23ECE207 – MICROCONTROLLERS AND

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
 Overview

• Introduction to Embedded Systems;

• Architecture – Sensors, Processor: Microprocessor & Microcontroller, Actuator;
• Classifications of embedded systems;
• Design process;
• Applications;
• Processor - evolution and types.
 System

• Way of working, organizing, performing one or many tasks as

per rules or plan
• Arrangement – units assemble and work together as per
program or plan
Introduction to
Examples of system
Embedded
Systems • Time display system – watch
• Automatic cloth washing system – washing machine

Embedded Systems are

• Omnipresent (homes, offices, shopping malls, hospitals, cars,

aircraft etc...)
• Computing Device – does a specific focused job

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Introduction to
Embedded Systems…
• An embedded system is an application that
contains at least one programmable computer
(typically in the form of a microcontroller, a
microprocessor or a digital signal processor
chip).
• “An embedded system is a system that has
software embedded into computer-hardware,
which makes a system dedicated for an
application (s) or specific part of an application
or product or part of a larger system.”
• Software usually embeds into a ROM or flash.
• Independent system or part of a large system.

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Introduction to
Embedded
Systems…

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What is an Embedded System?
• An embedded system is a combination of hardware and software
designed to perform a specific function.

• Examples:
• - Microwave ovens
• - Smartwatches
• - Automotive ABS
• - Industrial Robots
Embedded System Vs Desktop System

Desktop / Laptop Embedded System Typical Examples

General purpose computer Single Purpose and AC, VCD/DVD Player, Printer, Fax,
Used for playing games, word fixed embedded software for Mobile phone etc..
processing, accounting, SDT etc., specific job Customized embedded hardware
+ fixed embedded software
(firmware) + specific processor
to meet the specific requirement

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Domain Examples
Washing machines, Smart TVs,
Consumer
Microwave ovens
ABS, Cruise control, Airbag
Automotive
controllers

Industrial PLCs, Robotic arms, CNC machines EXAMPLES

Pacemakers, ECG monitors, Infusion

Medical
pumps
Smart thermostats, Wearables,
IoT
Home security

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Architecture of Embedded Systems
• Core Components:
• - Sensors
• - Processor (Microcontroller / Microprocessor)
• - Actuator
• - Memory
• - Communication Interfaces
Block Diagram of Embedded system

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Sensors
• Function: Detect physical quantities (temperature, pressure, light,
etc.)

• Examples:
• - LM35 (Temperature)
• - IR Sensor
• - Ultrasonic Sensor
Processor: Microcontroller vs. Microprocessor
• Microcontroller:
• - Dedicated tasks
• - On-chip memory
• - Low cost
• - Examples: ATmega328, PIC16F877A

• Microprocessor:
• - General purpose
• - External memory
• - Higher cost
• - Examples: Intel i5, ARM Cortex-A
Actuators
• Function: Convert control signals into physical action.

• Examples:
• - Motors (DC, Stepper)
• - Relays
• - Solenoids
 Classification of
Embedded Systems

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Classification of Embedded Systems
• Based on Performance:
• - Real-Time Systems (Hard / Soft)
• - Standalone Systems
• - Networked Systems
• - Mobile Embedded Systems

• Based on Complexity:
• - Small Scale
• - Medium Scale
• - Sophisticated Systems
 Standalone Embedded Systems

• Work independently without relying on a host system.

• Take input, process it, and produce output on their own.
• Example: Microwave oven, Digital camera, Washing machine.

1. Based on
Real-Time Embedded Systems
Functionality
• Respond to inputs or events within strict timing constraints.
• Critical for systems where delays may cause failure.
• Types:
• Hard Real-Time: Missing deadlines can be catastrophic.
Example: Anti-lock Braking System (ABS), Airbag system.
• Soft Real-Time: Delays are tolerated to some extent.
Example: Video conferencing, online gaming.

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 Networked Embedded Systems

• Communicate with other systems or a central server

via wired/wireless networks.
• Often used in automation, IoT, and remote
monitoring.
1. Based on • Example: Smart meters, Surveillance systems, Smart
Functionality… lighting.

Mobile Embedded Systems

• Portable and operate on battery with limited

hardware resources.
• Focus on low power consumption and compactness.
• Example: Fitness trackers, Mobile phones, GPS
devices.

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 Small-Scale Embedded Systems

• Use 8/16-bit microcontrollers (like MSP430).

• Low cost, simple hardware, minimal power needs.
• Suitable for basic control-oriented tasks.

2. Based on Medium-Scale Embedded Systems

Performance and
Functional • Use 16/32-bit processors like ARM Cortex-M3/M4.
• Moderate complexity, possibly use RTOS or multitasking.
Requirements • Used in smart appliances and industrial control systems.

Sophisticated Embedded Systems

• Use powerful processors and SoCs with multiple

interfaces.
• May run embedded Linux or Android.
• Examples: Autonomous drones, Smart infotainment
systems.

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 Microcontroller-Based Systems

• Integrate CPU, memory, and I/O on a single chip.

• Example: MSP430 for energy-efficient tasks; ARM Cortex-M for
performance-oriented tasks.

3. Based on DSP-Based Systems

Processing • Designed for high-speed data operations, especially real-time
Capabilities signal processing.
• Example: Audio equalizers, Radar systems.

SoC-Based Systems (System-on-Chip)

• Highly integrated—CPU, GPU, memory, I/O controllers, and

peripherals all on one chip.
• Example: Smartwatches, Smartphones, Raspberry Pi.

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 Characteristics of
Embedded Systems

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Characteristics of Embedded Systems
• - Task-specific
• - Real-time operations
• - Limited resources (memory, processing)
• - Designed for reliability
• - Often reactive systems
 1. Dedicated Functionality
• Designed to perform a specific task or a set of predefined tasks.
• Unlike general-purpose computers, they do not run multiple
unrelated applications.
Characteristics 2. Real-Time Operation
of Embedded • Operate under strict timing constraints to respond to external
Systems events.
• Real-time systems are classified into:
• Hard Real-Time: Missing a deadline can lead to system failure.
• Soft Real-Time: Occasional deadline misses are tolerable.
3. Low Power Consumption
• Often deployed in battery-operated or energy-constrained
environments.
• Optimized to operate with minimal power for prolonged
durations.

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 4. Compact Size
• Embedded systems are generally small in size and easily integrable into
larger systems.
• System-on-Chip (SoC) designs integrate CPU, memory, and peripherals
into one chip.
5. Reliability and Stability
Characteristics • Designed to run continuously for long durations without human
intervention.
of Embedded • Must handle environmental factors such as temperature, noise, and
voltage variations.
Systems…
6. Efficient Resource Usage
• Limited computing resources: RAM, ROM, CPU speed, and I/O
capabilities.
• Efficient software and hardware co-design is necessary to meet
performance within constraints.
7. Minimal or No User Interface
• Operate automatically with little or no human interaction.
• Interactions may be through sensors, actuators, or predefined control
buttons.

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 8. Reactive and Event-Driven

• Continuously monitors external events (sensors,

inputs) and responds accordingly.
• Uses interrupt mechanisms to prioritize urgent tasks.

9. Embedded Software
Characteristics of
• Runs firmware (software embedded in hardware)
Embedded often written in C or assembly.
Systems… • Firmware is typically stored in non-volatile
memory and tightly coupled to hardware.

10. Cost-Effective and Scalable

• Designed for mass production, hence must be cost-

efficient.
• Scalability allows the same basic design to be reused
across various products with minimal changes.

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Embedded System Design Challenges
• - Power consumption
• - Cost constraints
• - Limited memory
• - Safety and reliability
• - Real-time deadlines
Applications of Embedded Systems
• - Aerospace
• - Telecommunications
• - Home automation
• - Robotics
• - Smart cities / IoT
Summary
• - Embedded systems are everywhere.
• - They integrate hardware (sensors, actuators) and software.
• - Microcontrollers are the brain of most embedded systems.
• - Real-time, efficient, and reliable design is critical.
Architecture of
Microprocessors

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Definition of a Computer
• A computer is a programmable electronic device that can store,
retrieve, and process data. It performs a set of instructions, known as a
program, to carry out arithmetic, logical, control, and input/output
operations automatically.
Evolution of Stored-Program Computers
• All modern general-purpose computers are based on the stored-program digital computer model.
• The stored-program concept originated at the Princeton Institute of Advanced Studies in the
1940s.

• The concept was first realized in the ‘Baby’ machine in June 1948 at the University of Manchester,
England.

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 Technological Progress
Over 50+ years, computers have become faster, cheaper, and more
efficient. Over Time

Fundamental operating principles have remained largely

unchanged.

Major improvements stem from advances in electronics technology:

Arrival of VLSI (Very Large Scale

Vacuum tubes → Transistors → Progression through multiple
Integration) with millions of
Integrated Circuits (ICs) generations of IC technology
transistors on a single chip

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The Win-Win of Transistor Scaling

Smaller transistors mean: This synergy has driven the computing

revolution for decades.
Lower cost
Higher speed
Lower power consumption

Beyond Just Hardware

• Not all progress is due to hardware.
• Architectural innovations and new usage models have also contributed
significantly.

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 • Computer architecture describes the
user's view of the computer.
COMPUTER • The instruction set, visible registers,
ARCHITECTURE memory management table structures
and exception handling model are all part
of the architecture.

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 Computer organization describes the user-invisible implementation of the
architecture.

Computer
organization It gives details about components involved in how a processor is internally
structured and optimized to execute instructions efficiently.

Amongst the advances in these aspects of the design of computers, the

introduction of virtual memory in the early 1960s, of transparent cache
memories, pipelining and so on, have all been milestones in the evolution of
computers.

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 • The RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) idea
ranks amongst these advances, offering cost-
effectiveness of computer technology:
 RISC is a CPU design philosophy that uses a small
set of simple instructions that can be executed
very quickly, usually in one clock cycle.

COMPUTER  RISC is considered one of the major

advancements in computer architecture—like
ORGANIZATION… pipelining, caching and VLSI.
 RISC changed how designers approach
performance vs. complexity. Instead of adding
complex instructions, RISC focuses on simplicity,
speed, and efficient execution.
 RISC architectures have proven to be more cost-
effective

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MICROPROCESSORS,
MICROCOMPUTERS AND
MICROCONTROLLERS

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Operation of any computing system
• CPU
• Carries out all the computations.
• Fetches instructions from the program memory and executes it.
• Accesses data memory whenever necessary
• Input/output block
• Allows users to interact with the systems.
Instruction set architecture (ISA) of CPU

Computers can be classified based on ISA.

Common classifications are:

• Complex instruction set computer (CISC)

• Used in desktop, laptop, server etc.
• Most INTEL processors.
• Reduced instruction set computer (RISC)
• Used in microcontrollers that are used in building embedded systems.

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 Von Neumann Architecture

• Both instruction and data are stored in same

memory.
• Mostly followed in most of the computing systems.
Architecture of
CPU Harvard Architecture

• Instruction and data are stored in separate memory.

• Typically followed in microcontrollers, used for
building embedded systems.
• Usually, instructions are stored in ROM and
temporary data are stored in RAM.

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What is a microprocessor??
• It is an entire CPU fabricated on a single chip.
• Consists of set of registers
• Consists of ALU
• Control units
• Mechanisms to interface external devices via buses (address/data/control bus)
What is a Microcomputer?

• Computer built using a microprocessor.

• Intel i3,i5,i7, Pentium are all processors.
• Processor with memory and other
interfaces forms a computer.
• Processors do not have memory, I/O 
Many things to be interfaced with the
processor  Consumes more power as
well.
• So, it’s too bulky and expensive for an
embedded system.
What is a Microcontroller?
• Microcontrollers are Computers on a single chip.
• Heart of Embedded System.
• Minimal functionality compared to microcomputers since everything is on a single chip.
• Very inexpensive, low cost, low power consumption.
• Very convenient to use in Embedded systems.
• Contains analog input pins, timers and other built-in circuitry.
Microcontroller Vs PC

PC Microcontrollers

• When a PC executes a program, the • There is no disk to read from. On-chip

program is first loaded from a ROM stores the program that is to be
disk/SSD into a section of memory. executed.
• Operating systems are available in PC • The size of ROM limits the maximum
to handle all low-level operations. size of the application.
• There are no operating systems and
the program in ROM is the only
program that is running.

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Evolution of microcontrollers

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Advantages of microcontrollers

• Fast and effective.

• Low cost.
• Low power.
• Compatibility.
• Opcodes and binaries are the SAME for all 8051/ARM/PIC
variants.

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What is a digital signal processor?

• A specialized microprocessor designed for real-time digital signal

processing.
• Executes mathematical functions like add, multiply, accumulate
(MAC) at high speed.
• Used in audio, image, video, biomedical, and communication
systems.

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Key Features of DSPs

Harvard Architecture: MAC Unit: High-speed Fast execution of

Separate program and data multiply-accumulate arithmetic-heavy
memory for faster access. instructions. instructions.

Specialized addressing
Pipelining and parallel Low interrupt latency for
modes: circular, bit-
processing supported. time-critical applications.
reversed, auto-increment.

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Applications of DSPs

Audio processing: Noise cancellation, equalization, MP3 decoding.

Image/video processing: Compression, edge detection, object tracking.

Communication: Modulation, error correction, filtering.

Medical: ECG, EEG signal analysis.

Industrial: Motor control, sensor data interpretation.

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 Comparison: Microprocessor vs
Microcontroller vs DSP
Feature Microprocessor (MPU) Microcontroller (MCU) Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
Specialized processor for signal processing
Definition General-purpose CPU System-on-chip for control applications
tasks
Primary Use Data-intensive computing Control-based embedded applications Real-time digital signal operations
CPU + RAM + ROM + I/O + Timers on a single CPU + Multiply and Accumulate (MAC) +
Integration CPU only
chip Specialized memory + Peripherals
External (RAM, ROM connected Separate data & instruction memory
Memory Interface Internal memory
separately) (Harvard arch.)

Instruction Set General-purpose General-purpose with I/O control support Optimized for MAC and parallel processing

Execution Speed High (GHz range) Moderate (MHz range) High (optimized for real-time execution)

Power Moderate to High (depending on

High Low
Consumption application)
Cost Higher Low Moderate
Interrupt
Not optimized Efficient for control loops Very fast and deterministic
Handling
Audio, video, radar, telecom, medical signal
Applications Laptops, desktops, servers Home appliances, sensors, toys, robotics
analysis
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Embedded Systems Design

A system designed with the embedding of hardware and software together for a
specific function with a larger area is embedded system design.

• Microcontroller plays a vital role and it is an important component of an embedded system

• Micro-controller is based on Harvard architecture, External processor, internal memory and i/o
components are interfaced with the microcontroller.
• It occupies less area, less power consumption. The application of microcontrollers is MP3, washing
machines.
Steps in the Embedded System Design Process

• Abstraction
In this stage the problem related to the system is
abstracted.

• Hardware – Software Architecture

Proper knowledge of hardware and software to be
known before starting any design process.

• Extra Functional Properties

Extra functions to be implemented are to be
understood completely from the main design.
Steps in the Embedded System Design Process

System Related Family of Design

• When designing a system, one should refer to a
previous system-related family of design.
Modular Design
• Separate module designs must be made so that they can
be used later on when required.
Mapping
• Based on software mapping is done. For example, data
flow and program flow are mapped into one.
Steps in the Embedded System Design Process

User Interface Design

• In user interface design it depends on user
requirements, environment analysis and function of the
system. For example, on a mobile phone if we want to
reduce the power consumption of mobile phones we
take care of other parameters, so that power
consumption can be reduced.

Refinement
• Every component and module must be refined
appropriately so that the software team can understand.
Embedded Systems Design
Architectural description language is used to describe the software design.

• Control Hierarchy
• Partition of structure
• Data structure and hierarchy
• Software Procedure.
Embedded Systems Design
• Embedded System Design Software Development Process Activities
• There are various design metric required to design any system to function properly, they are
Design Metrics /
Design Parameters
of an Embedded
System
Function
Power Dissipation Always maintained low
Performance Should be high
Process Deadlines The process/task should be completed within a specified time.
Manufacturing Cost Should be maintained.
Engineering Cost It is the cost for the edit-test-debug of hardware and software.

Size Size is defined in terms of memory RAM/ROM/Flash Memory/Physical Memory.

Prototype It is the total time taken for developing a system and testing it.
System safety should be taken like phone locking, user safety like engine break down safety measure
Safety must be taken

Maintenance Proper maintenance of the system must be taken, in order to avoid system failure.

Time to market It is the time taken for the product/system developed to be launched into the market.
Embedded Systems Design
Challenges
• Environment adaptability
• Power consumption
• Area occupied
• Packaging and integration
• Updating in hardware and software
• Security
• There are various challenges the designers face while testing the design like
Embedded hardware testing, Verification stage, Validation Maintainability
Embedded System Design

Examples
• Automatic chocolate vending machine (ACVM)
• Digital camera
• Smart card
• Mobile phone
• Mobile computer..etc.
Embedded System Design
Automatic Chocolate Vending Machine (ACVM)
• The design function of ACVM is to provide chocolate to the child whenever the
child inserts a coin into ACVM.

Design Steps
• The design steps mainly include the following.
• Requirements
• Specifications
• Hardware and software functioning.
Automatic Chocolate Vending Machine (ACVM)
Requirements
• When a child inserts a coin into the machine and selects the particular chocolate
that he wants to purchase.
Inputs
• Coins, user selection.
• An interrupt is generated at each port whenever a coin is inserted.
• A separate notification is sent to each port.
Outputs
• Chocolate
• Refund
• A message is displayed on LCD like date, time, welcome message.
Automatic Chocolate Vending Machine (ACVM)
System Function
• Using a graphical user interface, the child commands to the system which
chocolate the child wants to purchase.
• Where the graphical user interface has an LCD, keypad, touch screen.
• The machine delivers the chocolate when the child inserts the coin if the coins
inserted are excess than the actual cost of selected chocolate. The ACVM machine
refunds the money back.
• Using a Universal synchronous bus, the owner of the ACVM can keep track of
client location.
Automatic Chocolate Vending Machine (ACVM)
Design Metrics
Power Dissipation
• The design should be made as per display size and mechanical components.
Process Deadline
• Timer must be set, so that whenever the child inserts the coin the ACVM must respond within few
seconds in delivering the chocolates and refunding if excess.
For example, if the response time is 10seconds, the ACVM should deliver the chocolate and refund
the money if excess within 10 seconds as soon as the child inserts the coin and place a request for
chocolate.
Specifications
• From the below ACVM system, when the child inserts the coin. The coins get segregated
according to the ports presented, Port1, Port2, Port5. On receiving coin an interrupt is generated by
the port, this interrupt is sent to reading the amount value and increasing.
Automatic Chocolate Vending Machine (ACVM)
Automatic Chocolate Vending Machine (ACVM)
Hardware
• ACVM hardware architecture has the following hardware specifications
• Microcontroller 8051
• 64 KB RAM and 8MB ROM
• 64 KB Flash memory
• Keypad
• Mechanical coin sorter
• Chocolate channel
• Coin channel
• USB wireless modem
• Power supply
 Automatic Chocolate Vending Machine (ACVM)

Software of ACVM
• Many programs have to be written so that they can be reprogrammed when
required in RAM /ROM like,

 Increase in chocolate price

 Updating messages to be displayed
in LCD
 Change in features of the machine.