Mechanics of Composite

Materials
 References:
1. MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS, ROBERT M. JONES, Taylor &
Francis, 1990

2.Mechanics of Composite Materials, Autar K. Kaw, 2nd Edition, Taylor &

Francis, 2006

3.Mechanics of Composite Structures, L.P.Kollar & G.S.Springer, Cambridge

University Press, 2003

4.Fundamentals of Composite Materials, Vincent K. S. Choo, KNOWEN

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC, 1990

5.MECHANICS AND ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS, Valery V. Vasiliev

& Evgeny V. Morozov, ELSEVIER, 2001

6. Metal Matrix Composites, Karl U. Kainer, WILEY-VCH, 2006

2
Targets:
-Knowing all kinds of composite materials
-Selection & applications of composite materials
-Manufacturing methods of composite materials
-Analysis of composite materials

3
 Table of Contents:

Chapter1: Introduction to Composite Materials (2 weeks)

Chapter2: Macromechanical Analysis of a Lamina (4 weeks)

Chapter3: Micromechanical Analysis of a Lamina (3 weeks)

Chapter4: Macromechanical Analysis of a Laminate (3 weeks)

4
 Chapter 1
Introduction to Composite Materials

www.Scaled.com

• Definition
• Classification
• Applications
• Manufacturing
5
 Introduction to Composite Materials

1.Definition:

Composite materials:
-A composite is a structural material that consists of two or more combined
constituents that are combined at a macroscopic level and are not soluble in each
other.
-The key is the macroscopic examination of a material wherein the components
can be identified by the naked eye.
-Different materials can be combined on a microscopic scale, such as in alloying of
metals, but the resulting material is, for all practical purposes, macroscopically
homogeneous, i.e., the components cannot be distinguished by the naked eye and
essentially act together.

History:
Natural Composites:
-Plywood in ancient Egyptians (1500 B.C)
•Wood: The lignin matrix is
-Strengthening mud bricks by straw or bamboo shoots
reinforced with cellulose fibers
-Medieval swords and armor with layers of different
•Bone: The bone-salt plates made of
metals (1800 A.D)
calcium and phosphate ions reinforce
-Glass fibers reinforced resins in boats & aircrafts
soft collagen
(1930s)

6
 Introduction to Composite Materials

2.Advantages, Limitations: Strength, Stiffness

Corrosion resistance, Wear resistance
Attractiveness, Weight
Composites can improve these properties Fatigue life
Temperature-dependent behavior
Thermal conductivity
Thermal insulation, Acoustical insulation

For example, the strength of a

graphite/epoxy unidirectional
composite could be the same as
steel, but the specific strength is
three times that of steel.

7
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Approximate shipments of polymer-based composites

in 1995

Limitations:
• High cost of fabrication Use of composites in the space shuttle
• Hard to recycle
• Repair is not a simple process compared to that for metals
• More complexity of Mechanical characterization
•Composites do not have a high combination of strength and fracture toughness
compared to metals
8
 Introduction to Composite Materials

3.Classification:

Composites:

 Matrix (The continuous phase):

Purpose is to:
• Transfer stress to other phases
• Protect phases from environment

Classification: MMC, CMC & …

 Dispersed phase:
Purpose is to:
• Enhance matrix properties (reinforcing)

Classification: Fiber, Flake, Particle

9
 Introduction to Composite Materials
-Metal Matrix Composite (MMC)
-Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC)
-Organic Matrix Composite:
In case of the matrix Polymer
material
Carbon

In case of the
reinforcement -Fiber: Kevlar, Glass, Carbon, Bore
Types of geometry -Flake
composites -Particulate
Structural
-Laminate
-Bimetal
Nanocomposites
-Sandwich

FGM (Functionally
Graded Material)

10
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Long Fiber:
-Unidirectional
-Bidirectional (woven or fabric)
Lamina (Fibrous)
Short Fiber:
-Regular fibers
-Irregular fibers

-Laminate
Laminated -Bimetal
Types of
-Sandwich
composites

Particulate

Combinations of some
or all of the first three
types

11
 Introduction to Composite Materials

4.Fibrous Composite Materials: Whisker: A whisker has essentially the

same near-crystal-sized diameter as a
Long Fiber (Continuous): fiber, but generally is very short and
-Unidirectional (a) stubby, although the length-to diameter
ratio can be in the hundreds.
-Bidirectional (woven fabric) (b)

Short Fiber (Discontin uous):

-Regular fibers
-Irregular fibers (c)

Note:
Long fibers in various forms are inherently much stiffer and stronger than the
same material in bulk form:
Compare fracture stress of 20 MPa for glass plate with 2800 to 4800 MPa for glass
fibers.

Why: In fibers, the crystals are aligned along the fiber axis. Moreover, there are fewer
internal defects in fibers than in bulk material. For example, in materials that have
dislocations, the fiber form has fewer dislocations than the bulk form.

12
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Question: What are the main reasons for using fibers of thin diameter?

•As the fibers become smaller in diameter, the chances of an inherent flaw in the
material are reduced: A steel plate may have strength of 689 MPa, while a wire made
from this steel plate can have strength of 4100 MPa.

•For higher ductility and toughness, and

better transfer of loads from the matrix to
fiber, composites require larger surface
area of the fiber–matrix interface: For the
same volume fraction of fibers in a composite,
the area of the fiber–matrix interface is
inversely proportional to the diameter of the
fiber.

•Fibers able to bend without breaking are

required in manufacturing of composite
materials, especially for woven fabric
composites: Ability to bend increases with a
decrease in the fiber diameter and is measured
as flexibility.

13
 Introduction to Composite Materials
4 important fiber factors: Mechanical performance of composites
1.Length depends on:
2.Orientation 1.Fiber (Length, Orientation, Shape, Material)
3.Shape 2.Matrix (Material)
4.Material 3. Fiber–Matrix Interface
4.Distribution of reinforcement in matrix
5.Volume fraction of each constituent material
Fiber & wire
properties

Note: High specific strength is suitable for aerospace applications.

14
 Introduction to Composite Materials
Fibers Material:

-Organic: Kevlar
-Inorganic: Carbon, Graphite, Glass, Boron, Quartz,
Silicon Carbide, Alumina
-Metal Fibers (wire): St, Br, Ti, W, Mo
Kevlar (trade name of aramid fiber):

An aramid fiber is an aromatic organic compound made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

and nitrogen.
Advantages: lowest density between fibers (S=1.45), high tensile strength, low cost,
& high impact resistance. Its specific strength is 8 times greater than titanium & 10
times greater than steel & aluminum.
Drawbacks: low compressive properties and degradation in sunlight, low working
temperature (less than 200 C), low ability to stand against compressive loads, low
specific modulus

Types: Kevlar 29 & Kevlar 49. Both types of Kevlar fibers have similar specific
strengths, but Kevlar 49 has a higher specific stiffness.
Kevlar 29 is mainly used in bulletproof vests, ropes, and cables.
For CNG capsule & High performance applications in the aircraft industry use Kevlar 49.

15
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Kevlar:
Manufacturing: The fiber is produced by making a solution of proprietary polymers
and strong acids such as sulfuric acid. The solution is then extruded into hot
cylinders at 392°F (200°C), washed, and dried on spools. The fiber is then stretched
and drawn to increase its strength and stiffness.

Quartz:
It is similar to glass fibers and is
obtained by high-speed
stretching of quartz rods made
of (under temperature of about
2200°C) fused quartz crystals or
sand.

16
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Glass:
Glass is the most common fiber used in polymer matrix composites.
Advantages: high strength, low cost, high chemical resistance, & good insulating
properties.
Drawbacks: low elastic modulus, poor adhesion to polymers, high specific gravity,
sensitivity to abrasion(reduces tensile strength), and low fatigue strength.
Types:
E-glass (also called “fiberglass”): The “E” in E-glass stands for electrical because it was
designed for electrical applications. However, it is used for many other purposes now,
such as decorations and structural applications.
S-glass: The “S” in S-glass stands for higher content of silica. It retains its strength at
high temperatures compared to E-glass and has higher fatigue strength. It is used
mainly for aerospace applications.
C-glass: The “C” stands for corrosion. It is used in chemical environments, such as
storage tanks
R-glass: used in structural applications such as construction
D-glass: (dielectric) used for applications requiring low dielectric constants, such as
radomes (i.e: radar+dome)
A-glass: (appearance) used to improve surface appearance.
Combination types such as E-CR glass (“E-CR” stands for electrical and corrosion
resistance) and AR glass (alkali resistant) also exist.

17
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Glass:
Manufacturing: Glass fibers are made generally by
drawing from a melt. The melt is formed in a refractory
furnace at about 2550°F (1400°C) from a mixture that
includes sand, limestone, and alumina. The melt is stirred
and maintained at a constant temperature. It passes
through as many as 250 heated platinum alloy nozzles of
about 394 μin (10μm) diameter, where it is drawn into
filaments of needed size at high speeds of about 361 mi/h
(25 m/s). These fibers are sprayed with an organic sizing
solution before they are drawn. The sizing solution is a
mixture of binders, lubricants, and coupling and antistatic
agents; binders allow filaments to be packed in strands,
lubricants prevent abrasion of filaments, and coupling
agents give better adhesion between the inorganic glass
fiber and the organic matrix.
Fibers are then drawn into strands and wound on a
forming tube. Strands are groups of more than 204
filaments. The wound array of strands is then removed
and dried in an oven to remove any water or sizing
solutions.

18
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Schematic of manufacturing glass fibers

19
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Carbon & Graphite:

Are carbon and graphite the same?
No, they are different. Carbon fibers have 93 to 95% carbon content, but graphite has
more than 99% carbon content. Also, carbon fibers are produced at 2400°F (1316°C),
and graphite fibers are typically produced in excess of 3400°F (1900°C).

The advantages of graphite fibers: high specific strength and modulus, low
coefficient of thermal expansion, & high fatigue strength. Graphite fibers are very
common in high-modulus and high-strength applications such as aircraft components,
etc.

Drawbacks: high cost, low impact resistance, and high electrical conductivity.

Manufacturing: Graphite fibers have been available since the late 1800s. However,
only since the early 1960s has the manufacturing of graphite fibers taken off. Graphite
fibers are generally manufactured from three precursor materials: rayon,
polyacrylonitrile (PAN), and pitch. PAN is the most popular precursor.

20
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Question: discuss about

manufacturing techniques of
carbon & graphite fibers?
Stages of manufacturing a carbon fiber from PAN-based precursors

21
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Boron:
boron fibers are made by vapor depositing boron on a tungsten wire and coating the
boron with a thin layer of boron carbide.
Note: Why carbon or graphite fibers are produced very thin (far thinner than human
hairs), they can be woven into fabric. In contrast, The boron fibers due of its
manufacturing method are about the diameter of mechanical pencil lead, so they
cannot be bent or woven into fabric.

Specific Modulus and Specific Strength of Typical Fibers, Composites, and Bulk Metals

Question: Discuss &

compare the properties
of most used fibers?

22
 Introduction to Composite Materials
amiratrian@gmail.com

5.Matrix Materials:

Purpose:
-Support of the fibers or whiskers
-Protection of the fibers or whiskers
-Stress transfer between broken fibers or whiskers

Typically, the matrix is of considerably lower density, stiffness, and strength

than the fibers or whiskers. However, the combination of fibers or whiskers
and a matrix can have very high strength and stiffness, yet still have low
density.

Types:
1-Polymers
2-Metals
3-Ceramics
4-Carbon

23
 Introduction to Composite Materials
1.Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs):

Types:
 Rubbers
Thermoplastics: Nylon, Polyethylene, Polycarbonate, Polypropylene (PP) &
Polysulfone
 Thermosets: Polyesters, Epoxy, Polyimide, Phenolic & …

Limitations:
 low operating temperatures
 high coefficients of thermal and moisture expansion
 low elastic properties in certain directions.
Various polymers used in
advanced polymer composites:
The most common fibers used in  Epoxy
PMCs:  Phenolics
 Glass  Acrylic
 Graphite  Urethane
 Kevlar Polyamide
 Carbon
24
 Introduction to Composite Materials
• Epoxies:
Epoxy resins are the most commonly used
resins. They are low molecular weight organic
liquids containing epoxide groups.
The advantages are high mechanical
strength and good adherence to metals and
glasses.
drawbacks are high cost and difficulty in
processing.

• Phenolics:
 The advantages are low cost and high mechanical strength
 Drawbacks include high void content.

• Polyesters:
 The advantages are low cost and the ability to be made translucent;
Drawbacks include service temperatures below 170°F (77°C),
brittleness, and high shrinkage of as much as 8% during curing.

25
 Introduction to Composite Materials
Question: Why Epoxy is the most common type of matrix material?

Although epoxy is costlier than other polymer matrices, it is the most popular PMC
matrix. More than two-thirds of the polymer matrices used in aerospace applications are
epoxy based.
The main reasons why epoxy is the most used polymer matrix material are:
• High strength
•Low viscosity and low flow rates, which allow good wetting of fibers and prevent
misalignment of fibers during processing
• Low volatility during cure
•Low shrink rates, which reduce the tendency of gaining large shear stresses of the
bond between epoxy and its reinforcement
•Available in more than 20 grades to meet specific property and processing
requirements.

Differences between
Thermosets &
Thermoplastics

26
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Typical applications
of PMCs:
• Aircraft
• Space
• Sporting goods
• Medical devices
• Marine

Lamborghini
carbon-fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) technology
used in:
• front frame structure
• exterior panels
• crash boxes
• major suspension components
•wheels and drive shaft
http://www.zerotohundred.com/

polyurethane-carbon seat for new BMW electric vehicle

http://utech-polyurethane.com
27
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Compare polymer
properties with metals…

Question: What are

prepregs?

28
 Introduction to Composite Materials
Manufacturing techniques of polymer matrix composites:

• Filament winding
(used generally for making pipes and tanks to handle chemicals)
-Wet winding
-Dry winding

• Pultrusion

• Wet/Hand lay up

• Autoclave forming
(used to make complex shapes and flat panels for structures in which low
void content and high quality are important)

• Resin transfer molding (RTM)

(used extensively in the automotive
industry because short production runs
are necessary).

29
 Introduction to Composite Materials
2.Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs):

Types:
 Common matrix examples include Al, Mg, Ti, & Ni-Cr alloys

Metal matrix composites are mainly used to provide advantages over

monolithic metals such as steel and aluminum.

 The ceramic reinforcement is selected by its performance attributes:

• carbon/graphite brings lubricity
• silicon carbide (SiC) brings stiffness and wear resistance
• alumina (AL2O3) brings strength at elevated temperatures

These advantages include:

Higher specific strength and modulus by reinforcing low-density
metals, such as Al & Ti;
 Lower coefficients of thermal expansion & thermal & electrical
conductivity by reinforcing with fibers with low coefficients of thermal
expansion, such as graphite & silicon carbide;
 Maintaining properties such as strength at high temperatures.
30
 Introduction to Composite Materials
Advantages of MMCs over polymer matrix composites:
Higher elastic properties; Higher service temperature; Insensitivity
to moisture; Higher electric and thermal conductivities; Better wear,
Fatigue, and Flaw resistances.

The drawbacks of MMCs over PMCs include:

 Higher processing temperatures and higher densities.

Question: Do any
properties degrade when
metals are reinforced with
fibers?
-Yes, it may reduce ductility
& fracture toughness…
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Applications: Manufacturing techniques:

• Space
• Military • Melting metallurgical process
• Transportation • Powder metallurgical process
• Diffusion bonding

MMC brake disk-functionally reinforced gradient (FRG)

http://www.relinc.net/adv-materials/metal-matrix-composite/
Schematic presentation of the
manufacturing process for PM-MMCs

32
 Introduction to Composite Materials
3.Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs):

Types:
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) have a ceramic matrix such as alumina,
SiC, Carbon, Mullite (Al2O3-SiO2) reinforced by fibers such as carbon or
silicon carbide.

Advantages:
High strength, Hardness, High service temperature limits for ceramics,
Chemical inertness, & Low density.

However, ceramics by
themselves have low fracture
toughness. Under tensile or
impact loading, they fail
catastrophically  Reinforcing
ceramics with fibers, such as
silicon carbide or carbon,
increases their fracture
toughness.
33
 Introduction to Composite Materials
Manufacturing techniques:
•CMCs can be cast from a molten slurry around stirred-in fibers with random
orientation or with preferred flow-direction orientation.
• CMCs can be vapor deposited around a collection of already in-place fibers.
• Plasma spraying
• Powder metallurgy methods
• Casting
• Diffusion welding

Applications:
•In high temperature areas in
which metal and polymer
matrix composites cannot be
used (thermal shields in space
vehicles, gas turbine, & etc)
•Cutting tool inserts in
oxidizing and high-
temperature environments. LAS: Lithium aluminosilicate, CAS: Calcium aluminosilicate

• Brake discs
• Slide bearings

34
 Introduction to Composite Materials
A typical application of CMCs:
The GE Rolls-Royce Fighter Engine Team’s F136
• Engine for the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF)
•The first commercial use of CMCs in a jet engine’s hot section (combustor and turbine
areas) (2010).
•Parts made from CMSs (SiC ceramic fibers and ceramic resin): third-stage, low-
pressure turbine vanes
o manufactured through a highly sophisticated process, and further enhanced with
proprietary coatings?

Advantages:
1.They are lightweight – 1/3th the
density of metal: providing weight
reduction and thus, better fuel
efficiency.
2.They are durable and more heat
resistant than metals, requiring less
cooling air, and thereby improving
overall engine efficiency.

http://www.eng.fea.ru/FEA_news_600.html
 Introduction to Composite Materials
4.Carbon Matrix Composites:

Carbon–carbon composites use carbon fibers in a carbon matrix. These

composites are used in very high-temperature environments of up to 6000°F
(3315°C), and are 20 times stronger and 30% lighter than graphite fibers

Advantages:
Carbon is brittle and flaw sensitive like ceramics  Reinforcement of a carbon
matrix allows the composite to fail gradually and also gives advantages such
as ability to withstand:
 high temperatures
 low creep at high temperatures,
 low density
 good tensile and compressive strengths
 high fatigue resistance
 high thermal conductivity Drawbacks:
 high coefficient of friction  high cost
 low shear strength
 oxidations at high temperatures

36
 Introduction to Composite Materials
Manufacturing techniques:
• vapor deposition on an already in-place fiber system.
•liquid material can be infiltrated around in-place fibers and then carbonized in
place by heating to high temperature. The process involving liquid infiltration and
carbonization must be repeated many times because carbonizing the liquid results
in decreased volume of the matrix. Until the voids can no longer be filled (they
become disconnected as densification continues), the potential matrix strength
and stiffness have not been achieved.
• Low-pressure carbonization
Applications:
• Space shuttle nose cones
• Aircraft brakes
• Mechanical fasteners

Lightweight, scratch resistance CMC (C/C) encasement for CARRERA chronograph

37
 Introduction to Composite Materials

6.Particulate Composite Materials:

1.Nonmetallic Particles in Nonmetallic Matrix Composite Materials

Concrete, Mika/Glass (electrical applications because of good insulating and
machining qualities), Glass/Plastic (similar applications)

2. Metallic Particles in Nonmetallic Matrix Composite Materials

Al powder and perchlorate oxidizers in a flexible organic binder such as
polyurethane or polysulfide rubber (Solid-rocket propellants), Al flakes in
paint,

3. Metallic Particles in Metallic Matrix Composite Materials

Lead particles in copper alloys (to improve the machinability, applications:
self lubricant bearings),

38
 Introduction to Composite Materials

4.Nonmetallic Particles In Metallic Matrix Composite Materials

Cermet: Ceramics particles suspended in a metal matrix:

1.oxide particles: Such cermets are used in tool making & high-temperature
applications where erosion resistance is needed
•Chromium carbide in
2. carbide-based: carbides of W, Cr & Ti a cobalt matrix: It has
high corrosion and
•Titanium carbide •Tungsten carbide abrasion resistance; it
(TiC) in either a nickel (WC) in a Co matrix: for also has a coefficient of
or a cobalt matrix: for machine parts requiring thermal expansion close
high-temperature very high hardness such to that of steel, so is
applications such as as wire-drawing dies, well-suited for use in
turbine parts. valves, etc. valves.

•Cermets are also used as nuclear reactor fuel elements and control
rods: Fuel elements can be uranium oxide particles in stainless steel
ceramic & boron carbide (B4C) in stainless steel is used for control rods.

Manufacturing techniques: ?
39
 Introduction to Composite Materials

7.Laminated Composite Materials:

Types:
 Bimetals
 Clad metals
 Sandwich structures
 Laminated fiber-reinforced composites

The properties that can be emphasized by lamination:

 strength & stiffness & low weight
 corrosion & wear resistance
 beauty or attractiveness
 thermal insulation & acoustical insulation

Design of laminated composites includes constraints on optimizing &

constraining factors such as:
 Cost
 Mass as related to aerospace and automotive industry to reduce energy cost
 Stiffness (to limit deformations) as related to aircraft skins to avoid buckling
Thermal and moisture expansion coefficients as related to space antennas to
maintain dimensional stability

40
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Bimetals: for temperature-measuring devices, vessels & energy absorbant (a

polymeric layer sandwiched by two metal skin) & etc.

Clad Metals: The cladding or sheathing of one metal with another is done to
obtain the best properties of both.
 For example: high-strength Al alloys do not resist corrosion; however, pure
aluminum and some Al alloys are very corrosion resistant but relatively weak.
Thus, a high-strength aluminum alloy covered with a corrosion-resistant Al
alloy is a composite material with both high strength and corrosion
resistance.
41
 Introduction to Composite Materials
Sandwich Structures: They’re 3-layered laminates consisting of thin facings
and a light-weight honeycomb or foam or … core.

2000 for high performance

Honeycomb seal of PM

turbine engines
Composite S-3A Spoiler

Applications:
• In aerospace & automotive industries: fuselage, energy absorption & …
• In laminated glass:
Ordinary window glass: durable enough to retain its transparency under the extremes
of weather, brittle & dangerous when breaked.
-A plastic called polyvinyl butyral is very tough (deforms to high strains without
fracture), but is very flexible and susceptible to scratching.
-Safety glass is a layer of polyvinyl butryal sandwiched between two layers of
glass. The glass in the composite material protects the plastic from scratching and
gives it stiffness. The plastic provides the toughness of the composite material.

42
 Introduction to Composite Materials
Laminated Fiber-Reinforced Composites:

•Lamina (Ply or Layer): a flat

(sometimes curved as in a shell)
arrangement of unidirectional fibers or
woven fibers in a matrix (e.g. boron-
epoxy & graphite-epoxy)

•Laminate: A laminate is a bonded stack of laminae with

Unbonded View of Laminate Construction

various orientations of principal material directions in the
laminae. The layers of a laminate are usually bonded
together by the same matrix material that is used in the
individual laminae.

A major purpose of lamination is:

to tailor the directional dependence of strength &
stiffness of a composite material to match the loading
environment of the structural element

43
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Fabric:
• Unidirectional
• Bidirectional: Plain, Twill, Satin, Basket, Leno

Satin Twill Leno

Plain Basket

Manufacture of Laminated Fiber-Reinforced Composite Materials:

• Winding
Filament winding
• Laying Tape laying or wrapping
Cloth winding or wrapping
• Molding

44
 Introduction to Composite Materials
8.Nanocomposites:
Consist of materials that are of the scale of nanometers (10^–9 m). The
accepted range to be classified as a nanocomposite is that one of the
constituents is less than 100 nm.
Adding particles like carbon nano tube or ceramic nano particles (alumina,
SiC, B4C, & etc) to polymeric or metallic matrix (Al, mg, …) can produce a
nano composite.

45
 Introduction to Composite Materials
Processing techniques:
• Mechanical
• Thermo-mechanical  Powder Metallurgy
• Non-equilibrium
• Chemical/Electrical

Powder Metallurgy:
• Spark plasma sintering (SPS)
• Selective laser sintering (SLS)
• Hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
• Hot pressing
• Hot extrusion
• Cold pressing and sintering
• Cold isostatic pressing (CIP)+sintering
 Introduction to Composite Materials

9.Functionally Graded Materials (FGM):

•A functionally graded material (FGM) is a two-component composite

characterized by a compositional gradient from one component to the
other. In contrast, traditional composites are homogeneous mixtures.

• FGMs were invented in 1984 during the space-plane projects in Japan.

Applications:
 Aerospace
 Thermal Shield
 Sensor (FGPM)
 Biomedical

Graded Cu/W composite produced by

electrochemical gradation
47
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Processing techniques (FGMs):

•Powder Metallurgy: Centrifugal powder forming (CPF),
Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS), Selective Laser Sintering
(SLS), Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP), & etc.

•Melt processing: Centrifugal casting, Sedimentation

casting, Controlled mold filling , & etc.

•Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), Physical Vapor

Deposition (PVD)

• Using magnetic forces

Centrifugal Powder Forming

Controlled mold filling

48
 Introduction to Composite Materials

10.Fabrication and characterization of a typical metal-matrix

nanocomposite (MMNC) using powder metallurgy (Al7075-SiC):

1- Materials:
• Al7075 powder as the matrix (gas atomized, 100 um, irregular morphology)
• SiC as the reinforcing particles (average 50 nm, nearly spherical morphology)

Agglomeration

49
 Introduction to Composite Materials

2- Processing

a. Ultrasonic vibration (to prevent clustering )

• mixing manually
• Suspending mixture in ethanol
• ultrasonic vibration for 30 min
• drying

50
 Introduction to Composite Materials
b. Mechanical milling (to uniform mixing)
-milling the mixture in a planetary ball mill
• temperature?
• atmosphere?
• ball-to-powder mass ratio?
• No. of balls?
• time duration?
• rotational speed?
• additives?

51
 Introduction to Composite Materials

c. Powder consolidation (pressing and sintering)

- Pouring the milled powder in the die hole
- Using one of the below techniques:
• Hot quasi-static pressing
• Hot dynamic compaction
• Or: HIP, Hot extrusion, & …

Mechanical drop hammer

52
 Introduction to Composite Materials

d. Characterization (mechanical & microstructural)

• Density (Archimedes)
• Micro-hardness (Vickers)
• Quasi-static compressive test (ASTM)
• Dynamic compressive test (Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar: SHPB)
• Diametrical compressive test (Brazilian disk)
• Wear test (Pin-on-disk)

53
 Introduction to Composite Materials

SEM micrograph

Agglomeration (clustering) of nano particles in Al7075-10 vol% SiC nanocomposite

54
 Introduction to Composite Materials

Temperature effect

Temperature effects on microstructure and quality

of Al7075 dynamically compacted sample

What are the strengthening mechanisms in particle-reinforced composites?

55
 Introduction to Composite Materials

11.Mechanical Behavior of Composite Materials

Homogeneous: A homogeneous body has uniform properties throughout,

i.e., the properties are independent of position in the body.

Isotropic: An isotropic body has material properties that are the same in
every direction at a point in the body, i.e., the properties are independent
of orientation at a point in the body.

Note: Composite materials are

often both inhomogeneous &
anisotropic

56
Introduction to Composite Materials

There are two points of view to

study the composite materials:

Micromechanics: the study of composite

material behavior wherein the interaction
of the constituent materials is examined on
a microscopic scale to determine their
effect on the properties of the composite
material.

Macromechanics: the study of composite

material behavior wherein the material is
presumed homogeneous and the effects
of the constituent materials are detected
only as averaged apparent macroscopic
properties of the composite material.