CHAPTER 4: APPLICATIONS OF HYDROLOGY AND CONCEPTS OF PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS TO HYDROLOGY

Design Flow Computation and Pipe Capacity for Storm Sewers

• A storm sewer is designed to carry excess surface water from rainfall away from urban areas to prevent flooding,
consisting of a network of pipes, drains, and inlets.
• The design flow computation is crucial for estimating the volume of runoff that the storm sewer must handle during a
storm event, ensuring it can accommodate expected water without overflow.
• Factors affecting runoff include rainfall intensity and duration, drainage area size, and land use, which influences the
runoff coefficient (C).
• The Rational Method is a widely used formula for estimating peak discharge from small drainage areas, assuming
uniform rainfall distribution and direct runoff.
• The SCS-Runoff Method, developed by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service, estimates runoff volume and peak discharge
for a 24-hour design storm, applicable to both urban and non-urban watersheds.
• The Modified Rational Method extends the Rational Method for longer rainfalls, adjusting for time of concentration
and hydrograph.
•
Key Concepts in Design Flow Computation
• Runoff Coefficient (C): Represents the fraction of rainfall that becomes surface runoff, influenced by land use and
surface type. The fraction of rainfall that will produce peak flow depends on:
• Impervious Cover: Human-made surfaces that do not absorb rainfall, increasing runoff.
• Slope: a rising or falling surface.
• Surface detention: The portion of the storm rainfall that flows on the land surface toward the channel but has not yet
reached it.
• Interception: the capture of precipitation above the ground surface.
• Infiltration: the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil.
• Antecedent Moisture Conditions: The wetness or dryness of a watershed prior to a storm, significantly affecting flow
responses during wet weather.

Rainfall Intensity (i) - rainfall rate in in/hr; selected based on rainfall duration and return period
Open Channel - flow-through channel that is open to the atmosphere and has free surface
Pipe Flow - flow that takes place under pressure force
Open Channel vs. Pipe Flow
- Atmospheric pressure at free surface - Velocity varies - Circular
- Gravity flow - No free surface - Velocity is marls at center
- Roughness varies - Pressurize flow
- Any shape - Roughness depends on material of pipe

STORM SEWER
- designed to handle the flow of rainwater and prevent flooding in urban areas
- capacity of storm sewers depends on factors; size, shape of the pipe, slope, material, and the design specifications

FLOODPLAIN
- flat area of land adjacent to a river or stream include two main components: the floodway
and the flood fringe.
• Floodway - channel of the river and the adjacent areas that actively carry floodwaters
downstream
• Flood Fringe - areas of the floodplain that are inundated by floodwaters but do not
experience a strong current serve as overflow areas

FORMATION OF FLOODPLAINS
1. Erosional Floodplain - created as a stream cut both vertically and laterally into its channel and banks. This process
gradually carves out the landscape, forming a wide, flat area adjacent to the watercourse.
 2. Aggradational Floodplain - increase in land elevation due to the deposition of sediments

Floodplain Mapping - maps illustrate the areas of land that are prone to flooding during heavy rainfalls or snowmelts, particularly
for regions susceptible to seasonal storms.
The 100-Year Flood - flood event that has a 1% probability of occurring in any given year also known as the 1% annual exceedance
probability flood.
100-Year Floodplain - area surrounding a floodplain that has a 1% chance of flooding in any given year

Importance of Floodplain Mapping

• Risk Awareness - shows where flooding is likely to occur
• Flood Risk Management - Maps help identify the most effective strategies to manage flood risks and develop plans to
address potential flooding
• Emergency Response - Local authorities and emergency responders use these maps to prepare for and respond to flood
events
• Urban Planning - Floodplain maps guide development decisions

FLOODPLAIN MAPPING TECHNIQUES

1. Dynamic Techniques - involve continuous monitoring of river or stream flow and require extensive fieldwork and long-
term data collection
2. Static Techniques - utilize satellite imagery and other data to create floodplain maps at specific points in time.

SPILLWAY DESIGN
- Spillways are critical structures designed to safely release excess water from reservoirs. They serve to prevent overtopping and
potential dam failure by controlling the flow of water downstream.
Purpose of Spillways
- When a reservoir reaches full capacity and additional floodwaters enter, the water level will rise, potentially leading to
overtopping. Spillways are implemented to safely direct excess water to downstream areas, usually the river on which the dam is
built

Controlled vs. Uncontrolled Spillways

• Controlled Spillways: Equipped with gates that can be raised or lowered to regulate water flow
• Uncontrolled Spillways: These allow water to overflow automatically when the reservoir reaches a certain level

Spillway as a Safety Measure - act as safety valves for dams, preventing structural failure caused by excessive water pressure
Spillway Location - Within the dam body, Side of the dam, By-pass spillway
Requirements for an Effective Spillway
1. Capacity - capable of handling the maximum expected floodwater discharge
2. Hydraulic and Structural Adequacy - withstand the hydraulic forces
3. Safe Disposal - ensure that water is safely carried away
4. Erosion Resistance - should resist erosion
5. Energy Dissipation – Adequate energy dissipators must be provided

Types of Spillways
1. Based on Purpose
• Main (Service) Spillway: Designed to manage regular flood events, this is the primary spillway in most dam
designs.
• Auxiliary Spillway: Functions as a backup, operating only when the main spillway exceeds its capacity.
• Emergency Spillway: Activated during extreme emergencies to prevent dam failure.
2. Based on Control
• Controlled (Gated) Spillway: Features gates to regulate the outflow.
• Uncontrolled (Ungated) Spillway: Lacks gates, allowing water to flow freely once the reservoir reaches a
certain level.
3. Based on Design Features
 • Open Channel Spillway - use open channels to convey water downstream, relying on the principles of open-
channel flow, Also known as chute or trough spillways.
• Drop Spillway - Used in low dams or weirs, this design allows water to fall freely and almost vertically
• Siphon Spillway - Utilizes the difference in height between the intake and outlet to create a pressure
difference
• Bell Mouth Spillway - Characterized by its inverted bell shape, it allows water to enter from all sides, directing
it downward, often refers as a morning glory or glory hole spillway.

4.4 DESIGN STORMS AND DESIGN RUNOFF

Design storm - hypothetical weather scenario created to assess the possible effects of severe weather on infrastructure and
systems

Analysis of Design Storm

1. Storm Selection - involves choosing a storm event that represents the design frequency
2. Rainfall Duration Selection - refers to the period over which the rain occurs during the storm
3. Point Rainfall Depth - total amount of rain that falls at a specific location during the storm
4. Areal Depth Adjustment - corrects for differences between rainfall at a single point and the average rainfall
over a larger area
5. Time and Areal Distribution of Rainfall - understanding how rainfall intensity changes during the storm (time
distribution) and how the rain is spread across the region (areal distribution).

MAX-DEPTH DURATION CURVE - graph that depicts the relationship between water depth and the duration for which that depth
is equaled or surpassed
Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) Relationship - explains how rainfall intensity changes in relation to the duration of a rain event
DESIGN RUNOFF - describes the expected water flow over a surface during rainfall or storm events.

Design Precipitation Hyetographs - graphical representations that depict the variation of rainfall intensity over time during a
specific storm event.
Hyetograph - graphical representation of rainfall intensity over time during a specific storm event
A precipitation hyetograph typically consists of:
• Time (X-axis): This axis represents the duration of the storm event, usually divided into small time intervals (e.g.,
minutes or hours).
• Rainfall Intensity (Y-axis): This axis represents the rate of rainfall, typically measured in millimeters per hour (mm/h) or
inches per hour (in/h).
• Cumulative Rainfall: Some hyetographs also show the cumulative rainfall over the duration of the storm, which
represents the total volume of precipitation.
Runoff - The flow of water across the earth
Runoff coefficient - runoff coefficient C is the least precise variable of the rational method

SEWER STORM DESIGN - One of the most important facilities in preserving and improving the urban water drainage system.
FLOOD CONTROL RESERVOIR - a large artificial or natural body of water designed to temporarily store excess rainwater or runoff
FLOOD CONTROL RESERVOIR DESIGN - e planning and construction of reservoirs that are specifically engineered to manage and
mitigate the impact of floods. Key aspects of flood control reservoir design include:
1. Storage Capacity: The reservoir must be large enough to accommodate peak floodwaters and prevent overflow
2. Dam or Barrier Construction: often used to create a reservoir to safely hold back large volumes of water
3. Inflow and Outflow Management: designed to regulate the flow of water into and out of the reservoir
4. Spillways: design to safely direct excess water when the reservoir reaches its capacity
5. Flood Routing: This involves modeling the expected inflows and outflows during flood
6. Sediment Control: The design must also account for sediment carried by floodwaters, which can reduce the reservoir’s
capacity over time.
7. Environmental and Social Considerations: The design often takes into account the potential ecological and social
impacts, including habitat disruption, water quality, and effects on surrounding communities.
CHAPTER 5: RELATIONS BETWEEN PRECIPITATION AND RUNOFF & WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Storm Water Runoff - occurs when rain flows over surfaces like rooftops, driveways, lawns, streets, parking lots, construction
sites, and industrial areas
Storm sewer – are pipes laid underground below streets it collects stormwater runoff from inlets, catch basins, or drains located
along street curbs and in parking areas
What’s in a Storm Water Runoff?
• Garbage
• Oil and Grease
• Gasoline
• Sediment
• Metak Flakes
• Road Salt
• Lawn Pesticides
• Leaves
• Pet Waste
• Bacteria
• Chemicals

Storm Runoff Model - computational tool used to simulate the behavior of rainwater or melted snow as it moves over the land
surface, through drainage systems, and into water bodies during storm events.
Stormwater management - is an understanding of how a particular land area and drainage system can affect or be affected by
the stormwater passing through it.

Key Components of a Stormwater Runoff Model

• Volume Estimation: total amount of stormwater runoff generated from a storm event
• Flow Rate Prediction: Estimates the speed and peak flow rate of stormwater runoff
• Water Quality Assessment: Evaluates the types and concentrations of that stormwater carries
• Land Use and Surface Characteristics: Takes into account the type of land cover (e.g., urban, industrial, or natural areas)
and surface permeability
• Climate and Rainfall Data: Incorporates historical and forecasted precipitation data
• Drainage Network and Topography: Consider the layout and capacity of storm sewers, channels, and other drainage
systems, as well as terrain elevation

Stormwater models are most commonly used either as planning and decision-making aids for water management authorities
USES:
• Flood Prediction and Management: Models predict flood extents and intensities, aiding in flood risk assessment and
mitigation planning
• Urban Planning and Development: They guide the design of stormwater management systems for new developments
• Environmental Impact Assessment: assess the impact of land use changes and infrastructure projects on local hydrology
and water resources
• Climate Change Adaptation: help communities prepare for increased rainfall variability and extreme weather events

Runoff Models - essential for understanding and managing water resources, predicting floods, designing drainage systems, and
assessing the impact of land-use changes or climate change on water flow
TYPES:
1. Empirical Models (Black Box Models) - primarily based on observed historical data and statistical relationships between
input (e.g., rainfall) and output (e.g., runoff).
2. Conceptual Models - represent the hydrological system as a series of interconnected reservoirs or storages
 e.g. Stanford Watershed Model: One of the first conceptual hydrological models, it simulates the movement of water
through various storage compartments
Tank Model: Represents a catchment as a series of interconnected tanks
3. Physically Based Models - describe the physical processes governing the movement of water.
e.g. Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT): simulates the effects of land management practices
MIKE SHE: A comprehensive model that simulates surface water, groundwater, and rainfall-runoff processes using
detailed physical equations
HEC-HMS (Hydrologic Engineering Center- Hydrologic Modeling System): simulates the hydrologic response of a
river basin
4. Lumped Models - treat the entire catchment as a single, homogenous unit, where input variables (like rainfall) are
averaged over the entire area
e.g. Sacramento Model: A lumped conceptual model that represents a catchment as a set of interconnected storage
zones
5. Distributed Models - divide the catchment into smaller spatial units or grid cells
e.g. SHE (Système Hydrologique Européen): physically based model that simulates water movement through surface
and subsurface compartments
SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool): used as a distributed model to capture spatial variability in large
catchments
6. Hybrid Models - combine features from both empirical and physically based models e.g. HEC-HMS in Hybrid Mode

CHALLENGES OF STORM RUNOFF MODELING

• Data Availability and Quality - Accurate modeling requires high-quality data, poor data quality can lead to significant
uncertainties in model outputs
• Spatial and Temporal Variability - Capturing this variability is crucial for realistic modeling
• Nonlinearities in Hydrological Processes - Runoff generation are often nonlinear, making it challenging to represent
them accurately in mathematical models
• Catchment Characteristics - Different catchments have unique characteristics which affect how runoff is generated and
flows.
• Urbanization and Land Use Changes - rapid urbanization can drastically change the runoff patterns
• Calibration and Validation - Calibration involves adjusting model parameters to match observed data, while validation
tests the model on independent data.
• Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events
• Computational Complexity - require significant computational power and time due to the complexity of the equations
• Uncertainty in Model Outputs - storm runoff models are prone to uncertainties due to the complexity
• Human Interventions

STRATEGIES TO ADDRESS THESE CHALLENGES

• Improved Data Collection
• Better Calibration Methods
• Integration with Climate Models
• Use of Machine Learning
• Dynamic Modeling

FACTORS AFFECTING STORM RUNOFF VOLUME

• Precipitation Characteristics - Precipitation is the most important factor which affects runoff. Important characteristics
are duration, intensity and areal distribution.
• Shape and Size of Catchment - runoff from a catchment depends upon the size, shape, and location of the catchment
• Geologic Characteristics - include surface and sub-surface soil type, rocks, and their permeability
• Topography - runoff depends upon surface condition, slope, and land features
• Meteorological Characteristics - Temperature, wind speed, and humidity are major meteorological factors affecting
runoff
 • Storage Characteristics of a Catchment - presence of artificial storage such as dams, weirs, etc., and natural storage
such as lakes and ponds, etc. tend to reduce the peak flow

METHODS FOR ESTIMATING STORM RUNOFF VOLUME

1. Rational Method - One of the simplest methods, mainly used for small catchment areas (less than 80 hectares)
2. SCS Curve Number Method (SCS-CN or NRCS-CN) - estimates runoff volume based on land use, soil type, and
antecedent moisture conditions
3. Unit Hydrograph Method - relates runoff from a specific rainfall event to a unit hydrograph
4. Modified Rational Method - extension of the Rational Method, which can be used for estimating runoff volumes for
detention basins and storage designs
5. Green-Ampt Infiltration Model - estimates the infiltration rate of water into soil and can be used to calculate the runoff
volume by determining how much of the rainfall becomes infiltration versus runoff.
6. Runoff Coefficient Method - estimates runoff volume based on the total precipitation and a simple runoff coefficient
7. Hydrological Modeling (e.g., HEC-HMS, SWMM) - software-based hydrological models that simulate rainfall-runoff
processes
8. Empirical Formulas - simple empirical formulas may be developed based on local data to estimate storm runoff volume

INFILTRATION APPROACH TO RUNOFF ESTIMATES METHODS

Infiltration-based approaches to estimating runoff involve determining how much of the rainfall infiltrates into the ground and
how much turns into surface runoff.

1. Horton’s Equation - models the decreasing infiltration capacity over time as soil becomes saturated
2. Green-Ampt Method - assumes a uniform, steady infiltration rate once the soil reaches saturation
3. SCS Curve Number Method - empirical approach to estimate direct runoff based on land use, hydrological soil group,
and antecedent moisture conditions.
4. Philip’s Equation - considers both the initial infiltration rate and the long-term steady-state rate

STREET GUTTER - designed primarily to collect and convey stormwater runoff from streets, sidewalks, and adjacent properties to
storm drains
TYPES:
1. Integral curb and gutter systems: combine the curb and gutter into a single structure
2. Mountable Curb and Gutter: designed with sloped edges, allowing vehicles to drive over them
3. Depressed Gutter: Found in locations such as driveways or pedestrian crossings, these gutters are lower than the road
surface
4. V-Shaped or Trapezoidal Gutters: used when higher flow capacity is needed

DESIGN OF STREET GUTTER

The design of street gutters involves hydrologic and hydraulic considerations. Key elements include:
1. Capacity and Slope - must be designed to handle runoff from a given storm event
2. Cross-section - shape of the gutter impacts its flow capacity
3. Materials - Concrete is the most common material due to its durability and ease of maintenance
4. Manning’s equation - used to compute the gutter flow rate

CHALLENGES
• Urbanization and Increased Runoff - rapid expansion of urban areas has led to an increase in impervious surfaces that
prevent water from being absorbed into the ground.
• Blockages and Debris Accumulation - gutters can become clogged with leaves, litter, and other debris these blockages
prevent water from flowing smoothly
• Aging Infrastructure - gutter systems are decades old, and over time, they suffer from wear and tear, corrosion, and
structural damage
• Pollution and Environmental Impact - Street gutters frequently carry pollutants like oil, chemicals, and various forms of
debris into storm drains, which eventually flow into rivers, lakes, and other natural water bodies.
SOLUTIONS
• Green Infrastructure
• Improved Gutter Design and Capacity - modern gutter systems need to be designed with greater capacity and made
from more durable materials
• Regular Maintenance and Inspection - Routine maintenance is essential to ensure gutter systems remain efficient

IMPROVEMENTS
• Public Awareness Campaigns - Educating the public on the importance of proper waste disposal and keeping streets
clean
• Climate Resilience in Gutter Design - design gutter systems that can handle sudden surges of stormwater.

STORM WATER INLETS

- essential component of urban stormwater drainage systems
- primary function is to collect surface runoff from streets, parking lots, and other impervious surfaces and direct it into
underground drainage systems

PURPOSE:
1. Collection of Surface Runoff
2. Conveyance to the Underground Stormwater System
3. Flood Prevention
4. Public Safety and Accessibility
5. Minimization of Infrastructure Damage
6. Environmental Protection
7. Support for Sustainable Water Management

TYPES OF STORMWATER INLETS

1. Curb Inlets - installed along the edge of the roadway curb
2. Grate Inlets - metal or reinforced concrete grid, placed over an opening in the ground
3. Combination Inlets - hybrid system that combines both a curb inlet and a grate inlet
4. Drop Inlets - designed to capture stormwater from depressed areas or low-lying zones
5. Slotted Inlets - long, narrow opening (or slot) that allows surface runoff to enter the storm sewer system
6. Sump Inlets - installed in the lowest points of a drainage system to capture water from larger areas or multiple sources

CHALLENGES
• Capacity Limitations: Inadequate design or underestimation of storm intensity can also lead to failure
• Clogging: Debris such as leaves, trash, and sediment can block stormwater inlets, reducing their efficiency
• Pollution and Water Quality: Stormwater runoff carries pollutants from roadways, such as oil, grease, heavy metals,
and sediment, which can degrade water quality
• Aging Infrastructure: they deteriorate, their effectiveness decreases, and they become more prone to failure
• Urbanization: increasing impervious surface area in urban regions intensifies runoff volumes, creating a higher demand
on stormwater inlets

SOLUTION & IMPROVEMENTS

• Design Improvements
• Inlet Types and Placement
• Regular Maintenance
• Use of Pretreatment Devices
• Pollution Control Measures
• Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)
• Public Awareness and Engagement