio and Television,
and the basic equipment used in Broadcasting
(iii) introducing you to the tenets of Broadcasting
(iv) making you familiar with the legal terms and rules to guide you
against defamation.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

In addition to the overall objectives, each unit in respect of MAC 142

has its objectives. Once the objectives are met, you should note that you
have met the aims of the course. At the end of the course, we should be
able to talk about the following areas:

(i) History and Origin of Radio and Television Broadcasting

(ii) The principles and practice of Broadcasting
(iii) Basic equipment used in Broadcasting
(iv) The importance of programming
(v) News production and presentation
(vi) Advertising in the Broadcast Media
(vii) The legal aspects of Broadcasting.

UNDERSTANDING THE COURSE

The road to successful completion of this course is to carefully study the

units and related materials. You will also be required to complete all
exercises. The exercises are to enable you to know whether you
understand the concept of the course. Written assignments will be
submitted at the end of each unit. And for the final written examination
will be conducted.

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COURSE MATERIALS

The basic material you will need for these courses are as follows:

1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Assignment File
4. Relevant text books, including the ones listed under each unit
5. There will be need for you to constantly listen to programmes on
Radio and watch News and other programmes on Television
6. It will be beneficial for you as a fresh student to be in the habit of
interacting with the Broadcast Media as much as possible.

STUDY UNITS

The Units are made up of 4 modules for this course. They are as
follows:

Module 1 Introduction to Broadcasting

Unit 1 Principles and Practice of Broadcasting

Unit 2 History and Origin of Radio/TV Broadcasting
Unit 3 Broadcasting as an Industry
Unit 4 Basic Equipment used in Broadcasting
Unit 5 Qualities of Good Broadcasting

Module 2 Radio Production

Unit 1 Advent of Radio in Nigeria

Unit 2 Programme Format
Unit 3 Radio Format and Terminology
Unit 4 Importance of Programming
Unit 5 News Production

Module 3 Television Production

Unit 1 Announcing
Unit 2 Basic Principles of Presentation
Unit 3 Advertising in Broadcasting
Unit 4 The Producer and Production Techniques
Unit 5 The Director and Directing

Module 4 Radio and Television Production Techniques

Unit 1 Writing for Television

Unit 2 Writing for Radio

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Unit 3 Studio Managers for Radio and Television

Unit 4 Programme Scripts for Radio and Television
Unit 5 Outside Broadcasting
Unit 6 Digital Broadcasting
Unit 7 Media Law

TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

You will find some recommended textbooks for this course. You may
wish to purchase them or any other textbook that you may find useful
for the course.

ASSIGNMENT FILE

Both assessment file and a marking scheme will be provided for you.
The assessment file contains details of what you have to submit to your
tutor for marking. You will find two types of assessment, the tutor
marked and the written examination.

The marks obtained in two areas will make up your total point for this
course. You must make sure that the assignments are submitted to your
tutor for formal assessment as stated in the presentation schedule and the
assessment file. This assessment counts for only 30 per cent of your
total score. The final assignments including the Tutor-Marked
Assignment form must reach your tutor on or before the deadline of
submission. In case you are unable to submit the assignment on time,
contact your tutor for possible extension of time if he/she finds the
excuse genuine. Note that extensions will not be granted after the expiry
date unless under exceptional situations.

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The examination will last three hours and will cover all the areas of the
course. The examination questions will reflect what you have covered in
the Tutor-Marked Assignments and the self-assignment exercises you
have previously done in the course. You are therefore advised to revise
your work thoroughly before going in for the examination.

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

Below is the breakdown of actual course mark allocation:

Assessment Marks
Best three assignments out of the marked ones 30%
Final Examination 70%
Total 100%

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MAC 142 COURSE GUIDE

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE

You will be notified of the dates that all assignments will be submitted.
You will also be properly informed of the completion of the study units
and dates for examinations.

COURSE OVERVIEW

Unit Title of Work Weeks Assessment

Activity (End of Unit)
Course Guide
Module 1 Introduction to Broadcasting
1 Principles and Practice of Week 1 Assignment 1
Broadcasting
2 History and Origin of Radio and Week 1 Assignment 2
Television Broadcasting
3 Basic Equipment used in Week 2 Assignment 3
Broadcasting
4 Broadcasting as an Industry Week 2 Assignment 4
5 Qualities of Good Broadcasting Week 2 Assignment 5
Module 2 Radio Production
1 Advent of Radio in Nigeria Week 3 Assignment 1
2 Programmes Format Week 4 Assignment 2
3 Formats and Terminology Week 4 Assignment 3
4 Importance of Programming Week 4 Assignment 4
5 News Production/Presentation Week 5 Assignment 5
Module 3 Television Production
1 Announcing Week 6 Assignment 1
2 Basic Principles of Presentation Week 7 Assignment 2
3 Advertising in Broadcasting Week 8 Assignment 3
4 The Producer and Production Week 9 Assignment 4
Techniques
5 The Director and Directing Week 9 Assignment 5
Module 4 Radio/TV Production Techniques
1 Writing for Television Week 10 Assignment 1
2 Writing for Radio Week 10 Assignment 2
3 The Studio Manager-Radio/TV Week 10 Assignment 3
4 Programme Scripts for Radio/TV Week 11 Assignment 4
5 Outside Broadcasting Week 11 Assignment 5
6 Digital Broadcasting Week 11 Assignment 6
7 Media Law Week 12 Assignment 7
APPENDIX: LIST OF BROADCAST STATIONS IN NIGERIA

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HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

The difference between distance learning and the formal University

system is in the preparation and presentation of materials. In distance
learning, you should think of reading lectures instead of listening to the
lecturer. Materials are broken down into units and each unit tells you
where to read and the text materials and textbooks are recommended for
year study. Exercises are also provided for you to do at appropriate
points, just like in a conventional study class, a lecturer may give you
assignment to do in class. All the units are drawn or framed on a
common format. Introduction usually forms the first item and introduces
you to the subject-matter of the unit, how each unit aligns with the other
units and the course as a whole.

Following this is a set of learning objectives. The objectives are to

enable you to know what you should do by the time you have come to
the end of the unit. The objectives are meant to be a guide to your study.
Once a unit is completed you have to crosscheck to verify if you have
achieved the objectives. This will significantly improve the chances of
you passing the course.

The main body of the unit is meant to guide you. Through the required
reading from other sources which would be either from the set books or
from a reading section. Remember that your tutor’s job is to guide and
help you. So do not hesitate to contact your tutor on telephone if you are
in difficulty and require assistance as your tutor will readily provide
such assistance.

1. Remember the Course Guide is your first assignment, so read it

thoroughly.

2. Draw up your own study schedule to guide you through the

course. Keep in mind the time you are supposed to spend on each
study unit and the way assignments relate to the units. No matter
how you design your study method, you should remember to put
down your dates and schedule of work for each day and follow
them judiciously.

3. You have now created your own study schedule; so keep to it

faithfully. Do not lag behind your course work and if you
encounter any difficulty let your tutor know without delay.

4. Refer to unit one from time to time to remind you of the

introduction and objectives for the unit.

5. Before commencement of your study, assemble the study

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materials; the set books and the unit you are studying at any point
in time. In the course of working through the unit you will know
the sources to consult for further information.

6. It is important for you to keep in touch with your Study Centre

for up-to-date information concerning your course.

7. The assignments given to you have been designed to help you

meet the objectives of the course as a matter of fact will help you
do well in your examinations. You should, therefore, submit all
assignments not later than the due dates.

8. You have to review the objectives for each study unit to confirm
that you understand them. If you are not sure of anything
pertaining to the objectives, go back to the study materials or
consult your tutor before it is too late.

9. Make sure you have achieved a unit’s objectives before moving

to the next. Do so steadily and to your pace.

10. As soon as you submit the assignment for a unit, do not wait for
it to be marked and returned to you; start working on the next
unit. When the assignment has been marked and returned to you
by your tutor, pay close attention to the tutor’s comments on the
tutor- marked form and those written on the assignment.

11. At the end of the last unit, prepare yourself for the final
examination reviewing the unit objectives and the course
objectives. Make sure that you have achieved them.

FACILITATORS/TUTOR AND TUTORIALS

Keep a close watch on the comments made by the tutor on your

assignments. This will make you know the progress you have been
making. Needless to remind you, that the Tutor-Marked Assignments
must be taken to the study centre at least two working days before the
due date. Such assignments will be marked and returned to you without
delay.

Contact your tutor if you need help, especially where you do not
understand any part of the study or the assigned readings. If you find it
difficult to handle the exercises or there is something about an
assignment or with grading of an assignment. Failure to contact your
tutor when in difficulty may hinder you from performing well in your
study. Tutorials are the only chances for you to come face-to-face with
your tutor. You should do all you can to attend them. It is also here that

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you ask questions and questions are answered instantly. Prepare your
questions before attending tutorials. You will gain tremendously from
participation in such discussions.

Do not hesitate to contact your tutor if you need help. Contact your tutor
if you:

• do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned

readings
• have difficulty with the exercises
• have a question or problem with an assignment or with your
tutor’s comments on an assignment or with the grading of an
assignment.

SUMMARY

The course introduces you to the basic principles of radio and television
broadcasting, the history and origin of radio/television broadcasting, the
basic equipment, programming, news production and presentation,
advertising and the legal aspect of broadcasting. The Course Guide
gives you an overview of what to expect in this study.

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 MAIN
COURSE

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Introduction to Broadcasting……………… 1

Unit 1 Principles and Practice of Broadcasting…….. 1

Unit 2 History and Origin of Radio/TV
Broadcasting………………………………….. 9
Unit 3 Broadcasting as an Industry…………………. 15
Unit 4 Basic Equipment Used in Broadcasting…….. 20
Unit 5 Qualities of Good Broadcasting……………... 26

Module 2 Radio Production ………………………….. 32

Unit 1 Advent of Radio in Nigeria…………………. 32

Unit 2 Programmes Format………………………… 38
Unit 3 Radio Format and Terminology……………. 46
Unit 4 News Production……………………………. 52
Unit 5 Importance of Programming………………... 59

Module 3 Television Production …………………….. 65

Unit 1 Announcing………………………………… 65
Unit 2 Basic Principles of Presentation…………… 70
Unit 3 Advertising in Broadcasting……………..... 75
Unit 4 The TV Producer and Production
Techniques………………………………… 81
Unit 5 The Director and Directing……………….. 87

Module 4 Radio and Television Production

Techniques…………………………………. 92

Unit 1 Writing for Television………………………. 92

Unit 2 Writing for Radio…………………………… 98
Unit 3 Studio Managers for Radio and Television… 103
Unit 4 Programme Scripts for Radio and
Television……………………………………. 108
Unit 5 Outside Broadcasting……………………….... 114
Unit 6 Digital Broadcasting......................................... 120
Unit 7 Media Law…………………………………… 127

Appendix……………………………………………………. 133
MAC 142 MODULE 1

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO BROADCASTING

Unit 1 Principles and Practice of Broadcasting

Unit 2 History and Origin of Radio/TV Broadcasting
Unit 3 Broadcasting as an Industry
Unit 4 Basic Equipment used in Broadcasting
Unit 5 Qualities of Good Broadcasting

UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF

BROADCASTING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Broadcasting
3.2 Characteristics of Broadcasting
3.3 Programme Content
3.4 Programme Objective
3.5 Programme Evaluation
3.6 Production Consideration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Broadcasting is the passing on or the transmission of messages from a

single source, the station, to a heterogeneous audience, spread in
different places but found within the range on the Medium of broadcast.
The various issues to be examined in this unit are to introduce you to
principles and practice of broadcasting, the definition of broadcasting,
characteristics, content, objectives, evaluation and consideration.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define Broadcasting
• discuss characteristics of Broadcasting
• write programme content for Radio and Television
• differentiate the different types of programme

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

• identify the stages of programme production

• outline some production considerations.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Broadcasting

Broadcasting is the process of sending out and receiving messages

through the air by a scientific method called electromagnetic waves.
According to Owuamalam (2007:1), these messages are transformed
into electronic signals in the studio. It mixes the signal with the carrier
waves, generated in the transmitter and the studio. The blending enables
the electromagnetic waves to be moved at great speed through the
antenna and shot into the air. The air carries the waves as a medium and
the signals are received by the sets in our homes and offices.

This definition does not take care of the technical aspects of production
as this aspect is the case for engineering department. In this course we
are concerned with the aesthetics of production and not the technical
aspects of production.

Academics, however, view broadcasting as something that can be

studied and observe. According to Okoduwa (2014:9), “broadcasting is
a phenomenon; it is an institution, it is a platform and it is a marketplace
to exchange ideas and information.”

The broadcast programme generally falls into three forms, namely:

1. The programmes can be entertaining

2. They can be informative
3. They can be educative

The programmes can even be a blend of all the types, such as, the
variety shows which cover various segments that deal with specific
issues. The essence of the broadcast programme production, as Sofola
(1997:22) cited in Owuamalam (2007:2), is to stimulate societal growth,
renewal and regeneration of vital issues to the improvement of man for a
wholesome life and a better community.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is production? Through what means do programmes get into our

houses and offices?

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3.2 Characteristics of Broadcasting

Having attempted to define and explain what broadcasting is in the last

section, the next issue to deal with is the characteristics of broadcasting.
Broadcasting recreates the activities of people and their environment
through its programmes (Owuamalam, 2007:3).

News tends to relay activities and events of people. It is the recording

and passing the information which has already taken place. The
information to be reported must pass through the editor. The editor
might correct grammar, take out certain things that he or she thinks are
not relevant. This can be for either the radio or television.

Life Span

What makes news is currency. If what happens now is delayed and

reported a few days after it has happened, then it becomes stale. It is no
longer news.

In order to capture the attention of audience members, news is written in

short sentences, precise, to the point, with most important ones coming
first in the news. As such materials to be used in news production or any
kind of production must be carefully selected, creatively ordered and
structurally organised to meet the needs of the audience members for
whom the programme is meant.

Personnel Involved

Radio and television broadcasting involves a number of people. These

include the technical crew, the producer, the director, the editor, the
lighting crew, the actors and actresses or the artists. All these people put
together form what is called the production team. The production team
can be made up of both skilled and unskilled artisans and talents.

When the audience members view or listen to programmes, they are

bound to react to such programmes in a specific manner. The reaction
may be positive or negative depending on the contents of the
programme. Certain programmes set an agenda for the public to discuss.
For example, during the Ibrahim Babangida regime, the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) issues came up, and there were divergent views
on the matter. Reactions came from the public. In the end, the loan was
not taken from the (IMF). However, the conditionalities were
implemented by the regime.

Agenda setting by broadcast sets the agenda which enable reactions to

events and activities from the public.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss the characteristics of broadcasting.

3.3 Programme Content

Programmes are realised as a result of the idea that a producer might

have conceived. When certain things happen, human beings generally
keep them in their minds. This can stimulate thoughts which in turn can
generate ideas. Such ideas which might be many and come in different
ways are capable of addressing issues.

The ideas might require creativity in order to determine the best way to
address the issue. This means that any problem concerning human
beings has a background. It is when the background to an issue is
understood that an appropriate programme can be designed to address it
(Owuamalam, 2007:6). This is the whole mark in the creation of
broadcast programmes.

Experience

In the broadcast media, experience is vital in concerning ideas for

programmes. For example, a village boy want to study medicine when
he goes to school but, because of lack of science teachers in the rural
areas, he may end up studying religious education, or any of the liberal
arts. Such a boy may end up working for the broadcast media. He may
therefore come up with a programme to help other village children who
cannot realise their ambition because of the absence of qualified
teachers available in the village setting.

Furthermore, someone living with HIV/AIDS may talk about his/her

experience and this may lead him/her to the production of a programme
such as “Know Your Health Status”.

Knowledge

It is knowledge that makes human beings initiate programmes in a

competent and proficient manner. Knowledge makes it possible for
programme producers to deal with issues, develop talents and have the
capacity to handle issues.

Even if a programme is the product of imagination, the producer should

appear reliable, believable and acceptable by the audience. It is the duty
of the producer to build and sustain the audience interest throughout the
programme, whether on radio or television.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the major concerns of programme content?

3.4 Programme Objective

Some of the objectives for attaining a university degree are to acquire

education, to enhance your position in work peace or to carve for
yourself a better image in your community. Broadcast programmes also
have their objectives. The objective of a programme has to be clearly
defined, the objective must be stated in a clear and concise manner.
Such objective must be in line with the expectations of the station’s
audience.

The following elements are significant to programmes production:

1. There should be a clear and precise statement as to what the

programme is all about. Its importance to the targeted audience.
Also it should indicate what the programme wants to achieve.
2. The programme should indicate the time it is going to take to
complete it, that is if it is going to be a 30-minute programme or a
one-hour programme.
3. The major objectives of the programme should vividly describe
so as to aid understanding by both actors and the stations
audience.
4. There should be a plan that outlines the sequence of the activities.

The plan should indicate the number of persons involved in the

production and how long it would take them to accomplish the task of
production set before them.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Name four elements that are significant to the production of programme.

3.5 Programme Evaluation

Having looked at the objectives of the programmes, it is naturally

important to see how the objectives if implemented would succeed. That
is to evaluate workability of the programme in the following ways:

1. Does the programme go in line with the normal expectations of

the audience? The programme producer ought to have had
knowledge of the audience and the type of programme would be
believable and acceptable by them.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

2. The audience should be able to learn something or gain

something whenever they listen or to watch the programme they
should want more. A programme which is capable of holding the
attention of the audience members can be said to have achieved
its objectives.

3. The programmes should be aired at such a time that is convenient

for the audience. For example, the “Village Headmaster” which
was aired by the Nigerian Television Authority in the 1980s
between 8.00pm and 9.00pm, was convenient for the audience
and a lot of lessons were learned from the programme.

4. Members of the audience should be able to appreciate the

programme. The producer should be able to carry the audience
along by producing an interesting programme. By capturing the
interest of the audience, the programme would have succeeded in
sustaining their active participation.

5. The programme should stand out clear from others on the same
station. It should appeal to the audience and be appreciated by a
good number of the audience members.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss four ways of determining the evaluation of the effectiveness of

a programme.

3.6 Production Considerations

According to Owuamalam (2007:10), every production in the broadcast

medium is designed to satisfy three major interests, namely that the:

1. Station’s purpose must be achieved.

2. Programme objectives must be accompanied.
3. Audience interest must be satisfied.

Producers have to follow the stations directive on programme

production which would be acceptable to the audience. Broadcast
stations are praised because programmes are produced according to the
station’s prescription and such programmes do meet audience
aspirations.

The studio lighting should be adequate to separate objects from their

shadows cast in the background.

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MAC 142 MODULE 1

The space for performance should be adequate to allow performers free

movement without obstruction.

The nature of the programme should determine the location of

production, whether production should take place in the studio or
outside the studio. Wherever production takes place, the programme
should be made to be believable. Things should appear as natural as
possible. Programmes produced by a station should be targeted towards
an audience and must meet the yearnings and aspirations of such
audience.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the three major interests that every production in the broadcast
medium is to society?

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained the definition of broadcasting, the characteristics of

broadcasting, the programme content, objective, evaluation and
production consideration. Persons are employed to work in a broadcast
organisation to achieve these aims and objectives.

5.0 SUMMARY

Broadcast stations do not just embark on any programme. The

programme must have a target audience which it is meant to educate,
inform or entertain. Such programmes should meet the audience demand
and hold their attention.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is programme production?

2. Explain the objective of production by a broadcast station.
3. List and explain the four stages of programme evaluation.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Owuamalam, E.O. (2007). Radio-TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies Ltd.

Idebi, S.K. (2008). Fundamentals of Radio Production. Ibadan: Impact

Motion Pictures and Media Koncept Nig.

Sambe, J.A. (2008). Introduction to Mass Communication Practice in

Nigeria. Abuja: Spectrum Books Limited.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

Kogah, V. (2007). Communication for Sustainable Human

Development: Digital Broadcasting – A Must for Nigeria’s
Development. Enugu: African Council for Communication
Education.

Okoduwa, M. (2014). Broadcasting and Politics in Nigeria. Lagos: Mat

Emos Publishers

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UNIT 2 HISTORY AND ORIGIN OF RADIO/TV

BROADCASTING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition
3.2 The Growth of Radio in Nigeria
3.3 Television in Nigeria
3.4 Ownership and control of Broadcasting
3.5 Deregulation of Broadcast Media in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Radio involves the process by which messages are sent through

electrical waves. In other words, sound would be sent and received
through the waves (Sambe, 2008:75). The history of Radio dates back to
the 19th Century when Samuel Morse invented the electric telegraph.
According to Bittner (1989:93), Gugielmo Marconi built on this
invention to produce electromagnetic impulses which would be sent
through the air without the use of wires. The voice was carried over long
distances.

Thus in 1866, signals were transmitted from England to America

without wires. Sambe (2008:75) states that, in 1988, Heinrick Hertz,
working on the electromagnetic theory propounded earlier by a British
scientist James Clark Maxwell, produced the first radio waves. What is
known today as “Television” was coined by a Frenchman called Persky.
And the word is made up from Greek “tele” meaning at a distance” and
the Latin “Videre” means “to see”. Boris Rozing, a Russian, is said to be
the first person to build a television system. In fact, he is regarded as the
Father of Television. In 1923, another Russian, Vladimir Zworykin
improved on Boris Rozing’s. He developed and presented to the world
an electronic camera known as iconoscope.

The final development in television as we see it today was between 1948

and 1952. This period was regarded as the formative years and it was at
this time that quite a number of television sets came into use. At this
time too, about 109 television stations were established. In Britain,
about 20 stations were in operation. The period 1953 to 1960 was and
has been regarded as the Golden Age of Television.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• define Radio and Television

• explain the growth of radio and television in Nigeria
• discuss ownership, control and deregulation of broadcasting in
Nigeria.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Radio and Television

Radio can be defined as a medium used for sending and receiving

messages through the air using electronic waves. It is also about the
activity of broadcasting programmes for people to listen to the
programmes being broadcast (Idebi, 2008:1). It can also be defined as
the broadcasting of programmes for the public to listen to. It is the
system of sending sound over a distance by transmitting electrical
signals (BBC English Dictionary, 1992:946).

Television is defined as an audio-visual medium. It blends pictures with

sound to produce a communication experience exhibited on the screen.
It uses sound to explain the visuals presented on the screen. It addresses
the emotion and intellect in a remarkable way (Owauamalam,
2007:238). Television uses the movement of images in a unique way or
pattern to express thought and feelings in an exciting and appealing
manner. Television is defined by the BBC English Dictionary
(1992:1206) as the system of pictures and distance so that people can
receive them on a television set.

From the definition, radio and television were a common phenomenon;

they use electrical signals in sending out their messages.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the major difference between radio and television?

3.2 The Growth of Radio in Nigeria

In Nigeria, radio started with the introduction of the Radio Distribution

System in the year 1933 in Lagos by the British colonial government
under the Department of Post and Telegraphs (P&T), according to Idebi
(2008,P.3). The Radio Distribution System (RDS) was a reception base
for the British Broadcasting Corporation and a relay station, through
wire systems, with loudspeakers at the listening end. In 1935, the Radio

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MAC 142 MODULE 1

Distribution System was changed to Radio Diffusion system. The aim

was to spread the efforts of Britain and her allies during the Second
World War through the BBC.

The Ibadan station was commissioned in 1939, followed by the Kano

station in 1944. Later, a re-appraisal of radio broadcast objectives gave
birth to the establishment in 1950 of the Nigerian Broadcasting Service
(NBS). The NBS began broadcast in Lagos, Ibadan, Kaduna, Kano and
Enugu on short wave and medium wave transmitters.

Through a Bill by the House of Representatives, the Nigerian

Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) was established in 1956. The NBC
took up the responsibilities of radio broadcast in Nigeria. The Federal
Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) was established in 1978. The
Voice of Nigeria (VON) which served as the external service was
established in 1990.

With the creation of more states and each state wanting to propagate its
people and culture, the pace for radio broadcast began in Nigeria and
has spread fast across the length and breadth of the nation. Each state
owns and operates at last one radio station.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Give account for the rise and establishment of radio stations in Nigeria.

3.3 Television in Nigeria

The evolution of television in Nigeria followed a similar pattern as that

of radio. The irony here is that while it was the Federal Government that
started the first radio broadcasting station in the country, it was a
regional government that first ventured into television broadcasting. On
11 October, 1959, the then Western Region sent out the first television
signals in the whole of Nigeria and Africa (Sambe, 2008:101). The
principal aim of establishing the Western Nigeria Television (WNTV)
as was claimed by the proponents was to serve as surrogate teacher in
improving the regional school systems that were handicapped by ill-
qualified teachers or a shortage of them in certain subject areas.

The Eastern Regional Government followed by establishing its own

station on October 1, 1960, the day Nigeria gained political
independence from Britain. The aim was also for formal and non-formal
education. But sooner or later, the aims were abandoned and the station,
just like that of the West, became fully commercial.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

The Northern Regional Government established its own station and it

came on air in April, 1962, as Radio-Television Kaduna (RTV Kaduna).

Television stations were established in Nigeria with the ostensible

reason of providing adequate services in education, and social and
economic development. However, it was soon realised that they had
gone commercial and depended heavily on foreign programmes.

The establishment and running or managing television stations remained

in the hands of federal and state governments until Decree No.38 of
1992 that deregulated broadcasting media and established the National
Broadcasting Commission. This paved the way for private ownership of
the electronic media of radio and television stations especially in the
southern parts of the country.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why did television stations abandon their initial aims and went
commercial?

3.4 Ownership and Control of Broadcasting

Before the deregulation of 1992 by the Babangida administration, the

broadcast media were solely owned and operated by federal and state
governments. State governments established their stations to educate,
inform and entertain their peoples, and actually did so during the Second
Republic because they felt the National Television or the National
Broadcasting Organisation existed to serve the interests and needs of the
ruling party, by then the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) at the federal
level, and in those states where the party was in control. According to
Sambe (2008:109), other states administered by other political parties in
opposition were either blacked out or given unfavorable coverage.
Those who challenged this unorthodox form of democracy were told
that the system of government that was being practised during this time
meant “winner take all”. In order to ensure absolute control of the
television, for example, the government redeployed the Director-
General, a seasoned broadcaster to the Ministry of Information and
appointed a party ally and a historian in his place.

Even now, the federal government dictates what should be broadcast

and what should not. The state-owned broadcast stations are even worse
in this aspect. When one tunes to any of such stations, most of news that
is aired is about the governor of that state. Since the state government
hires and fires employees, the station dare not broadcast any news that is
anti- government. News is always about what the governor and his team
of political appointees wants to hear. The Government even regulates

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MAC 142 MODULE 1

the news contents of private broadcast stations such as the Africa

Independent Television (AIT).

To a certain extent, almost all if not all government-owned and -

controlled broadcast media have become praise singers of government
policies. At times, one listens to a one-hour broadcast news without
coming up with anything that in real sense would be regarded as news.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

How would you rate broadcast media in Nigeria?

3.5 Deregulation of Broadcast Media in Nigeria

The deregulation of broadcast media in 1992 paved the way for private
ownership of the broadcast media stations in Nigeria. According to Idebi
(2008:6), the first sets of radio and television stations were issued their
licences of operation soon after the decree was promulgated. There were
14 television stations and 13 private radio stations, some of which were
Clapperboard TV Channel 45, Lagos; Minaj System Television;
Channel 38 Kaduna; and Africa Independent Television, Alagbado,
Lagos.

Owuamalam (2007:32) states that each station is in competition with the

others in their struggle to attract and retain a sizeable audience for its
programmes. The competition, therefore, directs thought, as to what
approach best suits a station to adopt in a bid to accomplish its task.

The competition may come in many forms, for example, programme

producers who supply programmes to the station may find out that
careful selection is made from the programmes and the ones that best
suit the stations’ needs and objectives may be selected. This means that
only programmes that satisfy the station’s audience would qualify for
production by the station. If the newly established stations tend to meet
the demands of the audiences, then the already existing ones may be
threatened because the new ones may attempt to capture and retain the
audience. The new stations are likely to come up with innovations in
equipment to improve programme quality and delivery, and as such the
audience may likely switch from the old to the new stations.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

In what ways does deregulation bring about competition in broadcast

media?

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained the definition, the growth of radio in Nigeria,

ownership and control of broadcasting, television in Nigeria and
deregulation of broadcast media in Nigeria and how deregulation
brought about the establishment of broadcast media stations and the
competition between the old and new stations.

5.0 SUMMARY

Ironically, radio broadcast was started by the federal government, while

television began with the regional governments. The federal government
joined the television race much later. The ownership and control of the
broadcast media were left in the hands of both the federal and state
governments until 1992 when the federal government decided to
deregulate the broadcast media. Since then, a number of broadcast
stations have been established and owned by private individuals or
corporate organisations. With this new development, there is bound to
be competition between the old and the new stations for audience
control.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What was responsible for deregulation of broadcast media in

Nigeria?
2. What effect does deregulation have on broadcast media stations?
3. How did Radio and Television begin in Nigeria?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

BBC English Dictionary: A Dictionary for the World, (1992). London:

Harper-Collins Publisher.

Bittner, J.R. (1989). Mass Communication: An Introduction, (5th ed.).

New Jersey: Prentice- Hall Inc.

Idebi, S.K. (2008). Fundamentals of Radio Production. Ibadan: Impact

Motion Pictures and Media Koncept Nig.

Owuamalam, E.O. (2007). Radio –TV Production. Owerri: Image and

Slogans Consultants Ltd.

Sambe, J.A. (2008). Introduction to Mass Communication Practice in

Nigeria. Abuja: Spectrum Books Limited.

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MAC 142 MODULE 1

UNIT 3 BROADCASTING AS AN INDUSTRY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Programme Content
3.3 Experiences in Programming
3.4 Knowledge and Proficiency
3.5 Inspirations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Broadcasting as an industry produces programmes as goods and services

for the consumption of the audiences which may be scattered over a
given environment. These goods do not have or possess physical
measure like goods produced by the automobile industry or other
manufacturing industries. The consumers of broadcast goods can only
feel the impact of such goods. The goods may also have some effects on
the audience. All the programmes produced have objectives to be
achieved among the audiences as consumers. That is why programmes
are patented just like the physical goods produced by other industries.
According to Owuamalam (2007:4), the goods and services are
recognised as intellectual property of artistic value. They are
copyrighted to ensure their protection from bootleggers and artistic
marauders. This means that permission must be sought from the original
owner-station when an already-produced programme is to be used by
another broadcast station, particularly for public consumption.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define broadcasting as an industry

• explain what programme content is
• discuss Experience, Knowledge and Proficiency in
programming.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Broadcasting as an Industry

Broadcasting as an industry can be defined as an establishment

principally meant to inform, educate and entertain the audience. The
industry is made up of persons and materials who work together to
achieve the station’s purpose by structuring programmes to recreate
events and society which tend to give satisfaction to the audience who
react to them the way they are affected or the way the audience react to
such events.

The persons in the broadcast station come together and use materials to
produce programmes that meet the needs of the audience who in turn
tend to appreciate the efforts of the station. If the content of the
programmes meets the desire of the audience, the station works the
harder to provide more and more of such programmes.

Owuamalam (2007:6) aptly states that, this means that broadcasting is a

business institution. It sets goals which define the expectations from the
station’s purpose and stipulate the specific objective, which programmes
must realise for the sustenance of the station. It is a system created to
satisfy society’s needs and desires. Broadcasting is, therefore, designed
to meet people’s aspirations, needs, desires and wants (Burskirk, Green
and Rodgers, 1976).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

In what ways is broadcasting regarded as an industry?

3.2 Programme Content

Programme content cannot be realised without having an idea of what

the programmes are going to be. The producer first develops ideas and
then he stores such ideas in his mind and recalls them whenever the
need arises. An event can materialise into action or thought than can
address issues. The ideas may be many but it is the coherent and orderly
arrangement that result into meaningful content which is put up for the
consumption of the audience.

It involves creativity so as to determine the best approach to address the

issue. This is an indication that every problem in the society has a
background. For example, the declining reading culture among
university undergraduates has a background in the introduction of
Information and Communication Technology (ICTs). If the background
to an issue is not properly understood, then it will be very difficult to

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MAC 142 MODULE 1

design an appropriate programme to address such an issue. This is very

important in handling programmes or contents of the programmes in
broadcasting.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss the background of any social problem, with reference to your

country.

3.3 Experiences in Programming

The programme producer might have done or seen programmes done in

the past. Mistakes might have been made and corrected. It is the
recounting of what had happened and attempting to find solutions to the
situation that present itself that is known as experience. For example, a
pupil who grew up in the rural area and had the ambition of studying
science-related courses but does not have the opportunity of doing so
because of lack of teachers in the sciences. He may end up studying one
of the arts courses when he eventually attends university. On graduation,
he may be employed as a producer in one of the broadcast media
stations.

By his experience, he may come up with a programme based on

teaching sciences. The objective may be to introduce some form of
lessons in the sciences for rural schools. This may go a long way in
aiding those students who might otherwise have had no science
education and would not have realised their aspirations and desire. This
kind of programme is arrived at as a result of experience. Experience
can, therefore, provide the idea for programmes in broadcasting.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

How does experience help in coming up with programme ideas in

broadcasting?

3.4 Knowledge and Proficiency

Having knowledge of a certain issue may lead to competence and

proficiency if utilised very well. The producer may handle issues or
programmes well, based on the knowledge acquired during performance
of similar or various tasks in the course of production.

The audience tends to appreciate a programme if it appeals to them and

they find some rewarding benefits from watching or listening to such
programme. For example, in the recent past, there was a programme on
national television, the “African Dish”, which took the

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

producer/presenter to various cultural entities. The programme was

interesting and exciting as various dishes were prepared by a variety of
cultures across Nigeria and beyond. Such a programme can achieve the
following:

• arouse interest in other people’s dishes,

• bring about social integration, and
• create harmonious relationship between cultures.

Owuamalam (2007:8) says ‘such programmes can also make

housewives, spinsters and bachelors to try the menu as prepared in the
studio kitchen.” The programme may even be of benefit to those who
operate hotels and restaurants who could start preparing such dishes to
attract customers outside their culture. It is therefore the responsibility
of the producer to use his knowledge appropriately to stimulate audience
interest and to retain such interest throughout the duration of the
programme.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why are knowledge and proficiency considered very important in

broadcasting?

3.5 Inspiration

The programme producer may think and come up with an idea which if
broadcast may appear as real to the station’s audience. For example,
sometimes we watch or listen to stories told by animals. These stories
are told as a matter of fact in reality and in a believable manner. Often
some of the stories are imagined but they have effect on the audience.

Sometimes, animations are used in narrating such stories and they meet
the same desired effect. Also the voices adopted suit every animal and
its character. Further, the use of robots instead of human beings in
science fiction is another example of inspirational creation by the
programme producer. The voices used by animals sound according to
the appearance and behaviour of such animals. For example, it is
expected that a lion should talk in a deep voice but a squirrel would not
be expected to do so. If it does, then it ceases to be a squirrel and the
audience would not be convinced.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why are inspirational programmes acceptable and believable by the

station’s audience?

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MAC 142 MODULE 1

4.0 CONCLUSION

Broadcasting as an industry or institution employs people who work

with the materials to attain the required result, that of meeting the desire
and demands of the station’s audience. The station ought to know what
the audience wants through careful research and carry out the
assignment in such a way that the cost of producing acceptable
programmes is not prohibitive. The station should employ people who
are knowledgeable and would use their experience effectively and
would also use their inspiration in producing convincing programmes
that are acceptable by the heterogeneous audience.

5.0 SUMMARY

The principal aim of broadcasting is to present programmes through or

by means of electronics. The activities presented should have human
values so that they may be appreciated by the station’s audience.

Not only that, more of such programmes have to be aired from time to
time so that such audience would be retained by the station. This is
because it does not make sense to win an audience and all of a sudden
lose it to another station for dearth of desired programmes.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. In what ways do goods produced by the broadcast industry differ

from those produced by other industries?
2. Why are animated programmes accepted by audience members as
normal programmes?
3. How would you use knowledge and proficiency in developing
acceptable programmes for your broadcast station?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Burskiirk, R., Green D. and Rodgers, W. (1976). Concepts of Business:

An Introduction to Business System. Reihardson, Texas: Oak
Tree Press.

Owuamalam, E.O. (2007). Radio –TV Production. Owerri: Image and

Slogans Consultants Ltd.

Tuggle, C.A., Carr, F. and Huffinan, S. (2001). Writing, Reporting,

Producing. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

UNIT 4 BASIC EQUIPMENT USED IN

BROADCASTING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Equipment
3.2 The Camera and the Tape
3.3 Lighting
3.4 The Microphone
3.5 The Console
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Equipment are those facilities installed in the stations for recording of

programmes and live broadcast. These equipment, according to Idebi,
(2008:59) include the microphone, mixing console, player, reel-to-reel
tape and computers. There are also the camera, lighting equipment,
monitor, speaker, cable, connector and studio accessories. There are
many more, such as chairs and tables and props used by artistes.
However, we shall be concerned with the technical equipment that are a
necessity without which production cannot take place. These equipment
are usually housed in the studio and are put to use whenever the need
arises.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• list broadcast equipment, including the camera and tapes

• explain the difference between one type of microphone and
another
• explain what the console is.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Equipment

The room that houses the equipment necessary for production for a
broadcaster’s finished production is popularly called the production

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MAC 142 MODULE 1

studio. By definition, equipment are all those materials installed in the

studio for the production of programmes, starting from furniture to
digital equipment.

The equipment needed for programme production in the broadcast

industry include, the camera, tapes, consoles, microphones, audio visual
players or recorders, multi-track recording and signal processing
equipment, monitor speakers, cable connectors and accessories, and
furniture (Reese, Gross and Gross, 2006:viii). If any of these is absent,
then production may not take place because one of the equipment will
be needed at one stage of production or another.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why is it necessary to have virtually all the production equipment

housed in the studio?

3.2 The Camera and the Tape

The camera is one of the most important equipment for broadcast

programme production without which production cannot hold. Popularly
known as the video cameras, they range from lightweight hand-held
versions to large heavy-duty units. Some are more automated than
others. While earlier cameras were built as completely integrated units,
many of today’s modular designs allow you to choose features to suit
your particular shooting condition (Millerson 1993:24).

Television or video cameras are of varying types, and their differences

essentially rest with the type of pick-up tube used. However, the
cameras are in two broad categories, namely monochrome or black-and-
white and coloured. The monochrome camera has only one pick-up tube
to which lights from the camera lens are directed. The modern colour
camera has three tubes, one tube for each of the primary colours, red,
green and blue.

Warritay (1986:13) states that light passing through the colour camera
lens is split by a glass prism into the primary colours and directed to the
pick-up tubes which are also called chrominance channels because they
process the primary colours. It is the chrominance channels that produce
colour pictures.

Colour cameras usually need more light to take pictures than

monochrome cameras because the colour cameras tend to have three
times the number of tubes than the black-and-white cameras. The tape is
also a vital equipment to production. The camera on itself cannot
produce pictures that we watch on our screens. It is the tape that

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

captures and records images and sound, and stores them for later use. In
most cases, writers seem to forget or omit this very important equipment
when taking a look at production equipment.

The new technology has brought in innovations such as the compact

disc player which is an improvement over the reel-to-reel tapes. The
new system (CD) gives clear sound and picture, and neat signals during
recording and transmission (Idebi, 2008:61). The reel-to-reel tapes are
now completely outdated but are kept by some stations only as
antiquities.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the principal difference between the monochromic camera and

the colour camera?

3.3 Lighting

Studio lighting or lighting generally serves two main purposes: to enable

the camera to see and take clear pictures, and to provide a viewer with
important visual information about an event such as space area, time of
day and even mood of an event. According to Warritay (1986:43),
there are basically three types of lighting; Base lighting, Model lighting
and Effects lighting.

Base lighting – This is general studio lighting with the use of fill light.
The lighting is soft not harsh. It is not directed to any particular place
and, therefore, does not create much shadow. However, the illumination
is enough for a television camera to transmit acceptable pictures. The
Image Orthicon (black-and-white) camera, the Plumbicon (colour)
camera and the Videocon (portable) camera require different intensities
of base light.

Model lighting – This lighting is usually directed towards a specific

scene or performers. It combines three basic lights, namely: key light,
fill light and back light. The key light is directional, very strong and
illuminates the subject, but one disadvantage is that it creates shadows.
The fill light reduces the harshness of the shadows; the back light on
the other hand outlines the subject and separates him or her from the
background.

Effects lighting – The amount of the light can be varied, depending on

the production requirement. The key to back light may also be varied
with the back light having higher intensity than the key light. Also, the
colour of the hair and dress of the artist should be considered in
determining the intensity of the back light. For instance, an artist with

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MAC 142 MODULE 1

dark hair in a dark dress will require a higher intensity of the back light
than an artist in a light dress with fair or grey hair. According to
Millerson (1993:76), the effect of lighting changes with the lights,
direction relative to a camera viewpoint, and with the position of the
subject. Lighting treatment should be designed to allow for camera and
sound boom maneuvers and avoid camera shadows. Clearly, successful
lighting can only come from imaginative, anticipatory and systematic
planning.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why is lighting important, especially in television production?

3.4 The Microphone

The microphone is also an important equipment needed by broadcasters

in the discharge of their daily duties. Microphones are of several types
but they perform one function that of magnifying the voice of the artist
as far as programme production is concerned.

1. Omni-directional microphone – This type of microphone

usually has a long cable which can be extended over a
considerable space within a given area. It can easily be used for
outside broadcast.

2. Uni-directional microphone- This type of microphone can be

used in one direction. It can only handle about two persons and
not more than that and the persons must be positioned in the same
direction.

3. Bi-directional microphone –This kind of microphone can be

directed at the voices from different directions at the same time.
This type is most suitable for interviews and group discussion
situations.

4. Personal microphone – This is a small electric clip-on the

microphone which is extensively used for speech pick-up. It can
be attached to the lapel, shirt or tie, and may be hidden beneath
the clothing.

5. Hanging or slung microphone – This type of microphone is

usually suspended over the action area and is effective for area
sound pick-up, such as choirs and orchestras.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Microphones are not necessary equipment in broadcast programme

production. Discuss.

3.5 The Console

According to Idebi (2008:61), the console is the link between the

microphone and the recording channels. It is equipped with faders,
equalisers, various buttons and switches, which are used to regulate and
modulate signals. The mixing console has a lot of input and output,
which are these days digitally operated. With the introduction of modern
technology, the console is still a primary piece of equipment in most
production facilities. The broadcast consoles used in most stations are
fairly straight-forward in their construction and operation.

Although the board of the console may appear intimidating because of

the numerous buttons, knobs and levers, most of these are repeats of
what you might have come across before, since the board has many
different input and output because, like most other production
equipment, the console is facing transformation from analog to digital.

Reese et al (2006:42) say the console board has three primary functions:
to mix, amplify and route audio. The console enables the operator to
select any one or a combination of various input. And the control board
amplifies the incoming audio signal to an appropriate level.
Amplification means that the volume of an audio signal going through
the console can be raised or lowered as the situation may dictate.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What do you understand by the term “audio console”?

4.0 CONCLUSION

So far, we have discussed some of the equipment used for production in

a broadcast station. We have attempted to look at a few but somehow
the most important without which production cannot take peace. There
are many more that are not treated here because of the exigencies of
time and space.

5.0 SUMMARY

At first one could be frightened at coming across some of the terms and
equipment needed for production, especially if one happens to enter a
broadcasting studio for the first time and seeing the massive assemblage

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MAC 142 MODULE 1

of switches, knobs and meters. It should be noted that most equipment

are becoming digital which can be manipulated with ease just like the
older analog ones, if carefully studied. And the new ones may even be
easier to maneuver with a few clicks or a touch screen.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Distinguish between monochrome and plumbicon cameras.

2. Studio production can successfully take place without lighting.
Discuss
3. What are the differences between Effect lighting, Base lighting
and Model lighting?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Idebi, S.K. (2008). Fundamental of Radio Production. Ibadan: Impact

Motion Picture and Media Koncept Nig.

Millerson, G. (1993). Effective TV Production, (3rd ed.). Oxford: Focal

Press.

Reese, D.E, Gross, L.S and Gross, B. (2006). Radio Production Work
Text: Studio and Equipment, (5th ed.). Oxford: Focal Press.

Warritay, B. (1986). Techniques of Television Production. Nairobi:

ACCE.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

UNIT 5 QUALITIES OF GOOD BROADCASTING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Broadcasting
3.2 Programme Objectives
3.3 Setting Objectives
3.4 Programme Strategy
3.5 Programme Evaluation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Good broadcasting begins with the ability of crafting the language, not
just using it. That is, telling stories in ways that will grab attention
impart information and leave either television viewers or radio listeners
with the impression of having been at the event themselves. The writer
of the broadcast should note that he is writing for the ear or for the eye
and ear at the same time. It should also be borne in mind that broadcast
audiences do not have the opportunity of going over the news again to
clarify issues, once the news has been broadcast. And in most cases if
not all cases, audience members do not tape the news to go back and
listen to it later, unless under special circumstances with their family
members or friends as part of the news.

According to Tuggle, Carr and Huffuran (2001:2), we have to make

every sentence we write very clear so that audience members understand
what we are talking about after having heard it only once. Writing for
the ear especially is one of the biggest differences between broadcasting
and other media.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define good broadcasting

• explain objectives and programme strategy in broadcasting
• evaluate broadcast programmes.

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MAC 142 MODULE 1

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Broadcasting

Broadcasting is the transmission of messages from a station to an

audience scattered over a given environment or area. The audience
members are not concentrated in a given area. The audience, irrespective
of their scattered nature receives the message at the same time if they are
found within the area of coverage of the medium.

There are two principal media of broadcast. These are the Radio and
Television.

Radio is an audio medium as such the writer has to do his or her work in
a manner that the pictures are imprinted on the minds of the audience
members and they could visualise as if they were physically present at
the scene of the event. Television, on the other hand, is a combination of
audio and visual. It is also an electronic device which transmits signals
from the studio into the air and then into the sets in our houses. The
television sets at home act as receivers and download the signals into
their appropriate components as originally produced audio visual
content (Owuamalam, 2007:2).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the major disparity between radio and television broadcasting?

3.2 Programme Objective

Objectives are the goals to be achieved in any assignment. In broadcast,

it is the attainment of the objectives or the aims for which the station
was established. There must be specific objectives the station should
attempt to attain. For example, the station may be established to inform,
entertain or to educate, or it could be a mixture of all kinds of
programmes like most state-owned broadcast stations or the Nigerian
Television Authority (NTA) which handle a variety of programmes, and
the (CNN) Cable News Network which deals principally in news. It is
the purpose for which stations were established that determines the
achievement or otherwise of the objectives.

Every programme must have an objective which has to be

accomplished. The producer is the one who sets the objective in
consonance with the expectations of the audience. The content of the
programme should be clearly stated and should be properly understood
by the programme producer before production. And above all, the
objectives of the programme should be achievable. Owuamalam

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

(2007:14) is of the opinion that in setting the objectives to be

accomplished through programme production the following points have
to be noted:

1. There must be a concise statement of the aim or mission to be

realised by a programme. The statement must show the expected
result the programme is designed to achieve.
2. The goal of the programme should show the specific result to be
obtained within a specified period of time.
3. The principal objectives should be broadly stated in descriptive
terms. The description tends to aid an understanding of the issues
involved and the requirements for attaining the expected result.
4. There should be a performance action plan that outlines the
sequence of the activities necessary to accomplish the set goals.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is programme objective?

3.3 Setting Objectives

The main task of a producer is to properly outline the objectives which

his or her intended programme is aimed to achieve so that there would
be justification for the production and subsequent presentation to the
station’s audience. Such objectives are normally based on the mission
and vision of the station. The producer, in this instance, must have
understood the aims and objectives which the station had been
established to attain. This would serve as a guide in the selection of
themes for the production of the programme. The programmes are the
vehicle through which the station’s objectives are interpreted to the
audience. It should be noted that the reasons for which the station is
established affect the content of the programmes produced by the
station. For example, if the station is established to inform and educate
the people about government activities, most of the programmes put up
by the station would be based on publicity, propaganda and public
enlightenment.

The station’s objectives have to be clearly stated so that any producer

involved in production should not attempt to work outside the stated
objectives. It is very important to set objectives because this would be
yardstick to measure the success or failure of the set objectives.
Furthermore, such an approach makes it possible to correct any error or
difficult parts of the objectives. Once the objectives have been defined,
it becomes easier to know if the accomplishment of the set objectives is
realisable.

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MAC 142 MODULE 1

The programme must have defined objectives to address future

problems with today’s programme. For example, in the recent past there
was a programme on NTA named “Zip Up” which was meant to ask
especially young people who are sexually active to be patient and wait
for the appropriate time to become sexually active. Such a programme
can be said to be successful if there is reduction in the spread of AIDS
among the audience members exposed to the programme.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why should objectives be set before the production of any programme?

3.4 Programme Strategy

Strategy is the art of planning the best way to achieve something (BBC
Dictionary, 1992:1156). Programme strategy is the kind of action
expected to be achieved at the end of the programme. In a broadcast
station, strategy is the approach adopted by programme producers to
arrive at specific objectives.

A programme strategy should clearly spell out all the facilities and
resources needed to carry out the programme to its conclusive end and
should explain the form the programme should take to address a specific
objective or issue: whether it should assume a dramatic or discussion
form. For example, a programme dealing with “Women Empowerment”
should either be dramatised or a discussion forum should be made up of
professionals in Economics or Finance to discuss the issue. The
producer should not forget that the programme is meant to inform,
educate and or to entertain the station’s primary audience. He should,
therefore, embark on an approach that would realise the objectives of the
programme.

Under no circumstance should a programme contain ambiguity. The

audience members are likely to tune off if the contents of the
programme are not clear to them. Such a station will surely lose the
audience, especially where they have the choice of tuning to other
stations whose programmes strategy is clearly and understandably set up
dealing with current and topical issues.

Since society is not steady, stations need to model their programmes to

suit the current situations or as situations arise. For example, campaigns
against abuse of the Naira emphasise the use of wallets, and touching
the notes with soiled hands. This approach is to ensure safety of our
Naira and reduce the amount of careless mutilation of the Naira notes.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why do you think broadcast programmes should be free from

ambiguity?

3.5 Programme Evaluation

At the end of the programme, the producer should carry out summative
evaluation to ascertain how effective the programme had been, whether
it has achieved the intended result under the given circumstance and
whether it would be effective in the future, and, if it had failed, what had
been responsible for the failure. For example, the previous campaign
against the abuse of the Naira has made partial success. If the on-going
campaign of the Naira wailing loudly does not achieve the objective,
would it be more effective if the programme is dramaticised or made a
discussion programme?

Summative evaluation of the programme will answer the question raised

above. Before the programme is evaluated the producer should make
sure that the programme would be believable and acceptable by the
intended audience. The programme should be capable of attracting and
retaining a substantial percentage of the audience. Time and form of
presentation should be convenient to the audience. The programme
should be capable of sustaining the interest of the audience and it should
have an appeal to them. In a nutshell, programme evaluation is aimed at
determining the effectiveness of the programme.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is programme evaluation?

4.0 CONCLUSION

All good broadcast programmes are designed or aimed at achieving a

specific purpose according to the dictates of the aims and objectives
establishing the station. It is this purpose or objective that determines the
end result of the performance. The objectives of the station are the
cardinal point the producer should bear in mind when contemplating a
programme.

It should also be noted that in setting the station’s objectives

management must know the reasons for establishing the station. It
should take into cognisance the human and material resources available
for the objectives to be met in the course of programme production.

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MAC 142 MODULE 1

5.0 SUMMARY

Virtually every broadcast station is established to fulfill a purpose. The

purpose could be to educate, entertain or to inform, or all of the three for
the intended audience.

When setting objectives or assignments to the station’s producers, time

to accomplish the assignments should clearly be stated. Programmes
should be designed in relations to the circumstances that are to be
addressed.

The strategies adopted for programme production should be aimed at

meeting the expectations and needs of the station’s audience.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What do evaluations achieve in programme production?

2. Why must a producer have to strategies any broadcast
programme?
3. What would you consider to be the main mission and vision of
virtually every broadcast station?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

BBC (1992). BBC English Dictionary. A Dictionary for the World.

London: Harper-Collins Publishers

Owuamalam, E.O. (2007). Radio-Television Production. Oweri: Image

and Slogans Consultants Ltd.

Tuggle, C.A. Carr, F. Huffuran, S. (2001). Writing Reporting and

Producing Broadcast News Handbook. Boston: McGraw- Hill
Companies.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

MODULE 2 RADIO PRODUCTION

Unit 1 Advent of Radio in Nigeria

Unit 2 Programmes Format
Unit 3 Radio Format and Terminology
Unit 4 News Production
Unit 5 Importance of Programming

UNIT 1 ADVENT OF RADIO IN NIGERIA

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition
3.2 The Growth of Radio in Nigeria
3.3 Ownership and Control of Radio
3.4 Features of Radio
3.5 Networking
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

As human society grew from the dark ages to modernity, there arose the
need to communicate not only with people in the same environment but
also those scattered in various parts of the world. A good example of the
need arose and during the First World War when there was a high need
for communication among combatants and their command bases. This
led to the invention of the wireless communication, (Idebi 2008, p.1).

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• present an overview of the growth of radio in Nigeria

• discuss ownership and control of radio
• describe networking on radio.

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MAC 142 MODULE 2

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Radio

Radio involves the process by which messages are sent through

electrical waves. In other words, sound could be sent and received
through these waves, (Sambe, 2008:75).

Further, according to Idebi (2008:1) the word Radio is defined as the

process of sending and receiving messages through the air, using
electromagnetic waves. It is also about the activity of broadcasting
programmes for people to listen to the programmes being broadcast.

The history dates back to the 19th century when Samuel Morse invented
the electric telegraph. Later Gugielmo Marconi built the first radio
factory in Britain and worked on this invention to produce
electromagnetic impulses, which could be sent through the air without
wires, making it possible for the human voice to be transmitted over
long distances. This technique was successfully used and signals were
transmitted from England to America in 1866.

In 1888, Heinrich Hertz, a German working on the electromagnetic

theory propounded earlier on by a British scientist, James Clark
Maxwell, produced the first radio waves. Marconi, working tirelessly on
Hertz’s findings, succeeded in inventing what was called radio
telephony or the telegraph in Italy in 1895.

By 1898, military formations in America began to manufacture

transmitters for broadcasting and communication generally.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is radio? By what means are messages transmitted over long

distances?

3.2 The Growth of Radio in Nigeria

The growth of radio in Nigeria has been a slow but interesting process.
Radio was introduced in Nigeria as a wired system called radio
distribution or radio re-diffusion by the British Broadcasting
Corporation (BBC). In this process, wires were connected to
loudspeakers installed in houses of subscribers. The wireless system was
introduced by the BBC in 1930.

The wired broadcasting services were commissioned in Lagos on

December 1, 1935, and two relay stations were located at Ikoyi and the
Glover Memorial Hall, both in Lagos.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

The main duty of the relay was to carry BBC programmes, with just one
hour left for local programmes featuring news, entertainment as well as
local announcements. Other stations were later opened at Ibadan in
1939, Kano 1944, and Kaduna, Enugu, Jos, Zaria, Abeokuta, Ijebu Ode,
Port Harcourt and Calabar in the subsequent years.

The colonial government then came up with a policy to carry out a

survey on radio broadcasting in all the British colonies including
Nigeria. A committee was set up headed by L. W. Turner of the BBC
Engineering Department and F. A. W. Byron of the
Telecommunications Department of the Crown Agents. The committee
recommended a wireless system of broadcasting for the colony of
Nigeria.

According to Ladele (1979), cited in Sambe (2008:83), an old building

on 32 Marina, close to the General Post Office, was renovated as
temporary headquarters. In addition, the Kaduna and Enugu Radio
Diffusion Services were restructured and converted to regional
broadcasting houses.

The Radio Diffusion Services (RDS) later became the Nigerian

Broadcasting Service (NBS) and was basically concerned with
satisfying the programme needs of its audience, with the traditional role
of informing, educating and entertaining the audience members.

The NBS put up a remarkable performance, especially during the visit of

Queen Elizabeth II to Nigeria. The NBS upheld the role of impartiality;
the colonial government on the other hand did not give all the Nigerian
nationalists the opportunity to react to accusations leveled against them.

Against this backdrop, the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation was

established on April 1, 1957, to replace the NBS. The establishment of
NBC marked the first public broadcasting corporation established in any
British colonial territory. But not satisfied with the new arrangements,
the Western Regional Government established its radio and television
station in 1959.

Eastern Nigeria followed in 1960 on the day Nigeria had its political
independence from Britain. Northern Nigeria followed suit in 1962.
Today, virtually all the states own and operate both radio and television
stations.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What was responsible for the change from the Nigerian Broadcasting
Service to the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation?

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MAC 142 MODULE 2

3.3 Ownership and Control of Radio

There are two types of ownership and control of radio. These are:

1. Government Ownership and Control: Here, the government

establishes, runs and operates the station. This happens at federal,
regional or state levels. If it were possible for local governments
in Nigeria to operate and run a station, there is likely to be no
difference. Government control usually is the responsibility of the
Ministry of Information. Government finances the system, that is,
it pays staff emoluments and censors the programme materials
when necessary. The censorship is meant to arrest the situation
whereby negative news will be broadcast against the government.

2. Private Ownership and Control: Certain stations are owned by

individuals and corporate organisations and institutions.
Government can regulate the activities of such organisations to
some extent as spelt out by the National Broadcasting
Commission Act No. 35 of 1992, Subsection 9, Article 13. In
such situations, the station generates its revenue by the sale of
airtime, by carrying out advertisements, by endorsements or by
getting donations from well-wishers.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Name and discuss the types of ownership and control of radio broadcast
stations.

3.4 Features of Radio

There are certain features that radio stations cannot be divorced from.
According to Sambe (2008:5) they include the following:

1. Radio reports what is happening now or what has just happened

as current.
2. It is always in search of new ideas and creativity because it has
the ability to consume programme materials.
3. Radio signals are received in many places within the primary
service and bordering areas at the same time, thus it overcomes
air and other barriers.
4. Radio broadcasting is prone to interference from weather, local
thunderstorms etc.
5. It is flexible in pre-erupting the schedule programmes and has
freedom of time.
6. It is very effective in mobilising people; hence it bypasses
illiteracy and appeals to the individual person.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

According to Dominick (2002:75), radio personalises the news. Unlike

newspapers where a byline is the only thing that identifies the reporter,
radio news has commentators and reporters with names, voices,
distinctive delivery styles and personalities. Furthermore, radio helps to
popularise different kinds of music.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Mention six features of radio and discuss them.

3.5 Networking

In Nigeria, radio broadcasting has only one network, which is the

Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria. Network simply means chain
broadcasting. In chain broadcasting, programmes are broadcast by cable
or by microwave relays, from the point of origin to the outlet stations of
the network.

Sambe (2008:80) declares that networks are the major sources of

programming for the stations, part of the network schedule is produced
directly by the stations; another part is supplied by other sources in
which the network has an interest.

Advertisers also supply some materials to be broadcast if such materials

suit the standard of the network and fit the time segment.

The final decision as to what materials are aired on the network is the
sole responsibility of the network. However, because of the diverse
cultural nature of Nigeria and in order to integrate the nationwide line-
up of stations to meet advertisers’ desired market coverage, sometimes
the network bends to the advertisers and their agencies. Programmes
aired by the network are broadcast throughout the country at the same
time. And this is the only means through which programmes can reach
national audiences.

Sambe (2008:81) further points that one of the fundamental objectives

of the national programme is to reflect the federal character in the
programme input – output of the corporation in accordance with the
diversity of Nigeria’s culture and nationwide audience. The different
programme types on the national network include features,
documentaries, religious broadcasts, sports, discussions, interviews,
talks, educational services, news and current affairs. It is not just
important but also mandatory and in the public interest that all state
government-owned radio stations hookup to the national network
service during the national news bulletin.

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MAC 142 MODULE 2

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the major fundamental objective of radio networking in

Nigeria?

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have discussed the definition of radio, growth of radio in Nigeria,

government ownership and control, private ownership and control,
features of radio and networking.

Radio is one of the principal means of disseminating information,

entertaining and educating the people, both rural based and urban based
populace in a given society.

5.0 SUMMARY

Radio stations established and controlled by federal or state

governments, or individuals have one thing in common: they are out to
reach the intended audience in the dissemination of news. And each
station operates according to the standard prescribed by the owners. The
stations also operate according to the standards such stations set for
themselves.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is networking?
2. Discuss the features of radio.
3. What do you know about ownership and control of radio?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Dominick, J. R. (2002). The Dynamics of Mass Communication: Media

in the Digital Age. Boston: McGraw Hill.

Idebi, S.K.O. (2008). Fundamentals of Radio Production. Ibadan:

Impact Motion Pictures and Media Koncept Nig.

Sambe, J.A. (2008). Introduction to Mass Communication Practice in

Nigeria. Abuja: Spectrum Books Limited.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

UNIT 2 PROGRAMMES FORMAT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Programme
3.2 Programmes Appreciation
3.3 Documentary Programmes
3.4 Feature Programmes
3.5 Programme Audience
3.6 News Programmes: Values
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The term programme in radio production refers to the various
meaningful sounds produced by human beings or recorded sounds used
to fill the airtime to be heard but not seen. That is why radio is called the
“blind medium”. Since radio is meant for the ear, one should use words
and phrases that would bring out meanings clearly by being precise in
the use of language. The various types of radio programmes are referred
to as programme format. They include documentaries, features,
magazines, discussions and news programmes (Idebi,2008:9).

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define Programme and Programme Appreciation

• explain the terms Documentary and Features
• explain programme functions and distinguish News from other
programmes.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Programme

Someone begins by thinking of an event, occurrence or an idea which
has influenced his or her opinion or belief about real life situation. He or
she may also imagine a situation that needs to be addressed. It is the
concepts that either deal with real life situation or imagine occurrences
that are treated through processes that are called programmes.

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MAC 142 MODULE 2

Owuamalam (2007:62) states that in programmes, issues to be addressed

must be identified and extracted, as a societal problem to be solved.
They must be properly delimited so that the boundaries of performance
can be assessed and determined. For example, obnoxious widowhood
practices can be a nightmare to women, whose husbands are very sick or
about to die. Women are treated as if they are responsible for their
husbands’ death. Such an issue that affects a segment of the society can
be put up for the public to examine through a broadcast programme.

3.2 Programme Appreciation

Programmes can be appreciated from the background that it takes a lot

of events and issues to be put together in an artistic and creative manner
to present the experience to the audience. The events and materials so
chosen or selected to be used in a performance have to be carefully
selected and structurally organised to put a worthwhile programme that
meets the standard and objective of the station and also meets the
audience needs. Programme production is not a one man affair.

According to Owuamalam (2007:3), it combines the activities of the

conceptual or non–technical and interpretative or technical personnel, to
produce an experience for its audience. It is the optimal utilisation of
people, funds and property, in a creative and profitable manner that
gives the team experience, which produces the programmes that are
consumed by the station’s audience. It brings skills, talents and
proficiency together, in an artistic form, in order to produce
programmes.

Generally, programmes do not last long on the mind of the audience. It

is all over as soon as they end. It is therefore the duty of the producers to
think of what is capable of holding that attention of the audience after
the programme has ended. The audiences usually hold the station in high
esteem if its programmes can hold their attention.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

How do audience members appreciate a broadcast station and its

programmes?

3.3 Documentary Programmes

Documentary comes from the word document. And it is a systematic

presentation of information based on reality and actuality. It is based on
sound of human voices, human activity and music in revealing the
events or recreating the events.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

Idebi (2008:9) is of the view that documentary programmes are often

derived from preserved and historical documents that are used to
embellish the information. The beautification of its illustration is woven
together through narration, sound effects such as music, rain or thunder
effects.

Documentary programmes are made up of historical, biographical,

scientific, mythical, religious and docu-drama. We shall treat one after
another as follows:

1. Historical Documentary: This is based on present as well as

past events which may be of important to either the people or the
nation historically.

2. Biographical Documentary: This type of documentary is based

on the lives of heroes or those who have achieved one thing or
the other in the society. The documentary programme takes a
look at their background, frustrations and achievements in the
course of their struggles. Such programmes are based on visual,
audio, pictorial and sometimes they are acted featuring characters
that bear close resemblance with such persons. For example, an
American film of Idi Amin of Uganda.

3. Scientific Documentary: Such documentaries are based on

issues such as science, technology, engineering and medicine.

4. Religious Documentary: This is a religious based type of

documentary and in most cases they are acted out. Here the
producer has to be conscious of the setting and location.

5. Docu-drama: Such documentary is educative in nature. The

actor’s motive is to highlight or demonstrate the effects of a
wrong act.

Under normal circumstances, documentaries last between 15 and 60

minutes. However, some may last longer than this.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Name and discuss the types of documentary programmes you know.

3.4 Feature Programmes

The feature is an extended news story which gives more depth to events.
It is a human interest story that tells about people, places, issues, and
situations. It is a journalistic story that is comprehensive and interesting

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MAC 142 MODULE 2

(Sambe 2007:1). The feature story has its unique character which by
every standard distinguishes it from the news. Feature story tends to be
original and descriptive. It is original in ideas and writing skills.

Des Wilson (2000:77) affirms that the timeliness of feature is relative

with regards to its content and purpose, and is usually longer than a
news story.

Okoye (1998:15 – 16), cited in Sambe (2007:1) sees feature as an in

depth and factual write-up on a topical issue which seeks to give
comprehensive information in a more captivating and relaxed style than
straight news.

Feature deals principally with facts rather than opinion and is usually
not perishable. It is valid all the time unlike the straight news.

Feature writing needs focusing, understanding, thinking and care. It

contains more information, more explanation, interpretation details and
analysis. The major function of features is to add colour, to educate, to
entertain, and to illuminate. Features tend to be based on profile of
people who make the news; they explain events more; they give
analyses of what is happening in the world, nation or community; they
teach the audience how to do a particular thing; they suggest better ways
to live and they examine trends and entertain readers.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the principal functions of features?

3.5 Programme Audience

According to Owuamalam (2007:46), an audience for the broadcast

programme is defined as group of individuals who converge at certain
points where the television or radio sets are placed, in order to satisfy a
purpose. The audience members tend to derive satisfaction from the
programme they watch or listen to. Therefore there must be some
specific reactions for such audience to devout their time in respect of the
programme.

Members of the audience have various reasons for the consumption of

specific programmes. For example, the American invasion of Iraq may
appeal to different persons in various ways. To some, it seems as if
America and its allies doing their own thing. To others it would be how
the Iraqis have reacted to the invasion of their country. Still others
would want to know how world bodies like the United Nations have
reacted. Yet some might want to know the reaction of the Arab League

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

and other international organisations including humanitarian and even

governmental organisations.

It can now be seen that one news item satisfies segments of the audience
in different ways. This brings us to how and why news is designed to
meet the various aspirations of individual members of the audience
through various ways.

At times, programmes are produced mainly for local audience. In such

circumstance, the programme may be conducted in the local language
and the use of costumes and even make–up would be the ones prevalent
in that area.

A programme meant for a heterogeneous audience would be produced in

the official or business language used by the audience, for example,
English language would be used in the case of Nigeria.

What brings the audience members together is the interest they have in
the programme. As soon as the programme expires the audience
disperses. Such audience lacks leadership just like a crowd. Time for
individual relationship and intimacy is limited by the duration of the
programme. In one way or the other audience must be interested
otherwise the members will not participate in the programme.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define Programme Audience.

3.6 News Programmes: Values

If there are no events, there will be no news and therefore no history will
be made. This is a clear indication that news is normally associated with
events. Sambe (2008:16) states that news is an account of an event
meant for the audience and it affects a reasonable member of people
vicariously.

Owuamalam (2007:221) declares that news, as an account of an event,

which has happened, should stimulate human interest and curiosity in
the incident or activity. People must have the desire to know what has
happened. It is the satisfaction of the information need of the society
that makes news desirable, relevant and significant, as a broadcast
programme.

Akinfeleye (1987:96), cited in Folarin (1998:11), that news is an

account of unusual events which is more or less compel reporting, it is
an account of what the public wants to know, what they must know,

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MAC 142 MODULE 2

what they ought to know, and it is an accurate and unbiased account of a

timely event that is of human interest to the newspaper reader, radio
listener or TV viewer.

It is, therefore, the newsworthiness of news that is usually referred to as

news. If, for example, a dog bites a man, it does not make news as much
as if a man is reported to have bitten a dog. What makes news should
have human interest, it must or should contain some amount of oddity,
and it should not be too distant to those it is meant to satisfy. It should
have prominence; it should be timely or should have immediacy that is;
it should not be stale. It should be of consequence and be significant to
the lives of the audience or people generally.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the attributes of news?

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this section we have looked at the definition of Programme in radio

production, programme appreciation, documentary and feature
programmes and finally we have attempted to talk about these sub–
themes as clearly and explicit as it is humanly possible.

5.0 SUMMARY

Radio programmes can either be imagined or based on real life situation.

All programmes that are to be treated on radio must be properly
delimited.

Programmes range from discussion to documentary, drama to news.

What counts very much is that, whatever format the programme
assumes, it must be of human interest. And each type of programme is
unique in its peculiar production process and format.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Programme production is not a one man affair. Discuss with

particular reference to radio production.
2. What are the major differences between feature and documentary
programmes?
3. What is news?

Question 1: Radio programme production combines the activities of

personnel. It is the optimal utilisation of people, funds and property, in a
creative and profitable manner that gives the team experience, which

43
MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

produces the programmes that are consumed by the station’s audience. It

brings skills, talents and proficiency together, in an artistic form, in
order to produce programmes.

Programmes do not last long on the mind of the audience. It is all over
as soon as they end. It is therefore the duty of the producers to think of
what is capable of holding attention of the audience after the programme
has ended. The audience usually hold the station in high esteem if its
programmes can hold their attention.

Question 2: Documentary programmes are a systematic presentation of

information based on reality and actuality. The programmes are based
on sound of human voices, human activity and music in revealing the
events or recreating the events.

Documentary programmes are made up of historical, biographical,

scientific, mythical, religious and docu-drama. On the other hand feature
is an extended news story which gives more depth to events. It is a
human interest story that tells about people, places, issues, and
situations. It is a journalistic story that is comprehensive and interesting.
The feature story has its unique character which by every standard
distinguishes it from the news. Feature story tends to be original and
descriptive. It is original in ideas and writing skills.

Question 3: If there are no events, there will be no news and therefore

no history will be made. This is a clear indication that news is normally
associated with events. News is as much as an account of an event,
which has happened, should stimulate human interest and curiosity in
the incident or activity. News is an account of unusual events which
more or less compel reporting, it is an account of what the public wants
to know, what they must know, what they ought to know, and it is an
accurate and unbiased account of a timely event that is of human interest
to the newspaper reader, radio listener or TV viewer. It is, therefore, the
newsworthiness of news that is usually referred to as news.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Idebi, S.K. (2008). Fundamentals of Radio Production. Ibadan: Impact

Motion Pictures and Media Koncept Nig.

Folarin, B. (1998). News Reporting: Hints for the Beginner. Ibadan:

Kraft Books Ltd.

Owuamalam, E.O. (2007). Radio –TV Production, Owerri: Image and

Slogans Consultants Ltd.

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MAC 142 MODULE 2

Sambe, J.A. (2008). Introduction to Mass Communication Practice in

Nigeria. Abuja: Spectrum Books Limited.

Wilson, D. (2000). Introduction to Print Media: Reading in Nigerian

Journalism. Ibadan: Stirling Horden Publishers.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

UNIT 3 RADIO FORMATS AND TERMINOLOGY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Formats
3.2 On–Air Recording
3.3 Radio Hand Signals
3.4 Choice of Words and Phrases
3.5 Conversational Tone
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In radio broadcast the term Programme stands for the various and
properly organised sounds that the listener gets from the station through
the air. The radio is generally referred to as the “blind medium”
principally because the sound that emerges from this medium are
consumed through the ear and not the eye as is opposed to the television,
the newspaper and the magazine.

In an effort to communicate with the audience members the medium

relies heavily on the use of imagery to deliver its message. The listener
simply visualises as soon as he hears the message. Since the medium is
meant for the ear only, words and phrases are used in such a manner that
they aid in the visualisation of meanings. The terms used have to be
precise, concise, cogent and concrete. They should be everyday
expressions that the listener is quite familiar with.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define Formats and Terminology

• define On–Air Recording
• define Radio Hand Signals
• discuss the Choice of Words and Phrases
• explain Conversational Tone.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Formats

Generally, the various aspects of radio programmes are popularly known

as the programme format. They include documentaries, features,
magazines, discussions; phone ins, interviews, news, drama, and even
sports.

All programmes that are aired on radio, to some extent, have similar
formats in that they share the same characteristics. They use simple
language, and are all meant for the ear and not for the eye. The listener
is carried along through the use of imagery that creates reality in the
minds of the listener.

In the radio version of the programme, word economy is exercised. The

choices of these words, which paint the mental picture of the reported
activity, are encouraged. They enable the mental picturisation of the
events in the programme (Owuamalam, 2007:242).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Give a definition of radio format and terminology.

3.2 On–Air Recording

When the studio is on–air, it means production is going on at the

moment. Lights are normally located outside the radio production room
or studio.

According to Reese, Gross and Gross (2006:9), the lights are wired so
that whenever the microphone in the studio is turned on, the on-air light
comes on. A light outside a production studio will often indicate
“recording”, other stations simply light the red light to indicate that
recording is going on. In either case, a lit light be it blue or red indicates
a live microphone.

By and large, good production practice dictates that when an on–air light
is on, one never enters the studio and, if one is within the vicinity of the
studio, one is expected to be quiet.

Inside the studio, another alert light may be put on when the microphone
is turned on. As soon as the floor manager or whoever is in charge of the
studio and production announces “Stand by” to alert both the artists and
the studio crew in the studio that production is about to start, he intends
to switch on the microphone. The floor manager should not announce

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his intention to start production at the wrong time, as too many “Stand
bys” mar its meaning, and he would not be taken seriously by those in
the studio as they may not know when actually he wants the programme
started.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What do you understand by the term “on–air production”?

3.3 Radio Hand Signals

With the advent of modern technology in broadcasting, radio hand

signals no longer play a major role. However, there are situations when
vocal communication is not possible and hand signals become the next
necessary option. For example, if an announcer and engineer happen to
be working on an on–air programme from adjacent studios with a
window between them, they must be able to communicate with each
other. There are also times when, for instance, two announcers have to
communicate in a studio, but a live microphone prevents them from
doing so verbally. As a result of situations of this nature, hand signals
have been employed to communicate some basic production
information.

In most cases, hand signals are used to either start or stop production. A
Stand-by signal, for example, is given just about to go on-air by holding
one hand above the head with the palm forward.

The Stand-by signal is immediately followed by the Cue-talent signal by

pointing the index finger at the artist who is supposed to go on-air.

Reese et al (2006:9) state that, the common hand signal for stopping a
programme is the Cut signal, which is given by drawing the index finger
across the throat in a slitting motion. This signal terminates whatever is
happening at the moment and usually “kills” all live microphones and
stops all recorders.

To get an announcer to give microphone level, put your hand in front of

you with the palm down and use the thumb and fingers to indicate that
the announcer should talk into the microphone.

Furthermore, to indicate that two minutes are left in the programme, you
should hold up the index and second finger of one hand in front of you.
When things are moving fine, the thumb is up with clenched fists.

There are no universal hand signals. It could be found out that they may
differ from station to station.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why is it necessary to sometimes use hand signals in radio production?

3.4 Choice of Words and Phrases

According to Nworgu and Nwabueze (2005:170), broadcast presentation

requires speed and conciseness because the broadcast programmes are
usually time bound. Excesses in terms of words, sentences and phrases
and their expressions should be avoided.

Sambe (2005:52), opines that what you read when you broadcast should
not only be completely natural but should be like a piece of spoken
speech. The good broadcaster does not read to the listener but talks to
the listener. The words used should be every day words and phrases.
Avoid starting construction with a subordinate clause, for example,
“Following his success in Argentina, where he scored four goals for
Nigeria, Kanu Nwankwo has taken his country into the African Cup
quarter finals with his superb hat trick against Uganda.”

It is better to state that:

• “Kanu Nwankwo has taken his country into the African Cup
quarter finals with his superb hat trick against Uganda. This follows his
success in Argentina where he scored four goals for Nigeria”.

Radio programmes, especially news, should be in active tense. Radio is

all about something taking place, or people doing something. The active
tense is also more concise than the passive tense. For example, it is
better to say, “The government is taxing everyone who has a second
house” rather than, “Everyone who has a second house is being taxed by
the government”.

Avoid acronyms as they cause more confusion. Acronyms that are

internationally recognised such as the UN, USA and WHO, should be
spelled out. Do not assume your listener knows or is a master at
deciphering acronyms. Do not use abstract phrases. Everything you say
should sound real, for example the word “biodiversity” which means
‘wildlife’.

Figures should be written in full, for examples, “1,355” instead of “one

thousand three hundred and fifty-five”. Do not mix percentages with
figures. And avoid giving vague quantities in a report, for example,
“Some people are protesting”, or “a number of people turned down the
offer”. Find out what numbers are involved and convey that information
as plainly and clearly as you can.

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MAC 142 INTRODUCTION TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

Avoid the use of jargons for it is a language used by a group of people

with a certain expertise, for example “food insecurity”, “under-
nutrition” instead of “lack of food”.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why does the announcer need concise and precise language in radio
broadcast?

3.5 Conversational Tone

Using a conversational tone does not mean that we speak as if we were

on the football pitch or at a social gathering with friends. Broadcast is a
bit less formal than print writing. The goal of the radio news or
programme is to tell a story to someone who knows less about what
happened than you do. Use common words, but use them very well
(Tuggle et al 2001:3).

Talk to the listener, but do not try to talk above his or her head. If you
are fond of using certain words incorrectly but think you have been
using them correctly, then think how your listener is feeling or what he
or she is going through. By doing so, you have already distracted your
listener momentarily and he or she may lose track of what you want him
or her to listen to.

When we talk, we do not often think about the rules of grammar and
sentence construction. But when we are on air, we have to think about
these things because radio news flows one way only with no immediate
interaction between the listener and the anchor man. The listener has
nothing he can re-read to make sure he understands it. As such he is
unable to ask the person speaking what he or she meant by what was just
said.

Using short, simple and declarative sentences is closely related to using

conversational tone. When complex sentences are used, it is very easy
for our meaning to get lost in the shuffle. Also keep the subject and the
verb as close to each other as possible. For example, “This morning,
police arrested a suspect” is easier to follow and sounds better than
“Police this morning arrested a suspect’. The listener is bound to get lost
if too much information hits him or her in a short amount of time.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why is it more advantageous to use short simple sentences than long

windy ones in radio broadcast?

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4.0 CONCLUSION

By and large, we have treated the definition of radio formats and

terminology, on-air recording, radio hand signals, choice of words and
phrases and the use of conversational tone in radio broadcasting. We
have taken a deep look at the ability to craft language, not just use it, to
tell stories in ways that will grab attention, impart information and leave
the listener with the impression of having been at the event himself or
herself.

5.0 SUMMARY

The basic element in radio broadcast is, do not task the listener to work
to get the information. As the writer or broadcaster, you should or it is
your responsibility to do all the work, so that your listener does not have
to do anything other than to listen to what you have to impart to him. If
you shift the responsibility to him, he is likely going to turn to another
programme that requires less effort.

In doing your job, you should be clear and concise, write like people
talk and above all be very careful with the use of pronouns.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Radio programme production can be carried out without the use

of hand signals. Discuss.
2. Why are long, windy sentences unsuitable for radio broadcast?
3. Past tenses are most suitable for radio broadcast. Discuss.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Owuamalam, E.O. (2007). Radio –TV Production. Owerri: Image and

Slogans Consultants Ltd.

Reese, D. E; Gross, L. S. and Gross, B. (2006). Radio Production Work

Text, (5th ed.). Oxford: Focal Press.

Sambe, S. A (2005). Writing for the Mass Media: An Introductory Text.

Makurdi: Adefest Publishers.

Tuggle, C.A., Carr, F. and Huffinan, S. (2001). Writing, Reporting,

Producing. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

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UNIT 4 NEWS PRODUCTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of News Production
3.2 Voice Production
3.3 News Values
3.4 News Reporting
3.5 News Beats
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

It is generally noted that if there is no event, there will be no news and

as such there will be no history. This is a clear indication that news is
usually associated with events.

According to Ngwokor (2008, P.16) everyday, millions of events occur,

and are gathered and sent in by correspondents from different locations
and any news story that is sent to the station or at least any news story
that is broadcast must have some qualities that make it to be broadcast
for the consumption of the audience. Some of the qualities include
timeliness, nearness or proximity, prominence, consequence, oddity,
human interest and disaster.

The stories are gathered by correspondents and reported to the audience

who consume from the broadcast station as second or reported news
items.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define News Production/Presentation and Voice Production in

broadcasting
• explain News Values in broadcasting
• explain News Reporting and News Beats in broadcasting.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of News Production

Mencher (1985:44), in Ciboh and Iyorkyaa (2004:18) defines news as a

report that presents a contemporary need of reality with regard to
specific issues, events or process. Other contemporary definitions of
news range from whatever interests the listener to a timely account of a
current idea, or problem that interests people.

Iyorkyaa (2000) says is the recounting of factual information about

events, situations and ideas – including opinions and interpretations –
calculated to help people individually to cope with themselves and their
environment.

Tuggle et al (2001:2) say that, in broadcast reporting, we do not use the

inverted pyramid style. Television and radio news reporting is done in
such a way that the viewer or listener would notice something was
missing if we “trimmed from the bottom” because stories are not built in
descending order of the facts. Also, the end of longer broadcast news
stories should contain either a summary statement or should leave the
viewer/listener with something to think about.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why don’t we use inverted pyramid style of reporting in broadcasting?

3.2 Voice Production

York (2000:42) states that almost any voice will improve with training,
however, not everyone will be suitable for broadcasting. The main thing
for the beginner is to want to communicate. The voice should therefore
come across the listener as natural. Sentences should be constructed so
that proper phrasing is possible, because that in them will aid the
audience’s comprehension.

The second consideration is to ensure that words, once written, are

delivered with a reasonable range of inflection. It should be noted that
some voices are naturally monotonous, but, to make things worse, many
young broadcasters often develop a tendency to speak quickly and they
do so in a flat undertone, thinking that by doing so they would add a
sense of urgency to their work. But in broadcasting, one would notice
that the more nervous the broadcaster, the higher the pitch, so although
it is not an easy task, the broadcaster has to allow his/her muscles to
relax so that the full tonal range comes through. It should not be
forgotten that the listener relies principally on the clarity of the speech

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as much as on the power of pictures, in the case of television, and the

broadcaster who speaks poorly is simply doing only half the job.

In offering appointments to reporters or broadcasters, employers should

ensure that the candidates should undergo vigorous voice tests and those
who are found to have speech impediments and other impenetrable
accents that may not be overcome after some practice should be denied
the job.

Pronunciation

Names of persons and places should be rightly pronounced at all times.

In order to aid the consistency in pronunciation, most broadcast stations
supply broadcasters regularly with updates of difficult names of persons
and places in the news by supplying dictionaries of pronunciation and an
index prepared by the station based on experience.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why should those to be employed by any broadcast station undergo

voice test?

3.3 News Values

Gressberg et al (1998:327), cited in Utor and Sambe (2004:2) suggest

certain qualities or criteria that could assist in deciding the news values,
that is, what to publish or broadcast or not to broadcast. These criteria
are impact, timeliness, prominence, proximity, the bizarre, conflict and
currency.

1. Impact – this refers to the number of people whose lives will be

influenced in one way or the other by the subject of the story, for
example, if petrol stations go on strike most people would be
affected whereas a strike by non-academic staff of a university
would not affect many people.

2. Timeliness – “if it is not new, it is not news”. If the news is

recent, it has more news value. Stations as a result, do bring a
story up to date as much as possible.

3. Proximity – events and situations in one’s community home

community tend to be more newsworthy than events that take
place far away.

4. Prominence – men and women may be born equal and may

claim equal rights as citizens, but some grow up to be more

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newsworthy than others. For example, if Turai Yar’adua gives

birth the whole world would know but the birth of a 12th child of
a farmer will not herald unless the baby has two heads or they are
joined together.

5. Human Interest – these are events that tend to affect the lives of
men and women, for example, calamities or achievements,
human interest can be measured by other news values such as
unusualness, proximity and prominence.

6. Bizarre – odd and unusual events have always seemed more

newsworthy than those of routine nature. For instance, if a
chicken lays an egg as big as a football, it would be newsworthy
because such an egg is unusual.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the determinants of news values?

3.4 News Reporting

Reporting happens to be the main activity of journalism. It is the

fulfillment of a vital function to society. It means giving an account of
some happenings. Chamley (1965:44) describes reporting as both an art
and craft. As an art, reporting is an artistic expression derived from the
guidance of the reportorial craft by native perception, taste, intuitive
awareness and an intense personal impulse that is perhaps inexplicable.
As a craft, reporting is made of a complex of skills, methods, techniques
and designs based on thought and experience which can be taught and
learned and then passed on from those who have studied and practiced it
to those who have the capacity to study and develop it.

Ciboh and Iyorkyaa (2004:9) say reporting comes in several forms

hence it can be said it is of different kinds:

a) Basic News Reporting – is straight news reporting. It is reporting

the facts as they are, events as they happen without adding any
other thing to it. It is basic reporting as it is.
b) In-depth Reporting – called advanced reporting. It is detailed,
balanced and thorough treatment of facts, events and issues with
background orientation to explain how and why it happened, for
the benefit of the audience since this type of reporting involves
search and research, inquiry and investigation, it requires team
work.
c) Interpretative Reporting – does not only treat news in-depth, but
also provides comment on the news by associating views with

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information and opinion with facts so that the listener or viewer

would better understand the news situation and to an opinion of
himself/herself. This is called opinion moulding news.
d) Investigative Reporting – is reporting of concealed information.

According to Anderson and Benjaminson (1987:200) it is digging deep

and aggressively when necessary, even dangerously especially for
hidden corruption or concealed misbehaviour or inefficiency.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

As an art and craft, define news reporting.

3.5 News Beats

News is the process of collecting raw information from various sources

to be reported as news. News is gathered from the following sources
called beats:

1. Regular Beats – Folarin (1998:16) says a reporter is assigned to

a news beat as regular as possible to news beats which are places to
which the reporter has been assigned, it could be the market, airport, the
state house, police station, the court and even the university campus.

In covering regular beats the reporter has to be familiar with the whole
environment of the beat as well as the operations and personnel of the
establishment concerned. The reporter should cultivate friendship with
both the lower and upper echelon of personnel in the establishment. The
lower cadres of personnel are always willing to supply the scoops about
the establishment while those in the top echelon would normally
have access to top secrets not readily available to those at the lower
level.

2. Social Assignments – conferences, seminars, annual general

meetings of professional bodies, shareholders and a host of others form
the social assignment beats. The reporter must endeavour to be up to
date with the subject of the gathering. The reporter should do all that is
possible to get the copies of papers to be delivered in advance, to be
abreast with themes and objectives. The reporter should try and get
personal interviews with those who play important role at the occasion.

3. Press/News Conferences – require similar preparations just like

the other beats. The only difference is that those who arrange press or
news conferences are usually more willing in supplying copies of
addresses and in answering reporter’s questions.

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4. Correspondents – are out of town or out of country reporters,

and are known as correspondents. They file in reports from out –
stations. The correspondent is left to use his initiative in searching for
news. Such stories could be sent to the station through telephones, telex,
radiophone or telefax. News can also be got through subscription to the
wire services.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the difference between the regular and special assignments

correspondents?

4.0 CONCLUSION

The reporter has to be factual in reporting events. The report must be

free from colouration and should not be embellished with opinion of the
reporter. The news report must be simple, concise and clear so that the
import of the content can be understood and appreciated by the targeted
audience.

5.0 SUMMARY

News is a report of an event covered by various reporters assigned to

beats on different locations. They usually package and present events,
occurrences and activities for human interests as they happen. The story
meets the needs of the station’s audience.

It should be noted that there are varied sources of news but the most
important ones tend to be the regular beats and the correspondent
reporting from the out station. However, subscription to the wire
services has also become essential in order to make for balanced and up
– to – date news.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Why do you consider voice to be an important element in news

production?
2. What are the characteristics of news values?
3. News is not just got by sitting in the station. How does news
come into the broadcast station?

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ciboh, R. and Iyorkyaa, T. (2004). News Writing. Makurdi: Aboki

Publishers.

Charnerley, V. M. (1965). Reporting. New York: Holt, Rinchart and

Wilson Inc.

Folarin, B. (1998). News Reporting: Hints for the Beginner. Ibadan:

Kraft Books Limited.

Iyorkyaa, T. (2000). Unpublished Lecture Notes. Makurdi: Benue State

University.

Tuggle, C. A, Carr, F and Huffinan, S. (2001). Broadcast News

Handbook: Writing, Reporting and Producing. Boston: McGraw
Hill.

Ngwokor, J. O. (2008). Functional Approach to News Reporting for

Mass Communication Students, Teachers and
Media Professionals. Asaba: Nnem – Ebike Publishers.

Utor, M. T. and Sambe S. A. (2004). News Writing and Reporting: A

Basic Approach. Makurdi: Starix Communications.

York, I. (2000): Basic TV Reporting. London: Focal Press.

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UNIT 5 IMPORTANCE OF PROGRAMMING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Programming
3.2 Programme Creation
3.3 Programme Concept
3.4 Programme Proposal
3.5 Programme Idea
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Programming on a broadcast station tends to be the time and duration of

programmes the station presents them to the intended audience. The
station should know when the station’s audience for whom the
programme is meant would be at the time of presentation. For example,
if it is an educational programme meant for pupils of school age, the
station should know when to present such a programme that will benefit
such an audience. If it is aired by 10.00am during week days, the
intended audience would be at school and as such it would not be
advisable to present the programme at that hour. And if a programme is
meant for adults who are workers then it will be of no use to present the
programme at let’s say 3.30 pm as they would be preparing to leave
office. It would be better to present the programme when the audience
members would be at home.

A good example of proper programming is when the NTA used to

present a popular local programme the “Village Headmaster”. This
programme was aired from 8.00pm – 9.00pm when most adults were at
home, and this was followed immediately by the 9.00 pm National
News.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain what programming is all about

• effectively discuss programme creation and concept
• demonstrate the essence of programme idea and proposal.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Programming

Every broadcast station has its own time or duration of being on air each
day. Some are on air for 24 hours while others operate for a number of
hours less than 24. The principal aim of being on air whether for twenty-
four hours or less is to meet the desires and aspirations of the station’s
audience by presenting acceptable programmes for their consumption?

Each station has the liberty to determine which programme comes up at

what time, provided such programmes meet the desires of the station’s
audience. The plan of allocating programmes according to time of the
day and duration of each programme is known as programming.
Programmes are scheduled to take care of a variety of programmes such
as drama, sports, documentary, cultural displays, discussions and a host
of others. All these are presented to meet the desires or for the
consumption of the stations audience.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is Programming?

3.2 Programme Creation

Programme creation deals with both real-life and imagined situations

that need to be addressed.

Owuamalam (2007:62) notes, the issue to be addressed must be

identified and extracted, as a societal problem to be solved, It must be
properly identified, so that the boundaries of performance can be
addressed and determined. Creating programmes involves thinking and
envisaging of a problem and its consequences on the society. It
clearly points out that the problem exists and it “shows why it is a
problem and proposes how the problem can be solved.

For example, the issue of cultism in institutions of higher learning in

Nigeria, this has now become a problem both to parents and university
staff. Such a problem or situation can lead to a producer to carefully
thinking of a programme idea that could provide answers or suggestions
that would attempt to stamp out the problem, or would at least curtail
cultism on our university campuses.

The programme producer should think of a theme that would properly

address the problem. Like a research topic the producer should be able
to come up with a specific assumption which is supposed to lay special

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emphasis on a specific course. The main theme may generate certain

sub-themes that would also help to deal with the various aspects of the
situation. Whatever method adopted by the producers, the programme so
created should aim at suggesting solution to the said problem.

The producer should be able to clearly explain why it is desirable to

propose such a programme. Owuamalam (2007:65) further points out
that programmes are concepts and concepts are thoughts. Thoughts,
therefore, must be supported with action in order to be actualised. It
means that a programme idea must be conceived to give expression to
the concept. It shows that the conceived programme must be relevant to
the issue raised in the thought process. The programme must address the
concept in all its ramifications but within the limits and boundaries
outlined by the situation which the thought is expected to deal with.

The presentation should be credible, believable, factual and reliable, and

should be acceptable to the station’s audience.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

How would you as a producer create a programme?

3.3 Programme Concept

There are three basic concepts through which programmes are created.
The concepts are publicity, propaganda and public enlightenment. We
shall look at the three concepts one after another.

1. Publicity – A broadcast station’s main objective may be to give

to the station’s audience what the station wants them to know. In this
situation the station is the source of the news or the programme. The
station might have embarked on an action which it wants the audience to
be informed about and nothing more. The station decides what is right
for the audience. The duty of the programme producer is tell the public
the station’s point of view on the issue concerned.

For example, if Nigeria is at war with any of the countries in the West
African Sub-region, the NTA would show how successful Nigeria has
been doing without showing the losses incurred.

Publicity can also be negative, for example, a few years ago America
embarked on negative campaign against Nigeria. Even where Nigeria
performed very well like the case of Somalia and Liberia, credit was
given to other African countries.

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2. Propaganda – This concept tends to use descriptive method to

deal with the details of an issue and shows how they relate to the cause,
designed to be tackled. It provides vital and valuable information about
the theme, which the programme addresses (Owuamalam 2007:68).

For example, a documentary on young women suffering from VVF

(vesco-vaginal fistula) goes to show the bad effects of early marriage on
under-developed girls and the de-humanising and frustrating situations
in which these girls find themselves because of their gender.

It further shows that these girls have no say in their marriage. They are
just married off at the instance of their parents.

3. Public Enlightenment – Society cannot deal with particular

situations unless members of the society have relevant
information pertaining to the situation. In such a case only persons
with adequate knowledge would be given the opportunity to speak on
the issue, thus bringing awareness to the generality of the people within
the given community. It can be the question of girl child education in
Nigeria. The programme has to be educative and informative in nature.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why do you think the propaganda rather than the enlightenment concept
should be used in the issue of girl child education?

3.4 Programme Proposal

According to Dominick (2002:274) everything starts with an idea.

Stations do receive hundreds of ideas every year, some come from
independent producers, some from television departments, some from
network employees and a good many from amateurs hoping to get a
start.

Owuamalam (2007:70) says that a programme conceiver, who believes

that an idea is of interest to an audience, sells the idea to the producer
who evaluates the idea in line with the established and accepted norms
of the broadcast station.

A programme proposal tends to be a statement, often a written one

which is put forward for accomplishment of a task. The statement
indicates the direction towards which the programme would go. It may
not contain all the details but should be comprehensive enough to give
the producer an idea of what the scenario is all about so that assessment
would be made as to the requirements of putting up such a programme.

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For example, the concept of the First Amendment in the American

Constitution is talking about freedom of expression, as well as when we
talk about Section 39 of the Nigerian Constitution, we are referring to
freedom of expression which comes with the rights of citizens to have
access to the press in order to express themselves without hindrance as
Trager et al (2007:34) state that First Amendment was intended to
prevent the U.S. government from adopting suppressive laws. This
means that all political parties should be given equal opportunity to
campaign for votes during electioneering campaigns.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What does programme proposal mean?

3.5 Programme Idea

According to the BBC Dictionary (1992:573), an idea is a plan or

possible cause of action. Owuamalam (2007:41) states that, an idea is a
mental construction crafted to generate stimulation. It is an imagination
that seeks actualisation through programme production.

Programme idea involves the selection and placement of materials in a

manner that ensures understanding by the audience. The material should
also have an appeal to the audience.

Since television encapsulates image and sound, the producer has an

additional task of creating mental picture of what the audience members
hear. The audience sees and hears what is happening and are in a
position to judge for themselves.

Ideas could be generated from personal imagination. In whatever form it

comes, the idea should be useful in content the audience should be
interested and enthusiastic about it. The message such an idea has for
the audience should be important, to be able to attract attention from the
audience. For example, in places where an institution of age grades is
valued, a programme based on such a theme would attract a lot of
attention both from the older and younger of age groups.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is programme idea?

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit is anchored on the theme of programming in broadcasting. All

programmes start with programme idea. The idea must be useful in

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content and should appeal to the interest of the audience members. The
programme to produce should be mindful of the culture of the targeted
audience.

The idea should be designed with the aim of achieving a specific

purpose whether it is instructional, moralistic or entertaining. The idea is
therefore the basis for virtually all programme productions in the
broadcast industry.

5.0 SUMMARY

In broadcasting, the production of all programmes cannot start without

first conceiving an idea. The idea has to be related in one way or the
other, in one form or the other to the targeted audience. It must bear
some benefits to the audience. It must bear some benefits to the
audience for whom the programme intends to inform, educate and
entertain. It is from the idea that the producer knows the type of
resources and materials required for the production of the programme.

The audience being the principal reason for any programme production,
the idea should be researched into so that the programme would meet
the needs and desires of the audience.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Why is programme idea very important in broadcasting?

2. Who do you think are the station’s audience?
3. Propose a broadcast programme in respect of girl child education
in Nigeria.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

British Broadcasting Corporation (1992). English Dictionary: A

Dictionary for the World. London: Harper–Collins Publishers.

Dominick, J. R. (2002). The Dynamics of Mass Communication: Mass

Media in Digital Age (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw–Hill.

Owuamalam, E. O. (2007). Radio–TV Production Owerri: Top Class

Agencies Ltd.

Trager, R., Russomanno, J. and Ross, S. D. (2007). The Law of

Journalism and Mass Communication. Boston: McGraw–Hill.

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MODULE 3 TELEVISION PRODUCTION

Unit 1 Announcing
Unit 2 Basic Principles of Presentation
Unit 3 Advertising in Broadcasting
Unit 4 The TV Producer and Production Techniques
Unit 5 The Director and Directing

UNIT 1 ANNOUNCING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Presentation
3.2 Newscasters
3.3 Disc Jockeys
3.4 Anchors
3.5 Narrators
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Announcing is principally about speech and its presentation. It is a form

of communication which deals with vocal qualities of speaking in order
to pronounce words and generate meaning that can be shared commonly
between the presenter and the audience.

The announcer is the source while the audience is the receiver. It means
that there must be a commonality of words between those involved in
the communication service. It is the comprehension of the used words
that determines the effectiveness of the communication. (Owuamalam
2007:146). Communication becomes effective only when the receiver
understands what the sender is saying by responding in a specific
manner. This is a clear indication that both the speaker and the receiver
share the same frame of reference. It is the desire to share the same
frame of reference with the station’s audience that makes announcing
important in broadcasting.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain what broadcast presentation is

• describe who Newscasters and Narrators are in broadcasting
• describe the functions of the Anchorman and Disc Jockey.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Presentation

Presentation tends to introduce the station’s audience to the programmes

that are to follow. Presentation should be done in such a way that it
attracts the audiences to the station and they would want to listen to the
main thing. They should desire to listen to the main story. It acts as an
appetizer to the main dish.

Broadcasting stations that have competent announcers are bound to

attract audiences to their programmes. Presentation is the first contact
with the audience. If the quality of presentation is appreciable or
remarkable, it will tend to invite the audience who will not only be
inquisitive but would want to watch or listen to more of the station’s
programmes.

A lot of efforts should be put into the job by the presenter so that the
audience would not tune him/her out. In order to capture and retain the
audience, the presenter should adhere strictly to the house style of the
broadcast station. This includes the presentation language for
programmes, the dress code, costume and make–up as well as the ability
to use or manipulate new technological gadgets such as the teleprompter
in place of analog equipment.

The presenter has to be respectful and cheerful to the audience. He has

to be tactful, diplomatic and firm in his or her style of presentation. A
station’s presenters who work within some or all of these guidelines are
bound to be free from turning away audience members.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the good qualities of presentation?

3.2 News Caster

Newscasters are also newsreaders. They present news as a broadcast

programme. They use appropriate language and performance skills to

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ensure exciting presentations to the news audience. They don’t deviate

from any given script produced as news (Owuamalam, 2007:157) since
they are performers as well, they are bound to conform to the directives
given by the floor manager who in turn acts on the directives of the
technical directors. Floor managers tend to be efficient using prompting
device in the studios.

While on air, the newscaster should appear confident and the words
should be pronounced distinctly and appropriately. The word, sentence
or phrase stress should be placed in the right position so as to avoid
confusing meaning. A newscaster who is not confident in his or her job
is bound to deliver the news in a hasty manner and then make series of
mistakes thereby virtually asking the audience members to tune off.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the attributes of a good Newscaster?

3.3 Disc Jockey

Their major responsibility in a broadcast station is the presentation of

musical programmes of various classes and forms, past and present.
Their major work is to entertain the station’s audience by playing
musical discs at the station. Their wit which adds glamour and fun to the
presentation is their greatest assets in doing the work of presentation of
artistes and their works in particular. The disc jockey usually has vast
knowledge about artistes and their music and this is one of the reasons
they normally have some reasonable comments on the music presented
to the audience. The disc jockey’s main concern is to entertain the
station’s audience by giving them various types of music; at times they
play the role of advisors to the society in the course of presenting their
music and the artistes.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the principal job of a disc jockey in a broadcast organisation.

3.4 Anchors

The anchor men or persons are charged with the responsibility of

presenting programmes such as discussions, interviews and talk shows.
They may also be called moderators. They are well acquainted with each
programme objective and they do a lot to motivate participation by the
public. They are always knowledgeable in the subjects they handle, they
are quick witted and are always quick in reasoning. This helps them
share knowledge with the participants during programmes presentation.

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For example, a discussion programme on “Cultism in our schools” will

definitely need someone who will guide the discussants in order to
achieve the desired objectives. It is the duty of the anchor man to
introduce various segments of the programmes and would ask
discussants if they are, let us say, three or four to speak accordingly, for
the three or four discussants would not be speaking all at the same time.
From time to time as the discussion is in progress, the anchor may
introduce or remind the audience about the topic being discussed.

At the end of the discussion, the anchor man usually summarises the
viewpoints expressed in the programme by discussants. This he does so
that the audience members would not lose the line of discussion and be
better informed and possibly educated on the programme in question.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Who would you refer to as an anchor man in broadcast announcing?

3.5 Narrators

Narrators are presenters who give an account of a series of events in a

sequential and orderly manner. They provide the information which
explains situations in a graphic and interesting manner (Owuamalam
2007:158).

The presenter who usually gives the narration in documentary

programme does carry the audience along and takes them through the
programme by narrating the story in a persuasive and compelling
manner. An example is, “The Africans”, whose narrator Ali Mazrui
usually talks persuasively and in a manner so appealing that one is
bound to be taken on the narrative journey with him very willingly.

The narrative given by short story tellers is done in such a way that one
may think that the narrator was at the scene of the incident or event.
Such narrators often re-enact and colour the story so much that it sounds
real. An example is, “Tales by Moonlight”, a children’s story series
featured by the Nigerian Television Authority once a week.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the attributes of a good narrator?

4.0 CONCLUSION

The major instrument used in announcing is the words which the

deliverers use in communicating with the targeted audience.

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The essence of announcing is to address an issue or issues that affect

society. The audience to be addressed has to be identified to be
addressed through research by the broadcast station. Those charged with
the responsibility of making the announcement should be versatile in the
language of communication. Words and phrases should be carefully
selected so that the message would be communicated to the audience
without ambiguity, thus satisfying the needs and desires of the broadcast
station audience.

5.0 SUMMARY

By and large, announcing is based on speech and its presentation where

words are properly used to achieve the desired results. In other words,
the rules of grammar have to be strictly adhered to. Both the announcer
and the audience should share one thing in common, that is the medium
of communication used by the announcer should equally be understood
by the audience for whom the announcement is meant. The message sent
by the announcer would be understood by the receiver.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What do you consider to be the cardinal points in announcing?

2. Do you think an anchor man could also serve as a narrator?
3. Why must a newscaster have the command of the language of
communication?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Owuamalam, E. O. (2007). Radio–TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies.

Yorke, I. (2000). Basic TV Reporting, (2nd ed.). London: Focal Press.

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UNIT 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PRESENTATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Diction
3.2 Mood and Emotion
3.3 Eye Contact
3.4 Competence
3.5 Charisma
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Presentation is a careful way of introducing a programme to the

intended audience. It gives the audience insight into what they would
see or listen to in the programme proper.

Owuamalam (2007:149) says presentation provides the audience with

the vital information, required to adjust their listening or viewing desire.
Presentation gives stations the integrity they enjoy in attracting audience
to their programmes in broadcasting.

Presentation can be compared to the paint which decorates the building

from the outside which attracts the on looker who would want to see the
interior of the building.

If the programme is introduced skillfully and artistically, the audience

would want to watch or listen to the whole programme.

By and large presentation is an interior to beckon to the audience to

come to a sumptuous meal. It may even capture some audience members
who are in the habit of wandering from station to station seeking
programme content that would meet their desires.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define Diction and its use in presentation

• explain the essence of mood and emotion in broadcasting
• talk intelligently about competence and charisma.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Diction

The ability to pronounce words distinctly and clearly, determines to a

large extent, how the audience members understand the information,
which is to be shared with the presenter. Stresses must be accurately
emphasised at the relevant points in order to state exactly what the
presenter means. Clarity of meaning is the essence of good diction
(Owuamalam, 2007:151). Being a good presenter takes more than
producing beautiful words. It involves the ability to exhibit great skill in
presenting issues and ideas clearly in few words so that the audience
will understand at a go what the presenter is saying.

Whatever is the case, tribal or foreign accents should be avoided in

broadcasting. Each language has to be spoken according to its phonetic
rules, and nothing more. Anything short of this results to
misunderstanding of the intention of the presenter and may become
channel noise.

The presenter should never attempt to speak in exaggerated manner in

order to impress the audience. It should be noted that the aim of
presentation is to express a thought or feeling and the presenter should
aspire to achieve the aim of presentation rather than constituting
himself/herself into a public or audience nuisance.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is good diction in broadcasting?

3.2 Mood and Emotion

In a broadcast station the responsibility of setting the mood rests on the

presenter. The presentation of information and the manner of delivery to
the audience is the work of the presenter. If the presenter is cheerful and
lively in his/her presentation the audience would go along with him/her.
The use of body language such as facial expression certainly adds to the
articulation of meaning especially when accompanied by the correct
words. The sounds that come from a presenter often indicate the mood
of the presenter as they relate to the meaning and structure of the
presentation.

Langer (1979) says the various forms of human feelings range from
growth and attention, flowing and slowing, conflict and resolution,
speed, arrest, terrific excitement, calm or subtle activation to dreaming
lapses. It is, therefore, the duty of the presenter to ensure that the mood

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and emotional feelings of the audience are aroused in conjunction with

the objectives of the station’s programmes.

3.3 Eye Contact

Television presentation is similar to interpersonal communication just

like the radio where the presenter appears to be addressing the listener.
Who is face to face with him?

In the case of television the presenter is separated from the audience it

appears as if he is addressing them in a face-to-face situation. In most
cases, presenters are seen smiling at their audience. This is to arrest the
attention and interest of the audience and make them feel relaxed. The
ability of the presenter to make frequent eye contact with the camera
lens in television or a mental delivery of aural contact through the
choice of words in radio can achieve the desired effect. It radiates
confidence in the presenter and provides unconstructive forum for
verbal communication (Owuamalam, 2007:153). It is understood that in
most cases eye contact gives encouragement to mutual participation in
communication. It also encourages quick feedback. Here the source of
information is easily confirmed and identified. And if the presenter
appears friendly and presentable the audience members are likely going
to stay put to consume the programme.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What does “Consumption” in broadcast programme mean?

3.4 Competence

A beginner may not be as competent in the art of presentation as

someone who has been on the job for a long time. Competence is
acquired through practice and experience of performing the task over
and over again.

For example, a presenter of law courts programme should be conversant

with legal terms to be used in the course of presentation. He should
know when to use the term “his lordship” and “his worship”, “to pass
judgment and to up hold judgment” and a host of other terminologies
that are associated with the judiciary.

It is from knowledge that competence is drawn by the presenter who is

now in a better position to guide his audience throughout the character
of the programme. The presenter should also show signs of competence
in the other areas of production. For example, he or she should be able
to know the signals given either by the programme director or the floor

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manager who is the contact person between the director and the artistes
in the studio.

In fact, he or she should be knowledgeable in the production language

and sign of the programme. When he or she acquires knowledge in these
and other things that are involved in production then such a presenter is
said to be competent in the performance of his or her job.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the term “competence” in production?

3.5 Charisma

Programme presentation in broadcasting is usually combined with

special gift which tends to make the presenter acceptable to the
audience. The presenter should cultivate an acceptable behaviour that
makes him loveable any time his voice is heard over the radio or his face
is seen on the screen. For it is generally believed that if people are
impressed with a personality there is likelihood that such a personality
would attract a lot of followership. For example, in the late 1970s,
anytime the late James Audu put up his face on the screen and his voice
was heard, many audience members rushed to see and hear him speak
on Nigerian Television. Such an announcer or presenter is likely going
to be emulated by other talents for they too would like to be associated
with such success.

Presenters are said to often play the role of leadership as Aliens (1964)
cited in Owuamalam (2007:155), “Leadership is the work a manager
performs to cause people to take effective actions”. A good presenter
directs audience attention and influences individual and group activity
either by viewing television or listening to the radio. A good presenter is
capable of influencing audience to broadcast programmes, thus
achieving the aims and objectives of the station.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the characteristics of a charismatic presenter?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Certain qualities are bound to be exhibited by broadcast presenters if

they are to be believed and accepted by the target audience. While some
of the qualities may be natural some are acquired through experience,
knowledge or qualification. For example, some presenters naturally look
good on the screen, while others apply make-up to look better on the
screen.

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Principles of presentation are those things that the presenter has to

acquire, possess and exhibit in the performance of his or her job so that
he or she would be accepted and believed by the station’s audience, thus
endearing the station to the audience.

5.0 SUMMARY

The attributes of a presenter include thorough knowledge of the

programme and the techniques of presentation such as the floor
manager’s language used in the studio. The presenter should appear
friendly. Such a person seems to be more acceptable to the audience
than an over serious looking person. He has to be cheerful, radiating
smiles instead of being stern-looking before the audience. His diction
should be natural. He should speak in clear terms.

In short the presenter should ensure that he achieves the appropriate

mood and emotion and should create a welcome atmosphere before the
audience who in turn would be endeared to the station.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Why would you insist on a presenter pronouncing words

accurately in any programme production?
2. By your justification, who is a charismatic presenter?
3. In what ways would you, as a presenter, make yourself
acceptable and believable by the audience?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Langer, S. (1979). Feeling and Form. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul
Ltd.

Owuamalam, E.O. (2007). Radio –TV Production. Owerri: Image and

Slogans Consultants Ltd.

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UNIT 3 ADVERTISING IN BROADCASTING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Advertising
3.2 Development of Advertising
3.3 Functions of Advertising
3.4 Criticisms of Advertising
3.5 Advertising Copy Writing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

It is not possible to pinpoint the beginning of advertising, however,

several examples date back several years ago: clay tables had been
found in ancient Babylon with messages. The town crier had been in
existence in England during the medieval period.

In recent times, the history of advertising is entwined with changing

social conditions and advances in media technology (Dominick,
2002:369). Advertising came to limelight with the advent of industrial
revolution. The period witnessed improvement in economy and
communication and aided advertising to thrive.

The 1920s marked the beginning of radio as an advertising medium.

Network broadcasting made radio an attractive vehicle for national
advertisers. Then came the 1960s with the growth of television which
had more impacts or input into the way advertising was presented.

Finally during the 1990s, a new advertising and marketing medium, the
Internet, arrived on the scene and saw remarkable growth. Now,
advertising has to adopt the new technology in order to cope with the
modern world.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain Advertising and its development

• explain the Functions and criticisms of Advertising
• explain the term Copy Writing in Advertising.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Advertising

Advertising can be defined as any form of non-personal presentation and

promotion of ideas, goods and services paid for by an identified sponsor.
It could be noted that three key terms are used in this definition namely:

• Advertising is “non-personal”, that is it is directed toward a large

group of people. Secondly, advertising is “paid for”. This makes
advertising different from publicity which isn’t usually paid for. And
thirdly the sponsor of the advertisement is “identified”. In most cases the
identity of the sponsor is known and there is nothing wrong in
identifying the sponsor in an advertisement. Perhaps it is only in
political advertising that the sponsor is not identified. However,
broadcasters may not accept a political advertisement without a
statement identifying those responsible for it.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the major differences between advertising and publicity?

3.2 Development of Advertising

Advertising is said to have dated back to ancient Egypt when the

papyrus posters were found offering rewards for the return of runaway
slaves. In early Greek and Roman days, signboards were placed above
the doors of business establishments and town criers proclaimed that
merchants had certain wares for sale (Sambe, 2008:245). Perhaps the
increase in quantities of advertising was realised in the mid-15th century
when there was improvement in the printing industry. Advertisements
came in handbills, posters and then newspapers and magazines.

Newspapers and magazines increased in circulation, because of the new

technological advances, advertising new slogans, better copy writers and
artists, and improved method of analysing products, media and markets,
cases of advertising also increased.

The invention of radio and later television brought about tremendous

improvement in advertising.

Advertising takes different forms, however each form works to serve

one purpose and that is bringing message about a product or event to the
public. Some of the messages are profit oriented while others are non –
profit oriented. They also provide free services but not goods, to the
public either through the print or electronic media.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is advertising?

3.3 Functions of Advertising

Dominick (2002:369) states that advertising tends to fulfil four basic

functions in any given society:

1. Advertising serves a marketing function by aiding companies that

provide products or services to sell their products.
2. Advertising is educational, and society learns about new products
and services or improvements in existing ones through it.
3. Advertising plays an economic role. The ability to advertise
allows new competitors to enter the business arena. Generally,
competition enhances products improvements and it may help
lower prices of products.
4. Advertising performs a social function by displaying the product
and even cultural opportunities available in a free enterprises
society, tends to help increase productivity, and tries to raise
standards of living.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss the principal functions of advertising.

3.4 Criticisms of Advertising

Advertising appears to be part of our lives and is therefore prone to

series of criticisms by members of the society. Some of the criticisms
are:

1. In advertising members of the society are persuaded and as such

we have the choice to purchase or not to purchase the goods so
advertised. However, advertising does persuade us to buy goods
and services we do not mean to buy.

2. Advertising appeals to our emotions rather than to our intellect.

Almost all human beings are motivated by emotional drive; it
appears natural that advertising should make such appeals.
Perhaps a cautious purchaser would avoid obvious appeals to the
emotions.

3. Advertising tends to be biased for it encourages people to spend

and to acquire. It also makes consumption the most important
activity in life. This aspect of advertising is biased against those

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with low incomes who do not have the means to attain the
material goals portrayed in advertising.

4. In all cases, advertising people tend to disseminate messages

through purchased time on radio and television in order to
identify, inform and persuade.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What would life be without advertising?

3.5 Advertising Copy Writing

Copy writing in advertising could be used to refer to the materials or

everything that makes the message stick. It may include the layout, the
design, all the words or the typographic elements in the advertisement,
including the headlines, captions and sub–headlines. For this purpose we
shall mean everything that is used to disseminate the information to the
target audience.

Writing a copy begins with the brief which serves as a guide provided
by the client about the product, service, idea, his company and himself.
The brief is always in written form.

A good brief contains information on the nature of the business and the
product or service, the business or product catchment area or “geo–
spread”, the market size, past – present – future consumers, competitors
and other data available to the client (Nwosu, 2006:51).

The writer should be guided by the 5Ws and H news writing formula as
follows:

a. Who will buy/purchase the product?

b. What product, service, idea is to be advertised?
c. When does the purchase take place?
d. Where will the product be purchased?
e. Why is it to be purchased?
f. How much of the product or idea will be used?

Based on the available information the copy writer will be armed to

begin his research by either observation or survey to enable him produce
an effective advertising copy.

The objectives can now be clearly defined. They include size,

typography, shape and colour objectives, desired action objectives and
market objectives. Other criteria to be taken into consideration include;

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brand users, product users and non – product users. By now the writer
should be ready to begin copy writing proper. At this stage the writer is
free to decide on the advertising appeals that may attract the product
buyers.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the processes of advertising copy writing.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Advertising can be classified in many ways depending on the type of

product to be advertised and the kind of audience or consumers who
form the target audience or population who would purchase the product,
or the idea or service.

Consumers, as the name implies, are the people who buy services and
goods for personal use. Most of the advertising that people are exposed
to falls into this category. While business to business advertising is
directed to people who purchase product or services for business use.

Advertising can be classified as geographic or international. Geographic

advertising is concerned with a particular area while international
advertising is used for products and services that are used all over the
world.

5.0 SUMMARY

Advertising is any form of non-personal presentation and promotion of

ideas goods and services paid for by an identified sponsor. Furthermore,
advertising can be classified by the target audience that is geographic
focus, the audience may be in one geographic location or maybe
scattered all over the world. Modern advertising began in the late 19th
century and grew in the early 20th century, as radio and later on
television became mass advertising media.

Although the business to business advertising is not as prominent as the

consumer advertising, business advertising tends to make up a
significant proportion of advertising industry.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What are three defining characteristics of advertising?

2. What is copy writing in advertising?
3. Discuss four main criticisms laid against advertising?

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Dominick, J. R. (2002). The Dynamics of Mass Communication: Media

in Digital Age, (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Publishers.

Nwosu, I. E. (2006). Effective Media Writing: Mass Media,

Advertising, Public Relations of Promotions. Enugu: E-NOK
Publishers.

Sambe, S. A. (2005). Writing for the Mass Media: An Introductory Text.

Makurdi: Adefest Publishers.

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UNIT 4 TV PRODUCER AND PRODUCTION

TECHNIQUES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Definition of TV Production
3.2 The Producer’s Role in TV Production
3.3 The Need for Production Techniques
3.4 Production Treatment
3.5 Basic Production Methods
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Radio and television production involves many persons. It is, therefore,

a team work or activity. The success of each production depends upon
harmonious working relationship among the production crew. The crew
is made up of the producer, director, set designer, lighting technician,
camera persons, floor manager, performers, technical director and sound
recordist.

A producer as one of the production crew has his role. He acts as the
boss of a production project. According to Warritay (1986:84) his main
task is to provide funds for production, or he may represent the
financiers. If a producer works in a broadcast station or a production
company, he may combine the roles of a producer and director.

In radio production not all the crew members would be of use to the
production, for example, the camera person would not be necessary
because pictures are not needed in radio production.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain TV production and production techniques

• identify the roles of the producer and those of the other members
of production crew
• explain TV production treatment and basic production methods.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Television Production

Television production is regarded as a carefully balanced compromise

between artistic aspirations and hard practicalities. There are certain
things that seem to be not too important, but without them, production
would be marred. These are artistic aspects of the programme. For
example, the way your present your ideas, the camera, arrange lighting
and sound will give the subject a certain amount of genuineness.

Production could be primarily a matter of organisation, this involves

bringing together the right elements, such as, the script, performers,
setting, that is equipment and the production crew, “and using cameras
and microphones to display the performance through carefully selected
shots” (Millerson, 1993:12).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

In your own words, define television production.

3.2 The Producer’s Role in TV Production

In simple terms television production is the art and science of filling a

broadcast content. The station’s audience may have a vague idea of the
role of the producer or even if the producer exists at all.

After other arrangements have been made, the producer decides which
programme will go into the day’s broadcast, in what form and in what
order. The producer supervises the ordering of all graphics for the
production.

Tuggle, Carr and Huffinan (2001:133) state that in carrying out those
duties the producer must accomplish the following tasks:

• Precise time of broadcast. The production must end at the

appointed time. It should not run long, and it should not run
short. Some kind of content must separate the commercial breaks;
they can’t bump together.

• Choose the right mix of stories. The producer working in

concert with the assignments editor, in case of news programme,
newscast resources and coverage are devoted to the right stories,
that is those stories that are most newsworthy in line with
station’s philosophy.

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• Work with the director and production crew to get the

programme on the air. A good producer does not lose sight of
the fact that the director is an equal partner in the programme.
Good communication and cooperation between the producer and
director is absolutely essential.

• Show leadership. The producer makes sure that all the different
parts fit together and has to put all efforts together to achieve a
satisfactory, high quality product. In doing so, the producer
works with many people whose primary responsibilities pertain
to a much smaller part of the production. In order to put all these
parts together, the producer must have excellent leadership skills
and must contribute to a positive and productive work
environment.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

By your estimation why must a producer possess leadership qualities?

3.3 The Need for Production Techniques

When the cameraman frames a segment of a scene with the camera lens,
he is detaching the scene from reality. The audience members only see
what the director wants them to see. They cannot know what is
happening around. The lens often conveys what is called impressions of
scale, distance and certain proportion of the environment which are
often quite false. For example, a small object can be made to dominate
the screen, while a big subject may pass unnoticed, but we accept the
result as reality.

According to Millerson (1993:84) there are various reasons for

production techniques:

• The television does limit the amount of information shown to the

audience. Where the camera wants the audience to see a broader
view of the scene, a long shot is needed. Where only interaction
between people, then a medium shot would be required. A close-
up shot would be necessary for specific details. Shots are as such
altered from time to time to present the various aspects of the
subject and the scene.

• If a subject is talking or holding, for example, a coin, then a

close-up shot is necessary. If members of the audience cannot see
properly, they become frustrated and, if a shot is held for too
long, their interest fails.

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• The director is at times directing the audience’s attention to

particular aspects of the action or the scene. For example,
throwing a stone at the window and breaking the glass, the
audience may see or hear the sound only. This will depend on
what impact the director wants to make on the audience.

• Effective directing techniques encourage audience reactions.

Images presented to the audience members are meant to arouse
their interest, persuade and intrigue. They act as encouragement
to the audience response. If the techniques are wrongly applied,
the audience may become disenchanted with the station and this
may lead to the destruction of empathy with the station’s
audience.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What becomes of a production if techniques are carelessly applied?

3.4 Production Treatment

In production, every shot is considered as information package. In ideal

situations a series of shots within any sequence or scene should form a
continuous thought process in a story line. Shots should not be distorted
unless the camera is aiming at a sudden dramatic impact. In a situation
where the audience is unable to follow the linkage between shots, they
are likely going to be distracted as they face the task of working out
what exactly is going on.

In an attempt to move from one scene to another, the camera has to be

careful. Change of scenes should not be made to appear unnatural. There
are no hard rules in the presentation of a subject, but there are certainly
many wrong ways of doing so. Wrong techniques are capable of
confusing, misleading or simply being ineffectual.

Millerson (1993:86) states that successful methods can produce such a

smooth flow of events that the audience is completely unaware of the
mechanics of the production.

Sometimes directors think they are clever by instructing the cameramen

to give a sequence of shots to the beat of the fast music. This may give
fascinating results, however, it does nothing to convey ideas and may
simply frustrate the viewer with unsteady glimpses.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why is production treatment important in broadcast production?

3.5 Basic Production Methods

Before production begins, certain basic things have to be in place. They

include lighting, talent or artist, camera and sound.

There are several ways in which production can be organised depending

on the type of programme and the method to be adopted.

1. Live production – Here the programme is not pre–recorded. The

performance is carried out live. To present live transmission that
is free from mistakes it requires careful organisation, clear-
headed direction, and closely coordinated skilled teamwork. Any
problems that arise while on air have either to be covered up in
some way or simply accepted (Millerson, 1993:90).

2. Basic Retakes – At the end of the rehearsal recording is done

continuously and if there are errors of any kind, performance is
halted and the bad section is retaken. The section may be
recorded all over again or taken separately. If this is done it can
be inserted afterwards in its proper place.

3. Rehearse-Record Method – This method is also called

discontinuous recording. Here individual shots are rehearsed then
recorded. Then separate corrective retakes are recorded before
proceeding to the next sequence. This method is time consuming
and there is always insufficient time to remedy problems in the
setting, lighting and costume.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the basic differences between live production and other
methods of production?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Production involves many persons and that is why it is regarded as team

work. Its success depends largely upon cooperation among the
production crew. The hardware for production are cameras,
microphones, lights, sets, props, switcher, videotapes, cassettes and
multiplexer. All these have to be present for a production to take place.
Each unit and section must be closely united or knitted with the other
otherwise production would not be possible.

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5.0 SUMMARY

Any programme that comes on air is meant to be consumed with

satisfaction by the station’s audience, and that is the station’s principal
objective. In doing this the cameraman has to frame his shots in such a
way that the audience knows what is happening.

If the audience is faced with a crowded active scene, their eyes would
wander at random to select what to view. However, guided action or
selection concentrates on detail, spurious factors distracts attentions and
a wide angle shot presents details in so small a manner that they lose
individual impact. The correct shots give the audience members what
they want to view.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What are the principal roles of a producer among the production

crew?
2. Why would you employ certain techniques during production?
3. What is production treatment?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Millerson, G. (1993). Effective TV Production, (3rd ed.). Oxford: Focal

Press.

Tuggle, C. A.; Carr, F. and Huffinan, S. (2001). Broadcast News

Handbook: Writing, Reporting and Producing. Boston: McGraw-
Hill.

Warritay, B. (1986). Techniques of Television production. Nairobi:

UNESCO.

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UNIT 5 DIRECTOR AND DIRECTING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Directing
3.2 Directing in Broadcast Programme
3.3 Duties of the Director
3.4 Duties to Production Staff
3.5 Taking Care of the Rushes
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Directing in television production is all about coordinating the various

activities which when put together bring production to a success. Each
person involved has to put in their best in terms of contributing their
quota as far as the production is concerned under a single director.
Directing assumes its greatest importance when the message is to be
given “live” by the artists or performers. Directing here involves both
technical and non-technical activities under the director who does the
job of directing in any broadcast production.

Before embarking on directing, the director ought to understand the

message and focus of the material chosen by the producer for
production. He has to study the characterisation and atmosphere of
occurrence so as to ascertain and master the content of the script.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• give a clear definition of radio and TV directing

• spell out the duties of a director and production staff in television
production
• explain the term Rushes in television production.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of the Term “Directing”

Directing is the act of bringing the various aspects of production to

make sure they all run efficiently to achieve the station’s objectives. In
the process of directing, the director has to use his creative and
analytical prowess to bring the various aspects of presentation together.

He has to reduce the language of the script to the level of the crew
members or artists and event to the level of the audience members if the
need arises. He may also assign appropriate language to the characters.
For, it would be a disaster to have a character in a programme who is
supposed to be illiterate speaking good English.

Directing takes care of scenic composition “as an extension of reality,

imagery as a replication of subjects, themes and structure as
determinants of presentation styles (Owuamalam, 2007:165).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is directing in television production?

3.2 Directing in Broadcast Programme

The principal aim of directing programmes in a broadcast production is

to achieve the acceptance and believability of the production by the
station’s audience, and to retain the aroused interest through suspense
device. The arousal of interest could be in a heroic act or a sense of loss.
The audience members being human beings are bound to react to some
of these scenes.

Owuamalam (2007:165) is of the opinion that the person directing the

production understands that the audience members are the reason why
broadcasting exists. He as such tries to explore all possible artistic
strategies to ensure that programmes meet the expectations of the
specified target audience.

In directing it should be understood that the picture presented to the

audience in the script must not be lost to them. In other words the
audience members should be kept abreast of the storyline from
beginning to the end. The director has to be tactful in handling all kinds
of people. He or she uses tact and persuasion instead of coercion. He
does not command but issues directives. He or she does so to achieve
compliance from artists as well as the crew members.

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Indeed the director, in the course of directing works as a manager of the

people. He is fair but firm in dealing with both artist and crew.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Directing programmes does not mean commanding. Discuss.

3.3 Duties of the Director

It is the duty of the director to supervise technical staff as well. His

duties do not end with non-technical crew. He makes sure that all the
necessary lights for the production are not only in place, but functional.
He checks the various monitors within the studio to make sure that the
camera shots tested by the cameraman are in workable condition. He
also ascertains the images on the monitors as they would meet the
desires and quality of the production.

The director has to be knowledgeable in acting and should understand

the terminology and technology of broadcasting and its equipment.

The director makes sure that the messages put across by artists conform
to the objectives of the broadcast stations. From the producer’s script,
the director writes his own which he uses in directing both the technical
crew and artists alike as he deems fit. His script which may be called the
shooting script helps to organise thoughts creatively and in an economic
sense.

The director has to be economical with time and other resources. For
example, where scenes involve crowds like the funeral and dance arena,
it would be more economical to do the shooting at the same time instead
of having to go back to the same location after the initial shots had been
taken.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

How would a producer who is a non-technical staff supervise technical

crew?

3.4 Duties to Production Staff

Production normally begins with a script. Then the cast are recruited or
hired as artists who perform various roles in the production. The director
works very closely with these sets of people. This group of people are
popularly known as above-the-line staff or non-technical personnel,
because as the name indicates they have nothing to do with the technical
aspects of the production; even if some of them are technically educated

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or have knowledge and skills in the technology involved in production.

These persons are then cast into or are assigned various roles. This is
followed by intensive rehearsal to train and become or acquire
proficiency in their roles for the production. The director grooms the
artists to suit their assigned roles. This is achieved through performance
instructions and directions at the instance of the director.

A programme director could be likened to a football coach who makes

sure that the team members collaborate their efforts as a team towards
the realisation of their dream, in this case, that of producing a
programme according to the objective of the broadcast station.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is above-the-line crew in broadcast production?

3.5 Taking Care of the Rushes

All the shots that were taken and are taken during production or
performance are called the rushes. The director returns to those shots at
the editing stage with the aim of selecting the best shots as has been
indicated by the script. The director can alter the script submitted by the
producer to meet the realities of production.

The director normally interprets the action in conjunction with the

programme objective. And in the end, it is what the director wants that
is presented to the station’s audience. In doing so, he or she has to be
conscious of the main message in the original script. His or her
alteration should not be at the expense of the objective of the script and
that of the broadcast station. The first critic of any production tends to
be the director. His reaction to performance is not different from those
of the target audience probably because he has been on the job and
happens to know the station’s audience through research. He therefore
falls in a position to know what is good or unsuitable for the audience.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why does the director often use his own script during production?

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have discussed in this unit the definition of directing, directing in

broadcast programme, duties of the director, and his duties to the
production staff and taking care of the rushes in production by the
director. Directing and the director has to do with the person assigned
the responsibility to make sure that both human and material resources

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are put together in a harmonised manner to achieve the station’s

objectives in broadcasting.

5.0 SUMMARY

Broadcast programmes, if they are to be understood by the audience,

ought to be delivered in line with the rules of grammar, diction and
phonetics. These must be strictly adhered to when using language to
communicate thoughts, ideas and feelings.

Whatever forms a programme takes, the director is the final person in

the process to get it on air for the audience to view. It is therefore the
duty of the director to ensure that, whatever form the programme
assumes, it will have to satisfy the station’s audience and be in harmony
with the objectives of the broadcast station.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Why do you think it is necessary for the director to tamper with

language used by the producer of a programme
2. What do you understand by the aroused interest of the station’s
audience?
3. What do you understand by the term Rushes?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Owuamalam, E. O. (2007). Radio-TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies Ltd.

Sofola, Z. (1991). “Artists and the Tragedy of a Nation”. The Guardian.

Saturday, June 22.

Zettle, H. (2000). Television Production Handbook, (7th ed.). New

York: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

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MODULE 4 RADIO AND TELEVISION PRODUCTION

TECHNIQUES

Unit 1 Writing for Television

Unit 2 Writing for Radio
Unit 3 Studio Managers for Radio and Television
Unit 4 Programme Scripts for Radio and Television
Unit 5 Outside Broadcasting
Unit 6 Digital Broadcasting
Unit 7 Media Law

UNIT 1 WRITING FOR TELEVISION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Writing News for Television
3.3 Writing TV Documentary
3.4 Writing TV Drama
3.5 Semi and fully Scripted Format
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Television is about visual and sound. So writing for this medium

involves the words and pictures. In writing the sound normally
accompanies the images that appear on the screen. The writer should as
such take note that pictures alone would not make meaning to the
audience. When writing, the scriptwriter always indicates if there is need
for a close up shot. This will give the identity of the subject in question.
Words normally play a complimentary role in pictures whether in
documentary, news, and drama or even in interview programmes.

It is a role that all figures above ten (10) must not be written in figures,
but in words. The reason is that the announcer does not have enough
time in trying to make sure that the accurate figure indicated in the script
are announced to the public. For example, it would be difficult to read
the following figures smoothly while on air. N2,797,840.15. But when
written in words – Two million, seven hundred and ninety seven

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thousand, eight hundred and forty Naira and fifteen Kobo, it would be
easier to read and understand.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• properly explain writing and scripting for television

• differentiate documentary from news writing
• write news and drama scripts for television production.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Writing for Television

Writing for television programmes in blending of pictures with sound to

produce a communication experience exhibited on the screen. It uses
sound to explain the visuals presented on the screen. It addresses the
emotion and the intellect, in a remarkable way (Owuamalam, 2007:238).
As a dynamic medium, television uses the movement of images in a
particular pattern to give expression to the thought and feeling in an
interesting, exciting and appealing manner.

Those who conceive ideas for writing for television should, therefore,
bear in mind at the start that what they are going to write must be
accompanied with pictures, as words alone would not be sufficient to
deliver the message intended for the targeted audience. The pictures
must blend with the words to produce precisely what they intend the
viewer to see and hear. For the picture and the words used complement
each other to realise the objective of the programme. If, for instance, it
were announced that a building has collapsed and killed a number of
persons in any of the towns in Nigeria viewers would expect to be
shown the collapsed building, with commentary by the reporter. They
would be frustrated if the station fails show the people of the building or
the people affected.

In writing for television, since words go along with pictures, words have
to be carefully selected, arranged and presented in such a way that they
make an imprint on the minds of the station’s audience.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

In writing for television, why must pictures be matches with words?

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3.2 Writing News for Television

There are many verities of newscasts as there are news organisations.

Virtually all newscasts contain commercial breaks, sports and weather
forecast, which a writer should not forget to include while writing news.

New Hole: Before the writer fills his newscast, he must determine how
much time is at his disposal. The total amount of time required covers
commercial breaks, sports and weather. This is called the “Skeleton
time” or “Killer time” and when this time is subtracted from the total
available time, what is left is known as the “News Hole”. Even the
remaining time is subject to adjustment depending on the length of the
commercial breaks.

Tuggle, Carr and Huffman (2001:141) say that time left can also expand
and contract depending on amount of time devoted to sport and weather.
For this reason, news writers and producers frequently ask sports and
weathercasters to donate time.

In writing news, the writer should use simple everyday words, short
sentences; however they must be concise and precise to the point. He or
she should not use figures for numbers that are more than 10.

The television news writer does not have an easy task. He or she has to
produce scripts within a short time and they must not be more than the
time allotted to the news.

Let the Pictures Describe

It is very irritating to hear extravagant detail description of news that can

clearly be seen by viewers. He or she should identify people and explain
action, let the people and action speak for themselves.

Use of Tenses

In most cases the writer should use present tense as it carries an air of
immediacy and it sounds simple. Past tense can be used when the action
is actually in the past for it also has the air that goes with completed
action.

Priority

The inverted pyramid system of News writing accepted by the print

media is not suitable for television News casting. This is not to say that
the lead story should not be important. If the lead story is not important,

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viewers are likely to switch to another station and may not come back to
your station.

Flow

Tuggle et al (2001:143) say good writers do group their stories

somewhat according to theme and then group the theme in logical order,
taking News worthiness into account.

After placing the most important story for the lead, it does not
necessarily follow that the second story must be the next important. The
writer should have these stories in sequence.

Pacing

The story should not be crammed into the top of the news block then
running the less important at the end of the block. This is the most
terrible thing a writer would do. And each idea in the news forms a
paragraph on its own. All under no circumstances should words by
hyphenated on two lines. If a word cannot be written on a line and must
be cut or carried over to the other line leave the space blank and write
the word in full on the next line. Starting words and carrying or finishing
them on another line makes it difficult to read smoothly.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why must a writer for television news use economy of words?

3.3 Writing Television Documentary

Writing for television in its entire ramification takes similar format. The
steps taken in writing television News generally apply also to
documentaries. However, the documentary should not follow these steps
slavishly. The documentary techniques should vary according to
documentary situations. The writer should not forget to use words
sparingly, that is he should use few words over film and most of the
description should come mainly from the picture. The writer should also
note that overwriting would mar his production.

If certain terms are used that need explanation, the writer should indicate
that so that the person doing the voice over film should take note.
Writing documentary call for disciplined approach, in some cases the
shape, content and scripts are decided in detail in advance. The aim is to
sustain interest throughout film lasting anything from about fifteen
minute to one hour or more and with careful planning it is possible to

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create peaks of interest at set intervals (Yorke, 2000:141).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

In what way is writing documentaries the same with writing television

news?

3.4 Writing Drama

Warritay (1986:68) says unlike the documentary, drama programme

writing is fiction; it is similar to a novel or a play. Even when the drama
is about the historical event, the actors and actresses, and the location
are not originals but imitations of them. If however, the actors and
locations are the originals, then the programme is a dramatised
documentary.

The drama scriptwriter should make sure that one idea flows into
another in a scene. And one action leads to another in a sequence. If
there is flash back the writer should indicate so that both the director and
the actors know their direction. In drama since the crew have almost
total control of the production, the scripts are made complete with
respect to the audio column. The video column is left for the director to
work on according to the shots he wants given to him.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

How does Drama differ from documentary?

3.5 Semi-Scripted and Fully- Scripted Format

In a full scripted format of writing whether for News or drama

production on any television production with all the words to be read or
spoken by the announcer or the actor, as stated by Owuamalam
(2007:240), accompanying visual are complimentary to the sound
produced by the actor, and this must be indicated at the appropriate
place showing their duration of exposure in the programme such as
indicating the place of videotapes recorder (VTR) that is where it should
be placed or located. Anything that is to be used in the production has to
be indicated for example, where there is supposed to be sound on the
tape (SOT) or sound over film (SOF) should be indicated.

In drama, all the words to be spoken by actors and actresses should be

provided. Their duty would be to memories the lines and only recite
them at the appropriate time during production.

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In a semi scripted format the action or the situation is described. The

actors and the actresses fill in the gap with their own words. They use
their imaginations and provide the dialogue.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Which format would you prefer, semi-scripted or full scripted, and why?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Since television is an audio-visual medium, the writer for the medium

should be able to tell the stories in the language which is accurate, clear,
simple, direct, natural, concise and precise and to the point. He should
write as he speaks. Sentences should be short.

It is wrong grammar to say, “I see the University is preparing to launch

a twenty million Naira appeal fund”.

5.0 SUMMARY

In writing for Television you should where possible, tell the stories in a
chronological order. Make one short sentence, one thought. Understand
what you write. Do not allow double standard, carelessness or
insensitivities get into the broadcast material. The writer should avoid
stock phrase, clichés and stupidities; he should also avoid the use of
slang and acronyms.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What are the requirements of a good Television scripts?

2. Describe fully-scripted and semi-scripted television programmes?
3. Why is a script necessary for production?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Owuamalam, E. O. (2007). Radio–TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies.

Tuggle, C.A.; Carr, F. and Huffman, S. (2001). Broadcast News

Handbook: Writing, Reporting and Producing. Boston: McGraw
Hill.

Warritay, B. (1986). Techniques of Television Production.

Nairobi:UNESCO.

Yorke, I. (2000).Basic TV Reporting, (2nd ed.). London: Focal Press.

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UNIT 2 WRITING FOR RADIO

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Radio News
3.2 Word Economy
3.3 News Broadcasting
3.4 News Documentary
3.5 Use of Tenses
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Radio programmes generally refer to the various organised sounds that

are produced to fill in the radio broadcast. Regarded as “blind medium”
radio messages are written and directed toward the ears and not the eyes.
Radio writing makes use of imagery to portray the images and the
message to the station’s audience members who are left to visualise as
soon as they hear the programme.

Since writers are concerned with the use of ears in radio production, the
writer normally uses words and phrases that help visualise the meaning.
“The language must be concise, cogent and concrete with what people
are familiar with (Idebi 2008, P.8).

Radio as a heterogeneous medium, its messages is written in a transient

and fast manner. Radio is one of the fastest means of broadcasting News
to a heterogeneous community.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define radio news, documentary news and other programmes

• explain why it is necessary for the writer to sue words economy
in writing for radio
• demonstrate understanding of the proper tenses used in writing
for radio programmes.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Radio News

News is one of the radio programme formats. News could be defined as

an accurate account of a timely event that is of public interest. That is, it
is concerned with what people ought to know. News could take any
form. It could be regarded as Hard News, News programme or
correspondent reports. Any News that is regarded as complete News
must be able to take care of the six Ws and H, namely; What, Where,
Who, Which, When, Why and How. It must also be accurate, clear,
concise, and coherent and simple to be understood be the station’s
audience. Above all Radio News must be timely and of human interest.
It must be relevant and should contain surprises of listeners.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

In your words define Radio Broadcast News.

3.2 Word Economy

In writing for the radio economy of words should be used. That is to say
that the writer should not use many words to talk about the event. Few
words should be used meaningfully. The choices of these words which
paint the mental picture of the reported activity are encouraged. They
enable picturisation of the event in the news (Owuamalam, 2007:242).
The sentences have to be precise and short to match the breath pattern of
the Newscaster. The principal reason is to ensure that the Newscaster
does not lose control and flow of the sentence, thereby representing
meaning and misleading the audience or listener. The writer should
punctuate or punctuation mark appropriately so that the meaning and
importance of the story become clear and understandable.

No ambiguous words or phrases should be used. All expression should

be crystal clear because the listener would not have the opportunity to
stop and think what certain words mean. He would therefore become
frustrated. The News is made to sound real and believable by the
listener. That is why correspondent do mention their names and from
where they are reporting.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is meant by “economy of words” in Radio Programme

Broadcasting?

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3.3 News Broadcasting

In most cases every radio news story is not longer than 30 seconds; it is
very short and direct to the point. The writer should not write more than
five sentences long. The writing should contain the bare minimum fact,
should be clear, concise and short.

Tuggle, Carr and Huffman (2001:79) say writing short is a challenge. It

is tougher than writing long. It takes practice because there is much the
writer has to leave out. That tends to increase the burden of deciding
what the important details are that must be put in.

Writing a radio story or new, they say, is reminiscent of the old Dragnet
saying, “Give me the fact and only the fact”. There is, therefore, no time
for anything more than that.

Whether news story comes into radio station through microwave trucks,
called in over a landline phone, a cell phone or reporters and
correspondents go to the sport of the incident or the event, what gets to
the audience must be short and delivered in precise terms. Even if sound
bites are used, this should not last more than five seconds.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why are stories for radio broadcast very short?

3.4 News Documentary

This is a radio news programme that is aimed at exploring the very

important issue of life generally. The news deals with social issues that
society has to be informed so that members of the given society would
wake up from the slumber and take action towards bringing remedy to
the problem. For example, if society or community is often being
attacked by gangsters or armed robbers a news documentary would be
written addressing the issue, thus arousing and sustaining the interest of
the affected community. In trying to take a remedial action on the
presented anomaly, a vigilante group would be formed within the
community to check the menace of the robbery. The news is persuasive
news particularly targeted at an audience (Owuamalam, 2007:245), says
it is social commentary on an aspect of society. It is subject oriented and
deals with actual events. Narration is, therefore, used since content has
been thoroughly researched. On the other hand, a commentary differs
from documentary in the sense that while a documentary is to arouse
human interest and spur people to action, a commentary attempts to
provide the station’s opinion on a current issue. It may be in support of a

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case, it may be out to criticise government action on certain issues and

events.

The News Commentary acts as editorial in the print media. And writing
it on prejudices or distortion of facts should not be used because the
station’s audience is meant to be informed about those issues and they
would take them seriously, so nothing but facts should be projected.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is disparity between documentary and commentary in radio news

production?

3.5 Use of Tenses

Every radio news writer must remember the two cardinal points when
writing for news. He or she must write in the present or future tenses not
forget to write with a sense of urgency or the sense of the event itself
and when he chooses to make use of the sound bite, it must be brief and
to the point.

Hyde (1971:175) points that since we can report events as they happen,
the present tense is our natural tense. In using the present tense, we
automatically give the news an air of immediacy and the listener a sense
of participation. Using the past tense would alienate the audience from
the station because they would assume that the event is stale and is not
for their consumption. And that such news does not concern them.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why should news be written and reported in the present tense?

4.0 CONCLUSION

In writing for the radio, a writer should exercise caution and be

economical with words. That is, he must use few words but should not
lose meaning whether he is writing for news or documentary and
commentary. In news reporting particularly, he should not forget to use
only present tense and future tense if the need arises because present
brings about immediacy and gives the audience a sense of participation.

5.0 SUMMARY

Radio programme means various organised sound that are used to fill
the airtime in radio broadcast. And since radio is for the ears all

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programme make use of imagery to portray images and message to the

audience. The stations audience members are fed with words and phrase
that would help visualise the meaning. That means that the writer should
use appropriate, concise and accurate language devoid of ambiguity.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Why should you as a radio scriptwriter direct your message to the

ear?
2. What are similarities and dissimilarities between a radio
documentary and a commentary?
3. Vividly describe the tense you would use in writing the radio
news.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Hyde, S. W. (1971). Television and Radio Announcing,( 2nd ed.).

Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Idebi, S. K. (2008). Fundamentals of Radio Production. Ibadan: Impact

Motion Pictures and Media Koncept Nigeria.

Owuamalam, E. O. (2007). Radio-TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies Ltd.

Tuggle, C. A., Carr, F. and Huffman, S. (2001). Broadcast New

Handbook: Writing, Reporting and Producing. Boston: McGraw-
Hill.

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UNIT 3 STUDIO MANAGERS FOR RADIO

AND TELEVISION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition
3.2 The Director
3.3 The Set Designer
3.4 The Floor Manager
3.5 The Technical Director
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Broadcast programmes production tends to be a co-operative activity.

The success of any programme depends largely upon all those who are
involved in the production working closely together. Among them are
the producer director, set designer, lighting technician, camera persons,
floor manager, actor and stresses, the technical director and sound
recordist.

This unit will take a look at a few of them because of the exigencies of
the time and space.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define studio manager in broadcast studio

• differentiate the role of the director with pother directors
• explain the duties of the set designer
• discuss the role of the floor manager in Television production
• explain the reasons for having a technical director during
production.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition

Broadcast, especially television, programme production is teamwork,

each person with his task to be accomplished.

The programme producer makes the run through to make sure that
everything that is required for production is in peace. The floor manager
ensures that the equipment and property are put in their proper positions,
in the studio. The lighting officer makes sure all the required lights are
functioning. The man in charge of sound checks the microphones and
their locations. The cameraperson checks his camera to ascertain its
functionability. While the vision and sound mixer see that the
switchboard and the consoles are in good working position ready for the
production. All of these are the studio managers, each in charge of
his/her unit to make sure that the production is realised.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Artists are one of the studio managers during production. Discuss.

3.2 The Director

Every member of a production crew tends to play a special role without

which production may not be possible.

According to Warritay (1986:84), a producer is the boss of a production

project. His or her main task is to provide task for production, or he may
represent the financiers. If a producer works in a Television or a
production organisation, he or she may have to play the role of a
producer and that of as director.

A director is given the responsibility for the professional execution of a

production project. He works with the script prepared by the producer.
His responsibility includes rehearsing with the actors and actresses in
readiness for the production. He does not stop at that, he also does a
rehearsal with the camera crew so that they know their movement before
the production. This is to avoid unnecessary mistake that may mar
production.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why do you think it is not possible for a director to double as an actor?

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3.3 The Set Designer

The set designer does not simply walks into the studio and starts
designing the studio floor. He or she works on the instructions given by
either the producer or the director. By this time he or she must have
studied the production script and taken into account the availability of
fund, he embarks on designing the sets and floor plans accordingly. The
design usually shows how the different sets are to be arranged and how
they would fit into the particular studio where the programme would be
produced. The next thing he or she does is to communicate his ideas to
the station carpenters, painters, costume designer, make-up artist, special
effect men, props men and the stage hands. These are studio helpers.
They may be called upon to assist in any studio assignment. It is the
duty of the designer to co-ordinate the activities of the crafts men and
women, and to ensure that their work is done and is in good state and
ready for production.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Give a comparative analysis of a set designer and a producer.

3.4 The Floor Manager

The floor manager is in total control of the studio once the director goes
in the control room to start the production. Warritay (1986:85) is of the
view that the floor manager listens to the director’s instruction on
intercom connected to any of the cameras. He then relays the director’s
instructions to the performers by pantomime. Those putting up
appearances in the studio for the first time and are relatively new to
television production are usually advised or briefed about the
pantomime code during rehearsals. There are many codes however the
most commonly used ones are a cue of talented artist to start action, and
the direction to ask performers or artist to either raise or lower their
voices and towards the end warning may be given to performers to
round up their speeches because the programme is coming to the end.

Furthermore during production the floor manager ensures that the studio
doors are locked and a warning light, usually a red light, which indicates
that recording is in progress, must be on. This device is to keep all
unwanted person off. During this time entries and exits from the studio
is prohibited in order to avoid disruption and distracting attention of
performers, and so that unwanted sounds may not enter the programme.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Assess the work of a floor manager in a programme production.

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3.5 The Technical Director

The Technical director, whose main responsibility is to operate the

switch, usually sit beside the programme director in the control room
and works according to the instruction of the director. If the director
gives instruction to cut from camera to another, for example, to CUT
from camera one to camera three, it is the duty of the technical director
to press a switch that acts electronically to transfer the input picture on
line into the master monitor.

The director usually gives warning to both cameramen and the technical
director about an intending instruction before finally giving the order.
For instance, the director could say, “Ready to CUT to camera 1. CUT
to 1. Steady on 3. Coming to 3. “Take 3”. Such instruction goes until the
end of the production.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why must the director give prior warning before the final command?

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have taken a deep look at the various persons who perform their
duties in the studio to put a broadcast programme together to the
satisfaction of the audience members. These persons may be referred to
as studio managers. They include among others the directors, set
designer, floor managers and the technical directors. They work as a
team to come up with a worthwhile programme.

5.0 SUMMARY

For those who have not had the opportunity of watching a broadcast
programme being produces will not bother to think of how and why
programmes are produced, that is those behind the scene who make it
possible for programmes to be produced.

Apart from viewing or listening to the actors and actresses, there are
other important people who combine their efforts and technical know-
how to put up a programme that is consumed by the station’s audience.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Why do you think it is a must to have a floor manager during TV

production?
2. What are funds meant for in broadcast programme production?
3. Discuss Rehearsals in broadcast programme production.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Baran, S. J (2004). Introduction to Mass Communication: Media.

Literary and Culture, (3rd ed.). Boston McGraw Hill.

Owuamalam, E.O. (2007). Radio-TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies Ltd.

Warritay, B. (1986). Techniques of Television Production. Nairobi:

UNESCO.

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UNIT 4 PROGRAMME SCRIPTS FOR RADIO

AND TELEVISION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition
3.2 Period of Inspiration, Reflection and Enquiry
3.3 Time of Structuring, Actuality and Review
3.4 Qualities of Good Scriptwriter
3.5 Production Script
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

You have secured a piece of land and want to build a house; you have to
get the blocks ready before you can embark on real construction work.
So also is with radio, television and even film. The script tends to be the
block for broadcast production.

It is document, which shows how creative imagination is transformed

from thought to a written form. It translates inspired ideas and illusions
to reality (Owuamalam 2007:86).

In certain circumstances, some scripts may be uninteresting to read,

while others may appear to be complex in structure and composition.
Such scripts may hardly appear to the readers. And some because of
over simplicity to tend to lose their creative ingredients and may appear
offensive to the readers.

The scriptwriter should guide against these factors and come up with a
worthwhile script which will have an appeal to the generality of the
station’s audience.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should able to:

• define scripts for Radio and Television

• explain the stages involved in planning for a script

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• explain the tenets of script writing as to when the structure,

review and attend actuality
• identify qualities of a good script writer
• distinguish production scripts from other forms of scripts.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Script

Scripts are guide document in virtually all programme production

particularly for the broadcast media. Scripts to spell out all the
requirements and indicate what every performer and direct how each
performer should relate to the other throughout the programme. It is the
scripts that determine the type of programme to be produced.

Some are fully scripted. These type do not permit the performers to add
anything to what is placed before them while semi scripted ones do
permit performers to add their thought, ideas and views, thus allowing
them to contribute their own creativity along the suggested programme
approach.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why do you think scripts are the necessary ingredients to programme

production?

3.2 Period of Inspiration, Reflection and Review

The scriptwriter has to take certain thing into consideration when

writing. The script should be written in such a manner that would attract
and retain the interest of the readers. He should note the following
points:

1. Period of Inspiration
Owuamalam (2007:36) states that the period of inspiration tends to arise
from the agitation about a specific issue or subject. Things happen and
they may call attention to specific issue, which affect human being. The
writer may not resist the urge to share the experience with others who
might have been physically present at the time or place of the event. It is
the urge to write these experiences down that gives rise to writing a
script.

2. Reflection
It is at the time that the idea conceiver reflects on the way he or she
would out his or her ideas in a creative manner that would appeal to

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readers to the station’s audience. It is at this stage that he thinks of the

type of medium and language to use in communicating his ideas to the
audience. He or she puts the various thought together and avoids using
too many words and decides the language to be understood by the
people he or her is writing for.

3. Period of Enquiry
The write takes stock of what has happened in the past whether such or
similar ideas have been used in one-way or the other. This stage could
be referred to as the research period. The main reason is to see if there
has been a vacuum somewhere in the attempt to meet the desires and
aspirations of the station’s audience. This could make the work different
from other ones that had been put by the station for its audience.

If a similar idea had been presented, he or she may improve on it to

attract more relationship, viewership or listenership.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why is the period of enquiry also referred to as the research period?

3.3 Structuring, Actuality and Review

This is the period of planning. The writer at this stage would have to be
the lose knots by putting the sub-themes in such manner that one relates
to the other in a sequence, not losing sight of the central theme. If it is a
play or dramatic presentation, it is said the work is divided into
episodes, acts and scenes. The parts of the programme are tied to the
main theme.

After this stage, the writer now comes to the actual writing of the idea
into an acceptable script. This is documentation stage. At this point, the
writer puts in all he or she knows about the ideas he has been harbouring
in his mind. It is also at this stage that the language to be used is decided
upon. The language should be that which should be accepted by the
reader and consequently by the audience. Having written the scripts, the
writer has to take another look at the idea he or she had put down. This
stage is called the review stage and he uses it to realign these thought
and ideas he feels do not go well together with the main thing. He uses
this revision stage to add these things he might have left out. He polishes
the thought and ideas to make the script fall in line with the medium of
presentation. He restructures the script content of the scripts to meet the
desires of the audience for whom the programme is meant.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why has it become necessary for the scriptwriter to revise his work
repeatedly?

3.4 Qualities of a Good Script Writer

The scriptwriter should appear original in his ideas and should be

interesting so as to attract audience attention when finally produced. The
script should indicate the scope and limitation so that the producer is in
no doubt in planning for the human and material resources that would be
employed for the production. The plot and in fact the characterisation
should be in such a manner as to be able to direct the producer on the
requirements for the production.

If the script is meant to educate, inform or entertain the station’s

audience, it should do so very well. The script should be devoid of
ambiguity. Sub-themes should match with the main theme and show
clarity of thought and provide a vivid picture of the main theme to
enhance a better appreciation of the actins found in the creative work.

He or she should be able to handle the plot in an interesting and

entertaining manner. Owuamalam (2007:91) states that, plots as the
scheme of action ought to be logically presented, in order to enable the
audience to understand the lesson derivable from the script as presented.

The presentation of characters in a sequential order of relevance tends to

help the progression of the work. Both actions should be presented in
orderly and interesting manner so as to make it suiting to the station’s
audience. The language used should be understood both by performers
and the audience and the scriptwriter must identify the audience he or
she is writing for, that he or she must know their needs and desires
because audience tend to appreciate more a production that satisfies
their needs and desires because audience tend to appreciate more a
production that satisfies their needs and desires. And above all, the
script writer should give a general consideration to the audience
perspective by drawing out of his or her plot that is relevant to the
society that the production is meant to appeal to. He or she not forgets
that any production, which assists in bringing about change in societal
attitude towards taking remedial action to its advantage, tends to be best
appreciated.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Who are the station audiences that we have been referring to from time
to time?

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3.5 Production Script

Perhaps it is because scripts are the programme production pears that

they appear to be very important document in broadcast programme
production. The production scripts usually contain the production effects
to be used during performance. The scripts also determine the type of
language to be used by the artistes.

A production script is realised after the production meeting comprising

the various heads of units who come together to discuss the programme,
its content and other necessary requirements including the budget. It is
also at this stage that the master script is produced.

Master Script

This is the document, which gives the detail description of the

programme idea and comes up with the storyline. It is here that other
types of scripts emerge. They include:

• The Director’s Script

The script identifies the roles of the programme director, the technical
director and cameramen in case of the television. It is also here that the
type of costumes, make-ups, the furniture to be used. It also shows the
floor manager and what is required of him or her, and from here he or
she comes up with the proper floor design and plan for the production.

• The Technical Script

The script is a technical one so uses technical language. It could first be
a sketch and nothing more provided the technical personnel understand
it.

• Shooting Scripts
The script is principally concerned with directing and rehearsing on the
intended video and audio inputs so that at end a meaningful production
is realised.

• The Acting Script

In a situation where lines are provided for the performers the script
clearly indicates the lines of dialogue, what each actor or actress is to
say in the order the lines are to be delivered.

The script also indicates other acting instructions that would aid
performers live the lives of other persons on stage.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

In what ways do you live somebody’s live on stage?

4.0 CONCLUSION

From the foregoing it could be noticed that the role of a script in

programme production cannot be underrated. To performers and
everybody that is involved in programme production the script is the
road map just as the map is to geographers. It acts and serves as a
walking stick to the blind that is the person involved in the production
chain of programmes, especially in broadcasting.

5.0 SUMMARY

A script is drawn up in relation to the nature of the programme to be

produced. Fully-scripted programmes do not allow artistes to add their
own ideas and thought to what has been placed before then, but in semi-
scripted ones, the artistes are at liberty to provide their own
creative contributions to be suggested programme approach. All the
other scripts emerge from the master scripts. The only thing that
differentiates one from the other is the language used in each script.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Describe the role of the scriptwriter in the broadcast programme

production.
2. Differentiate between the technical script and the director’s
script.
3. What qualities must a good scriptwriter possess?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Hyde, S.W. (1971). Television and Radio Announcing, (2nd ed.). New
York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Idebi, S.K. (2008). Fundamentals of Radio Production. Ibadan: Impact

Motion Pictures and Media Koncept Nig.

Owuamalam, E. O. (2007). Radio-TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies Motion Pictures and Media Koncept Nig.

Warritay, B. (1986). Techniques of Television Production. Nairobi:

UNESCO.

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UNIT 5 OUTSIDE BROADCASTING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Broadcast Channels
3.3 Linking Up with Outside Broadcast
3.4 Types of Outside Broadcast
3.5 Commentators on Site
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In outside the van housing the equipment for broadcast is properly

known as the Outside Broadcast Van (OBV). The producer of the
programme must always ensure that the (OB) Van is moved from the
station with its full and functional compliment to the required location,
well ahead of the commencement of the event to be covered
(Owuamalam 2007:142).

The van is usually stationed at an appropriate place where there will be

no difficulty in gaining access to both the field staff and the main
station. The producer usually embarks on visit to the scene if it is a
planned programme to survey the area and find a possible place the van
for effective coverage of the event. This is also called field plan just like
plotting the floor plan in studio production.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

It is hoped that this unit will bring the learner face-to-face with the
reality of Outside Broadcasting. He will therefore be able to:

• identify outside Broadcast channels and types

• fully explain how to link up the station with the OB Van.
• demonstrate the work of commentators on site.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Outside Broadcast

Outside Broadcast as the name implies is programme produces outside

the station. The programme deals with the coverage and recording an
event in the field as opposed to studio recording for a Broadcast station.
Every activity takes place outside conventional studio.

There are many kinds of outside recordings such as (ENG) Electronic

News Gathering, (DNG) Digital News Gathering, (EEP) Electronic
Field Production and (RFP) Remote Field Production. Any of this can
be used to record schedule or unscheduled events for use in the
Broadcast station. However each of them is used differently to achieve
the same aim. For example, ENG, the reporter uses the camcorder to
cover events that can be used for News production in the station.

Whereas the DNG uses satellite up-link facility to relay field news
events to the satellite for downloading and use by the station, EFP uses
camcorder to record events in the field to be edited and used in the
station. On the other hand RFP is said to be a complete studio in the
field. It contains virtually all the equipment for all the production.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define Outside Broadcasting.

3.2 Broadcast Channel

Radio is just like any other broadcast station. It sends out its signals
though a broadcast chain that begins in the studio and often terminates
in the Radio transistor of the listeners. Recorded materials are play in
the continuity studio. The materials could be on reel-to-reel tape,
cassette, compact disc, record or even computers. The signals are
therefore sent to the lines room (Magaji, 2000).

These lines room and where the signals from the studio receive the first
treatment of filtration at the link-sat. The link-sat is the equipment,
which on filtering the signals sends them through microwaves to the
transmission station; another link-sat corresponding receiver is to accept
the signals from the station. According to Magaji (2000), cited in Idebi
(2008:76), at the transmission station, another link-sat corresponding
receiver is to accept the signals from the station. The signals received
are routed to the transmission hall. The signals are positioned between
two link-sats which are transmitted using microwaves through space.
The signals from the receiver link-sat are directed into the transmission

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hall. The first point is the programme input equipment that once more
filters the signals and modulates it for suitable reception in the sets in
our homes.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What do you understand by Radio broadcast Channel?

3.3 Linking Up with Outside Broadcast

Linking up of the commentator to the station from outside depends on

the number of lines of the telephone that are available. It also depends
on the proximity of the commentary site to the station. There are also
other ways by which the linkage can be carried out:

1. By Cable: Linking the scene of events to the studio is preferred

especially when such event is taking place within the premises of
the station but outside the studio. This is a direct link from the
studio to scene or from the scene to the studio.

2. By Microwave Link-Sat: In this situation signals from the scene

of the event are sent to the section using Link-Sat. Here also
depends on the proximity of the scene to the broadcasting station.
Since the microwave may not be capable microwave may not be
capable of covering long distance, but where they can cover the
distance no matter where the scene of event is provided it is
within the coverage area of the station.

3. By Telephone Lines: If the event is taking place where there are

no telephone services but in a location serviced by the telephone
the microwave equipment could be used from the site of the event
to the carrier room of NITEL which could direct the signals
through its trunk to the broadcast station.

If the scene of the event is serviced by telephone line, then it does not
pose any problem as the outside broadcast equipment output could be
directly connected to an already booked line that would get to the studio.
Such line is normally cut off from the unwelcome calls until the event is
over.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe linking the station from outside broadcast by Microwave Link-

Sat?

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3.4 Types of Outside Broadcast

Most Outside Broadcast on radio deals with commentaries. These are

divided into ceremonial and sport commentaries. However, each
functions in its own way depending on the availability of resources and
time involved.

They are:

• Delayed Broadcast: Here an event is fully recorded from the

beginning to the end and the transmission is done at a later date.
This is done especially of the scene of the event cannot be
reached at the time the event was unfolding.

• Closed Circuit: This method is used for sports that have no time
span for example, table tennis and lawn tennis, basketball and
motor racing. The activities are fully covered but edited to be
given airtime and transmitted at a later period.

• Live Broadcast: Here reporting is carried out as the event is

taking place. Commentaries are made from and on the spot. Live
broadcasts are carried out during important football matches and
the independent celebration.

• Relayed Outside Broadcast: In this situation the station may

hook up to a sister station to relay such event or information to
the station for its audience.

Whichever method of Outside Broadcasting embarked upon by a station,

time frame becomes an important factor. There are some programmes
that last longer than others. For example ceremonial events such as
independent celebration may last up to three hours while sports may
take a maximum of two and a half hours for a football match that may
go extra time and penalty kicks to produce a winner.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What do you understand by delayed Outside Broadcasting?

3.5 Commentators on Site

In Nigeria, commentators for local stations are selected based on the

language or languages of communication. This is the case because the
proceedings are usually translated from English to the local languages
for those who do not understand English but the station has to meet its
obligation to them, of informing, educating and entertaining them.

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The commentary position is determined as soon as the crew arrive the

venue of the event, where there has been non-before.

However in standard stadia, standard cubicles are already in place. Here

the commentators advise engineers on the number of cables or
microphones to be used and how they should be located.

The next thing is the team looks out for possible escape routes in the
event of unexpected and circumstantial happenings.

The announcer usually introduces the commentators equip themselves

with portable and small radio sets to monitor their output on air. This is
very important and it enables them to correct any anomaly on the
commentary. The Commentators relief one another from time to time so
that none of them would be over worked.

The commentators sign off usually at the end of the event.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why do you think commentators should look out for escape route while
covering events outside the station?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Outside Broadcasting requires efficient planning with efficient

personnel to handle the assignment, because it involves the use of
person and equipment. Both the people and the equipment should be in
good condition, the people should be competent in handling the
production equipments if the desired result is to be achieved. At the
scene of the event cables must be laid in such a way that disruption and
damages are avoided.

5.0 SUMMARY

Outside Broadcasting takes place solely outside the studio. The event is
recorded in the field and only used by the broadcast station.

For effective coverage of outside event, many people are involved and
in fact machinery and funds are also involved. So the station determines
the time it would take to embark on such an event in conjunction with
the financial resources available.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What are the most important forms of Outside Broadcasting in

television?
2. Fully discuss the qualities of radio commentators on the field.
3. By what means would you link up with the station if you are on
outside broadcasting assignment?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Idebi, S. K. (2008). Fundamentals of Radio Production. Ibadan: Impact

Motion Pictures and Media Koncept Nigeria.

Magaji, S.I. (2000). “Challenges of the Third

World Media”. Unpublished work Kaduna Polytechnic.

Owuamalam, E. O. (2007). Radio-TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies Ltd.

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UNIT 6 DIGITAL BROADCASTING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions and Advantages of Digital Broadcasting
3.2 Digital and Online Radio
3.3 Digital and Online Television
3.4 Digital Broadcasting and Development in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The focus of previous discussions, so far, has been on the analogue

broadcasting in both the radio and television categories. The world is
dynamic and nowhere is the dynamism more manifest than in digital
broadcasting. Nigeria began the journey to the world of digital
broadcasting in April of 2016 in the city of Jos when it launched the
introductory phase of the government’s digital transmission project.
This is in accordance with the trend internationally. This unit deals with
Digital Broadcasting and how it is going to affect development in
Nigeria.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

· define digital broadcasting

· explain its advantages over analogue broadcasting.
· categorise digital broadcasting into radio and television and
explain what each means
· explain the relevance of digital broadcasting to the development
of Nigeria.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definitions and Advantages of Digital Broadcasting

Digital broadcasting, which unfortunately is one of the topics not taught

often in classes (Orji, 2014: xviii) is the method of using computer

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technology to transmit digital signals for broadcasting purposes using

radio frequency bands. This simply means that sound or picture is
converted to digital data instead of the waveforms of the analogue
system. Unlike the analogue system, which is noted for its deliberate
variations in signal voltage and radio frequencies, the digitisation
process involves the conversion of text, images and sounds to binary
codes which computer systems or some other devices convert back to
audio and visual stimulus that can be perceived. The data emerge as
compressed, which makes information easier to be stored, accessed,
transmitted or processed (Pierson & Bauwens, 2015). According to a
statement credited to the office of the Nigerian Minister of Information,
Lai Mohammed, in 2016 the switchover to the Digital Terrestrial
Television or DTT was a necessity for Nigeria as a signatory to the
International Broadcast Union Agreement signed in 2006 in Geneva.
This agreement had mandated its members to switch over to the digital
system with the main purpose of improving broadcast quality.

Advantages of Digital Broadcasting

The advantages of digital broadcasting can be seen from the perspective
of the broadcaster (or operator), user and government. Digital
broadcasting provides fresh and immense opportunities to offer new
services which were never possible with the analogue system, leading to
new streams of income. The advantage offered by digital compression
provides for more effective bandwidth usage thereby allowing more
room for the provision of services at higher quality than before. “More
room” means more channels and with the increasing speciality, each
channel is supposed to broadcast an aspect of life that improves on the
socio-economic development of the subscribers. As more broadcasters
embrace digital broadcasting, offer new services and make more money,
manufacturers also benefit immensely from increased receiver sale,
thereby providing more jobs both at the upstream and upstream sub
sectors.

With digital broadcasting, radio and television will never be the same
again, most especially for subscribers. In the case of television, viewers
have a wide choice for television programs while listeners have more
radio stations to listen to. The digital system makes possible the high
definition television or HDTV with its clean, crisp images that are
hardly different from the type people see in cinema houses. Digital
television features automatic user interface so that those watching basic
broadcast can preview other channels without having to surf channels.
This is similar to what obtains in cable and satellite system. The digital
tuners function as anti-distortion control, thereby enabling an ideal
image view.

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Besides this, subscribers to digital television can enjoy ancillary services

such as electronic program guide (EPG). The channel with EPG facility
displays current and upcoming programs, thereby making wider the
choices people have for programs. This is similar to what one sees on
DSTV or GoTV in Nigeria. The interactivity is taken to another level
with the Hybrid Broadcast Broadband Television (or HbbTV). This
facility can show television content from a number of digital sources
including the traditional analogue channel, internet and from other
connected devices. By harmonising the broadcast, IPTV, and broadband
content to the end consumer or subscriber through connected through a
smart TV, entertainment is taken to a whole new level. What is more,
subscribers have multiple reception modes which can be hand held,
portable and movable unlike the analogue that is fixed.

With digital broadcasting, regulation and control becomes easier than in

the case of analogue. The digital broadcasting system can be configured
in such a manner that makes easier regulation by government. It is
believed that in Nigeria there are several television and radio stations
which the government finds difficult to monitor. For instance, the radio
station used by the Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) in 2016 couldn’t
be traced until after a long time, a situation that put the security of the
nation in serious jeopardy. With the digital system, one is able to
monitor the frequency, the equipment performance, predict the number
of listeners and viewers at no extra cost.

3.2 Digital and Online Radio

Digital radio is a major step ahead of the Frequency Modulation and

Amplitude Modulation system, especially in sound quality. In digital
radio, sound is converted to digital signals by computer for transmission
to digital radio receivers which decode them as sound (Hoeg &
Lauterbach (2003). The output is something similar to the quality you
get when playing a compact disc. Unlike the AM/FM radio sounds
which are characterised by interference when signals hit valleys, hills,
buildings, walls and the like, the digital system has a reliable technology
that filters transmissions at the end of which a high quality sound is
produced. When tuning your typical analogue radio, AM or FM, you
experience some crusty noise as you approach the frequency. The noise
disappears when the dial hits the exact frequency where signal is
strongest. In the digital system this noise is completely eliminated. It is
either signal is available or not as the dial automatically locks on to the
frequency. In a digital system, there is a menu list featuring all available
stations from where you make your choice.

Digital radio also has some sight features. If, for instance, you are
listening to a digital radio on an LCD screen, you can view the line-up

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of programmes and receive information and data on what speech or

music that is currently playing. You can also get adverts, news feeds,
contacts, images and so forth. The digital radio technology also features
the on-board storage system which allows you to rewind, pause and re-
listen or review what was heard previously. Digital radio is a new
technology. One needs therefore needs a different radio receiver to be
able to listen to it.

The foregoing features of digital radio indicate that it can be heard on

the Internet. Online radio also called e-radio, internet radio or streaming
radio is one arm of webcasting, the other being video. Internet radio,
which became popular in 1993, is accessible from anywhere in the
world, thereby advantageous over the wireless stuff whose signal cannot
travel more than 100 kilometers, except it is transmitted via satellite.
Unlike the typical digital audio system, you can listen to online radio on
your phone, monitor or screen, IPAD, etc so long as they have the
computer system and the Internet to do so. Online radio streams signals
into sounds using the MP3, MP4, Windows Media Audio (WMA),
RealAudio and a few other technologies available for that purpose.
Online radio is not popular yet in Nigeria unlike such countries as
Australia, Sweden and others in the advanced world.

With regard to licensing, Internet or online radio is not yet as popular

with the authorities as to warrant being licensed like the traditional
FM/AM/SW radio. However, it is being canvassed that since Internet
radio also airs commercials, it is necessary that the owner obtains a
license to operate. Another issue is how government will be able to
regulate the sheer number of online radio ‘stations’ that are expected to
be floated in the years ahead. Some observers say that internet radio
could be as many as two million with over one hundred thousand or
more operating in the United States alone!

3.3 Digital and Online Television

The analog television system deploys variable signal continuously but

digital broadcast converts signals into a stream of binary on/off bits—
sequences of 0s and 1s which is in consonance with the same way that
computers store information in data files. Each bit represents a fraction
of the whole. The receiving set converts these digits of 0s and 1s back to
picture and sound which are exactly identical to the original material
that was converted in the first instance. So far as the signal transmitted
can be captured by the receiver, it remains strong as ever, with no
degradation or ghosting noticed. Digital television transmission occupies
far less bandwidth than analog, which enables stations broadcast up to
four channels compared to one in the analogue system. This is a reason
it is referred to as a “multicasting” system compared to “broadcasting”

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parlance of the analogue technology. Some digital television signals are

received as high definition television (HDTV) with up to 1080 pixel
(image) quality compared to the 300 pixels in the analogue system. The
receiver must also have very high resolution to be able to capture the
HDTV signal.

Digital television has a superior image quality compared to the analogue

system; features smaller bandwidth for a particular image quality;
compatible with computer as its digital signals are converted to data; is
interactive; does not fade in reception quality and comes up as advanced
audio quality.

When a digital television signal is streamed over the internet, it is called

online television. In many cases signals are transmitted live and can be
played back. For the subscriber to enjoy internet television, he or she
must be connected via Wi-fi, mobile data or Ethernet and have a web
browser running on some computer domiciled in a smart phone, tablet,
smart TV, laptop computer or personal computer. As long as these
devices are connected to the internet, digital television can be received.
Some popular names do exist in the online digital television streaming
including Apple TV, Boxee, google TV and Amazon Fire. Some
Nigerian television station videos appear as digital television though
they are not. They include Channels Television and TVC television.
Digital television online is expected to improve in Nigeria in the next
ten years.

3.4 Digital Broadcasting and Development in Nigeria

Digital broadcasting is germane to the development of Nigeria. It is

significant in the sense that it captures the interests of most or all
stakeholders in the broadcasting subsector – multilateral agencies,
government/regulators, journalists, subscribers, producers, content
providers and so forth. In the case of government and regulators, the
revenue base will be expanded as digital broadcasting makes available
for use huge spectrum space which can be auctioned or sold to those
who are interested. Besides this, digital technology is such that
government, through its regulator, is able to monitor and control it via
the policies for that purpose. The Nigerian Broadcasting Commission
(NBC) has experienced massive shortfall in its revenue stream because
the mainly analogue stations are not able to generate funds enough to
fulfil the financial responsibility toward the commission. This is going
to change with the advent of digital broadcasting.

For the subscribers, the future is very bright. There is better

programming in digital broadcasting as there are more programmes and
channels to choose from. The sound is very clear while the pictures are

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crisp. Besides cable television subscription, most listeners and viewers

currently pay nothing for subscription as income is limited to only
broadcast commercials. Reasons adduced by viewers are that the quality
of broadcast from the stations is usually poor while content is not
convincing. The situation is poised to change as the quality of broadcast
in the digital system is very high and the multiplicity of channels is
expected to elicit variety in programming. This means there will be
more work for broadcasters, journalists, producers, advertising
practitioners, directors, cameramen, actors and actresses and so forth.

Broadcasters are particularly blessed because unlike the analogue

system which carries only one channel on a frequency, one could have
up to four channels in frequency in digital broadcasting. What is more,
digital broadcasting equipment are as moderately built and do not
occupy much space as those of analogue. The bulky equipment of the
analogue broadcasting is notorious for occupying large space.
Furthermore, the moderateness of the digital broadcasting is made
manifest in the lower number of personnel required to handle
equipment. This means reduced overheads of broadcasters and media
owners as well as fewer overheads.

However, there are issues with digital broadcasting in Nigeria. First is

that it is obvious that the deadline set by the United Nations for full
digitalisation could not be met by Nigeria. The International
Telecommunications Union (ITU), during a radio communications
conference in 2006, had set 2015 migration to digital deadline for UHF
channels, and 2020 for all UHF. Nigeria had only succeeded in doing
only a pilot study in 2016 while facts are limited as proof that the 2020
deadline will be met.

Another challenge faced in the development of the digital broadcasting

sector is in the area of technical competence. The switch over from
analogue to digital involves a lot of technical expertise which is still in
short supply as of 2017. Experts have argued that even if Nigerians
achieve competence in equipment handling, maintenance and repair
could be a serious issue, bearing in mind that most or all of the
equipment are not manufactured locally. This is in addition to the long
running problem of poor power supply and lack of will on the part of the
government to improve on the electric power situation.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Observers argue that government could get serious and resolve the
foregoing issues. For instance, the argument exists that government
could leverage on the expected rise in the demand for digital
broadcasting equipment and ask manufacturers to set up factories to

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locally produce the equipment for the stations that will be set up. If
government could achieve this that would obviously go far in resolving
the issues.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit dealt with digital broadcasting. It defined what digital

broadcasting is about and expanded discussion to the two aspects of
radio and television. A progress report on Nigeria’s attempt at the
digitalisation of its broadcasting operations and its implication on the
nation’s development were explained as it was clear that the nation
would need to put in more efforts if any meaningful impact was going to
be made in this regard.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define digital broadcasting and explain how it works.

2. List out the differences that exist between digital and analogue
broadcasting.
3. Explain the benefits to Nigeria if it succeeds in its attempt at the
digitalisation of broadcasting.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Orji, O. (2014). What They Don’t Teach You in Broadcasting. Ibadan:

Safari Books.

Pierson J. and Bauwens J. (2015). Digital Broadcasting: An Introduction

to New Media. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. (Purchase
online).

Hoeg, W and Lauterbach, T (2003). Digital Audio Broadcasting:

Principles and Applications of Digital Radio: Sussex: John Wiley
& Sons. (Download online)

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UNIT 7 MEDIA LAW

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition
3.2 Press Freedom
3.3 Official Secrets Act
3.4 Law of Defamation
3.5 Law of Sedition
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Laws are meant to guide human behaviour. And any organisation cannot
operate successfully with Laws guiding such an organisation.

Any discussion on media operation will not be complete without taking

a look at the aspect of Law influencing the practice of journalism in
Nigeria and elsewhere in the world.

Practitioners of Journalism just like any other professionals such as

doctors and lawyers do not operate without laws governing or guiding
their conduct. Journalists as the watch dog of the society operate in an
organised social system that is guarded by rules and regulation as
watchdog they ought to know the limitations, constraints or challenges
facing them in the pursuit of their calling (Nwodu 2006:157).

2.0 OBJECTIVES

This unity is an attempt to provide with an in depth insight into the law
guiding the practice of journalism in Nigeria.

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• demonstrate knowledge of media laws and freedom of the press

• differentiate between the Official Secrets Act and other forms of
media law.
• explain defamation and the Law of Sedition in broadcast
journalism.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Media Law

From time immemorial man learnt that, law in whatever form is

necessary for attainment of order, peaceful coexistence and general
progress in the society. It is quite difficult to think of any society that
functions without laws. Sambe and Ikoni (2004:8) state that the
functions of Law are:

1. To ensure and maintain order and tranquility in the society.

2. To achieve justice and fairness in the society.
3. To protect the right and interest of the weak and oppressed on the
society.
4. To protect the integrity and the personality of an individual.
5. To preserve the fundamental values of the society.

What then is Media Law? Media Law may be defined as the rules and
regulations that guide the operation of the media of communication
either through public or private channels and the punishment that goes
along with the person or group or persons that violate the law.

Sambe and Ikoni further posit that it is the law that establishes or allows
for the establishment of media houses that act as the guideline for their
operation, the limitation within which they are to operate and the
sanction that will be placed against anybody that transgresses its
provisions.

In a nutshell, it is the rules which govern the professional conduct of all

those that are involved in media practice.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is Media Law?

3.2 Press Freedom

Freedom of the press has been a very controversial issue in the practice
of Media and the law because Press Freedom deals with the freedom of
individual in the society. Because of its importance to Media
practitioners and government it is enshrined in the constitution of almost
every nation including human right-based organisation charter.

The American First Amendment Act of 1970 declares that “Congress

shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech, or the press; or the
right of people peacefully to assemble, and petition government for a

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redress of guidance”. Likewise, the Constitution of Nigeria 1999,

Section 39 (1) states that “Every person shall be entitled to freedom of
expression including freedom to hold opinion and to receive and impart
ideas and information without interferences”.

Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 states

that “Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression, this
right includes freedom to hold opinion without interference and to seek,
receive and impact information and idea though any Media, regardless
of frontier”. All these declarations are saying the same thing that both
the press and the individual have freedom of expression. To seek,
receive and impact information can only be done in a social climate
where there in unrestricted freedom. Information is important to the
restriction of its flow will amount to denial of human right to freedom of
expression. Gathering and disseminating information is a right so no
authority should hinder the press from performing its cardinal function.

Ndolo, (2006:221), cited in Nwodu, (2006:160), is of a similar opinion

when he states that “a press free from government control and the
relationship of such a press to the form and stability of government and
to economic growth and quality of life”

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What do you understand by Press freedom?

3.3 Official Secrets Act

In spite of declarations of several bodies on freedom of the press and the

individual, absolute freedom of expression does not exist in any part of
the world.

Nwodu (2006:163) notes that even where the press seems to enjoy
reasonable degree of freedom, such freedom always goes with some
limitation. And one of the ways to hinder the free and unrestricted
information flow is the Official Secrets Act.

Governments usually enact the Secrets Act to check against publications

of may be termed confidential information or document thereby
threatening the security of the nation.

Ewelukwa (2004:242) says the Official Secrets Act are legislations

made by the government to prevent people who have custody of secret
or official documents, such as policy decisions, contacts and actions of
government from recklessly divulging them to the public.

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The Official Secrets Act has been brought about for the reason that
people should misuse or abuse the act of freedom of expression.

Elias (1969:42) declares that a document is clarified if it is clearly

marked out as a document that is not to be disclosed to the public and of
which the disclosure to the public would endanger the security of the
nation. It is as a result of this “clarified document” that gave rise to the
motion of official secret act.

Nwodu (2004:164) states that the essence of the Act is to:

• Restrain mischievous public servant from leaking government

confidential information.
• To check the excesses of zealous journalists who may out of
desperation publish top government secrets information that may
threaten the stability of state.
• To safeguard the security of the state by checking access to and
publication to secret information likely to cause chaos, anarchy
and mass action against a government.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What do you think is the main reason for enacting Official Secret Act by
a government?

3.4 Law of Defamation

The law recognises in every man they might to have the estimation in
which he stands in the opinion of others unaffected by false or
defamatory statement and imputations. Defamatory statement may be
made in several ways. Sambe and Ikoni (2004:47) state that defamation
is any statement that tends to lower the plaintiff in the estimation of
right-thinking members of the society generally or cause them to shun or
avoid him or discredit him in his office, trade or profession or injure his
financial credit. Deformation can also be said to be and intentional false
communication either published or publicly spoken, that injures another
reputation or good name.

In the case of McGowan v. Prentice L.A. APP 341 502 & 55,57.US,
cited in Sambe and Ikoni (2004:48), it was decided against others that
defamation is that which tends to injure reputation, to diminish the
esteem, respect, good will or confidence in which the plaintiff is held or
to excite adverse, derogatory or unpleasant feeling or opinions against
him. From what we have seen so far one van bears witness that a
communication tends to be defamatory if it does some harm to the
reputation of another as to lower him in the estimation of the community

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or stop third person from associating or dealing with him or her. A

statement can be clarified as defamatory if it tends to:

• Expose him or her to hatred, ridicule or contempt.

• Caused him or her to be shunned or avoided.
• Lower him or her in the estimation or right-thinking members of
the society generally.
• Disparage him or her in his or her office, profession or trade.

A statement can be said to be defamatory if it damages the reputation of

the person in the eye of the right-thinking members of the society
generally. This is the case because reputation tends to be what society
holds of him or her not what he thinks of himself.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

When would you say a person has been defamed?

3.5 Law of Sedition

We have seen that defamation is communication that tends to poison

public minds against an individual. Sedition, on the other hand, is
communication that poisons public minds against any government.

Nwodu (2006:170) says sedition is a communication that tends to

defame any government in power and by extension incites members of
the public to embark on action against the government. A seditious
publication, therefore, has the potential of inciting the masses against the
government. There is no government in the world that tolerates mass
action against it. Such actions are usually viewed as treasonable offence
against the state and as such government normally takes drastic steps or
action against those responsible for such publication including those
who aid in the circulation of such material.

In some cases news media or Media houses are closed down because
public uprising over their news content. In such circumstances a
Nigerian government makes use of Criminal Code Act Cap 77 of 1990
which empowers both the Federal and State government to not only
confiscate any publication likely to bring government to ridicule and
public contempt, but to also close down such media house. The material
could be about to be published; it can confiscated if viewed to the
seditious.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Advances reasons why government does not tolerate sedition

publication.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit we have taken a look at some not all Media Laws and we
have seen or observed that Media practitioners do not operate in a
climate of legal function. And there is no organisation that functions
without Laws guiding its operation. We have also seen that in order not
to abuse freedom of the press; certain laws have been put in place to
check the excesses of journalists.

5.0 SUMMARY

Organisations the world over have seen the need for people to seek
information and ideas and be informed as well without hindrances by
any government. However in order to check abuses and bring disrepute
against government certain Laws and Acts have been enacted such as
the Official Secret Act and the Criminal Code Act. These Acts have
empowered government to act in a way deemed fit by confiscating or
closing down the Media houses that have gone out of their way publish
information that is injured to government.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Vividly give a definition of Media Laws.

2. Discuss the First Amendment of the USA and what it stands for.
3. What do you understand by the Law of Sedition?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ewelukwa, B.N (2004). Introduction to Nigerian Press Law. Onitsha:

Maranatha Press.

Nwodu, L.C. (2006). Journalism Practice: News, Aesthetics, Ethics and

Law. Enugu: Rhyce Kerev Publishers.

Sambe, J.A. and Ikoni, U.D. (2004). Mass Media Law and Ethics in
Nigeria. Ibadan: Caltop Publications Nigeria Ltd.

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APPENDIX: LIST OF BROADCAST STATIONS IN NIGERIA

RADIO STATIONS
FEDERAL RADIO CORPORATION OF NIGERIA
No. Radio Network Location
1 Radio Nigeria, Lagos Ikoyi, Lagos
2 FRCN Network Garki, Abuja.
3 Radio Nigeria, Abuja National Gwagwalada, Abuja
Station
4 Radio Nigeria, Ibadan Oba Adebimpe Road,
Ibadan, Oyo State
5 FRCN Training Institution GRA, Ikeja, Lagos
6 Radio Nigeria, Kaduna Yakubu Gowon Way,
Kaduna
7 Radio Nigeria, Enugu 7 Onitsha Road, Enugu

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT-OWNED FM STATIONS

INNIGERIA
No. Radio Station Band
1 Jewel FM, Gombe 103.5 MHz
2 Harvest FM, Makurdi 103.5 MHz
3 Progress FM, Ado Ekiti 100.5 MHz
4 Gift FM, Jalingo 104.5 MHz
5 Creek FM, Yenagoa 101.5MHz
6 Peace FM, Maiduguri 102.5 MHz
7 Bronze FM, Benin 101.5 MHz
8 Globe FM, Bauchi 98.5MHz
9 Charity FM, Asaba 104.4 MHz
10 Paradise FM, Calabar 99.5 MHz
11 Supreme FM, Kaduna 96.1 MHz
12 Pyramid FM, Kano 103.5 MHz
13 Highland FM 101.5 MHz
14 Equity FM, Birnin Kebbi 103.5 MHz
15 Horizon FM, Dutse 100.5 MHz
16 Heartland FM, Owerri 100.5 MHz
17 Premier FM, Ibadan 93.5 MHz
18 Coal City FM, Enugu 92.85 MHz
19 Treasure FM, Port-Harcourt 98.5 MHz
20 Companion FM, Katsina 104.5 MHz
21 Lighthouse FM, Adamawa 101.5 MHz
22 Paramount FM, Abeokuta 94.5 MHz
23 Positive FM, Akure 102.5 MHz
24 Solid FM, Lafia 102.5 MHz
25 Sunshine FM Potiskum 104.5 MHz
26 Gold FM, Ilesha 95.5 MHz

133
27 Pride FM, Gusau 102.5 MHz
28 Purity FM, Awka 102.5MHz
29 Kapital FM, Abuja FM 92.9 MHz
30 Pacesetter FM, Abia 103.5 MHz
31 Power FM, Minna 100.5 MHz
32 Atlantic FM, Uyo 104.5 MHz
33 Royal FM, Sokoto 101.5 MHz
34 Unity FM, Abakaliki 101.5 MHz
35 Harmony FM, Ilorin 103.5 MHz

LIST OF STATE-OWNED RADIO STATIONS IN NIGERIA

No. RADIO STATION Band
1 Lagos State Broadcasting Corporation 89.75 MHz;
(Radio Lagos) : 107.5 MHz

2 Cross River State Broadcasting 89.926 MHz

Corporation
3 Delta State Broadcasting Service 88.6 MHz FM
(Warri) Melody FM
4 Enugu State Broadcasting Service 96.1 MHz
5 Bauchi Radio Corporation 990, 846 KHz, 94.47
MHz
6 Bayelsa State Broadcasting 97.1 MHz
Corporation
7 Borno State Radio -
8 Broadcasting Service of Ekiti State 91.5 MHz FM
9 Delta State Broadcasting Service 97.92 MHz
(Asaba) Voice of Delta
10 Radio Benue 918 KHz AM, 95.0
MHz FM
11 Edo State Broadcasting Service 95.75 MHz
12 Gombe Media Corporation 1404 KHz AM, 91.9
MHz
13 Akwa Ibom Broadcasting 90.5 MHz
Corporation
14 Ebonyi Broadcasting Service (EBBS) 98.10 MHz
15 Kaduna State Media Services 639 KHz, 90.8 MHz
16 Imo Broadcasting Corporation (IBC) AM- 721 KHz, FM-
94.4 MHz
17 Jigawa State Radio 1026 KHz MW
18 Katsina State Radio Service 9772 KHz
19 Kano State Radio Corporation 549 KHz, 729 KHz- AM
20 Radio Kwara 612 KHz 490 Metre
Band,

134
 99.00 MHz
21 Kebbi Broadcasting Corporation 945.801 MHz
(Radio)
22 Broadcast Corporation of Oyo State 795 MHz-AM
(BCOS) 98.5 MHz- FM
23 Niger Media Broadcasting 75.6 KHz
Corporation
24 Nasarawa Broadcasting Service 97.1 MHz
25 Broadcasting Corporation of Abia 88.1 MHz
State
26 Crystal FM Minna 91.2 MHz FM
27 Ogun State Broadcasting Corporation OGBC 1603 MHz MW,
OGBC II 90.5 MHz FM
28 Plateau Radio Corporation 313 MHz in 228 metre
Band, 88,636-FM
29 Osun State Broadcasting Corporation 104.5 MHz,
89.5 MHz
30 Solid FM 102.5 MHz
31 Taraba State Broadcasting Service 1260 KHz in MWB and,
(TSBS) AM & FM 90.65 MHz FM
32 Rivers State Broadcasting -
Corporation
33 Kogi Broadcasting Corporation 94 MHz
34 Sokoto State Media Corporation, 540 KHz
Rima Radio
35 Yobe Broadcasting Corporation 801 KHz
36 Aso FM 93.5 MHz
37 Adamawa Broadcasting Corporation 95.77 MHz-FM
38 Anambra Broadcasting Service 88.5 MHz FM
(Radio) 10.60 KHz AM
39 Broadcasting Corporation of Abia 88.1 MHz
State

LIST OF PRIVATE RADIO STATIONS NIGERIA

No. RADIO STATION Location Band
1 Hot FM Abuja 98.3 MHz
2 Steam Broadcasting (Cool Victoria Island, 96.9 MHz
FM) Lagos FM
3 STEAM Broadcasting Abuja 96.9 MHz
(Cool FM) FM
4 Independent Radio Benin City 92.3 MHz
5 Jeremi Radio Warri, Delta State -
6 Silverbird Communications Garki, Abuja -
Limited
7 Nagarta Radio Mararaban Jos, -

135
 Kaduna
8 Silverbird Communications Port Harcourt 93.7 FM
Limited
9 Ray Power I and II FM Lagos 100.5 MHz
FM
10 Star FM (Murhi Lagos 101.5
International)
11 Love (Former Crowther) Abuja 104.5 MHz
FM
12 Ceuna Communications Enugu State 105.5 MHz
(Cosmo FM)
13 Silverbird Communications Yaba, Lagos 93.7 FM
Limited
14 Vision FM Abuja 92.1 MHz
15 Steam Broadcasting Port Harcourt 95.9 MHz
(Wazobia FM)
16 Steam Broadcasting (Cool Port Harcourt -
FM)
17 Grace FM Lokoja -
18 Freedom Radio Kano 99.5 MHz
19 Globe Broadcasting Victoria Island 96.9 MHz
(Wazobia FM) Annex, Lagos FM
20 Minaj Systems Radio Obosi, Anambra 89.4 MHz
State
21 Zuma FM Abuja 88.5 MHz
22 Okin FM Kwara State 105.7 MHz
23 Brilla FM Victoria Island, 88.9 MHz
(Sports) Lagos FM
24 Kiss FM Abuja. 99.9 MHz

CAMPUS RADIO STATIONS IN NIGERIA

S/N Station Band S/N Station Band
1 UNIUYO FM 100.7 18 Nasarawa State 101.1
(University University FM,
of Uyo),
2 Heritage FM 104.9 19 Search FM, Minna 92.3
(Heritage (Federal University of
Polytechnic) Technology, Minna),
3 Madonna Radio 93.3 , 20 Hope FM (Babcock 89.1
(Madonna University Radio
University) FM station,
4 Unizik (Nnamdi 94.1 21 Hebron FM (Covenant 95.9
Azikiwe University Radio
University) FM Station, Ota)

136
5 Tansian Radio 107.1 22 Great FM, Obafemi 94.5
(Tansian Awolowo University,
University) FM (OAU Ile-Ife),
6 BSU FM 89.9 23 Lead City (University) 89.1
(Benue State FM,
University),
7 Okada 90.5 24 Diamond FM, 101.1
Wonderland University of Ibadan,
FM, (Igbinedion
University
Radio),
8 Uniben, FM, 100.1 25 ICEFMUJ (University 96.1
of Jos)
9 Hillside FM 94.1 26 Unique FM 88.5
(Auchi (University of Port
Polytechnic Harcourt),
Radio),
10 Caritas 98.7 27 Samaru FM (Ahmadu 101.1
University Bello University,
Radio, Zaria),
11 GOUNI Radio 106.9 28 Click FM (Ibrahim 89.9
(Geoffrey Babangida University,
Okoye Lapai),
University),
12 Lion FM, 91.1 29 Ultimate FM (College 103.9
(University of of Education, Minna),
Nigeria),
13 BUK FM Kano 98.9 30 Varsity FM Radio 107.8
(Bayero (Adekunle Ajasin
University) University)
14 Unilorin FM 89.3 31 ESUT Radio (Enugu 106.5
(University of State University of
Ilorin), Technology)
15 LASU Radio 95.7 32 Rhema FM, (Rhema 93.3
(Lagos State University, Aba)
University,
16 NOUNFM 105.9 33 DELSU FM Radio 103.7
(National Open (Delta State
University of University, Abraka),
Nigeria)
17 Unilag FM 103.1 34 KASU Radio (Kaduna 98.5
(University of State University,
Lagos), Kaduna)

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TELEVSION STATIONS
S/N NAMES OF NIGERIAN TELEVSION AUNTHORITY
(NTA) TELEVSION STATIONS (HEADQUARTERS IS IN
ABUJA, NIGERIA)
1 NTA 34 NTA ABA 67 NTA JOS
OKITIPUPA
2 NTA 35 NTA 68 NTA KADUNA
OSOGBO ABAKALIKI
3 NTA 36 NTA 69 NTA KANO
OWERRI ABEOKUTA
4 NTA OYO 37 NTA ABUJA 70 NTA KATSINA
5 NTA PORT 38 NTA PLUS 71 NTA KEBBI
HARCOURT STATE
6 NTA SAKI 39 NTA ADO- 72 NTA 2
EKITI CHANNEL5
7 NTA SAPELE 40 NTA AKURE 73 NTA LAGOS
8 NTA 41 NTA ASABA 74 NTA
SOKOTO MAIDUGURI
9 NTA - NTA AUCHI 75 NTA MAKURDI
UMUAHIA
10 NTA UYO 43 NTA AWKA 76 OGBOMOSHO
11 NTA WARRI 44 NTA BAUCHI 77 NTA CHANNEL
6, ABA
12 NTA 45 NTA BENIN 78 NTA
OKITIPUPA ABAKALIKI
13 NTA 46 CALABAR 79 NTA
OSOGBO ABEOKUTA
14 NTA 47 NTA 80 NTA ABUJA
OWERRI DAMATURU
15 NTA OYO 48 NTA DUTSE 81 NTA PLUS
16 NTA PORT 49 NTA ENUGU 82 NTA ADO-
HARCOURT EKITI
17 NTA SAKI 50 NTA GOMBE 83 NTA AKURE
18 NTA SAPELE 51 NTA GUSAU 84 NTA ASABA
19 NTA 52 NTA IBADAN 85 NTA AUCHI
SOKOTO
20 NTA 53 NTA IJEBU- 86 NTA AWKA
UMUAHIA ODE
21 NTA UYO 54 NTA IKARE 87 NTA BAUCHI
22 NTA WARRI 55 NTA ILE-IFE 88 NTA BENIN
23 NTA 56 NTA 89 NTA JOS
OKITIPUPA IRUEKPEN
24 NTA 57 NTA JALINGO 90 NTA KADUNA
OSOGBO
25 NTA 58 NTA 91 NTA KANO

138
 OWERRI P/HARCOURT
26 NTA OYO 59 NTA SAKI 92 NTA KATSINA
27 NTA 60 NTA SAPELE 93 NTA YENEGOA
OWERRI
28 NTA OYO 61 NTA SOKOTO 94 NTA YOLA
29 NTA PORT 62 NTA 95 NTA YENEGOA
HARCOURT UMUAHIA
30 NTA PORT 63 NTA UYO 96 NTA OWERRI
HARCOURT
31 NTA SAKI 64 NTA WARRI 97 NTA OYO
32 NTA SAPELE 65 NTA 98 NTA PORT
OKITIPUPA HARCOURT
33 NTA PORT 66 NTA OSOGBO 99 NTA YENEGOA
HARCOURT
6 NTA SAKI 39 NTA ADO- 72 NTA 2
EKITI CHANNEL5
7 NTA SAPELE 40 NTA AKURE 73 NTA LAGOS

STATE-OWNED TELEVISION STATIONS

S/N Name of Station S/N Name of Station
1 ADAMAWA TV 20 IMO STATE
CORPORATION BROADCASTING
CORPORATION TV
2 AKWA-IBOM 21 JIGAWA BROADCASTING
BROADCASTING CORPORATION TV
CORPORATION TV
3 ANAMBRA STATE 22 KADUNA STATE MEDIA
BROADCASTING CORPORATION TV
CORPORATION
4 BAUCHI TV 23 KANO BROARDCASTING
CORPORATION TV
5 BAYELSA 24 KASTINA STATE
BROADCASTING TV BROADCASTING TV
6 BENUE TV 25 KEBBI STATE
BROADCASTING SERVICE
7 BORNO TELEVISION 26 KWAARA STATE
CORPORATTION BROADCASTING
CORPORATION
8 BROADCASTING 27 LAGO STATE TV
CORPORATION OF
ABIA STATE TV
9 BROADCASTING 28 SOKOTO STATE TV
CORPORATION OF
OYO STATE

139
10 CROSS RIVER STATE 29 NASARAWA STATE
BROADCASTING BROADCASTING SERVICE
CORPORATION TV
11 DELTA 30 NIGER STATE MEDIA
BROADCASTING CORPORATION
SERVICES TV
12 DELTA 31 OGUN STATE TELEVISION
BROADCASTING
SERVICE WARRI TV
13 EBONYI CABLE 32 ONDO RADIO VISION
STATION TV CORP.TV
14 EBONYI 33 OSUN STATE
BROADCASTING BROADCASTING TV
CORPORATION TV
15 EDO STATE 34 OYO STATE
BROADCASTING BROADCASTING CORP TV
CORPORATION TV
16 EKITI TELEVISION 35 RIVER STATE
BROADCASTING
CORPORATION
17 ENUGU 36 TARABA TELEVISION
BROADCASTING CORPORATION
SERVICES TV
18 GOMBE STATE ZAMFARA STATE TV
GOVERNMENT TV 37
19 IMO STATE
BROADCASTING
CORPORATION TV

PRIVATE TELEVISION LICENCE HOLDERS

S/N Company Band

1 Murhi International Nig UHF 43
LTD
2 Universal Broadcasting 66.25 MHz, CHANNEL: 45UH
Services Limited (Super
Screen )
3 Channels Television 614.60MHz CHANNEL: MHz 39
UHF
4 Desmims Independent 607 MHz CHANNEL:38UHF
Television
5 GALAXY TELEVISION UHF 27
6 DBN TV- LAGOS LEKKI PHASE 1 LAGOS
7 Independent Television 479.25MHz CHANNEL:22 UHF
8 Minaj Broadcast 631.10 MHz Channel 41 UHF

140
 International
9 Africa Independent 535.20MHz CHANNEL:31 UHF
Television (AIT))
10 SILVERBIRD TV -
11 TVC: TELEVISION -
CONTINENTAL
12 SUPER SCREEN UHF 45 UHF45

141