Unit - 1 Introduction To Embedded Systems Definition
Unit - 1 Introduction To Embedded Systems Definition
Every embedded system is unique, and the hardware as well as the firmware is highly
specialized to the application domain.
1. Based on generation
2. Complexity and performance requirements
3. Based on deterministic behavior
4. Based on triggering --- (event triggered & time triggered)
• Based on the execution behavior, Real Time embedded systems are classified into
hard and soft real time systems.
1. First Generation: The early Embedded systems were built around 8bit
microprocessors like 8085, Z80 and 4bit microcontrollers. Simple in H/W circuits
with firm ware developed in Assembly code. Example Digital telephone keypads,
stepper motor control units etc.
2. Second Generation: These Embedded systems were build around 16bit
microprocessors and 8 or 16bit microcontrollers. The instruction set is much more
powerful than first generation processors/controllers. Some of the Embedded systems
contain Embedded operating systems for their operation. Example Data Acquisition
systems, SCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition) Systems etc.
3. Third Generation: These Embedded systems were build around 32bit microprocessors
and 16bit microcontrollers. The instruction set of processors became more complex
and powerful and the concept of instruction pipelining also evolved. Example
robotics, media, industrial process control and networking etc.
4. Fourth Generation: These Embedded systems are making use of high performance
real time embedded operating systems for their functioning. Example Smart phone
devices, mobile internet devices(MIDs), etc.
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Classification Based on Complexity and Performance:
1. Small Scale Embedded Systems: Embedded System which are simple in application
needs and where the performance requirements are not time critical, 8 or 16 bit
microprocessor or microcontrollers are used. May or may not contain Operating system
for its functioning. Example Electronic Toy.
2. Medium Scale Embedded Systems: Embedded Systems which are slightly complex in
hardware and firmware requirements, 16 or 32 bit microcontroller or processors with
operating .
3. Large Scale Embedded systems: which involve highly complex hardware and firmware
requirements, 32 or 64 bit RISC processors/controllers or Reconfigurable SoC’s or
Multi-core processors and programmable logic devices etc. are used with Real time
operating system
✓ Data collection/Storage/Representation
✓ Data Communication
✓ Monitoring
✓ Controlling
Real-time System is a system which is used for performing some specific tasks. It is a
computational system which is used for various hard and soft real-time tasks. These specific
tasks are related with time constraints. The tasks assigned to real-time systems need to be
completed in given time interval.
Embedded Systems are integrated systems which are formed by the combination of
computer hardware and software for a specific function. It can be said as a dedicated computer
system which has been developed for some particular reason. But it is not our traditional
computer system or general purpose computers, these are the Embedded systems which may
work independently or attached to a larger system to work on few specific functions. These
embedded systems can work without human intervention or with a little human intervention.
The embedded systems which are designed to perform real-time tasks are known as
Embedded Real-time Systems or Real-time Embedded Systems.
Types of Embedded Real-time System : There are two types of Embedded real-time
systems
• Hard Embedded Real-time System – These are embedded real-time systems which are
used to perform hard real-time tasks. These systems are designed in a very complicated
way. These are accurate systems.
• Soft Embedded Real-time System – These are embedded real-time systems which are
used to perform soft real-time tasks. These are simple designed systems and there are
chances of inaccuracy.
Real-time embedded systems are a subset of embedded computing that must complete
critical processes within a rigid deadline. Think of a car's airbag deployment system. If the
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microcontroller doesn't detect a collision or electronically trigger the airbag within a fraction
of a second, the result is catastrophic.
The different steps in the embedded system design flow/flow diagram include the following.
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Abstraction: In this stage the problem related to the system is abstracted.
System Related Family of Design:When designing a system, one should refer to a previous
system-related family of design.
Modular Design: Separate module designs must be made so that they can be used later on
when required.
Mapping: Based on software mapping is done. For example, data flow and program flow are
mapped into one.
User Interface Design: In user interface design it depends on user requirements, environment
analysis and function of the system. For example, on a mobile phone if we want to reduce the
power consumption of mobile phones we take care of other parameters, so that power
consumption can be reduced.
Refinement: Every component and module must be refined appropriately so that the software
team can understand.
• Control Hierarchy
• Partition of structure
• Data structure and hierarchy
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• Software Procedure.
Processors in Embedded Systems and other hardware units
General purpose processors, also known as central processing units (CPUs), are processors
that are designed to be capable of executing a wide range of tasks. They are used in computers
and other devices that require high-performance processing capabilities. Some features of
general-purpose processors include:
✓ Instruction set: General purpose processors have a large and complex instruction set,
which allows them to perform a wide range of tasks.
✓ Multi-core: Many general-purpose processors are multi-core, which means they have
multiple processors on a single chip. This allows them to perform multiple tasks
concurrently, improving performance.
✓ Clock speed: The clock speed of a processor determines how fast it can execute
instructions. General-purpose processors typically have high clock speeds, which allows
them to perform tasks quickly.
✓ Cache: General-purpose processors have one or more levels of cache, which is a small
amount of high-speed memory that is used to store frequently accessed data. This helps
to improve the performance of the processor.
✓ Compatibility: General-purpose processors are typically compatible with a wide range
of operating systems and software applications.
✓ Virtualization: Many general-purpose processors support virtualization, which allows
them to run multiple virtual machines on a single physical machine.
✓ Power consumption: General-purpose processors can have high power consumption,
which can be a concern in devices where power is limited.
2. Microprocessors
✓ Instruction set: Microprocessors have a specific instruction set that defines the
operations that they can perform.
✓ Clock speed: The clock speed of a microprocessor determines how fast it can execute
instructions. Microprocessors typically have high clock speeds, which allows them to
perform tasks quickly.
✓ Data bus: The data bus is a communication pathway that is used to transfer data between
the microprocessor and other components in a system.
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✓ Address bus: The address bus is a communication pathway that is used to transfer the
address of a memory location between the microprocessor and other components in a
system.
✓ Cache: Many microprocessors have one or more levels of cache, which is a small
amount of high-speed memory that is used to store frequently accessed data. This helps
to improve the performance of the microprocessor.
✓ Power consumption: Microprocessors can have relatively high power consumption,
which can be a concern in devices where power is limited.
✓ Size: Microprocessors are designed to be small, as they are typically used in devices
where space is at a premium.
✓ Cost: Microprocessors can vary in cost depending on their capabilities and features.
3. Microcontrollers
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4.Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
Digital signal processors (DSPs) are specialized microprocessors that are designed to process
digital signals. They are used in a wide range of applications, including audio and video
processing, telecommunications, and control systems. Some key features of DSPs include:
✓ High-speed processing: DSPs are designed to process large amounts of data quickly,
making them well-suited for real-time applications.
✓ Parallel processing: Many DSPs are designed to perform multiple operations
simultaneously, which can increase their processing speed and efficiency.
✓ Hardware support for common operations: DSPs often include specialized hardware
to support common operations, such as filtering and FFTs (Fast Fourier Transforms),
which can reduce the processing overhead and improve performance.
✓ Low power consumption: DSPs are often designed to be energy-efficient, making them
well-suited for battery-powered applications.
✓ Programmability: Most DSPs are programmable, which means that they can be
customized to perform specific tasks. This allows them to be used in a wide range of
applications.
✓ Integration: SoCs integrate all or most of the components of a system onto a single chip,
which can reduce the size and complexity of the system.
✓ Low power consumption: SoCs can be designed to be highly power efficient, which
can be useful in battery-powered or energy-sensitive applications.
✓ High performance: SoCs can be designed for high performance, making them suitable
for applications that require a lot of processing power.
✓ Customization: SoCs can be customized for specific applications, allowing them to be
optimized for the specific requirements of those applications.
✓ Reduced component count: Because many components are integrated onto a single
chip, SoCs can reduce the component count of a system, which can make the system
simpler and easier to manufacture.
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Hardware units of an embedded system
Embedded processor: It is the heart of the embedded system. It has two essential units :
control unit and execution unit. Control unit fetches instructions from memory and execution
unit includes ALU and circuits to perform execution of the instructions for a program control
task
Most of the systems have their own power supply. Some embedded systems do not have their
own power supply. These embedded systems are powered by external power supply e.g. USB
based embedded system, network interface card, Graphics Accelerator etc. are powered by PC
power supply.
Reset means that processor begins processing of instructions from starting address set by
default in program counter on power up.
The clock circuit controls execution time of instructions, CPU machine cycles.
Timers: Timer circuit is suitably configured as system clock or RTC (Real time clock). To
schedule various tasks and for real time programming an RTC (Real Time Clock), or system
clock is needed.
Program & data memory: In embedded system, secondary memory like disk is avoided. Most
of the embedded processors have internal memory such as ROM, RAM, flash/EEPROM,
EPROM/PROM for storing program and data
Input& output device interfacing/driver circuits: Some I/O devices like motors, actuators,
valves, sensors are not compatible with the processor. Hence the I/O interface circuits are
designed to drive such input and output devices interfaced to the embedded processor
System Application specific circuits: These are the circuits that can control specific target
circuits. They consist of ADC, DAC, relays, sensors etc.
Software development life cycle (SDLC) is a structured process that is used to design,
develop, and test good-quality software. SDLC, or software development life cycle, is a
methodology that defines the entire procedure of software development step-by-step.
The goal of the SDLC life cycle model is to deliver high-quality, maintainable software that
meets the user’s requirements. SDLC in software engineering models outlines the plan for each
stage so that each stage of the software development model can perform its task efficiently to
deliver the software at a low cost within a given time frame that meets users’ requirements.
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The SDLC model involves six phases or stages while developing any software. SDLC is a
collection of these six stages, and the stages of SDLC are as follows:
The information from this analysis forms the building blocks of a basic project. The quality
of the project is a result of planning. Thus, in this stage, the basic project is designed with all
the available information.
In this stage, all the requirements for the target software are specified. These requirements
get approval from customers, market analysts, and stakeholders.This is fulfilled by utilizing
SRS (Software Requirement Specification). This is a sort of document that specifies all those
things that need to be defined and created during the entire project cycle.
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Stage-3: Designing Architecture
SRS is a reference for software designers to come up with the best architecture for the
software. Hence, with the requirements defined in SRS, multiple designs for the product
architecture are present in the Design Document Specification (DDS). This DDS is assessed
by market analysts and stakeholders. After evaluating all the possible factors, the most
practical and logical design is chosen for development.
At this stage, the fundamental development of the product starts. For this, developers use a
specific programming code as per the design in the DDS. Hence, it is important for the coders
to follow the protocols set by the association. Conventional programming tools like
compilers, interpreters, debuggers, etc. are also put into use at this stage. Some popular
languages like C/C++, Python, Java, etc. are put into use as per the software regulations.
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Stage-5: Product Testing and Integration
After the development of the product, testing of the software is necessary to ensure its smooth
execution. Although, minimal testing is conducted at every stage of SDLC. Therefore, at this
stage, all the probable flaws are tracked, fixed, and retested. This ensures that the product
confronts the quality requirements of SRS.
Stage-6: Deployment and Maintenance of Products :After detailed testing, the conclusive
product is released in phases as per the organization’s strategy. Then it is tested in a real
industrial environment. It is important to ensure its smooth performance. If it performs well,
the organization sends out the product as a whole. After retrieving beneficial feedback, the
company releases it as it is or with auxiliary improvements to make it further helpful for the
customers. However, this alone is not enough. Therefore, along with the deployment,
the product’s supervision.
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Software Development Tools
Software development tools can be categorized into several types, each serving a specific
purpose in the development process. Here are brief definitions for each category and examples
of specific tools:
An IDE is a software application that provides a comprehensive set of tools and features to
assist developers in writing, editing, debugging, and running code. It streamlines the
development process by integrating various functionalities, such as source code editing, syntax
highlighting, code completion, and version control, into a single interface.
Examples of IDEs: Visual Studio Code (VS Code), IntelliJ IDEA, Eclipse, PyCharm, Xcode,
Visual Studio
Build Tools
Build tools are software utilities that automate the process of compiling, linking, and packaging
source code into executable programs or libraries. They help manage dependencies, optimize
code, and standardize the build process across different development environments.
Examples of build tools: Maven (Java),, Gradle (Java, Groovy, Kotlin), Ant (Java),Make (C,
C++), npm (JavaScript)
CI/CD Tools
CI/CD tools are software solutions that automate the processes of building, testing, and
deploying software. They enable development teams to integrate code changes frequently and
deliver new features or bug fixes more reliably, improving software quality and reducing the
time it takes to get updates to end-users.
Examples of CI/CD tools: Jenkins, GitLab CI/CD, CircleCI, Travis CI, GitHub Actions
Source control tools, also known as version control systems, are software applications that help
developers manage and track changes to code over time. They facilitate collaboration by
enabling multiple developers to work on the same codebase concurrently, provide a history of
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code changes, and allow rolling back to previous versions in case of errors or undesired
modifications.
Examples of source control tools: Git, Subversion (SVN), Mercurial, Microsoft Team
Foundation Server (TFS)
Software testing tools are software applications or utilities designed to assist in the validation
and verification of software functionality, performance, and usability. They automate various
types of testing, such as unit testing, integration testing, and performance testing, to ensure that
software meets the specified requirements and provides a high-quality user experience.
Collaboration and project management tools are software applications designed to help teams
plan, organize, track, and manage their work more effectively. These tools facilitate
communication, coordination, and collaboration among team members.
Documentation Tools
• User documentation tools: Focus on creating and managing documentation intended for end-
users of the software. This includes user guides, manuals, tutorials, and FAQs. These tools
typically provide a user-friendly interface for creating and editing content, along with features
to support rich text formatting, images, and multimedia.
• Code documentation tools: Specifically designed for generating, maintaining, and managing
documentation related to the codebase, such as API documentation, or developer guides. These
tools often integrate with the programming environment or source code itself, possibly
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extracting information from code comments, annotations, or metadata to automatically
generate documentation. They also allow engineers to share their knowledge by creating
documentation that is highly linked to the code.
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UNIT II
Fundamentals of IoT
Introduction
Internet technology connecting devices, machines and tools to the internet by means of wireless
technologies. Over 9 billion ‘Things’ connected to the Internet, as of now.
‘Things’ connected to the Internet are projected to cross 20 billion in the near future.
Unification of technologies such as low-power embedded systems, cloud computing, big-data,
machine learning, and networking.
IoT Definition: The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects that contain
embedded technology to communicate and sense or interact with their internal states or the
external environment.
Characteristics
Dynamic and self-Adapting: IoT devices and systems may have the capability to dynamically
adapt with the changing contexts and take actions based on their operating condition.
Self – Configuring: IoT devices may have self-Configuring capability allowing a large number
of devices to work together to provide certain functionality .
Unique Identity: Each IoT devices has a unique identity and a unique identifier.IPaddress,
URI) IoT systems may have intelligent interfaces which adapt based on the context, allow
communication with users and the environment contexts.
Integrated into information network: IoT devices are usually integrated into the information
network that allows them to communicate and exchange data with other devices and systems.
IoT Architectures
There are four major layers. Sensors and Connectivity network which collects information,
Gateway and Network Layer which is used for communication astablishment, Management
Service layer and then at the end application layer where the data collected are processed
according to the needs of various applications.
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✓ Sensor, Connectivity and Network Layer: This layer consists of RFID tags, sensors
(which are an essential part of an IoT system and are responsible for collecting raw data).
These form the essential “things” of an IoT system. Sensors, RFID tags are wireless
devices and form the Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN).
✓ Sensors are active in nature which means that real-time information is to be collected and
processed. This layer also has the network connectivity (like WAN, PAN, etc.) which is
responsible for communicating the raw data to the next layer which is the Gateway and
Network Layer.
✓ The devices which are comprised of WSN have finite storage capacity, restricted
communication bandwidth and have small processing speed. We have different sensors
for different applications – temperature sensor for collecting temperature data, water
quality for examining water quality, moisture sensor for measuring moisture content of the
atmosphere or soil, etc.
✓ Gateways are responsible for routing the data coming from the Sensor, Connectivity and
Network layer and pass it to the next layer which is the Management Service Layer.
This layer requires a large storage capacity for storing the enormous amount of data
collected by the sensors, RFID tags, etc.
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✓ Also, this layer needs to have a consistently trusted performance in terms of public, private
and hybrid networks. Different IoT device works on different kinds of network protocols.
All these protocols are required to be assimilated into a single layer. This layer is
responsible for integrating various network protocols.
✓ At the bottom, we have the gateway which is comprised of the embedded OS, Signal
Processors, and Modulators, Micro-Controllers etc. Above the gateway we have the
Gateway Networks which are LAN(Local Area Network), WAN(Wide Area Network), etc.
✓ This layer is used for managing IoT services. The management Service layer is responsible
for Securing Analysis of IoT devices, Analysis of Information (Stream Analytics, Data
Analytics), Device Management. Data management is required to extract the necessary
information from the enormous amount of raw data collected by the sensor devices to yield
a valuable result of all the data collected. This action is performed in this layer.
✓ Also, a certain situation requires an immediate response to the situation. This layer helps
in doing that by abstracting data, extracting information and managing the data flow.
This layer is also responsible for data mining, text mining, service analytics, etc. From the
figure below, we can see that, management service layer has Operational Support Service
(OSS) which includes Device Modeling, Device Configuration and Management and
many more.
✓ Also, we have the Billing Support System (BSS) which supports billing and reporting.
Also, from the figure, we can see that there are IoT/M2M Application Services which
includes Analytics Platform; Data – which is the most important part; Security which
includes Access Controls, Encryption, Identity Access Management, etc. ; and then we
have the Business Rule Management (BRM) and Business Process Management (BPM)
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Application Layer
✓ Application layer forms the top most layer of IoT architecture which is responsible for
effective utilization of the data collected. Various IoT applications include Home
Automation, E-health, E-Government, etc. From the figure below, we can see that there
are two types of applications which are Horizontal Market which includes Fleet
Management, Supply Chain, etc. and on the Sector-wise application of IoT we have energy,
healthcare, transportation, etc.
1 Things of IoT
The “Things” in IoT usually refers to IoT devices which have unique identities and can
perform remote sensing, actuating and monitoring capabilities. IoT devices can exchange data
with other connected devices and applications (directly or indirectly), or collect data from other
devices and process the data or send the data to servers or cloud based applications back ends
for processing the data or from some task locally and other task within the IoT infrastructure,
based on temporal and space constraints (ie : Memory, processing calibrators, communication
latencies and speed and deadlines)
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An IoT device may consist of several interfaces connections to other devices, both wired and
wireless.These include IoT interfaces for sensors, interfaces for internet connectivity , memory
and storage interfaces, audio video interfaces.
2.IoT Protocol
Link Layer: Link Layer protocols determine how the data is physically sent over the networks
physical layer . Host on the same link exchange data packets over the link layer using the link
layer protocol. Link layer determines how the packets are coded and signaled by the hardware
device over the medium to which the host is attached.
802.3 Ethernet: 802.3 is a collections of wired Ethernet standards for the link layer. For
example 802.3 10BASE5 Ethernet that uses coaxial cable as a shared medium, 802.3.i is
standard for 10 BASET Ethernet over copper twisted pair connection, Standards provide data
rates from 10 Mb/s to 40 gigabits per second and the higher. The shared medium in Ethernet
can be a coaxial cable, twisted pair wire or and Optical fiber. Shared medium carries the
communication for all the devices on the network.
802.16 wiMAX: IEEE 802.16 is a collection of wirless broadband and Standards, including
extensive descriptions for the link layer also called WiMAX wimax standard provides a data
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rates from from 1.5 Mb/s to 1Gb/s the recent update provides data rates of hundred megabits
per second for mobile station.
802.15.4 LR-WPAN: IEEE 802.1 5.4 is a collections of standard for low rate wireless personal
area network(LRWPAN).These standard form the basis of specifications for high level
communication Zigbee. LR-WPAN standards provide data rates from 40 k b/ s. These standards
provide low cost and low speed Communications for power constrained devices.
Network / internet layer :The network layer are responsible for sending of IP datagrams from
the source network to the destination network. This layer Performs the host addressing and
packet routing. The datagrams contains a source and destination address which are used to
route them from the source to the destination across multiple networks. Host Identification is
done using the hierarchy IP addressing schemes such as ipv4 or IPv6.
IPV4: Internet protocol versions for open parents close (IPV4) is there most deployed internet
protocol that is used to identify the device is on a network using a hierarchy latest schemes. It
uses 32 bit addresses scheme that allows total of 2 32 address. As more and more devices got
connected to the internet. The Ipv4 has succeeded by IPv6.
IPv6: It is the newest versions of internet protocol and successor to IPv4. IPv6 uses 128 bit
address schemes that are lost total of 2 128 are 3.4* 10 38 address.
6LoWPAN: IPv6 over low power wireless personal area networks brings IP protocol to the
low power device which have limited processing capability it operate in the 2.4 GHz frequency
range and provide the data transfer rate off to 50 kb/s.
Transport layer :
The Transport layer protocols provides end-to-end message transfer capability independent of
the underlying network.
TCP:
Transmission control protocol is the most widely used to transport layer protocol that is used
by the web browsers along with HTTP , HTTPS application layer protocols
TCP is a connection Oriented and stateful protocol while IP protocol deals with sending
packets, TCP ensures reliable transmissions of packets in order.
TCP also provide error deduction capability so that duplicate packets can be discarded and low
packets are retransmitted .
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UDP:
unlike TCP, which requires carrying out an initial setup procedure, UDP is a connection less
protocol. UDP is useful for time sensitive application they have very small data units to
exchange and do not want the overhead of connection setup. UDP is a transactions oriented
and stateless protocol. UDP does not provide guaranteed delivery, ordering of messages and
duplicate eliminations.
Application layer :
Application layer protocol define how the application interfaces with the lower layer protocols
to send the data over the network Application layer protocol enable process-to-process
connection using ports.
Http: Hypertext transfer protocol is the application layer protocol that forms the foundations
of world wide web http includes, commands such as GET, PUT, POST, DELETE, HEAD,
TRACE, OPTIONS etc. The protocol follows a requestresponse model where are client sends
request to server using the http, commands.
CoAP uses a client –server architecture where client communicate with server using
connectionless datagrams.It is designed to easily interface with http like http,CoAP supports
method such as GET, PUT, DELETE .
Websocket: Websocket protocol allows full duplex communication over a single socket
connections for sending message between client and server. Websocket is based on TCP and
Allows streams of messages to be sent back and forth between the client and server while
keeping the TCP connection open. The client can be a browser, a mobile application and IoT
device.
DDS: Data distribution service is the date centric middleware standard for deviceto-device
machine to machine communication DDS uses a publish subscribe model where publisher
example device that generate data create topics to which subscribers per can subscribe
publisher is an object responsible for data distributions and the subscriber responsible for
receiving published data.
AMQP: Advanced Message Queuing protocols. it is an open application layer protocol for
business messaging. AMQP support point to point and publish - subscribe model routing and
queuing. AMQP broker receive message from publishers example devices or applications that
generate data and about them over connections to consumers publishers publish the message
to exchange which then distribute message copies to queues
Logical design of an IoT system refers to an abstract representation of the entities and process
without going into low level specification of the implementations.It uses Functional
Blocks, Communication Models, and Communication APIs to implement a system.
IoT Functional blocks : An IoT system consists of a number of functional blocks like
Devices, services, communication, security, and application that provide the capability for
sensing, actuation, identification, communication, and management.
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These functional blocks consist of devices that provide monitoring control functions, handle
communication between host and server, manage the transfer of data, secure the system using
authentication and other functions, and interface to control and monitor various terms.
Application: It is an interface that provides a control system that use by users to view the status
and analyze of system.
Management: This functional block provides various functions that are used to manage an IoT
system.
Services: This functional block provides some services like monitoring and controlling a
device and publishing and deleting the data and restoring the system.
Communication: This block handles the communication between the client and the cloud-
based server and sends/receives the data using protocols.
Security: This block is used to secure an IoT system using some functions like authorization,
data security, authentication, 2-step verification, etc.
Device: These devices are used to provide sensing and monitoring control functions that collect
data from the outer environment.
There are several different types of models available in an IoT system that is used to
communicate between the system and server like the request-response model, publish-
subscribe model, push-pull model, exclusive pair model, etc.
This model is a communication model in which a client sends the request for data to the server
and the server responds according to the request. when a server receives a request it fetches the
data, retrieves the resources and prepares the response, and then sends the data back to the
client.
In simple terms the server sends the response equivalent to the request of the client. in this
model, HTTP works as a request-response protocol between a client and server.
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Example
When we search a query on a browser then the browser submits an HTTP request to the server
and then the server returns a response to the browser(client).
In this communication model, we have a broker between the publisher and the consumer. here
publishers are the source of data but they are not aware of consumers. they send the data
managed by the brokers and when a consumer subscribes to a topic that is managed by the
broker and when the broker receives data from the publisher it sends the data to all the
subscribed consumers.
Example
On the website many times we subscribed to their newsletters using our email address. these
email addresses are managed by some third-party services and when a new article is published
on the website it is directly sent to the broker and then the broker sends these new data or posts
to all the subscribers.
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Push Pull Model
Example
When we visit a website we saw a number of posts that are published in a queue and according
to our requirements, we click on a post and start reading it.
These APIs like REST and WebSocket are used to communicate between the server and system
in IoT.
Representational state transfer(REST) API uses a set of architectural principles that are used to
design web services. these APIs focus on the systems’ resources that how resource states are
transferred using the request-response communication model. This API uses some architectural
constraints.
Client-server
Here the client is not aware of the storage of data because it is concerned about the server and
similarly the server should not be concerned about the user interface because it is a concern of
the client. and this separation is needed for independent development and updating of the server
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and client. no matter how the client is using the response of the server and no matter how the
server is using the request of the client.
Stateless
It means each request from the client to the server must contain all the necessary information
to understand the server. because if the server can’t understand the request of the client then it
can’t fetch the requested data in a proper manner.
Cacheable
In response, if the cache constraints are given then a client can reuse that response in a later
request. it improves the efficiency and scalability of the system without loading extra data.
This type of API allows bi-directional full-duplex communication between server and client
using the exclusive pair communication model. This API uses full-duplex communication so
it does not require a new connection setup every time when it requests new data. WebSocket
API begins with a connection setup between the server and client and if the WebSocket is
supported by the server then it responds back to the client with a successful response after the
setup of a connection server and the client can send data to each other in full-duplex mode.
this type of API reduces the traffic and latency of data and makes sure that each time when we
request new data it cannot terminate the request.
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Example –
• Weather monitoring system
• Indoor air quality monitoring system
• Soil moisture monitoring system
• Surveillance system
• Health monitoring system
2. Cloud Computing :
It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities over the internet.
Cloud means something which is present in remote locations.
With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like databases,
webservers, storage, any device, and any software over the internet.
Characteristics –
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hosted software.
SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider’s service and they manage security availability
and performance.
Ex : Google Docs, Gmail, office etc.
1. Data cleaning
2. Munging
3. Processing
4. Visualization
Examples –
• Bank transactions
• Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
• E-commerce and in Big-Basket
• Health and fitness data generated by IoT system such as a fitness bands
4. Communications Protocols :
They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity and linking to
applications. Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data over the network.
Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication. A group of
protocols designed to work together is known as a protocol suite; when implemented in
software they are a protocol stack.
They are used in
1. Data encoding
2. Addressing schemes
5. Embedded Systems :
It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.
It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units (Ethernet Wi-Fi
adapters), input output units (display keyword etc. ) and storage devices (flash memory).
It collects the data and sends it to the internet.
Embedded systems used in
Examples –
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1. Digital camera
2. DVD player, music player
3. Industrial robots
4. Wireless Routers etc.
History of IoT
In 1962, J.C.R. Licklider, the head of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA), envisioned a galactic network of an interconnected set of computers. His concept
later evolved into the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) in 1969. By
1980, ARPANET was commercialized for public use, and thus the internet was born.
In 1989, David Nichols and his colleagues at MIT invented the first IoT device, and this was
shortly followed by John Romkey and Simon Hackett creating the Internet Toaster in 1991.
The Internet toaster was a big milestone, as Romkey and Hackett successfully connected a
toaster to the internet and managed to turn it on and off remotely.
We can conclusively say that the early breakthroughs in Internet of Things were a result of
researchers having fun with technology
Dr. Quentin Stafford-Fraser and his colleagues at the University of Cambridge invented
the first online webcam for the same reason the smart vending machine was invented. When
the researchers at Cambridge wanted coffee, they had to leave their workstations to go fetch it.
But they would often find the coffee pot empty. Dr. Stafford-Fraser and his colleagues then
installed a camera near the coffee pot which would click pictures of the pot 3 times a minute.
This would allow everyone to check if the pot was empty and save them the frustration. This
camera was connected to the internet in 1993 and became the first online webcam.
A year later, Steve Mann created WearCam, which turned out to be the first major milestone
for wearable technology.
IoT is christened
By now, devices being connected to the internet was becoming a thing (pun intended). But it
was still a result of odd scattered experiments as opposed to a single technology. This changed
when Kevin Ashton, the co-founder of the Auto-ID Labs at MIT, coined the term ‘Internet of
Things’ in 1999. Ashton, who believed that RFID is a prerequisite for IoT, was a big believer
in the potential of the technology.
He once said, “....today's information technology is so dependent on data originated by
people that our computers know more about ideas than things. If we had computers that
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knew everything there was to know about things using data they gathered without any
help from us—we would be able to track and count everything, and greatly reduce
waste, loss and cost….”
At the turn of the millennium, smart technology began blooming. Internet of Things made its
way to homes from research labs. In 2000, LG announced the first ever smart refrigerator,
which paved the way for the commercialization of IoT.
In less than a decade of coining the term, Internet of Things had become a phenomenon. The
United Nations published its first report on the Internet of Things in 2005, deeming it one of
the technologies that had the most global potential.
The UN report’s predictions were pretty apt, as just two years later, Apple announced the first
iPhone in 2007. Although the first ever smartphone would be the Simon Personal
Communicator, created by IBM in 1994, it was the iPhone that popularized smartphones
globally, even though the first iPhone only allowed users to browse the internet.
By 2008, the number of connected devices overtook the number of people in the world. This
was the time that IoT was truly born, as the number of connected devices was officially at a
stage where any data across the world could be collected if need be.
The 2000s was an exciting decade for IoT as several milestones were achieved in a short period.
As the technology and the utility rapidly evolved, IoT could finally be a part of everyday life.
In 2009, Fitbit released its original activity tracker. This was the first wearable activity tracker
that paved the way for modern smartwatches.
As we enter the 2010s, IoT milestones started getting more technical and specific. The
underlying technology had already evolved enough that the sub-segments could start evolving
on their own.
Now Industrial IoT was always a thing alongside IoT, as it was a specific application of the
technology, but in 2010, the sensor prices dropped enough so that they could be used in a
widespread manner. This enabled IIoT more than any other factor, as IIoT required a large-
scale setup of devices to run. The following figure shows us the Average costs of industrial
Internet of Things (IoT) sensors from 2004 to 2020, according to Statista.
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Industrial applications weren’t the only segment that received a boost from better and cheaper
infrastructure. Smart cities suddenly became feasible with the widespread availability of IoT
devices—and as a result, Seoul became the world’s first smart city in 2014. Shortly after that
Singapore, Amsterdam, and New York followed suit.
By this point in time, sensors were accessible enough to be used in every device, and wearable
technology took advantage of this. IoT truly went mobile in 2015, as smartphones,
smartwatches, health monitors, and GPS trackers became a household scene.
As global spending on IoT increased, businesses started investing in the technology. The
following figure shows the spending rise in IoT.
As the technology became lucrative enough for several businesses to be interested, IoT
platforms started cropping up. AWS launched IoT core in 2015 and rolled it out completely by
2016. This was closely followed by Azure IoT hub in 2016 and Google IoT core in 2017.
In the following years, several other IoT platforms were launched, which allowed businesses
to simplify their IoT projects and expand into the IoT space more easily. As a direct result, in
2021, the number of connected devices surpassed the number of non-connected devices
worldwide.
To take note of its growing influence, the World Economic Forum named IoT as one of
the three most impactful technological advancements in 2022.
Internet of Things (IoT) has become one of the most powerful technologies of modern era
having the internet as its backbone. Internet of Things or IoT is something that is used to
communicate with physical objects. In easy words, we can say that “Internet of Things is a
technology which is used to communicate between human and machine or a machine to
machine with the help of internet”.
Here the word ‘Things’ refers to these machines or physical objects so it becomes important to
understand what kind of objects can be connected via Internet. We can categories these objects
into categories –
Smart Objects :
As the name suggests smart objects are objects having some intelligence. Now the world has
changed enough to alter our everyday objects into smart objects which can communicate, react,
and identify other objects according to the environment. The key concept of IoT is to reduce
human interaction in any framework and smart objects fulfill this requirement to a great extent.
That is why Smart Objects are called building blocks of Internet of Things. Smart objects and
IoT are like two wheels of a vehicle which move together to speed up the vehicle of our modern
infrastructure.
Definition of Smart Object :“Smart objects are those physical and digital objects which can
be identified, have sensing/actuating capabilities, processing and calculating powers, also
storing, and networking capabilities.”
⚫ Physical Shape : As the word object refers to something which has some physical shape or
size, so any Smart Object should have these physical features so that it can be deployed
somewhere in the infrastructure.
⚫ Unique Identifier : Smart Objects should have a unique identity so they can be easily
identified in the infrastructure. It is something that differs a specific object from other
objects. This type of physical identity is used by humans for reasoning purposes.
⚫ Communication Capabilities : It must have communication capabilities so that it can send
or receive data over internet or other networking technologies.
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⚫ Unique Name and Address : Here the words, name, and address refer to networking address
of the object such as IP address which is used for communication purposes. The address
should be unique in the whole internet infrastructure. While the name is used by humans
for reasoning purposes.
⚫ Processing Powers :Smart Objects have some basic computational and processing abilities
to take decisions accordingly the environment.
⚫ Sensing Capabilities :It should have some sensing capabilities to know about the
surroundings (Pressure, toxic gasses, temp. etc).
Examples :
We are surrounded by smart objects in our daily life. For example, we all have our smartphones
in our pockets. Smart fridge, Smart TV, Alexa voice assistant are some modern examples of
smart objects which we use in our daily life. Micro-controllers like Arduino can be easily seen.
Non-Smart Objects :
Non-smart objects are generally those objects which do not have intelligence and processing
capabilities. Sensors and actuators are non-smart devices.
⚫ Sensors :Sensors are those electronic devices which are made of sensitive cells and have
capabilities to measure or sense some physical or scientific quantity like temperature,
pressure, the measure of any toxic gas, etc.
⚫ Actuators :Actuators are those electronic devices which performs a specific task by
collecting the information by sensors or like sensors over the internet. We can divide
actuator into two parts –
Mechanic Actuators –These are those actuators which perform a task over themselves or any
other object.
This applies to the assembly and commissioning of the systems, and is also relevant for system
operations, especially in case of flexible and dynamic interactions between system components.
• Depending on the application and user needs various types of identifiers with different
requirements are needed
Thing identifier:
Things are at the centre of IoT and unique identification of Things is a prerequisite for IoT
systems.
•Things can be any kind of objects (some examples): Goods along their lifecycle,Traffic flow
at intersection,Climate at specific locations,Software, e-books, music & video , Vehicle &
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Container tracking,Farming vehicles, animals & field yields , Humans fitness & health
condition
•Identification is already used for a long time and many, often application area specific
solutions, exist
•Users often prefer their own identification scheme (e.g. Manufacturer -> Serial Number;
Building Manager -> Building, floor, room)
•IoT Devices (sensors, actuators) interact with the Thing by providing information about the
Thing and manipulating it
•A IoT Device can be a Thing in case a user is interested in it, e.g. doing maintenance and
management of the IoT device
•Things can have integrated IoT devices (e.g. sensors on Smart Phones)
•Virtual Entities (also called Digital Twins) represent Things in the digital world. Identifiers
provide the linkage between a Thing and its Virtual Entity
Communication Identifiers
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• Identifiers are bound to the specific communication technology and defined as part of
the standardization of the technology, Depending on the network size and routing
approach the identifiers may have a structure that reflects the network topology
• IP addresses and phone numbers reflect topologies
• MAC addresses don‘t reflect topologies (but have vendor information in order to ensure
global uniqueness)
• Communication identifiers should not be used as Thing identifiers
• Communication addresses can change as the Thing moves, when a network interface is
replaced, when the network topology is changed
• Not all things have communication interfaces
• Some things may have more than one communication interface (e.g. redundancy)
For security reasons authentication may be needed to validate the claims asserted by the
identifier
•Authentication may apply for all components in a IoT system,human users, software
applications, IoT Devices and Things
•Identifiers may raise privacy concerns for personal data. This is not only related to identifiers
for humans itself, but also for
Thing Identifiers in case the Thing can be related to human activities (e.g. Car, Smart Phone,
Smart Watch).
•Data protection can be an issue for all kind of Things in order to protection for example
intellectual property and other sensitive company data (e.g. drug tests, test of new products,
failure pattern of a machine, production data)
•Various categories of identifiers and their demarcation (e.g. Thing, Communication, Service,
User)
•Support of legacy
•Security
✓ In short, the Internet of Things connects everyday objects to the internet—or to an intranet,
or to other devices—in order to share data within a larger ecosystem, either between other
objects or computers or with software that will monitor that data.
✓ The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic devices. With
the Internet, it's possible to access almost any information, communicate with anyone else
in the world, and do much more. You can do all of this by connecting a computer to the
Internet, which is also called going online.
✓ It supports human communication via social media, electronic mail (e-mail), “chat rooms,”
newsgroups, and audio and video transmission and allows people to work collaboratively
at many different locations. It supports access to digital information by many applications,
including the World Wide Web.
IoT frameworks
An IoT framework can be defined as a set of protocols, tools, and standards that provide a
specific structure for developing and deploying IoT applications and services. In other words,
an IoT framework gives you the basics for building your own application.
• Hardware
• Software
• Networking elements (IoT protocols)
• Device management
• Security
• Data management
• Application development
• Cloud-based platform.
These components work together to enable the seamless integration of IoT devices (what is
IoT) and systems. For example, the device management is necessary for updating and
monitoring the performance of the device. Protocols allow the different connections between
devices and the internet.
There needs to be a cloud platform where data will be processed and stored, this also connects
with an application or platform that is in charge of displaying the data and allows other
functions or services
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Types of IoT frameworks
There are IoT frameworks that are open source, and others that are proprietary. IoT framework
open source doesn’t mean that it is free, many people get confused with this concept. We have
even talked about IoT open source devices.
Open source frameworks are useful because they provide access to the code of the platform in
order to make any modifications as needed and build the IoT application with more freedom.
Finally, proprietary frameworks are IoT frameworks that don’t grant access to the source code,
they have an already established platform from which IoT product design and development
consultants can start working.
AWS IoT, Azure IoT, IBM Watson IoT, KAA IoT, and Google IoT Core.
• AWS IoT: One of the most popular solutions by Amazon. It not only contains the cloud
side to accelerate the release time of the solution, but also offers frameworks in the
device side, like a flavor of FreeRTOS an Operative System. This OS is widely used in
microcontrollers and their flavor makes it very easy to connect to their cloud.
• Azure IoT: The solution used by many corporations. It shares many of the elements of
AWS, and also competes having additional resources for the devices like their Azure
RTOS.
• IBM Watson IoT: The alternative from IBM, more friendly for teams already used to
their applications.
• Google IoT Core [removed]: This used to be the solution from Google but was recently
removed as an option.
• KAA IoT: With an open source version that is now deprecated, KAA evolved into an
enterprise and paid solution for IoT devices, and free trials to test it before purchasing.
Open-source IoT frameworks:
• ThingsBoard: a solution that goes from data acquisition to visualization, alarms and
messaging. It has an open source version, as well as a professional one (non open source)
with more features.
• OpenHab: A framework specifically for home automation, with different options to
integrate, either cloud or in your own home using something like a raspberry pi.
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• DeviceHive: A free solution you can deploy on your own servers to get started, and
connect applications like grafana to visualize the data. You can also sign into their
playground to see the capabilities before deeploying it yourself.
• Mainflux: Written mainly on GO (the programming language) is also deployable on your
own server, with no additional cost.
• Eclipse IoT: Rather than the classical platform where you can connect a device and
watch the information on a dashboard, it is a set of open source tools that can be used in
many parts of the IoT data chain (the device, the gateway, the cloud itself).
IoT and M2M
Simple device-to-device
Connection Type communication usually within an Devices use IP networks to
Used embedded software at the client communicate.
site.
Communication technology
Communication Internet protocols like HTTP,
techniques and traditional
Protocol Used FTP and Telnet.
protocols.
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Scope Deployed in a closed system. Connects to a larger network.
M2M works
The main purpose of machine-to-machine technology is to tap into sensor data and transmit it
to a network. Unlike SCADA or other remote monitoring tools, M2M systems often use public
networks and access methods -- for example, cellular or Ethernet -- to make it more cost-
effective.
The main components of an M2M system include sensors, RFID, a Wi-Fi or cellular
communications link, and autonomic computing software programmed to help a network
device interpret data and make decisions. These M2M applications translate the data, which
can trigger preprogrammed, automated actions.
The Internet and improved standards for wireless technology have expanded the role of
telemetry from pure science, engineering and manufacturing to everyday use in products such
as heating units, electric meters and internet-connected devices, such as appliances.
Beyond being able to remotely monitor equipment and systems, the top benefits of M2M
include:
• boosted revenue by revealing new business opportunities for servicing products in the field;
and improved customer service by proactively monitoring and servicing equipment before
it fails or only when it is needed.
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UNIT III
The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for processing
(e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or material to detect the
presence of a particular physical quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like changes
in characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance, etc.
✓ Static
✓ Dynamic
Types of Sensors
• Electrical sensor :
Electrical proximity sensors may be contact or non contact.
Simple contact sensors operate by making the sensor and the component complete an
electrical circuit.
Non- contact electrical proximity sensors rely on the electrical principles of either induction
for detecting metals or capacitance for detecting non metals as well.
• Light sensor:
Light sensor is also known as photo sensors and one of the important sensor.
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The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the
ambient light i.e when the intensity of light increases, it’s resistance decreases and vise versa.
• Touch sensor:
Detection of something like a touch of finger or a stylus is known as touch sensor.
1. Resistive type
2. Capacitive type
Today almost all modern touch sensors are of capacitive types.
Because they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.
• Range sensing:
Range sensing concerns detecting how near or far a component is from the sensing position,
although they can also be used as proximity sensors.
Distance or range sensors use non-contact analog techniques. Short range sensing, between
a few millimetres and a few hundred millimetres is carried out using electrical capacitance,
inductance and magnetic technique.
Longer range sensing is carried out using transmitted energy waves of various types eg radio
waves, sound waves and lasers.
• Mechanical sensor:
Any suitable mechanical / electrical switch may be adopted but because a certain amount of
force is required to operate a mechanical switch it is common to use micro-switches.
• Pneumatic sensor:
These proximity sensors operate by breaking or disturbing an air flow.
The pneumatic proximity sensor is an example of a contact type sensor. These cannot be
used where light components may be blown away.
• Optical sensor:
In there simplest form, optical proximity sensors operate by breaking a light beam which falls
onto a light sensitive device such as a photocell. These are examples of non contact sensors.
Care must be exercised with the lighting environment of these sensors for example optical
sensors can be blinded by flashes from arc welding processes, airborne dust and smoke clouds
may impede light transmission etc.
• Speed Sensor:
Sensor used for detecting the speed of any object or vehicle which is in motion is known as speed
sensor .For example – Wind Speed Sensors, Speedometer ,UDAR ,Ground Speed Radar .
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• Temperature Sensor:
Devices which monitors and tracks the temperature and gives temperature’s measurement as
an electrical signal are termed as temperature sensors .These electrical signals will be in the
form of voltage and is directly proportional to the temperature measurement .
• PIR Sensor:
PIR stands for passive infrared sensor and it is an electronic sensor that is used for the
tracking and measurement of infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view and
is also known as Pyroelectric sensor .It is mainly used for detecting human motion and
movement detection .
• Ultrasonic Sensor:
The principle of ultrasonic sensor is similar to the working principle of SONAR or RADAR
in which the interpretation of echoes from radio or sound waves to evaluate the attributes of
a target by generating the high frequency sound waves .
Types of Actuators
1. Hydraulic Actuators
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are
actuated by a cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear,
or oscillatory motion, according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment
uses hydraulic actuators because hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.
Advantages :
• Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
• Used in welding, clamping, etc.
• Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
Disadvantages :
• Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
• It is expensive.
• It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance systems.
2. Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to
convert into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work
like human fingers by using compressed air.
Advantages :
• They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is a safer
option than chemicals.
• They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
• It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.
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Disadvantages :
• Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.
• The air compressor should be running continuously.
• Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.
3. Electrical Actuators –
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts
electrical energy into mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid
based electric bell.
Advantages :
• It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.
• It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
• It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.
Disadvantages :
• It is expensive.
• It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
Examples and Working
The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of
energy and a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy
to a mechanical operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has different
types given below.
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IoT Development Boards: Arduino IDE and Board Types
There are different Arduino types, each offering unique features and capabilities. From basic
microcontrollers to more advanced modules, let’s explore some of the popular types of Arduino
boards.
1. Arduino Uno R3
The Arduino Uno R3 is a popular board among DIY electronics that offers features, such as 14
digital input/output pins, 6 analog pins, and an ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header.
▪ There is no onboard DC power jack connection. Instead, it relies on a mini USB port, which
also handles UART bridge chip duties with FTDI’s dedicated FT232 converter included. This
means there’s no need for the ATMega16U2 chipset.
▪ This combination provides powerful control at both modest cost and minimum space
requirements, allowing creative designs to come within reach.
3. Arduino Micro
The Arduino Micro offers features similar to the Leonardo but is significantly smaller and only
has 12 analog I/O pins together with its 20 digital ones.
▪ This board measures just 18mm wide by 48mm long. It is one of the smallest boards ever
created by Arduino. You can create a keyboard, mouse, or other HID devices that require
minimal space with this Arduino board.
▪ It comes equipped with an ATmega32U4 microcontroller containing 2.5kB SRAM, 32KB flash
memory, and 1 KB EEPROM for data storage along with UART, IC2 & SPI communication
protocols. It also has special built-in functions such as HID connectivity.
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4. Arduino Leonardo
The Arduino Leonardo is different from the other boards. Given below are its specifications.
▪ It uses an ATmega32U4 chip in place of ATMega328P. It offers more pins for IO (20), PWM
(7), and analog input signals (12).
▪ Instead of needing a second processor or a USB to UART bridge chip, this board has built-in
USB communication. This allows it to connect directly with computers as either Human
Interface Devices or Virtual COM port serial/CDC ports. This virtual connection enables us to
program our Leonardo via its bootloader.
5. Arduino Micro
Arduino Micro is perfect for those who need the power of an Arduino Leonardo in a
breadboard-friendly size.
▪ It offers all of the same functionalities as its larger counterpart, with only one slight difference.
▪ It doesn’t have a DC input jack. However, you can still use this tiny board to act like an HID
or Virtual COM port device just as you would on any other Leonardo model.
To understand the concept of Arduino boards and the different types of Arduino even better,
you can take this comprehensive Arduino course.
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▪ The most impressive attribute of this device has to be Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) support.
▪ It allows users to leverage both client/host configurations with their compatible devices while
taking advantage of energy efficiency benefits offered by connected wearables development.
8. Arduino Due
The Arduino Due is a more powerful upgrade of the popular Arduino Mega with its 54 Digital
I/Os and 12 Analog inputs.
▪ Running at 84MHz, this 3.3V-only board offers an Atmel SAM3x8E Arm Cortex-M3 processor
along with USB OTG, DAC, and JTAG interfaces for extra connectivity options.
▪ It’s important to note that this device’s I/O pins are not 5V tolerant so be sure you keep that in
mind when getting started on your project.
9. LilyPad Arduino Board
Leah Buechley and SparkFun collaborated to create the LilyPad Arduino board, a wearable e-
textile technology. This creative design comes complete with large connecting pads and a flat
back, allowing it to be easily sewn into clothing using conductive thread. Alongside this are
I/O, power, and sensor boards created for use in e-textiles.
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13. Arduino Diecimila
The Arduino Diecimila microcontroller board enables users to connect their device to a
computer via a USB cable while also using batteries or AC-DC adapters to activate it. It is
powered by the ATmega168 and has a range of features including:
▪ 14 digital I/O pins (6 of which can be used for PWM outputs) and 6 analog inputs
▪ A USB connection
▪ 16 MHz crystal oscillator and an ICSP header
▪ Reset button and power jack
The name ‘Diecimila’ literally means 10,000 in Italian. This particular version of the USB
Arduino reflects the production of over 10 thousand boards. It signifies that these boards were
constructed from the same set within its group. This makes it one of the most up-to-date
products.
▪ This small all-in-one computer is programmed with code via the same language used by
Arduino Leonardo, ATmega32u4.
▪ With several strategically placed pins connected directly to onboard actuators/sensors, this
robot has limitless possibilities of use.
▪ Additional features, such as speakers, color screens, buttons (5), digital compass (1), SD card
reader(1), potentiometers (2) or floor sensors can be hooked up.
16. Arduino Esplora
The Arduino Esplora is a special type of computer board full of different kinds of inputs and
outputs.
▪ It also has its own library. This simplifies how data from both sensory devices and mechanical
parts can be read/written quickly.
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17. Arduino Ethernet
The Arduino Ethernet board is powered by the ATmega328 microcontroller, which has 5
analog pins, 14 digital I/O pins (including a reset button), and an RJ45 connection for hooking
up to the internet via an Ethernet shield. It also has other components, such as a crystal
oscillator, power jack, and ICSP header.
✓ Early on, the Raspberry Pi project leaned towards the promotion of teaching basic
computer science in schools and in developing countries.
✓ Later, the original model became far more popular than anticipated,selling outside its target
market for uses such as robotics. It is now widely used in many areas, such as for weather
monitoring,because of its low cost, modularity, and open design.
✓ After the release of the second board type, the Raspberry Pi Foundation set up a new entity,
named Raspberry Pi Trading, and installed Eben Upton as CEO, with the responsibility of
developing technology.
✓ The Foundation was rededicated as an educational charity for promoting the teaching of
basic computer science in schools and developing countries.The Raspberry Pi is one of the
best-selling British computers.
✓ The Raspberry Pi hardware has evolved through several versions that feature variations in
the type of the central processing unit, amount of memory capacity, networking support,
and peripheral-device support.
✓ This block diagram describes Model B and B+; Model A, A+, and the Pi Zero are similar,
but lack the Ethernet and USB hub components.
✓ The Ethernet adapter is internally connected to an additional USB port. In Model A, A+,
and the Pi Zero, the USB port is connected directly to the system on a chip (SoC).
✓ On the Pi 1 Model B+ and later models the USB/Ethernet chip contains a five-port USB
hub, of which four ports are available, while the Pi 1 Model B only provides two. On the
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Pi Zero, the USB port is also connected directly to the SoC, but it uses a micro USB (OTG)
port.
✓ Unlike all other Pi models, the 40 pin GPIO connector is omitted on the Pi Zero, with
solderable through-holes only in the pin locations.
✓ The Pi Zero WH remedies this. Processor speed ranges from 700 MHz to 1.4 GHz for the
Pi 3 Model B+ or 1.5 GHz for the Pi 4; on-board memory ranges from 256 MiB to 1 GiB
random-access memory (RAM), with up to 8 GiB available on the Pi 4. Secure Digital
(SD) cards in MicroSDHC form factor (SDHC on early models) are used to store the
operating system and program memory.
✓ The boards have one to five USB ports. For video output, HDMI and composite video are
supported, with a standard 3.5 mm tip-ring-sleeve jack for audio output.
✓ Raspberry Pi 3 is the latest version and it is the first 64-bit computing board that also comes
with built-in Wi-Fi and Bluetooth functions. According to Raspberry Pi Foundation CEO
Eben Upton, "it's been a year in the making". The Pi3 version is replaced with a quad-core
64-bit 1.2 GHz ARM Cortex A53 chip, 1GB of RAM, VideoCore IV graphics, Bluetooth
4.1 and 802.11n Wi-Fi.
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✓ The developers claim the new architecture delivers an average 50% performance
improvement over the Pi 2. Another peculiarity of Raspberry Pi is the GPIO (General
Purpose Input-Output), which is a low-level interface of self-operated control by input-
output ports. Raspberry has it as a 40- pin connector. Raspberry Pi uses Linux as its default
operating system (OS). It’s also fully Android compatible. Using the system on Windows
OS is enabled through any virtualization system like XenDesktop.
We Can Understand The Use Of Wireless Technology In IoT By The Following Block
Diagram.
Wireless technology has played a vital role in the development of iot over the years. Wireless
technology has helped to minimize human intervention and thus fulfilling the purpose of iot
technology. Also based on various applications, bandwidth requirements, range, security,
power consumption, capacity, and standards we can choose a proper wireless communication
protocol. Let us look into some of the widely used wireless communication protocols of iot.
It is one of the communication protocols used for short-range communication. Very much
similar to rfid technology. It also needs human intervention and can be used for data
transferring or establishing a connection with other wireless technologies. With just a tap, we
can establish a bluetooth or wi-fi connection using nfc. Water metering systems, appliance
servicing, appliance control, and many more are applications of nfc.
Features –
• Low Range.
• Expensive.
• Low Speed.
• Less Data Transfer.
Ble(bluetooth low energy)
It is the most common wireless technology used for short-range communication. Device to
device file transfer, wireless speakers, earphones, headsets can be some of the applications of
bluetooth. It is the best alternative for cables used to connect printers, fax, keyboard, etc. The
pan (personal area network ) also based bluetooth technology in fitness trackers, smartwatches,
home automation devices are much used these days. It works with operating systems like
android, ios, windows, etc.
Features-
• Limited Range.
• Not Suitable For Large Data Transfer.
• Ideal For Short-Range Communication Only.
Wi-Fi(Wireless Fidelity)
Wireless fidelity is one of the most hassle-free and fast wireless communication technology. It
is the choice of many developers due to its various advantages. It allows access to the internet
as well as to connect devices in a specific range. Personal computers, smartphones, laptops,
printers, and cars use this protocol. An automatic ip address is allocated to wireless devices
using dhcd(dynamic host configuration )protocol.
Features-
• Cost-Effective
• Convenient
• Explanadibility
• Easy To Use And Hassle-Free
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Disadvantages-
It is a low-power wide-area network-also based technology that is known for its long battery
life and excellent power consumption. This protocol facilitates good and extended coverage
and can coexist with cellular networks like 2g, 3g, 4g, etc. It focuses more on long battery life,
high connecting density, and low cost with good coverage.
It is ideal for connecting devices with low bandwidth requirements. Also based on lte
specifications., telecom companies like vodafone, huawei, qualcomm have invested in this
technology. The NB-IOT chips are simple to create and do not need additional gateways to
provide connectivity. Smart city infrastructures, tracking systems, fire alarms are some of its
applications.
Features-
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Disadvantages-
It is the technology that uses electromagnetic waves to capture digital data and to identify or
track the tags. It consists of a transponder(tags), a reader, and an antenna. There are mainly two
types of tags active and passive. The passive tags lack computational capacity whereas active
tags can sense channels easily.
The reader consists of an interrogator or a transceiver that sends signals which activate the tags.
The antenna is used for transmitting and receiving the data. It has various applications in
agricultural sectors, defence, tracking, cashless transaction, etc.
Features –
• High Cost.
• Metals Used May Create Interference Of The Signal.
• Overhead Reading.
ZigBee | Wireless Communication
Zigbee is one of the wireless technology that has a vast user base and it addresses the needs of
low-power, low-cost requirements.
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It is a high-level communication protocol. It consists of a lower power digital radio system and
is widely used in home automation systems, medical data collection, or any small scale project
with low bandwidth requirement.
In our day to day life, the applications of zigbee is in the traffic management system, light
switches, etc. It is secured with aes-128 technology and has minimal power consumption.
Features-
✓ It is one of the most widely used communication protocol used in IoT based
Communication Systems.
✓ The Easy Setup Makes it one of the best Choices for a Low-Cost Wireless Option.
✓ Here the Devices are linked around themselves and do not have a Central Hub, hence
forming a Mesh Network. Home Automation Systems use this technology on a large scale.
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Features-
• Easy Setup.
• Budget-Friendly.
• Less Power Consumption.
Disadvantages-
• Limited Coverage.
• Needs Security Enhancement.
• Supports A Limited Number Of Nodes.
• Used Only For Small Data Size.
6LoWPAN
IPv6 Over Low Power Personal Area Network Or 6LoWPAN Is An IP-Also Based Protocol
That Ensures Connectivity Of Even Low Data Rate Networks. It Ensures That Even The
Smallest Or Low Power Device Should Be A Part Of IoT. It Helps Provide End-To-End IP
And Is Widely Used In Home Automation Systems.
Features-
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Advantages-
• Less Secure.
• Problem Of Interference.
• Without Mesh Topology The Network May Be Small.
Long Range Wide Area Network Helps Define Communication Protocol As Well As System
Architecture. It Is A Point To The Multipoint Communication Network. Acts As A Gateway
That Does Encryption As Well As Identification. It Has A Wide Range Of Applications Like
Smart Cities, Smart Industrial Control, Home Security Systems, Etc.
Features-
• Long-Range.
• Less Power Consumption.
• Low Cost.
• Wide Coverage.
• Easy To Deploy.
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Disadvantages-
Features
✓ Developed for low‐data‐rate monitoring and control applications and extended‐life low‐
power‐consumption uses.
✓ This standard uses only the first two layers (PHY, MAC) plus the logical link control
(LLC) and service specific convergence sub‐layer (SSCS) additions to communicate with
all upper layers
✓ Highly tolerant of noise and interference and offers link reliability improvement
mechanisms.
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✓ Uses carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA‐CA) for channel
access.
✓ Multiplexing allows multiple users or nodes interference‐free access to the same channel
at different times.
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Beacon Enabled Networks
✓ Data‐frames sent via Slotted CSMA/CA with a super frame structure managed by PAN
coordinator
✓ Beacons used for synchronization & association of other nodes with the coordinator
✓ As 802.15.4 is primarily, a mesh protocol, all protocol addressing must adhere to mesh
configurations
Zigbee
✓ The ZigBee protocol is defined by layer 3 and above. It works with the 802.15.4 layers 1
and 2.
✓ These enhancements include authentication with valid nodes, encryption for security, and
a data routing and forwarding capability that enables mesh networking.
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✓ The most popular use of ZigBee is wireless sensor networks using the mesh topology.
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ZigBee Mesh
✓ In a mesh, any node can communicate with any other node within its range.
✓ If nodes are not in range, messages are relayed through intermediate nodes.
✓ For example, if nodes C and F are down, the message packets from A can still be relayed
to G via B and E.
ZigBee Types
✓ The Coordinator forms the root of the ZigBee network tree and might
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✓ It acts as a Trust Center & repository for security keys
✓ It contains just enough functionality to talk to the parent node, and it cannot relay data
from other devices.
✓ This allows the node to be asleep a significant amount of the time thereby
✓ Memory requirements and cost of ZEDs are quite low, as compared to ZR or ZC.
✓ The network layer uses Ad Hoc On‐Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing.
✓ To find the final destination, the AODV broadcasts a route request to all its immediate
neighbors.
✓ The neighbors relay the same information to their neighbors, eventually spreading the
request throughout the network.
✓ Upon discovery of the destination, a low‐cost path is calculated and informed to the
requesting device via unicast messaging.
Applications
✓ Building automation
✓ Telecom services
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IP Based Protocols for IoT
IPv6
✓ Like IPv4, IPv6 is a connectionless datagram protocol used primarily for addressing and
routing packets between hosts. Connectionless means that a session is not established
before exchanging data. “Unreliable” means that delivery is not guaranteed. IPv6 always
makes a best-effort attempt to deliver a packet.
✓ An IPv6 packet might be lost, delivered out of sequence, duplicated, or delayed. IPv6 per
se does not attempt to recover from these types of errors. The acknowledgment of packets
delivered and the recovery of lost packets is done by a higher-layer protocol, such as TCP
(14). From a packet-forwarding perspective, IPv6 operates in a similar, nearly identical
manner to IPv4.
✓ An IPv6 packet, also known as an IPv6 datagram, consists of an IPv6 header and an IPv6
payload,
✓ The IPv6 header consists of two parts, the IPv6 base header and optional extension headers.
IPv4 headers and IPv6 headers are not directly interoperable: hosts and/or routers must use
an implementation of both IPv4 and IPv6 in order to recognize and process both header
formats. This gives rise to a number of complexities in the migration process between the
IPv4 and the IPv6 environments.
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✓ The IP header in IPv6 has been streamlined and defined to be of a fixed length (40 bytes).
✓ In IPv6, header fields from the IPv4 header have been removed, renamed, or moved to the
new optional IPv6 extension headers.
✓ The header length field is no longer needed since the IPv6 header is now a fixed-length
entity. The IPv4 “type of service” is equivalent to the IPv6 “traffic class” field. The “total
length” field has been replaced with the “payload length” field.
✓ Since IPv6 only allows for fragmentation to be performed by the IPv6 source and
destination nodes, and not individual routers, the IPv4 segment control fields
identification, flags, and fragment offset fields have been moved to similar fields within
the fragment extension header.
6LowPAN
Introduction
✓ Allows for the smallest devices with limited processing ability to transmit information
wirelessly using an Internet protocol.
✓ Created by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) ‐ RFC 5933 and RFC 4919.
Features of 6LoWPANs
✓ Allows IEEE 802.15.4 radios to carry 128‐bit addresses of Internet Protocol version 6
(IPv6).
✓ Header compression and address translation techniques allow the IEEE 802.15.4 radios to
access the Internet.
✓ IPv6 packets compressed and reformatted to fit the IEEE 802.15.4 packet format.
Addressing in 6LoWPAN
LOADng Routing
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Basic operations of LOADng include:
✓ Forwarding of such RREQs until they reach the destination LOADng Router, Generation
of Route Replies (RREPs) upon receipt of an RREQ by the indicated destination, and
unicast hop‐by‐hop forwarding of these RREPs towards the riginator.
✓ Intermediate LOADng Routers are explicitly prohibited from responding to RREQs, even
if they may have active routes to the sought destination.
RPL Routing
✓ Distance Vector IPv6 routing protocol for lossy and low power networks.
✓ RPL separates packet processing and forwarding from the routing optimization
objective, which helps in Low power Lossy Networks (LLN).
✓ minimizing energy
✓ minimizing latency
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✓ satisfying constraints (w.r.t node power, bandwidth, etc.)
✓ It is required that the reachability of a router be verified before the router can be used as
a parent.
MQTT
Introduction
✓ A topic to which a client is subscribed is updated in the form of messages and distributed
by the message broker.
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Communication
✓ The central communication point is the MQTT broker, which is in charge of dispatching
all messages between the senders and the rightful receivers.
✓ Each client that publishes a message to the broker, includes a topic into the message. The
topic is the routing information for the broker.
✓ Each client that wants to receive messages subscribes to a certain topic and the broker
delivers all messages with the matching topic to the client.
✓ Therefore the clients don’t have to know each other. They only communicate over the
topic.
✓ This architecture enables highly scalable solutions without dependencies between the
data producers and the data consumers.
MQTT Topics
✓ A topic is a simple string that can have more hierarchy levels, which are separated by
a slash.
✓ A sample topic for sending temperature data of the living room could be house/living‐
room/temperature.
✓ On one hand the client (e.g. mobile device) can subscribe to the exact topic or on the
other hand, it can use a wildcard.
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✓ room/temperature, as well as any topic with an arbitrary value in the place of living room,
such as house/kitchen/temperature.
✓ The plus sign is a single level wild card and only allows arbitrary values for one
hierarchy.
✓ If more than one level needs to be subscribed, such as the entire sub‐tree, there is also a
multilevel wildcard
Applications
✓ Microsoft Azure IoT Hub uses MQTT as its main protocol for telemetry messages.
✓ The EVRYTHNG IoT platform uses MQTT as an M2M protocol for millions of
connected products.
✓ Adafruit launched a free MQTT cloud service for IoT experimenters called Adafruit
IO.
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UNIT IV
✓ “Data analytics (DA) is the process of examining data sets in order to draw conclusions
about the information they contain, increasingly with the aid of specialized systems and
software.
✓ Data analytics technologies and techniques are widely used in commercial industries to
enable organizations to make more‐ informed business decisions and by scientists and
researchers to verify or disprove scientific models, theories and hypotheses.”
✓ IoT data is just a curiosity, and it’s even useful if handled correctly. However,given time,
as more and more devices are added to IoT networks, the datagenerated by these systems
becomes overwhelming.
✓ The real value of IoT is not just in connecting things but rather in the data produced by
those things, the new services you can enable via those connected things, and the business
insights that the data can reveal.
✓ However, to be useful, the data needs to be handled in a way that is organized and
controlled. Thus, a new approach to data analytics is needed for the Internet of Things.
IoT Data Analytics Challenges
Scaling problems: Due to the large number of smart objects in most IoT networks that
continually send data, relational databases can grow incredibly large very quickly. This can
result in performance issues that can be costly to resolve, often requiring more hardware and
architecture changes.
Volatility of data: With relational databases, it is critical that the schema be designed correctly
from the beginning. Changing it later can slow or stop the database from operating. Due to the
lack of flexibility, revisions to the schema offerings, and various other applications can be used
in house.
data, which is referred to as network analytics. With the large numbers of smart objects in IoT
networks that are communicating and streaming data, it can be challenging to ensure that these
data flows are effectively managed, monitored, and secure. Network analytics tools such as
Flexible NetFlow and IPFIX provide the capability to detect irregular patterns or other
problems in the flow of IoT data through a network.
Bigdata
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learning projects, predictive modeling and other advanced analytics applications.Systems that
process and store big data have become a common component of data
management architectures in organizations. They're combined with tools that support big data
analytics uses. Big data is often characterized by the three V's:
• The wide variety of data types frequently stored in big data systems.
• The high velocity at which the data is generated, collected and processed.
Doug Lany first identified these three V's of big data in 2001 when he was an analyst at
consulting firm Meta Group Inc. Gartner popularized them after it acquired Meta Group in
2005. More recently, several other V's have been added to different descriptions of big data,
including veracity, value and variability.
Although big data doesn't equate to any specific volume of data, big data deployments often
involve terabytes, petabytes and even exabytes of data points created and collected over time.
Types of data
In terms of variety, big data encompasses several data types, including the following:
• Semi-structured data, such as web server logs and streaming data from sensors.
Various data types must be stored and managed in big data systems. In addition, big data
applications often include multiple data sets that can't be integrated upfront. For example, a big
data analytics project might attempt to forecast sales of a product by correlating data on past
sales, returns, online reviews and customer service calls.
Velocity refers to the speed at which data is generated and must be processed and analyzed. In
many cases, big data sets are updated on a real- or near-real-time basis, instead of the daily,
weekly or monthly updates made in many traditional data warehouses. Managing data velocity
is becoming more important as big data analysis expands into machine learning and artificial
intelligence (AI), where analytical processes automatically find patterns in data and use them
to generate insights.
• Veracity. Veracity refers to the degree of accuracy in data sets and how trustworthy they
are. Raw data collected from various sources can cause data quality issues that might be
difficult to pinpoint. If they aren't fixed through data cleansing processes, bad data leads to
analysis errors that can undermine the value of business analytics initiatives. Data
management and analytics teams also need to ensure that they have enough accurate data
available to produce valid results.
• Value. Some data scientists and consultants also add value to the list of big data's
characteristics. Not all the data that's collected has real business value or benefits. As a
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result, organizations need to confirm that data relates to relevant business issues before it's
used in big data analytics projects.
• Variability. Variability often applies to sets of big data, which might have multiple
meanings or be formatted differently in separate data sources. These factors can
complicate big data management and analytics.
It encompasses a broad range of activities, including the collection of raw data, ensuring its
accuracy and integrity, processing it into a manageable form, analyzing it statistically, and
presenting it in ways that are easy to understand (such as charts, graphs, and tables.
Types of data
Data handling methods can be performed based on the types of data. The data is classified into
two types, such as:
• Qualitative Data
• Quantitative Data
Qualitative data gives descriptive information of something whereas quantitative data gives
numerical information about something. Here, the quantitative data is further divided into two.
They are discrete data and continuous data. The discrete data can take only certain values such
as whole numbers. The continuous data can take a value within the provided range.
Qualitative Analysis
✓ Analysis of variables
✓ Data dispersion
✓ Regression analysis
✓ Statistical significance
✓ Precision
✓ Error limits
Comparison
Examples are color, smell, taste, etc. Examples are volume, weight, etc.
Advantages
✓ Helps businesses identify performance problems that require some sort ofaction
✓ Can be viewed in a visual manner, which leads to faster and better decisions
Flow of data
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In the data handing process, the purpose or problem statement has to be identified and well
defined.
The collected data should be presented in a meaningful manner and it should be easily
understood. It can be done by arranging the collected data in the tally marks, table forms, and
so on.
Since the visual or graphical representation of the data makes the analysis and understanding
easier, the presented data can be plotted in graphs, charts such as bar graphs, pie charts and so
on.
The data should undergo data analysis so that the necessary information can be concluded from
the data, which helps in taking further actions.
Step 6: Conclusion
From the analysis of the data, we can derive the solution to our problem statement.
Data acquisition
Data acquisition is the process of converting real-world signals to the digital domain for
display, storage, and analysis. Because physical phenomena exist in the analog domain, i.e.,
the physical world that we live in, they must be first measured there and then converted to the
digital domain.
There are four methods of acquiring data: collecting new data; converting/transforming legacy
data; sharing/exchanging data; and purchasing data. This includes automated collection (e.g.,
of sensor-derived data), the manual recording of empirical observations, and obtaining existing
data from other sources.
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Venn diagram of data acquisition methods & considerations
• Business Rules: A business rule identifies the constraints under which the business
operates. For instance, where applicable, all geospatial data must have Federal
Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) compliant metadata. These rules will affect your
data acquisition decisions.
Data Standards: Any Government, USGS, or industry standards that apply will need
consideration.
• Accuracy Requirements: Among the most familiar accuracy requirements is the
locational accuracy for spatial data; but there are other accuracy requirements that you
may need to consider as well.
• Cost: Cost is always a consideration. Sometimes it's cheaper to buy than to collect.
• Currency of Data: For many types of work, the data need to be fairly current. For others,
data may need to cover a specified time period. For others, data need to be in a specific
season. If you are trying to determine vegetation coverage, for example, you may want
photographs from the summer, when vegetation is at the highest. If you are trying to
look for land forms, you may want winter photos.
• Time Constraints: You should determine how soon you need the data.
• Format: Do you need the data as spatial data, photos, flat files, Excel files, XML files?
This may not apply, but you need to determine that for each project.
Data Storage
IoT data storage refers to capturing, managing, and storing the data generated by IoT devices.
These devices, ranging from sensors and actuators to smartphones and wearables, continuously
produce data streams containing valuable insights about the physical world. IoT data storage
solutions are drafted to efficiently handle this diverse and often unstructured data, ensuring its
integrity, availability, and accessibility for analysis and decision-making purposes.
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When managing large-scale operations, it is crucial to categorize data and use storage
technology tailored to each segment.
Managing the high-performance demands of a hot storage database comes at a high cost. Most
hot storage setups incorporate data retention policies to manage costs. It means that data
remains in the hot storage database for a set period before being removed.
Warm storage : Warm storage is a data storage that sits between hot storage (which prioritizes
fast access and real-time querying) and cold storage (which focuses on long-term retention at
a lower cost). Warm storage typically retains data that is not actively accessed but may still be
needed for analysis or historical reference. It provides a balance of performance and cost-
effectiveness, offering relatively faster access times compared to cold storage while being more
economical than hot storage. Warm storage is used for storing data accessed occasionally or
intermittently, serving as an intermediate tier in a data storage hierarchy.
Cold storage: Cold storage is data storage optimized for long-term data retention at a low cost.
Different from hot storage, which prioritizes fast access and real-time querying, cold storage is
designed for infrequently accessed or rarely modified data. It typically offers slower retrieval
times compared to hot storage but is more cost-effective for storing large volumes of data over
extended periods. Cold storage solutions often utilize technologies such as magnetic tape or
object storage systems with lower performance requirements but higher scalability and
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durability. Cold storage is commonly used for archival data, backups, regulatory compliance,
and disaster recovery purposes.
Introduction to Hadoop.
Hadoop is the most recent entrant into the data management market, but it is arguably the most
popular choice as a data repository and processing engine Hadoop was originally developed as
a result of projects at Google and Yahoo!, and the original intent for Hadoop was to index
millions of websites and quickly return search results for open source search engines.
Initially, the project had two key elements:Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS): A system
for storing data across multiple nodes
MapReduce: A distributed processing engine that splits a large task into smaller ones that can
be run in parallel
Hadoop relies on a scale-out architecture that leverages local processing, memory, and storage
to distribute tasks and provide a scalable storage system for data. Both MapReduce and HDFS
take advantage of this distributed architecture to store and process massive amounts of data
and are thus able to leverage resources from all nodes in the cluster. For HDFS, this capability
ishandled by specialized nodes in the cluster, including NameNodes and DataNodes.
NameNodes: These are a critical piece in data adds, moves, deletes, and reads on HDFS. They
coordinate where the data is stored, and maintain a map of where each block of data is stored
and where it is replicated.
DataNodes: These are the servers where the data is stored at the direction of the
NameNode. It is common to have many Data Nodes in a Hadoop cluster to store the data. Data
blocks are distributed across several nodes and often are replicated three, four, or more times
across nodes for redundancy
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Introduction to data Analytics
In the world of IoT, the creation of massive amounts of data from sensors is common
and one of the biggest challenges—not only from a transport perspective but also from a data
management standpoint.Analysing large amount of data in the most efficient manner possible
falls under the umbrella of data analytics.Data analytics must be able to offer actionable
insights and knowledge from data, no matter the amount or style, in a timely manner, or the
full benefits of IoT cannot be realized.
Example:
Modern jet engines are fitted with thousands of sensors that generate a whopping 10GB of data
per second may be equipped with around 5000 sensors. Therefore, a twin engine commercial
aircraft with these engines operating on average 8 hours a day will generate over 500 TB of
data daily,and this is just the data from the engines! Aircraft today have thousands ofother
sensors connected to the airframe and other systems.
In fact, a single wing of a modern jumbo jet is equipped with 10,000sensors. The potential for
a petabyte (PB) of data per day per commercial airplane is not farfetched—and this is just for
one airplane. Across the world, there are approximately 100,000 commercial flights per day.
The amount of IoT data coming just from the commercial airline business is overwhelming
Not all data are same it can be categorized and thus analysed in different ways.
Depending on how data is categorized, various data analytics tools and processing methods can
be applied.
Two important categorizations from an IoT perspective are whether the data is structured or
unstructured and whether it is in motion or at rest.
Structured data and unstructured data are important classifications as they typically require
different toolsets from a data analytics perspective.
Structured data means that the data follows a model or schema that defines how the data is
represented or organized, meaning it fits well with a traditional relational database management
system (RDBMS).
Simply put, structured data typically refers to highly organized, stored information that is
efficiently and easily searchable.
IoT sensor data often uses structured values, such as temperature, pressure,humidity, and so
on, which are all sent in a known format. Structured data is easily formatted, stored, queried,
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and processed; for these reasons, it has been the core type of data used for making business
decisions.
Because of the highly organizational format of structured data, a wide array of data analytics
tools are readily available for processing this type of data From custom scripts to commercial
software like Microsoft Excel and Tableau,
most people are familiar and comfortable with working with structured data.
Unstructured data lacks a logical schema for understanding and decoding the data through
traditional programming means.
Examples of this data type include text, speech, images, and video. As a general rule, any data
that does not fit neatly into a predefined data model is classified as unstructured data. such as
cognitive computing and machine learning, are deservedly garnering a lot of attention.
With machine learning applications, such as natural language processing (NLP), you can
decode speech. With image/facial recognition applications, you can extract critical information
from still images and video. The handling of unstructured IoT data employing machine learning
techniques is covered in more depth later in this chapter.
Semi-structured data is sometimes included along with structured and unstructured data. As
you can probably guess, semi-structured data is a hybrid of structured and unstructured data
and shares characteristics of both. While not relational, semi-structured data contains a certain
schema and consistency.
Email is a good example of semi-structured data as the fields are well defined but the content
contained in the body field and attachments is unstructured. Smart objects in IoT networks
generate both structured and unstructured data. Structured data is more easily managed and
processed due to its welldefined organization.
On the other hand, unstructured data can be harder to deal with and typically requires very
different analytics tools for processing the data.
The true importance of IoT data from smart objects is realized only when the analysis of the
data leads to actionable business intelligence and insights.
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Data analysis is typically broken down by the types of results that are produced.
Descriptive: Descriptive data analysis tells you what is happening, either now or in the past.
Diagnostic: When you are interested in the “why,” diagnostic data analysis can provide the
answer.
Predictive: Predictive analysis aims to foretell problems or issues before they occur.
Prescriptive: Prescriptive analysis goes a step beyond predictive and recommends solutions for
upcoming problems.
Both predictive and prescriptive analyses are more resource intensive and increase complexity,
but the value they provide is much greater than the value from descriptive and diagnostic
analysis.
Figure illustrates the four data analysis types and how they rank as complexity and value
increase. You can see that descriptive analysis is the least complex and at the same time offers
the least value. On the other end, prescriptive analysis provides the most value but is the most
complex to implement.
Most data analysis in the IoT space relies on descriptive and diagnostic analysis, but a shift
toward predictive and prescriptive analysis is understandably occurring for most businesses
and organizations.
Local Analytics
Local analytics helps businesses optimize their operations in a specific location. Insights about
local demand patterns, supply chain, and inventory management help businesses to streamline
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their operations and reduce costs – as well as find growth opportunities based on local market
dynamics.
The four forms of analytics descriptive, diagnostic, predictive, and prescriptive help
organizations get the most from their data.
Businesses across all types of industries utilize these specialty areas in analytics to increase overall
performance at all levels of operations. These four types of analytics all work together and can be used
together to help improve business performance.
DescriptiveAnalytics
Descriptive analytics can show “what happened” and is the foundation of data insights.
According to Investopedia, it is the interpretation of historical data to better understand changes
that have occurred in a business. This type of analytics can be used to gain an overall picture
of how a business is performing and is often used alongside predictive and prescriptive
analytics. Common insights include year-over-year comparisons, the number of users, and
revenue per subscriber.
Diagnostic Analytics
Diagnostic analytics addresses “why things happened.” Common diagnostic analytic
techniques/insights include drill-down, data discovery, data mining, and
correlations.12 Companies use this data to identify patterns of behavior and make deep
connections within the data they have collected. In order to be effective, diagnostic data must
be detailed and accurate.
Predictive Analytics
Businesses use predictive analytics to “see the future” and predict “what is likely to happen.”
Existing data, modeling techniques, and statistical modeling are leveraged to generate
predictions about performance and future outcomes. Predictive models are especially useful
for marketing and insurance companies which need to make decisions based on what could be
coming up.
Common processes in predictive analytics include decision trees, neural networks, and
regression models.Compared to descriptive and diagnostic analytics, which is fairly common
in most businesses, predictive analytics is more intensive and many companies are not
leveraging this type of analytics yet.
Prescriptive Analytics
Prescriptive analytics, analytics driven by AI (Artificial Intelligence) systems, helps companies
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make decisions and determine “what they should do next.” This is the most in-demand type of
analytics today, however, it is talent and resource-expensive: Few companies have the skilled
employees and resources to conduct it.
This type of analytics is on the leading edge of the analytical landscape and requires sufficient
investment and commitment across the entire organization that wishes to perform it. Big data
players like Apple, Netflix, and Facebook are currently conducting prescriptive analytics
successfully. AI itself falls within the category of prescriptive analytics. It requires tremendous
data and continuously updated data to help it learn, refine its decisions, and then communicate
and act on these decisions in a business setting.
Cloud analytics helps to enable a rich set of use cases, such as: Creating unified analytics
platforms to build a single source of truth. Build experience management data warehouses to
improve experiences and services for customers, employees, and vendors.
Here are a few ways that modern cloud analytics solutions can help your organization
grow:
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Cloud analytics in cloud computing deliver many of the same capabilities as traditional data
analytics. However, rather than hosting everything on-premises, cloud analytics provides the
components to support building, deploying, scaling, and managing data analytics in the cloud
on a third party’s infrastructure.
Examples of cloud analytics solutions include cloud enterprise data warehouses, data lakes,
and on-demand BI and marketing analytics.
Types of cloud analytics
Depending on the environment you choose, there are three primary types of cloud analytics in
cloud computing: public cloud, private cloud, and hybrid cloud.
Public cloud analytics are offered in a public cloud on multitenant architecture, meaning that
multiple organizations can use the same resources and services, such as virtual machines, data
storage, and data processing, without sharing data.
Private cloud analytics are accessed by a single organization in a private cloud. Private clouds
offer many of the same advantages as a public cloud, but are located in an on-premises data
center or hosted offsite on dedicated servers on third-party IT infrastructure. Private cloud
analytics solutions benefit from greater data security and privacy. However, they are much
more expensive to scale and maintain.
Hybrid cloud analytics combine public and private cloud analytics in a hybrid cloud
environment, where you use the public cloud for processing and storing non-sensitive data and
use on-premises systems or a private cloud for a smaller amount of sensitive data with stricter
governance or data sovereignty requirements. Hybrid cloud analytics deliver analytics
capabilities to wherever your data lives, whether in a public cloud, private cloud, or on-
premises.
You’re using cloud analytics if you have at least one or more critical elements of the data
analytics process in the cloud. As previously defined by Gartner, these elements include data
sources, data models, data processing, computing power, data storage, and analytic
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models. When considering solutions and tools, look for the following cloud analytics features
and capabilities that provide one or more of the following:
Data sources: The ability to capture and ingest data or events from many different types of
data sources, including websites, ERP and CRM systems, mobile apps, social media platforms,
and more. One of the biggest advantages of cloud analytics is real-time data integration, so you
can consolidate structured, unstructured, batch, and streaming data without adding a lot of extra
complexity.
Data models: Cloud-based data models determine data structure and how data elements relate
to each other. Cloud providers should offer cloud analytics solutions that have data models that
match your organization's data and specific business requirements.
Data processing: Cloud analytics should offer data processing applications and capabilities
for handling large volumes of data coming in from different systems to speed up the time it
takes for you to analyze and generate insights.
Computing power: With cloud analytics, data processing requires huge amounts of raw
computing power so you can ingest, structure, process, store, and analyze large datasets at
scale. Leveraging public cloud resources helps ensure data can be processed and delivered
quickly without having to worry about scaling capacity or other provisioning concerns.
Storage and warehousing: In most cases, cloud analytics solves many of the problems of
storing and maintaining data stores. Ideally, a cloud analytics solution should offer affordable
cloud storage along with other services like a data warehouse that make it easy to access, share,
and deliver data to multiple platforms.
Analytics models: Cloud analytics should allow you to leverage pre-built advanced analytics
and AI/ML models and develop your own for analyzing complex data to improve real-time
predictions, forecasting, and decision-making.
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UNIT V
Applications of IoT
Home Automation
The phrase smart home refers to home automation devices that have internet access. Home
automation, a broader category, includes any device that can be monitored or controlled via
wireless radio signals, not just those having internet access. When connected with the Internet,
home sensors and activation devices are an important constituent of the Internet of
Things ("IoT").
A home automation system typically connects controlled devices to a central smart home
hub (sometimes called a "gateway"). The user interface for control of the system uses either
wall-mounted terminals, tablet or desktop computers, a mobile phone application, or a Web
interface that may also be accessible off-site through the Internet.
• Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC): it is possible to have remote control of
all home energy monitors over the internet incorporating a simple and friendly user
interface.
• Lighting control system: a "smart" network that incorporates communication between
various lighting system inputs and outputs, using one or more central computing devices.
• Occupancy-aware control system: it is possible to sense the occupancy of the home using
smart meters and environmental sensors like CO2 sensors, which can be integrated into the
building automation system to trigger automatic responses for energy efficiency and
building comfort applications.
• Appliance control and integration with the smart grid and a smart meter, taking advantage,
for instance, of high solar panel output in the middle of the day to run washing machines.
• Home robots and security: a household security system integrated with a home automation
system can provide additional services such as remote surveillance of security cameras over
the Internet, or access control and central locking of all perimeter doors and windows.
• Leak detection, smoke and CO detectors
• Laundry-folding machine, self-making bed
• Indoor positioning systems (IPS).
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• Home automation for the elderly and disabled.
• Pet and baby care, for example tracking the pets and babies' movements and controlling pet
access rights.
• Air quality control (inside and outside). For example, Air Quality Egg is used by people at
home to monitor the air quality and pollution level in the city and create a map of the
pollution.
• Smart kitchen, with refrigerator inventory, premade cooking programs, cooking
surveillance, etc.
• Voice control devices like Amazon Alexa or Google Nest used to control home appliances
or systems.
smart homes : At the point when one talks about IoT Applications, Smart Homes are
presumably the principal thing that is considered. The best model is Jarvis, it is personal home
automation, and the Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg has created one for his home. One
more example to be considered is Allen Pan’s Home Automation System where works in the
house are impelled by utilization of a string of melodic notes.
Smart homes are generally in vogue among all the applications. The vision of a smart home is
to control home apparatuses including lights, water stream from taps, home security, and
wellbeing. House proprietors get an opportunity to control and screen these activities from their
so-called smartphones.
What if you have mistakenly forgotten to turn off the water tap and you have left the house,
you can simply turn the tap off from your smartphone. Smart homes permit you to deal with
all your home gadgets from one spot. Another example can be WeMo by Belkin which allows
clients to control power, home appliances, water, and WiFi from a smartphone.
Smart Cities
The smart city is a major development and ranges a wide assortment of use cases, from water
dissemination and traffic management to waste management and environmental observing. The
reason behind why it is so mainstream is that it attempts to evacuate the uneasiness and issues
of individuals who live in urban communities. IoT arrangements offered in the smart city sector
take care of different city associated issues, including traffic, lessening air and contamination,
and assisting with making urban communities more secure.
Taking an example of a smart city Barcelona has a CityOS project, where the aim is to make a
solitary virtualized OS for all the brilliant gadgets and services offered inside the city.
Barcelona has for the most part centred around smart transportation and smart water.
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Palo Alto, San Francisco, is the principal city of its sort, that adopted a totally different strategy
towards traffic. They understood, most vehicles on the roads go around and round a similar
square, looking for parking spaces. That was the fundamental reason behind traffic blockage
in the city. In this manner, sensors were installed at all the parking spaces around the city.
These sensors pass the occupancy status of each spot. Any number of uses can consume that
information. It can lead the drivers through the shortest course to an open spot.
Logistics
In order to understand where IoT is heading for the logistics industry, let's first look at a few
of its current applications:
2. Inventory Management
IoT technology can also be used to automate inventory management. For example, logistics
companies can place RFID tags on items shelved in warehouses to track the products' location
and inventory levels in real time. With the automatically obtained data on inventory levels
from smart shelves and IoT sensors, companies can improve forecasting and optimize stock
levels.
3. Fleet Management
IoT-enabled fleet management can offer real-time vehicle location, trailer or truck weight
management, vehicle current status and speed. This way, businesses can optimize routes and
scheduling, help diminish idling and improve fleet performance. These solutions can help
reduce fuel costs and assist in monitoring drivers' for unsafe driving practices.
4. Predictive Maintenance
The data collected from IoT devices, like connected sensors, can help identify patterns,
automatically predict the failures in equipment and schedule maintenance.
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Current Challenges And Possible Resolutions
Even with these benefits, the adoption of IoT in the logistics industry faces several challenges.
Let's look at a few of them and the possible resolutions to these obstacles:
1. Scalability
With the increasing usage of sensors and other connected devices in a system, the accumulated
data would demand detailed analysis and processing. In the absence of scalable infrastructure,
it may hamper data management. A scalable and flexible infrastructure that can handle surging
data volume and adapt to changing system needs might help resolve this issue.
2. Security
IoT devices and networks are prone to cyberattacks, which can lead to the loss of data, among
other issues. Through thorough security assessments and robust security measures, though,
businesses should be able to protect their data and prevent unauthorized access.
3. Integration
With current logistics systems, IoT device or system integration may result in poor outcomes
because of improper planning and prior testing. Before integrating IoT with existing logistics
systems, proper planning and integration testing is essential for the system to perform
seamlessly.
4. Staff Skills
As IoT implementation leads to various modifications in the system, employees may not find
it easy to adapt to those complex changes. A skilled staff with technical knowledge is necessary
to quickly adapt to the revamped workflow. For this reason, employee training is a must.
5. Data Quality
Data accumulated from IoT devices help make informed decisions and predictions, but invalid
or inaccurate data can lead businesses to huge losses. Data-quality checks and validation
processes can help ensure the gathered data is reliable and accurate.
Agriculture
There are various IoT applications in agriculture, for example, gathering information on
temperature, precipitation, dampness, wind speed, bug pervasion, and soil content. This
information can be utilized to mechanize cultivating procedures, make informed choices to
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improve quality as well as quantity, limit hazard and waste, and reduce the effort required to
oversee crops. IoT innovation also allows the observing and control of the plant and animal
items during the entire life cycle from ranch to fork. Farmers can now screen soil temperature
and dampness from far off, and even apply IoT-procured information to accuracy fertilization
programs.
Smart farming can very soon turn into a significant application field, explicitly in the
agricultural-product exporting nations. Some other examples of farming IoT gadgets are
AllMETOE, Pynco, etc. These gadgets are equipped for identifying climate change and other
ecological information. The idea of smart farming can transform the farming business. Oso
Technologies Plant Link is a wireless soil moisture tracking system that gives constant
observation of plant dampness, accordingly giving users the way to monitor when their plants
need water. Similarly, OnFarm lets clients participate in progressively observing harvests
through information from sensors, climate, maps, and protection measures.
Advances in sensor and connectivity Collect patient data over time Enable preventive care
Understanding of effects of therapy on a patient
Sensing layer: Consists of all sensor, RFIDs and wireless sensor networks (WSN). E.g:
Google glass, Fitbit tracker
Aggregated layer: Consists of different types of aggregators based on the sensors of sensing
layer. E.g: Smartphones, Tablets
Processing layer: It consists of servers for processing information coming from aggregated
layer.
Cloud platform: All processed data are uploaded in cloud platform, which can be accessed
by large no. of users
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IoT in Healthcare : Directions
Wireless IoT driven solutions bring healthcare to patients rather than bring patients to
healthcare.
Securely capture a variety of medical data through IoT based sensors, analyze data with smart
algorithms.
Wirelessly share data with health professionals for appropriate health recommendations.
Gateways and cloud‐based analytics and storage of data Wirelessly send data to caregivers
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IoT Healthcare : Preventive care
Fall detection for seniors , Emergency situation detection and alert to family Members
Machine learning for health trend tracking and early anomaly detectio
Problem Inconsistent
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Industrial IoT
Historical Context
Driver: invention of steam engine and construction of railway stimulated the revolution
During the revolution, sensors become cheaper, reduced in size, powerful Extensive use of
Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Cyber Physical System (CPS)
Fourth Industrial Revolution is coined as “The second Machine Age”* by Prof. Erik
Brynjolfsson, MIT and Andrew McAfee, MIT
Industry 4.0, another synonym of Fourth Industrial Revolution, is coined by Hannover Fair
in 2011.
Fourth Revolution
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Renewables, Quantum Computing
The scale and scope of innovation of Fourth Industrial Revolution defines today’s acute
disruption and innovation Airbnb, Uber, Alibaba, etc., disruptors of today, are relatively new
Ubiquitous iPhone launched in 2007 Billions of smart phones are being mass produced
currently
Google announced fully autonomous car in 2010 AI-based self navigating cars are on the
way
Not only the speed of profound change, but scale of profound change is equally staggering
Example *:
In 1990, industry giants in Detroit had a combined market of $36 billion capitalization, $250
billion revenues, 1.2 million employee
With marginal costs, digital business creates unit of today’s wealth with fewer workers .
Business providing information goods, has virtually zero transportation and replication cost .
In the context of Industry 4.0, Instagram, WhatsApp, etc. do not require much capital to begin
with, but it changes the role of capital and scaling business .
In the context of Fourth Industrial Revolution Digital fabrication technologies are able to
communicate with biological world designers and architects are now combining,
Computational design,Additive manufacturing, Material engineering, Synthetic biology.
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Prediction of cultural Interest
Application of Siri in Apple is one of the examples of strength of AI (Voice Search) – Also,
Cortana for Windows.
Autonomous Vehicle
3D Printers
Advanced Robotics
Conventional application of robots: automotive Recently, robotics are used from precision
agriculture to nursing
Legal challenges
With the Internet of Things and M2M interfacing more things and individuals to the web, it
will significantly change lives particularly in the areas of wellbeing, home robotization, retail,
and transport. The correspondence between various gadgets, and huge information or data
transfer between their clients, would bring about sharing of personal data, in this manner raising
security and data protection concerns. It becomes highly important that such protection issues
should be considered and solved at the primary level.
Protection of sensitive personal information is secured under the Information Technology Act
2000 and The Information Technology (Reasonable Security Practices and Procedures and
Sensitive Personal Data or Information) Rules 2011. As per Section 43A of the Information
Technology Act 2000, a body corporate not executing and keeping up sensible security
practices and strategies in regard of sensitive personal information or data possessed, managed
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or dealt by it in a PC resource owned, controlled or operated by it, is subject to pay damages to
the individual so affected for unfair misfortune to any individual. The Rules mandate the
essential standard of the law of privacy that the corporate body requires to get informed assent
alongside certain security compliance practices.
The ITA additionally imposes harsh punishments of confinement maximum of two years or
fine maximum to 100,000 rupees or even both, on any individual who ties down access to any
electronic record, data, etc., and who, without the assent of the individual concerned, unveils
such record, data, etc, to some other individual.
Data ownership
The building scene of IoT brings its own arrangement of data ownership issues. As gadgets
will be flawlessly associated and speaking with one another, a lot of information will be
generated. Taking an example of Google Nest to comprehend the potential data ownership
issues that may emerge later on. Google Nest thermostat is a gadget that learns an individual’s
timetable, programs itself and can be controlled from the smartphone. It is guaranteed that this
gadget can bring down heating and cooling bills up to 20%.
Google Nest is as of now working with organizations, for example, Mercedes to develop cars
that can constantly interact with Google Nest indoor regulator and realize what time an
individual will show up home and in like manner the gadget will adjust itself so the second you
show up you will have your ideal temperature. Presently this correspondence between the car
and Google Nest indoor regulator will include numerous sensors including geolocation sensors
that will generate information. This information will give bits of knowledge into an individual’s
propensity, for example, preferred routes, arrival timings, fueling propensities, and much more.
This information could act as a gold mine for promoters which might take targeted publicizing
to another level.
So now the question which arises in relation to the ownership of data is that who actually owns
the data in the above scenario? Is it the user itself or the gadget i.e. Google Nest or the car
company i.e., Mercedes? Honestly speaking, there is no straightforward answer to this question
of ownership. It will simply be based on the business course of action between the client, the
gadget, and the car company.
Security
As IoT has involved a person’s regular day to day life, coming through industrial controls to
individual gadgets and framework, for example, transport and power, the security problems in
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these situations become more complex and difficult and have high repercussions. IoT and its
union furnishes hackers with more vulnerabilities to misuse and make huge security dangers.
Such dangers could take an assortment of structures, depending upon the idea of the
information and gadgets being referred to.
For instance, with regards to e-wellbeing, the assortment and fast trade of delicate individual
data in an interconnected and open condition expand hazards in regard of patient secrecy, yet
in addition, has the unmistakably all the more disturbing potential to jeopardize life if that one
takes the case of embedded clinical gadgets controlling drugs based on autonomous
information inputs.
Enormous organizations, for example, Google and Cisco know about the various kinds of
security issues and are attempting to address the equivalent. The most ideal approach to address
security issues in gadgets is at the structuring stage itself and to continually refresh the gadgets
from possible new dangers.
Therefore, it can be said that lawful and authoritative improvements additionally need to occur
so as to address these types of security issues.
Jurisdiction
One of the essential problems that would emerge either in a dispute between the gadget makers
or between the gadget producer and the client is the jurisdiction. The explanation being the
point at which numerous gadgets are involved there is a likelihood that such gadgets could be
situated in various areas and in some cases outside the regional limits of a particular country.
Subsequently, it would need to be determined by the court whether it has jurisdiction to try the
dispute. As per the customary guidelines regarding the determination of jurisdiction, the courts
in a nation have jurisdiction over people who are inside the nation and to the exchanges and
events that happen within the outskirts of the country.
Thus, in an e-world, if the gadget maker is selling its gadgets in a specific nation straight to the
clients, it may be required to defend any case that may result in that nation. Thus, the gadget
maker should review the neighbourhood laws before advertising or selling its items or services
as it might bring in the risk of being sued in any jurisdiction where the products are purchased
or where the services are availed of.
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Many local statutes accommodate a ‘long-arm jurisdiction’ whereby the activity of such nearby
laws has extraterritorial application if an act or oversight has brought about some illicit or
biased impact inside the territory of the nation.
The product liability is a region of law wherein makers, wholesalers, providers, retailers, and
other people who make items accessible to general society are considered liable for the
sufferings those items cause to property and or bodily injury.
Initially, the claims related to product liability had to be proved under the principle of
negligence. But as the law developed the courts across different jurisdictions began applying
the rule of strict liability in the case of product liability as the rule of strict liability is, even
more, consumer-friendly. Under this standard, the manufacturer of the item is at risk if the item
is found to be defective, regardless of whether the maker was not careless in making that item
flawed.
The explanation for courts adopting the strict liability rule is that a manufacturer can envision
likely perils related to the item and take measures to defend the items from these dangers, while
a consumer can’t do so. It will be significant for IoT gadget makers to buy and guard themselves
with product liability protection and contemplate this while working.
Notwithstanding strict liability and related torts, India has various enactments including
the Consumer Protection Act, 1986, the Legal Metrology Act, 2009, that secure buyer against
defective items, lacking administrations, anti-competitive practices, and costs, deceptive
advertising on account of perilous products, in addition to other things. These consumer-
oriented laws additionally provide special courts that particularly work in these kinds of matters
on a fast track basis and secure and allow the consumers to sue and procure remedies effectively
when they are sold defective or fake items.
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Formation & validity of e-contracts
Data ownership, security, and privacy problems with IoT gadgets can be addressed to a degree
by the method of contracts between the gadget makers and the consumers and in numerous
situations, the contract will be between the clients and the makers by the method of e-contracts,
for example, clickwrap and shrink-wrap contracts. In the event of shrink-wrap contracts, the
party contracting can peruse the terms and conditions only after it opens the item which is
newly packed. Accordingly, it gets critical to look at the validity of these agreements.
Talking about the US, there have been occurrences where the courts have crossed and removed
explicit terms of agreements which were held to be amoral. Considering the case of Comb v.
PayPal, Inc., in this case, the California courts found that the online business agreement
committed clients to arbitrate their disputes compliant with the business rules of the American
Arbitration Association which is cost restrictive considering the normal size of a PayPal
exchange is not right.
Talking about India, e-contracts like every single other contract are administered by the
fundamental standards overseeing contracts in India, which is the Indian Contract Act, 1872
which among other things mandate certain pre-necessities for a valid contract, for example,
free assent and lawful consideration. What should be analyzed is the means by which these
prerequisites of the Indian Contract Act would be satisfied corresponding to e-contracts.
In this relation, it is necessary to note that the Information Technology Act, 2000 gives
strongholds to the legitimacy of e-contracts. There is no necessity under the Indian Contract
Act to have a written agreement that had to be physically signed. However, explicit statutes do
include signature necessities.
Further, except if explicitly restricted under any resolution, e-contracts like click-wrap
agreements would be enforceable and valid in India if the prerequisites of a legitimate contract
according to the Indian Contract Act are satisfied. In India, the statute on the issue of whether
standard structure online agreements are amoral or it is yet not developed. But, however, the
Indian legislation and Indian courts have managed occurrences where terms of agreements
were haggled between parties in unequal bargaining positions.
In any case, if there is an immoral contract, the courts can place a weight on the individual who
is in the dominant position to prove that the contract was not instigated by the undue impact.
With regards to IoT, there is a minimal or no chance degree for negotiations to be held between
the gadget maker and the clients in regards to the conditions of e-contracts. With that, in
maximum cases there is no privity of contract between different gadget makers, thus what
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keeps on staying as a challenge is that what terms would administer the in-between relations
between the various gadget makers whole-process with one another while offering types of
assistance to the consumer.
The Internet of Things heralds a new era of technological integration, but with it comes a
complex web of ethical considerations that must be addressed proactively. Privacy, security,
autonomy, inequality, and environmental impact are just some of the ethical challenges that the
IoT presents.
Privacy Concerns
The very essence of IoT is to collect, analyze, and transfer data across devices, which inherently
raises significant privacy concerns. Smart devices in homes, offices, and public spaces can
track individual movements, habits, and even predict future behavior. This granular level of
data collection poses a threat to individual privacy. It is essential to question who owns this
data, how it is used, and what measures are in place to protect it from misuse.
Companies and policymakers must ensure that individuals retain autonomy over their personal
information. This includes transparent policies on data collection, the option to opt-out, and
robust security measures to prevent unauthorized access. The European Union’s General Data
Protection Regulation (GDPR) is an example of a legislative framework aimed at protecting
user privacy, which could serve as a model for other regions.
Security Risks
The interconnected nature of IoT devices means that they are often part of a network, and if
one device is compromised, it could potentially lead to a chain reaction affecting the entire
system. IoT devices have already been used to launch massive Distributed Denial of Service
(DDoS) attacks, and the potential for more sophisticated cyber threats looms large.
Ensuring the security of IoT devices is not just a technical challenge but an ethical imperative.
Manufacturers are morally obligated to implement stringent security measures before releasing
products into the market. This includes regular updates, secure software by design, and prompt
responses to vulnerabilities.
The ethical dilemma revolves around finding the balance between harnessing the benefits of
automation and maintaining human decision-making power. There should be clear boundaries
on the autonomy of IoT devices, and humans should have the ultimate say in critical decisions,
especially those with moral ramifications.
To address this ethical concern, it is vital to advocate for inclusive technology policies that
ensure IoT devices are accessible and affordable. Governments and organizations can play a
role in subsidizing costs or providing IoT solutions in public services to bridge the gap.
Environmental Impact
The production, operation, and disposal of billions of IoT devices have significant
environmental implications. The demand for rare earth elements and the energy consumption
of IoT devices contribute to ecological degradation. Additionally, electronic waste is a growing
concern, as many IoT devices have short lifespans and are not designed to be recyclable.
Ethically, there is a responsibility to consider the environmental footprint of IoT. This includes
designing products with longer lifespans, energy-efficient operations, and sustainable
materials. Furthermore, recycling programs for IoT devices should be standard practice, and
consumers should be educated about their environmental responsibilities.
Conclusion
The Internet of Things heralds a new era of technological integration, but with it comes a
complex web of ethical considerations that must be addressed proactively. Privacy, security,
autonomy, inequality, and environmental impact are just some of the ethical challenges that
the IoT presents. As we move forward, it is imperative for stakeholders, including
technologists, policymakers, and the public, to engage in open dialogue and develop a
framework that prioritizes ethical considerations in the evolution of IoT.
The conversations about the ethics of IoT are as essential as the technology itself. They will
shape the norms, laws, and regulations that guide the development and deployment of IoT
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technologies. Only with a concerted and collaborative effort can we ensure that the IoT serves
as a tool for positive change, enhancing lives while respecting individual rights and ecological
boundaries. As we advance into this connected future, our moral compass must navigate the
course as much as the innovative spirit that drives the IoT forward.
IoT-based systems can be used to detect any changes in gas levels that could indicate a potential
safety hazard or environmental issue. Predominantly used to monitor H2S or CO in a refinery
or petrochemical workplace, IoT-based systems can help detect any hazardous gases and
inform decisions around emissions reduction.
2. Air Quality Monitoring : Air pollution is one of the emerging global concerns. As per the
report published by World Health Organization, 7 billion premature death occurs worldwide
due to air pollution outside and inside the home. The pollutants in the air are also lethal for
human health. Poor quality air has significant ramifications on food and vegetation, renewable
energy, weather and water. However, the innovative and low-cost IoT sensors have enabled
the municipalities to monitor the air quality index. In this way also the root cause of air
pollution is tracked in real-time and municipalities implement corrective measures to reduce
air pollution which makes the environment clean for human beings.
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3. Smart Waste Management : An increase in the global population is also giving rise to the
amount of garbage humans produce. The inconsistent and inefficient waste collection has made
the situation more miserable. IoT, with its network of wireless sensors, can combat waste and
garbage collection issues by enabling facility managers to access real-time data about trash
receptacles. The facility managers can decide which waste containers need to be emptied first
after knowing about their current fill levels. With this information, the waste management
companies can optimize their waste collection schedule, as well as lower the environmental
footprint by limiting the unnecessary mobility of the waste collection trucks.
4. Fleet Management : The focus on different fuel types and their impact on the environment
and air quality has been increased significantly. Governments all around the globe are also
emphasizing reducing CO2 emissions. This is putting more pressure on the fleet operators to
optimize their fleet management activities and make them environmentally friendly. Vehicle
health, driver behavior, idle time, fuel consumption and location all play a vital role in
calculating the total emission produced by the fleet. The critical insight into these metrics can
be accessed with the help of wireless IoT sensors equipped in the fleets. The data from the
sensors can provide useful insight into vehicle maintenance, improve driver behavior and
optimize routes. For instance, IoT sensors provide a real-time location for more responsive and
accurate route planning. This ultimately reduces the harmful emission resulting in the time
spent by the vehicle idling in traffic.
5. Smart Water Monitoring : As per the research conducted by MIT researchers, more than
half of the world’s population will be living in water-stressed regions by 2050. This highlights
the rationale of adopting the solution which are focusing on water management and can
substantially reduce water waste annually. Nearly, 20-30% of drinking water is wasted by pipe
leaks in municipalities. Wireless connectivity and IoT sensors have substantially reduced the
cost of gathering and analyzing the data from different water equipment such as valves, pumps
or entire water processes like irrigation. With the help of installing IoT leak detection sensors
in plants or buildings, water leaks can be detected along with controlling the water quality and
monitoring the fill levels. The intelligent system can immediately alert the facility managers if
any sign of a water leak is detected so that remedial actions can be taken on time. These IoT
systems if installed on a larger scale can reduce water waste and can save the land from
increasing water crisis.
6. Smart Agriculture : The availability of natural resources such as arable land and freshwater
is continuously decreasing due to an increase in the global population. The situation has been
aggravated further with the low yields of staple crops annually. The solution to meet the global
demand for food lies within the concept of sustainable food production with smart agriculture
which can also reduce environmental footprint and waste of resources. Smart farming systems
powered by IoT technologies can help in achieving environmental sustainability. The smart
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devices gather data about the factors such as soil conditions etc. which contribute to crop
growth. The analytics of the collected data provides useful insight about various farming
practices, namely, fumigation, fertilization, irrigation and seeding etc. This data-driven
information helps farmers in avoiding conditions that might impact the health of crops. Besides
this, smart agriculture reduces error-prone and inefficient human interventions along with
minimizing water, chemical and other resource utilization. This ultimately results in a lower
environmental footprint and higher production rates.
7. Cold-chain Management
Nearly, one-third of the total food produced globally is wasted. This means that 1.6 billion tons
of food is dumped every year which translates into the loss of $1.2 trillion. With food, all the
energy and resources that it takes to grow, harvest and transport is also wasted and this is also
an environmental concern that should be taken into account. The reason behind this huge loss
is the inappropriate recording of temperatures in the food supply chain. The temperature in the
food supply chain is the most important factor which can impact the quality of the food.
Inappropriate temperature settings can lead to food deterioration and waste. Smart cold chains
powered by wireless IoT sensors can monitor ambient conditions for the food such as light
intensity, air quality, humidity and most importantly, temperature. Smart cold chains ensure no
compromise is made over food quality and integrity
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