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Conventional monolithic materials

 Distinct characteristic properties of each group of materials
No single material possesses all the advantages

‫مواد مركب‬


 Highly desirable to combine materials (in a synergistic way)

Composite Materials

Basic Concepts, Materials, Processes,

and Characteristics

‫روح اله سرفراز‬ A good combination;

e. g. , ceramic fibers in a polymeric matrix
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Definitions Definitions
 Homogeneity  Isotropy
 The properties are the same at every point  Directional properties (stiffness, strength, thermal
 Associated with a scale or characteristic volume Quasi-homogeneous: expansion, ...)
Low variability from  Properties are the same in all directions
 Heterogeneity or lnhomogeneity point to point on a
 The properties vary from point to point macroscopic scale  Anisotropy/Orthotropy
 Associated with a scale or characteristic volume  A plane of material symmetry
 Anisotropic: A material without any planes of
symmetry Principal
 Isotropic: A material with an infinite number of planes material axes
of symmetry
 Orthotropic: Materials having at least three mutually
perpendicular planes of symmetry

Macroscopic (A, B) and

microscopic (a, b) scales The concept of isotropy/anisotropy
of observation in a unidirectional also associated with a scale or
composite layer characteristic volume!

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Types and Classification of Types and Classification of

Composite Materials Composite Materials
 Two-phase composite  Two-phase composite
materials materials
 Discontinuous or short-
classification depending on the fiber composites
type, geometry, and orientation of  Short fibers, nanotubes, or
whiskers as the reinforcing
the reinforcement phase.
phase.
 Orientation: along one
direction or random
 Particulate composites
 Particles of various sizes  Continuous-fiber
and shapes randomly
composites
dispersed within the
matrix  Orientation: along one
direction or … (UD,
Crossply, MD)
 Quasi-homogeneous and
 The most efficient from the
quasi-isotropic on a scale
point of view of stiffness
much larger than the
and strength
particle size and spacing

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Classification of Composite Materials Classification of Composite Materials

 Polymer-matrix composites (PMC)  Metal-matrix composites (MMC)
 Thermoset (epoxy, polyamide, polyester, …) or  Metals or alloys (aluminum, magnesium, titanium, copper)
thermoplastic (poly-ether-ether-ketone, polysulfone, …)  Reinforced with
resins  Boron fibers
 Carbon (graphite) fibers
 Reinforced with  Ceramic fibers
 Glass  Maximum use temperature (softening or melting temperature of
 Carbon (graphite) the matrix)
 Aramid (Kevlar)
 Boron

Lightweight Metal-matrix
Primarily used in relatively
low temperature applications. composite (MMC)/aluminum
brake drum in military vehicles

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Classification of Composite Materials Classification of Composite Materials

 Ceramic-matrix composites (CMC)  Carbon/carbon composites (CCC)
 Ceramic matrices (silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, glass-ceramic,  Carbon or graphite matrix reinforced with
silicon nitride) graphite yarn or fabric.
 Reinforced with ceramic fibers  Unique properties of relatively high stiffness
 Best suited for very high-temperature applications  Moderate or low strength at high temperatures
 Low thermal expansion
 Low density

GE Aviation jet
engine
components A carbon/carbon brake assembly
used on a Boeing 767 airplane

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Lamina and Laminate Lamina and Laminate

Lamina (ply): a plane (or curved) Lamina (ply): a plane (or curved) layer of unidirectional fibers or woven
layer of unidirectional fibers or fabric in a matrix
woven fabric in a matrix  A woven fabric composite,
 Unidirectional fibers;  The warp and the fill (weft) directions are the in-plane 1 and 2 principal
unidirectional lamina (UD) directions
 An orthotropic material
 Principal material axes
 In the direction of the fibers
(longitudinal)
 Normal to the fibers in the plane
of the lamina (in-plane
transverse)
 Normal to the plane of the lamina

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Lamina and Laminate Hybrid composites

 Laminate  Hybrid composites
 Made up of two or more unidirectional laminae or  Laminates containing plies of two or more different types of
 Plies stacked together at various orientations materials (interply hybrid composites)
 The laminae (or plies, or layers) can be of various thicknesses  E.g. made up of unidirectional glass/epoxy, carbon/epoxy and
 Materials of laminae can be different aramid/ epoxy
 Using a fixed system or coordinates (x, y, z) for analysis of laminates:
 The orientation of a given ply: the angle between the reference x-axis and the
major principal material axis (fiber orientation or warp direction) of the ply
 Measured in a counterclockwise direction on the x-y plane.
 Intraply hybrid composites
 Different types of fibers, such as glass and carbon or aramid and
carbon, within the same unidirectional ply

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Designation of Composite Laminates Designation of Composite Laminates

 The designation indicating:  The designation indicating:
 Number  Number
 Type  Type
 Orientation Stacking sequence  Orientation
 Location  Location

[𝟒𝟓𝟑 /𝟎𝟒 /𝟗𝟎𝟐 /𝟔𝟎]

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Designation of Composite Laminates Scales of Analysis: Micromechanics and Macromechanics

 Few examples:  Micromechanics

 At the constituent level (fiber diameter,
particle size, ...)
 State of deformation and stress in the
constituents and local failures
 (fiber failure, matrix failure, and
interface/interphase failure)

 Importance of micromechanics
 Study of:
 Failure mechanisms
 Strength
 Fracture toughness
s = symmetric sequence
 Fatigue life
T = total number of plies
 Prediction of average behavior at the
- (overbar) = laminate is symmetric about the midplane of the ply
lamina level
Hybrid laminate: superscripts K, C, and G denote Kevlar (aramid),
 as a function of constituent properties
carbon (graphite), and glass fibers, respectively. and local conditions

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Scales of Analysis: Micromechanics and Macromechanics Basic Lamina Properties

 Macromechanics  Characterization of a unidirectional ply
 Unidirectional lamina as a quasi-homogeneous  The basic building block of any laminate or composite structure
anisotropic material
 With average stiffness and strength properties Characterized by the following properties:
 Failure criteria Young’s moduli
 In terms of average stresses and overall lamina Shear moduli
strengths Poisson’s ratios
 No reference to any particular local failure Tensile, compressive, and shear strengths
mechanisms. Coef. of thermal & moisture expansion
Coef. of thermal conductivity

 Recommended in the study of:

 The overall elastic behavior
 Viscoelastic behavior
 Hygrothermal behavior

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Basic Lamina Properties Degrees of anisotropy

 Characterization of a unidirectional ply  Material properties having no directionality
 Density, specific heat, ...

 Properties associated with direction

 Stiffness, Poisson's ratio, strength, thermal expansion, ...

 Fiber composite materials:

 Various degrees of anisotropy in the various properties
 Longitudinal (fiber) vs. transverse directions in UD
composites

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Constituent Materials Constituent Materials

 Reinforcement  Reinforcement • High strength
Different forms • High stiffness
 Desirable
• Low density
 Continuous or short fibers
• Low cost
 Particles of various shapes
 Whiskers
 Contribution to stiffness and strength

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Constituent Materials / Reinforcement Constituent Materials; Reinforcement

 Glass; limited in high-performance applications
Low stiffness, low fatigue endurance, sensitive to
The density of steel: 7.75 - 8.05 g/cm3

hygrothermal conditions
 Extrusion of a molten mixture of silica (SiO2) and other
oxides through small holes of a platinum alloy bushing
 A coupling agent to protect their surface and ensure
bonding to the resin matrix

 A collimated glass fibers: a yarn or tow

 A group of collimated yarns: a roving.
Fiber diameters for composite applications: 10-20 μm


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Constituent Materials; Reinforcement Constituent Materials; Reinforcement

 Carbon; widely used for advanced composites  Aramid (Kevlar);
 Manufactured from precursor organic fibers, such as rayon or poly-acrylo-nitrile  Organic fibers manufactured by dissolving
(PAN), or from petroleum pitch the polymer (aromatic polyamide) in
 Carbonization: high-strength and high-stiffness carbon fibers (AS4, T300, IM6, IM7)
sulfuric acid and extruding through small
holes in a rotating device.
 The fiber diameter: typically 12 μm
 Graphitization: ultra high-stiffness graphite fibers
 Higher stiffness than glass fibers
with moduli over 410 GPa
 Kevlar 49 and 149: as high- and ultra-high-
 Fiber diameters for composite applications: 5-10 μm
modulus grades
 Low density (about half of glass)
 High tensile strength and excellent
toughness and impact resistance.
 Very low longitudinal compressive and
transverse tensile strengths
 Sensitive to moisture absorption

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Constituent Materials; Reinforcement Constituent Materials; Reinforcement

 Boron and other ceramic fibers  Basalt Fibers
 Silicon carbide (SiC) and alumina (Al2O3)  Basalt: an igneous rock found in North America, Eastern Europe,
 High stiffness and reasonably high Russia, etc.
strength.
 Obtained from rocks by a process similar to that of glass fiber
 Commonly used with metal or ceramic
manufacture. Basalt fiber is very similar to glass fiber
matrices for high-temperature
applications  Density and Young’s modulus: similar to glass fiber
 Tensile strength (3000 MPa): much higher than glass fiber (1700
MPa)

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Constituent Materials; Reinforcement Constituent Materials; Reinforcement

 Most fibers behave linearly to failure  Superior performance of
composites
 Specific strength
(strength to density ratio)

 Specific stiffness
(modulus to density ratio)

Controlled
by the fibers

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Constituent Materials; Reinforcement Constituent Materials

 Fibers are not always used as straight yarns  Matrices
 Woven fabrics or textiles  Protection and support for the sensitive
 The longitudinal direction: warp fibers
 The transverse direction: weft or fill  Local stress transfer from one fiber to
another

 Four types of matrices

 Polymeric, metallic, ceramic, and carbon

 Polymeric matrices: extensively used

 Thermosets
 Thermoplastics

 The other matrices (metal, ceramic, …):

used for for high-temperature
plane weave 2 x 2 twill eight harness satin weave applications

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Constituent Materials Constituent Materials

 Thermoset polymers  Polyesters
 The most predominant types of  Quick-curing and room-temperature-
matrix systems curing
 Polymerization and cross-linking  Used with glass in a variety of
during curing with the aid of a commercial products (automotive,
hardening agent and heating boats, ships, structural components,
 Not melt upon reheating storage tanks, ...)
 Decompose thermally at high  Polyester-matrix composites: good
temperatures mechanical properties and low cost
Cross  Sensitive to elevated temperatures
Linking
 The most commonly used
thermosets
 Unsaturated polyesters
 Epoxies
 Polyimides
 Vinylesters

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Constituent Materials Constituent Materials

Service temperature Preferred in corrosive
 Epoxies  Vinylesters
limitation: 120 °C industrial and marine
 Most highly developed thermoset polymers  Combine some of the desirable
properties of both polyester and
applications.
 Better mechanical and thermal properties than
polyesters epoxy
 Different curing temperatures: typically 120 °C  Fast and simple curing
(sporting goods) or 175 °C (aircraft structures)  Good mechanical and thermal
properties.
 Usually reinforced with glass fibers

A hull made of glass fiber, with a polyester resin

matrix in internal regions and a vinyl ester resin
matrix in the exterior regions.

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Constituent Materials Constituent Materials

 Thermoplastics  Thermoplastics
 Can be altered physically by softening or melting them with heat.  Polypropylene + glass fibers: in
automotive and structural
 Matrices for composites include applications.
 polypropylene (PP)
 Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS)
 Polysulfone,
 Poly-ether-ether-ketone (PEEK), Front bumper of the electric sports car BMW i8

 More compatible with hot-forming and injection molding fabrication  Poly-ether-ether-ketone (PEEK) +
methods glass or carbon fibers: in some
 Higher fracture toughness high-performance applications

 Less sensitive to moisture absorption

 Negative side
 Processing is not easily controlled
 Exhibit appreciable temperature-dependent behavior (viscoelasticity)
 Shorter fatigue life CF-PEEK composites for orthopedic trauma implants

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Material Forms Manufacturing Methods

 Prepreg  The most important steps in the
 Combined Matrix and application of composite materials. Manufacturing
reinforcement method
 Ready for fabrication
 A layer of parallel or woven fibers
pre-impregnated with resin
partially cured to a certain degree.

Structural Material
 Prepreg are characterized by: design selection
 The resin content (usually 32-42%
 The original fabrication technology
by weight)
 Shelf life
 ...
Must be kept refrigerated at Barrier to their

Lack of cost-
approximately -18 °C until final more
Semiempirical effective
use. extensive
fabrication
utilization

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Manufacturing Methods Manufacturing Methods

 General requirements of the finished product
Free of defects (voids, cracks, fiber waviness)
Current fabrication methods:


 Uniform in properties
 Fully cured (having expected properties)
• Hand lay-up
• Autoclave Molding
Typical composite defects
generated during fabrication • Filament winding
[Chester & Roberts, 1989]
• Pultrusion
• Resin transfer molding (RTM)
 Regarding the process
 Temperature distribution must be reasonably uniform • Additive manufacturing
throughout the part
 Complete and uniform cure must be accomplished in the
• …
shortest possible time.

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Manufacturing Methods / Hand lay-up Manufacturing Methods / Autoclave Molding

 Simplest method of composite  For fabrication of high-performance advanced

processing composites for military, aerospace, infrastructure,
...
 Minimal infrastructural requirement
 Few restrictions on size and shape
 Labor intensive
 Good dimensional tolerances
 A low-volume process and labor intensive  costly

What we need …  Materials in prepreg form

 A mold  Cut, size, orient, and stack
 Release agent (the plastic sheet)  Bleeder/breather to absorb excess resin
 Brush and/or roller
and allow the escape of volatiles during
 Scissors
curing
 Matrix (e.g. epoxy resin)
 Reinforcement (e.g. glass/carbon fiber)  Sealed with a vacuum bag
 PPE- gloves, lab coat, safety glasses,  Curing at prescribed temp.-press.-vacuum-
…
time cycle inside a chamber (autoclave)

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Manufacturing Methods / Filament winding Manufacturing Methods / Pultrusion

 Winding under tension of pre-  Pulling of reinforcing fibers and resin matrix through a die or series of
impregnated or resin coated dies that shape and cure the material
reinforcement around a rotating  Structures possess a constant cross-sectional shape.
mandrel  tubing, box beams or I-beams, C-channels, rectangular strips, ...
 Pipes, containers, pressure vessels,
rocket motor cases, ...
 Wet and dry pultrusion
 products with high specific strength
 well-controlled fiber orientation and
uniformity
 Dry winding: pre-impregnated fibers with
partially cured resin
 Wet winding: passing fibers through a
resin bath
 planar winding, the mandrel remains
stationery
 helical winding, the mandrel rotates
 Curing in an oven or autoclave under a
prescribed curing cycle.

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Manufacturing Methods / Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) Manufacturing Methods / Molding Compound
 Suitable for high-volume production of  Sheet Molding Compound (SMC)
complex or thick composite part  Consists of unsaturated polyester/ vinyl ester
 A cost-effective process requiring low resin + short glass fibers + fillers
hardware and maintenance costs  Glass reinforcement: 10% - 60%
 material selection (resin and
 Glass length : 1/2-inch - 1-inch
reinforcement)
 Mold design  Used in making some auto body parts, such as
 Mold filling
bumper beams, radiator support panels, …
 Curing
 Controls

 Vacuum-assisted resin transfer

molding (VARTM)
 Vacuum bag seal

 and many variant of RTM process …

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Manufacturing Methods / Molding Compound Additive Manufacturing

 Bulk Molding Compound (BMC)  The first commercial 3D printers
 A thermoset plastic resin + fillers + fiber  First patent titled “apparatus for
reinforcement + catalysts + stabilizers+ production of three-dimensional
pigments  form a viscous, 'puttylike' injection
objects” [Chuck Hull, 1986]
molding compound.
 Glass reinforcement :10% - 30%
 Glass length typically between 1/32-inch and The first commercial 3D printer
1/2-inch manufactured by 3D Systems
 Electrical applications, corrosion resistant
needs, appliance, automotive, …

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Different branded additive manufacturing processes Additive Manufacturing

 The main differences between processes:  Fused Deposition Modeling
 the way layers are deposited (FDM)
 the constituent materials  Mixture of particulate additives
and polymers

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Particulate composites

Digital Light
Processing Stereolithography
(DLP) (SLA) Short fiber composites

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Additive Manufacturing Properties of Typical Composite Materials

 The first commercial 3D printers to manufacture  Most composites have
continuous fiber composites [Markforged, 2014] higher specific modulus and
 FDM with two separate nozzles specific strength than metals

 The best combination of

high specific modulus and
strength
 Carbon/epoxy in its
unidirectional form

 The behavior of UD
composites in the fiber
direction:
 usually dominated by the
fiber properties.

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Properties of Typical Composite Materials Properties of Typical Composite Materials

 Some general trends  The transverse behavior of unidirectional composites (especially the strength),
 As the stiffness increases  the ultimate strain decreases  dominated by the matrix and interfacial properties
 For a certain group of materials the increase in stiffness is accompanied by a  All of materials exhibit quasi-linear behavior with relatively low ultimate strains and
drastic decrease in strength and ultimate strain. strengths
 The four polymer-matrix composites show almost the same transverse strength.

Stress-strain curves of Stress-strain curves of

typical unidirectional typical unidirectional
composites in the fiber composites in transverse to
direction the fiber direction

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