B.

SC I YEAR SEMESTER-II

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

(AECC)

Unit-1

Introduction to Computer

In the modern era, computers are an essential part of our everyday existence. That means computers are present in almost
every field, making our day-to-day tasks easier and faster. Nowadays, computers can be seen in banks, shops, schools,
hospitals, railways, and many more places, including our home. As they are such an essential part of our lives, we must
know about the basic computer introduction. Let us start with defining the computer first:

What is a Computer?

The straightforward meaning of a computer is a machine that can calculate. However, modern computers are not just a
calculating device anymore. They can perform a variety of tasks. In simple terms, a computer is a programmable
electronic machine used to store, retrieve, and process data.

According to the definition, "A computer is a programmable electronic device that takes data, perform instructed
arithmetic and logical operations, and gives the output."

Whatever is given to the computer as input is called 'data', while the output received after processing is called
'information'.

A Brief History of Computer

The term 'Computer' was first introduced in 1640 and referred to as 'one who calculates'. It was derived from the Latin
word 'computare', which meant 'to calculate'. In 1897, it was known as the 'calculating machine'. Later in 1945, the term
'computer' was introduced as 'programmable digital electronic computer, which is now called a 'computer'.

When the computers were introduced, they were large and could fill an entire room. Some computers were operated using
large-sized vacuum tubes. In 1833, Charles Babbage (known as the father of the computer) invented an early calculator,
which was named as the 'difference engine'. Later in 1837, he introduced the first mechanical, general-purpose computer
'Analytical Engine'. Over time, computers became powerful in performance and small in size.

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Characteristics of Computer
The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

Speed

A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while performing mathematical
calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The time taken by computers for
their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.

Accuracy

Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data inconsistency or inaccuracy.

Diligence

A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any
fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it superior to that of human beings.

Versatility

Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with same accuracy and efficiency.

Reliability

A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same set of input any number of
times, we will get the same result.
Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual intervention.

Memory

A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data. Secondary storage are removable devices
such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used to store data.

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Generations of Computer

There are five generations of the computer, which can be classified as below:

The main characteristics of first generation of computers (1940s-1950s)

 Main electronic component – vacuum tube

 Main memory – magnetic drums and magnetic tapes
 Programming language – machine language

 Power – consume a lot of electricity and generate a lot of heat.

 Speed and size – very slow and very large in size (often taking up entire room).
 Input/output devices – punched cards and paper tape.
 Examples – ENIAC, UNIVAC1, IBM 650, IBM 701, etc.
 Quantity – there were about 100 different vacuum tube computers produced between 1942 and1963.

Second Generation of Computers

 The main characteristics of second generation of computers (1950s-1960s)

 Main electronic component – transistor

 Memory – magnetic core and magnetic tape / disk

 Programming language – assembly language

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  Power and size – low power consumption, generated less heat, and smaller in size (in comparison with the first
generation computers).
 Speed – improvement of speed and reliability (in comparison with the first generation computers).
 Input/output devices – punched cards and magnetic tape.
 Examples – IBM 1401, IBM 7090 and 7094, UNIVAC 1107, etc.

Third Generation of Computers

 The main characteristics of third generation of computers (1960s-1970s)

 Main electronic component – integrated circuits (ICs)

 Memory – large magnetic core, magnetic tape / disk
 Programming language – high level language (FORTRAN, BASIC, Pascal, COBOL, C, etc.)

 Size – smaller, cheaper, and more efficient than second generation computers (they were called minicomputers).
 Speed – improvement of speed and reliability (in comparison with the second generation computers).


 Input / output devices – magnetic tape, keyboard, monitor, printer, etc.

 Examples – IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, UNIVAC 1108, etc.

Fourth Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of fourth generation of computers (1970s-present)

 Main electronic component – very large-scale integration (VLSI) and microprocessor.

 VLSI– thousands of transistors on a single microchip.
 Memory – semiconductor memory (such as RAM, ROM, etc.)

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  RAM (random-access memory) – a type of data storage (memory element) used in computers that temporary
stores of programs and data (volatile: its contents are lost when the computer is turned off).

 ROM (read-only memory) – a type of data storage used in computers that permanently stores data and programs
(non-volatile: its contents are retained even when the computer is turned off).
 Programming language – high level language (Python, C#, Java, JavaScript, Rust, Kotlin, etc.).
 A mix of both third- and fourth-generation languages
 Size – smaller, cheaper and more efficient than third generation computers.
 Speed – improvement of speed, accuracy, and reliability (in comparison with the third generation computers).

 Input / output devices – keyboard, pointing devices, optical scanning, monitor, printer, etc.
 Network – a group of two or more computer systems linked together.
 Examples – IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple Macintosh, etc.

Fifth Generation of Computers

 The main characteristics of fifth generation of computers (the present and the future)

 Main electronic component: based on artificial intelligence, uses the Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI)
technology and parallel processing method.
o ULSI – millions of transistors on a single microchip
o Parallel processing method – use two or more microprocessors to run tasks simultaneously.
 Language – understand natural language (human language).
 Power – consume less power and generate less heat.
 Speed – remarkable improvement of speed, accuracy and reliability (in comparison with the fourth generation
computers).
 Size – portable and small in size, and have a huge storage capacity.

 Input / output device – keyboard, monitor, mouse, track pad (or touchpad), touch screen, pen, speech input
(recognize voice / speech), light scanner, printer, etc.
 Example – desktops, laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc.

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Classification of Computers
Computer scan is broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

Sr.No. Type Specifications

1 PC (Personal Computer) It is a single user computer system having a moderately powerful

or Micro-Computers microprocessor. It is termed as a computer that is equipped
microprocessor as its CPU.

2 Workstation It is also a single user computer system, similar to the personal

computer, however, has a more powerful microprocessor.

3 Mini-Computer It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of

users simultaneously.

4 Main Frame It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of

users simultaneously. Software technology is different from
minicomputer.

5 Super-Computer It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute hundreds of

millions of instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. PCs are based on the
microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal
computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management
applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing the Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally linked together to form a
network. In terms of power, nowadays high-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and
graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.
Workstation
The workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software
development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively
high-quality graphics capabilities.

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Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, a large amount of RAM, inbuilt network
support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a
special type of workstation, called diskless workstations, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, workstations are also single-user
computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a local area network, although they can also be used as stand-
alone systems.
Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Mainframe
The mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands of
users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and supports much simultaneous execution of
programs.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require an immense amount of mathematical calculations (number-crunching).

For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated)graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).
Basic Computer organization:
Computer Organization refers to the level of abstraction above the digital logic level, but below the operating system
level.
In computer engineering, micro-architecture, also called computer organization, is the way a given instruction set
architecture is implemented on a processor. A given ISA may be implemented with different micro-architectures.

Computer organization consist of following parts

1. CPU – central processing unit

2. Memory
3. Input devices
4. Output devices

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 CPU – central processing unit
Introduction
It is alternatively referred to as the brain of the computer, processor, central processor, or microprocessor,
the CPU (pronounced as C-P-U) was first developed at Intel with the help of Ted Hoff in the early 1970’s and is short
for Central Processing Unit. The computer CPU is responsible for handling all instructions it receives from hardware
and software running on the computer.
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores data,
intermediate results and instructions (program).It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components

1. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
All arithmetic calculations and logical operation are performed using the Arithmetic/Logical Unit or ALU

2. Memory Unit
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer memory is use to Stores
information being processed by the CPU

3. Control Unit
Control unit help to perform operations of input unit, output unit, Memory unit and ALU in a sequence.

Memory
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily or permanently. For example,
Random Access Memory RAM is a type of volatile memory that is stores information on an integrated circuit, and that is
used by the operating system, software, hardware, or the user.
Computer memory divide into two parts
1.Volatile memory
Volatile memory is a temporary memory that loses its contents when the computer or hardware device loses power.eg.
RAM
2.Non-volatile memory
Non-volatile memory keeps its contents even if the power is lost. Example: ROM or EPROM is a good example of a non-
volatile memory
Input Devices
A device that can be used to insert data into a computer system is called as input device. It allows people to supply
information to computers. An input device is any hardware device that sends data to the computer, without any input
devices, a computer would only be a display device and not allow users to interact with it, much like a TV.The most
fundamental pieces of information are keystrokes on a keyboard and clicks with a mouse. These two input devices are
essential for you to interact with your computer. Input devices represent one type of computer peripheral.
Examples of input devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital cameras and joysticks.

Output Devices
A device which is used to display result from a computer is called as output device. It Allows people to receive
information from computers. An output device is any peripheral that receives or displays output from a computer. The
picture shows an inkjet printer, an output device that can make a hard copy of anything being displayed on a
monitor. Output device is electronic equipment connected to a computer and used to transfer data out of the computer in
the form of text, images, sounds or print.
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Applications of Computer
Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business, educational institutions, research
organizations, medical field, government offices, entertainment, etc.

Home

Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill payment, watching movies or shows at home,
home tutoring, social media access, playing games, internet access, etc. They provide communication through electronic
mail. They help to avail work from home facility for corporate employees. Computers help the student community to
avail online educational support.

Medical Field
Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history, diagnosis, X-rays, live monitoring of
patients, etc. Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical devices to perform delicate operations, and conduct surgeries
remotely. Virtual reality technologies are also used for training purposes. It also helps to monitor the fetus inside the
mother’s womb.

Entertainment
Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a virtual entertainer in playing games,
listening to music, etc. MIDI instruments greatly help people in the entertainment industry in recording music with
artificial instruments. Videos can be fed from computers to full screen televisions. Photo editors are available with
fabulous features.

Industry
Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory, designing purpose, creating
virtual sample products, interior designing, video conferencing, etc. Online marketing has seen a great revolution in its
ability to sell various products to inaccessible corners like interior or rural areas. Stock markets have seen phenomenal
participation from different levels of people through the use of computers.

Education
Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online examinations, referring e-books, online
tutoring, etc. They help in increased use of audio-visual aids in the education field.

Government
In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a database of citizens and supporting
a paperless environment. The country’s defense organizations have greatly benefitted from computers in their use for
missile development, satellites, rocket launches, etc.

Banking
In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers and conduct transactions, such as
withdrawal and deposit of money through ATMs. Banks have reduced manual errors and expenses to a great extent
through extensive use of computers.

Business
Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective of business is transaction
processing, which involves transactions with suppliers, employees or customers. Computers can make these transactions
easy and accurate. People can analyze investments, sales, expenses, markets and other aspects of business using
computers.

Training
Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to save money and improve
performance. Video conferencing through computers allows saving of time and travelling costs by being able to connect
people in various locations.

Arts
Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid movement of dance can be shown live
via animation. Photos can be digitized using computers.

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Science and Engineering
Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic process in Science and Engineering. Supercomputers
have numerous applications in area of Research and Development (R&D). Topographic images can be created through
computers. Scientists use computers to plot and analyze data to have a better understanding of earthquakes.
Computer - Input Devices
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the computer. The layout of
the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing
additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for
Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which generally give the same layout
as that of typewriters.

2 Numeric Keypad
It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys

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 that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.

Function Keys
3
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the top of the
keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

Control keys
4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys. Control keys
also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock,
Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse

Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box with a
round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the
mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. A mouse can
be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a
spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in
all four directions.

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The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and
playing computer games.

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor
screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element
detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which
is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes
like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information is available
on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.

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Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be stored on the disk.
These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the
television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to
create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A
graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed every day. The
bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of
magnetic material that are machine readable.

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This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is
fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable code, and stores the text on
the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is
generally used in labeling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a
stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the computer that
the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

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OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one
out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Computer - Output Devices

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer

Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It forms images
from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the
number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity
or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of character
boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80
characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

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There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size
 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirement in
comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays
include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For example, plasma
panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other
source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −

 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers

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Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular because of their ease of
printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of
Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages

 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower) which is why it is called
Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent
here and there with very nice quality.

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Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is divided into a number of
tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks.
A character set is embossed on the track. Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96
characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per
minute.
Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set may have 48,
64, or 96 characters.
Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
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Disadvantages

 Noisy

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a time, thus
they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the characters to be printed
on a page.

Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages

 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers

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Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters by spraying
small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes available. Color
printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable
Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

Soft copy Devices and hard copy devices:

All the output devices can be categorized into two categories

1. Hard Copy Devices
2. Soft Copy Devices
Hard copy devices are those that give the output in the tangible form. Printers and Plotters are two common hard copy
devices.
Soft copy devices give output in the intangible form or the virtual form, e.g. something displayed on a screen. All the
computer monitors are covered under this category.

Computer - Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer memory is the storage space in
computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called a cell. Each location or cell has a unique
address which varies from zero to memory size minus one.
For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory location. The address of
these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of two types
 Internal Memory − cache memory and primary/main memory
 External Memory − magnetic disk / optical disk etc.
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Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy are following when we go from top to bottom.

 Capacity in terms of storage increases.

 Cost per bit of storage decreases.
 Frequency of access of the memory by the CPU decreases.
 Access time by the CPU increases.

RAM

A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program result. It is read/write
memory. It is called random access memory (RAM).
Since access time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is, each storage location inside the memory is
as easy to reach as other location & takes the same amount of time. We can reach into the memory at random &
extremely fast but can also be quite expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a
backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical
size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied. However, data is lost
when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space, thus
making the manufacturing costs higher.
Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very fast and small.
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Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain the data. This is done by placing the
memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system
memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one
capacitor and one transistor.

ROM

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of
memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to start computer when electricity is first turned on, this operation is
referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing
machine and microwave oven.
Following are the various types of ROM −

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of
ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the
desired contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM
eraser achieves this function. During programming an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge
is retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is
passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.
Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased
and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of
re-programming is flexible but slow.

Serial Access Memory

Sequential access means the system must search the storage device from the beginning of the memory address until it
finds the required piece of data. Memory device which supports such access is called a Sequential Access Memory or
Serial Access Memory. Magnetic tape is an example of serial access memory.

Direct Access Memory

Direct access memory or Random Access Memory, refers to conditions in which a system can go directly to the
information that the user wants. Memory device which supports such access is called a Direct Access Memory. Magnetic
disks, optical disks are examples of direct access memory.

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a buffer between the
CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The
parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access
them.

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Advantages

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.
Virtual memory
Virtual memory is a technique that allows the execution of processes which are not completely available in memory. The
main visible advantage of this scheme is that programs can be larger than physical memory. Virtual memory is the
separation of user logical memory from physical memory.
This separation allows an extremely large virtual memory to be provided for programmers when only a smaller physical
memory is available. Following are the situations, when entire program is not required to be loaded fully in main
memory.
 User written error handling routines are used only when an error occurred in the data or computation.
 Certain options and features of a program may be used rarely.
 Many tables are assigned a fixed amount of address space even though only a small amount of the table is
actually used.
 The ability to execute a program that is only partially in memory would counter many benefits.
 Less number of I/O would be needed to load or swap each user program into memory.
 A program would no longer be constrained by the amount of physical memory that is available.
 Each user program could take less physical memory, more programs could be run the same time, with a
corresponding increase in CPU utilization and throughput.

Auxiliary Memory

Auxiliary memory is much larger in size than main memory but is slower. It normally stores system programs,
instruction and data files. It is also known as secondary memory. It can also be used as an overflow/virtual memory in
case the main memory capacity has been exceeded. Secondary memories cannot be accessed directly by a processor.
First the data/information of auxiliary memory is transferred to the main memory and then that information can be
accessed by the CPU. Characteristics of Auxiliary Memory are following −
 Non-volatile memory − Data is not lost when power is cut off.
 Reusable − The data stays in the secondary storage on permanent basis until it is not overwritten or deleted by
the user.
 Reliable − Data in secondary storage is safe because of high physical stability of secondary storage device.
 Convenience − With the help of a computer software, authorised people can locate and access the data quickly.
 Capacity − Secondary storage can store large volumes of data in sets of multiple disks.
 Cost − It is much lesser expensive to store data on a tape or disk than primary memory.

Basics of Computers - Secondary Memory

You know that processor memory, also known as primary memory, is expensive as well as limited. The faster primary
memories are also volatile. If we need to store large amount of data or programs permanently, we need a cheaper and
permanent memory. Such memory is called secondary memory. Here we will discuss secondary memory devices that
can be used to store large amount of data, audio, video and multimedia files.

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Characteristics of Secondary Memory
These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it from primary memory −

 It is non-volatile, i.e. it retains data when power is switched off

 It is large capacities to the tune of terabytes
 It is cheaper as compared to primary memory
Depending on whether secondary memory device is part of CPU or not, there are two types of secondary memory –
fixed and removable.

Let us look at some of the secondary memory devices available.

Hard Disk Drive

Hard disk drive is made up of a series of circular disks called platters arranged one over the other almost ½ inches apart
around a spindle. Disks are made of non-magnetic material like aluminum alloy and coated with 10-20 nm of magnetic
material.

Standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches and they rotate with speeds varying from 4200 rpm (rotations per minute)
for personal computers to 15000 rpm for servers. Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic coating.
A magnetic reader arm is used to read data from and write data to the disks. A typical modern HDD has capacity in
terabytes (TB).

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CD Drive

CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to read and write data. They
are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage space for less than a dollar. CDs are inserted in CD drives built into
CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject the drive, remove the CD and carry it with you. There are three types of
CDs −
 CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these CDs are recorded by the manufacturer.
Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on CD-ROMs.
 CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user once on the CD-R. It cannot be deleted
or modified later.
 CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted on these optical disks again and
again.

DVD Drive

DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD are optical devices that can store 15 times the data held by CDs. They are
usually used to store rich multimedia files that need high storage capacity. DVDs also come in three varieties – read
only, recordable and rewritable.

Pen Drive

Pen drive is a portable memory device that uses solid state memory rather than magnetic fields or lasers to record data. It
uses a technology similar to RAM, except that it is nonvolatile. It is also called USB drive, key drive or flash memory.

Blu Ray Disk

Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media used to store high definition (HD) video and other multimedia filed. BD
uses shorter wavelength laser as compared to CD/DVD. This enables writing arm to focus more tightly on the disk and
hence pack in more data. BDs can store up to 128 GB data.
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 UNIT-II
Number system
Number systems in Computer

Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the computer system architecture, every value that you are
saving or getting into/from computer memory has a defined number system.

Computer architecture supports following number systems.

 Binary number system

 Octal number system
 Decimal number system
 Hexadecimal (hex) number system

Number Systems

A number is a mathematical value used for counting and measuring objects, and for performing arithmetic
calculations. Numbers have various categories like natural numbers, whole numbers, rational and irrational numbers, and
so on. Similarly, there are various types of number systems that have different properties, like the binary number system,
the octal number system, the decimal number system, and the hexadecimal number system.

What are Number Systems?

A number system is a system representing numbers. It is also called the system of numeration and it defines a set of
values to represent a quantity. These numbers are used as digits and the most common ones are 0 and 1, that are used to
represent binary numbers. Digits from 0 to 9 are used to represent other types of number systems.

Definition of Number Systems

A number system is defined as the representation of numbers by using digits or other symbols in a consistent manner. The
value of any digit in a number can be determined by a digit, its position in the number, and the base of the number system.
The numbers are represented in a unique manner and allow us to operate arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
and division.

Types of Number Systems

There are different types of number systems in which the four main types are:

 Binary number system (Base - 2)

 Octal number system (Base - 8)
 Decimal number system (Base - 10)
 Hexadecimal number system (Base - 16)

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Binary Number System

The binary number system uses only two digits: 0 and 1. The numbers in this system have a base of 2. Digits 0 and 1 are
called bits and 8 bits together make a byte. The data in computers is stored in terms of bits and bytes. The binary number
system does not deal with other numbers such as 2,3,4,5 and so on. For
example: 100012,1111012,10101012100012,1111012,10101012 are some examples of numbers in the binary number
system.

Octal Number System

The octal number system uses eight digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 with the base of 8. The advantage of this system is that it
has lesser digits when compared to several other systems, hence, there would be fewer computational
errors. Numbers like 8 and 9 are not included in the octal number system. Just as the binary, the octal number system is
used in minicomputers but with digits from 0 to 7. For example: 358,9238,1418358,9238,1418 are some examples of
numbers in the octal number system.

Decimal Number System

The decimal number system uses ten digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9 with the base number as 10. The decimal number
system is the system that we generally use to represent numbers in real life. If any number is represented without a base, it
means that its base is 10. For example: 72310,3210,42571072310,3210,425710 are some examples of numbers in the
decimal number system.

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Hexadecimal Number System

The hexadecimal number system uses sixteen digits/alphabets: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, 9 and A,B,C,D, E, F with the base
number as 16. Here, A-F of the hexadecimal system means the numbers 10-15 of the decimal number system
respectively. This system is used in computers to reduce the large-sized strings of the binary system. For
example: 7B316,6F16,4B2A167B316,6F16,4B2A16 are some examples of numbers in the hexadecimal number system.

Conversion Rules of Number Systems

A number can be converted from one number system to another number system. Like binary numbers can be converted to
octal numbers and vice versa, octal numbers can be converted to decimal numbers and vice versa and so on. Let us see the
steps required in converting these number systems.

Conversion of Binary / Octal / Hexadecimal Number Systems to Decimal Number Systems

To convert a number from the binary/octal/hexadecimal system to the decimal system, we use the following steps. The
steps are shown by an example of a number in the binary system.

Example:

Convert 10011121001112 into the decimal system.

Solution:

Step 1: Identify the base of the given number. Here, the base of 10011121001112 is 2.

Step 2: Multiply each digit of the given number, starting from the rightmost digit, with the exponents of the base. The
exponents should start with 0 and increase by 1 every time as we move from right to left. Since the base here is 2, we
multiply the digits of the given number by 20, 21, 22 , and so on from right to left.

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Step 3: We just simplify each of the above products and add them.

Here, the sum is the equivalent number in the decimal number system of the given number. Or, we can use the following
steps to make this process simplified.

100111=(1×25)+(0×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(1×20)=(1×32)+(0×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(1×1)=32+0+0+4+2+1=3
9100111=(1×25)+(0×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(1×20)=(1×32)+(0×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(1×1)=32+0+0+4+2+1=
39
Thus,

∴1001112=3910∴1001112=3910

Conversion of Decimal Number System to Binary / Octal / Hexadecimal Number System

To convert a number from the decimal number system to binary/octal/hexadecimal number system, we use the following
steps. The steps are shown on how to convert a number from the decimal system to the octal system.

Example:

Convert 432010432010 into the octal system.

Solution:

Step 1: Identify the base of the required number. Since we have to convert the given number into the octal system, the
base of the required number is 8.

Step 2: Divide the given number by the base of the required number and note down the quotient and the remainder in the
quotient-remainder form. Repeat this process (dividing the quotient again by the base) until we get the quotient to be less
than the base.

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Step 3: The given number in the octal number system is obtained just by reading all the remainders and the last quotient
from bottom to top.

∴432010=103408∴432010=103408

Conversion from One Number System to Another Number System

To convert a number from one of the binary/octal/hexadecimal systems to one of the other systems, we first convert it into
the decimal system, and then we convert it to the required systems by using the above-mentioned processes.

Example:

Convert 1010111100210101111002 to the hexadecimal system.

Solution:

Step 1: Convert this number to the decimal number system as explained in the above process.

Thus,10101111002=70010→(1)10101111002=70010→(1)

Step 2: Convert the above number (which is in the decimal system), into the required number system.
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Here, we have to convert 7001070010 into the hexadecimal system using the above-mentioned process. It should be noted
that in the hexadecimal system, the numbers 11 and 12 are written as B and C respectively.

Thus,70010=2BC16→(2)70010=2BC16→(2)

From the equations (1) and (2), 10101111002=2BC16

Binary Numbers Representation

Binary numbers into the following two groups − Unsigned numbers and Signed numbers.

Unsigned Numbers
Unsigned numbers contain only magnitude of the number. They don’t have any sign. That means all unsigned binary
numbers are positive. As in decimal number system, the placing of positive sign in front of the number is optional for
representing positive numbers. Therefore, all positive numbers including zero can be treated as unsigned numbers if
positive sign is not assigned in front of the number.

Signed Numbers
Signed numbers contain both sign and magnitude of the number. Generally, the sign is placed in front of number. So, we
have to consider the positive sign for positive numbers and negative sign for negative numbers. Therefore, all numbers
can be treated as signed numbers if the corresponding sign is assigned in front of the number.
If sign bit is zero, which indicates the binary number is positive. Similarly, if sign bit is one, which indicates the binary
number is negative.

Representation of Un-Signed Binary Numbers

The bits present in the un-signed binary number holds the magnitude of a number. That means, if the un-signed binary
number contains ‘N’ bits, then all N bits represent the magnitude of the number, since it doesn’t have any sign bit.
Example
Consider the decimal number 108. The binary equivalent of this number is 1101100. This is the representation of
unsigned binary number.
10810810 = 110110011011002
It is having 7 bits. These 7 bits represent the magnitude of the number 108.

Representation of Signed Binary Numbers

The Most Significant Bit MSBMSB of signed binary numbers is used to indicate the sign of the numbers. Hence, it is
also called as sign bit. The positive sign is represented by placing ‘0’ in the sign bit. Similarly, the negative sign is
represented by placing ‘1’ in the sign bit.
If the signed binary number contains ‘N’ bits, then N−1N−1 bits only represent the magnitude of the number since one
bit MSBMSB is reserved for representing sign of the number.
There are three types of representations for signed binary numbers

 Sign-Magnitude form
 1’s complement form
 2’s complement form

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Representation of a positive number in all these 3 forms is same. But, only the representation of negative number will
differ in each form.
Example
Consider the positive decimal number +108. The binary equivalent of magnitude of this number is 1101100. These 7
bits represent the magnitude of the number 108. Since it is positive number, consider the sign bit as zero, which is placed
on left most side of magnitude.
+108+10810 = 01101100011011002
Therefore, the signed binary representation of positive decimal number +108 is 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎. So, the same
representation is valid in sign-magnitude form, 1’s complement form and 2’s complement form for positive decimal
number +108.

Sign-Magnitude form
In sign-magnitude form, the MSB is used for representing sign of the number and the remaining bits represent
the magnitude of the number. So, just include sign bit at the left most side of unsigned binary number. This
representation is similar to the signed decimal numbers representation.
Example
Consider the negative decimal number -108. The magnitude of this number is 108. We know the unsigned binary
representation of 108 is 1101100. It is having 7 bits. All these bits represent the magnitude.
Since the given number is negative, consider the sign bit as one, which is placed on left most side of magnitude.
−108−10810 = 11101100111011002
Therefore, the sign-magnitude representation of -108 is 11101100.

1’s complement form

The 1’s complement of a number is obtained by complementing all the bits of signed binary number. So, 1’s
complement of positive number gives a negative number. Similarly, 1’s complement of negative number gives a positive
number.
That means, if you perform two times 1’s complement of a binary number including sign bit, then you will get the
original signed binary number.

Example
Consider the negative decimal number -108. The magnitude of this number is 108. We know the signed binary
representation of 108 is 01101100.
It is having 8 bits. The MSB of this number is zero, which indicates positive number. Complement of zero is one and
vice-versa. So, replace zeros by ones and ones by zeros in order to get the negative number.
−108−10810 = 10010011100100112
Therefore, the 1’s complement of 10810810 is 10010011100100112.

2’s complement form

The 2’s complement of a binary number is obtained by adding one to the 1’s complement of signed binary number. So,
2’s complement of positive number gives a negative number. Similarly, 2’s complement of negative number gives a
positive number.
That means, if you perform two times 2’s complement of a binary number including sign bit, then you will get the
original signed binary number.
Example
Consider the negative decimal number -108.
We know the 1’s complement of (108)10 is (10010011)2

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2’s compliment of 10810810 = 1’s compliment of 10810810 + 1.
= 10010011 + 1
= 10010100
Therefore, the 2’s complement of 10810810 is 10010100100101002.
BCD or Binary Coded Decimal
Binary Coded Decimal, or BCD, is another process for converting decimal numbers into their binary equivalents.

 It is a form of binary encoding where each digit in a decimal number is represented in the form of bits.
 This encoding can be done in either 4-bit or 8-bit (usually 4-bit is preferred).
 It is a fast and efficient system that converts the decimal numbers into binary numbers as compared to the existing
binary system.
 These are generally used in digital displays where is the manipulation of data is quite a task.
 Thus BCD plays an important role here because the manipulation is done treating each digit as a separate single sub-
circuit.
Many decimal values have an infinite place-value representation in binary but have a finite place-value in binary-coded
decimal. For example, 0.2 in binary is .001100… and in BCD is 0.0010. It avoids fractional errors and is also used in
huge financial calculations.

Consider the following truth table and focus on how these are represented.
Truth Table for Binary Coded Decimal

DECIMAL NUMBER BCD

0 0000

1 0001

2 0010

3 0011

4 0100

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 DECIMAL NUMBER BCD

5 0101

6 0110

7 0111

8 1000

9 1001

In the BCD numbering system, the given decimal number is segregated into chunks of four bits for each decimal digit
within the number. Each decimal digit is converted into its direct binary form (usually represented in 4-bits).

For example:

1. Convert (123)10 in BCD

From the truth table above,
1 -> 0001
2 -> 0010
3 -> 0011
thus, BCD becomes -> 0001 0010 0011

2. Convert (324)10 in BCD

(324)10 -> 0011 0010 0100 (BCD)

Again from the truth table above,

3 -> 0011
2 -> 0010
4 -> 0100
thus, BCD becomes -> 0011 0010 0100
Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra is a division of mathematics that deals with operations on logical values and incorporates binary
variables. Boolean algebra traces its origins to an 1854 book by mathematician George Boole.

The distinguishing factor of Boolean algebra is that it deals only with the study of binary variables. Most commonly
Boolean variables are presented with the possible values of 1 ("true") or 0 ("false"). Variables can also have more
complex interpretations, such as in set theory. Boolean algebra is also known as binary algebra.

 Boolean algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with operations on logical values with binary variables.
 The Boolean variables are represented as binary numbers to represent truths: 1 = true and 0 = false.
 Elementary algebra deals with numerical operations whereas Boolean algebra deals with logistical operations.
 Boolean algebra utilizes conjunction, disjunction, and negation, as opposed to addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.
 The primary modern use of Boolean algebra is in computer programming languages.
 In finance, Boolean algebra is used in binomial options pricing models, which helps determine when an option
should be exercised.

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 Boolean algebra is different from elementary algebra as the latter deals with numerical operations and the former
deals with logical operations. Elementary algebra is expressed using basic mathematical functions, such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division, whereas Boolean algebra deals with conjunction, disjunction, and negation.

The concept of Boolean algebra was first introduced by George Boole in his book, The Mathematical Analysis of
Logic, and further expanded upon in his book, An Investigation of the Laws of Thought. Since its concept has been
detailed, Boolean algebra's primary use has been in computer programming languages. Its mathematical purposes are
used in set theory and statistics.

Venn Diagram

A Venn diagram is used to visually represent the differences and the similarities between two concepts. Venn diagrams ar
e also called logic or set diagrams and are widely used in set theory, logic, mathematics, businesses, teaching, computer s
cience, and statistics.

A Venn diagram is a diagram that helps us visualize the logical relationship between sets and their elements and helps us
solve examples based on these sets. A Venn diagram typically uses intersecting and non-intersecting circles (although
other closed figures like squares may be used) to denote the relationship between sets.

Venn Diagram Example

Let us observe a Venn diagram example. Here is the Venn diagram that shows the correlation between the following set
of numbers.

 One set contains even numbers from 1 to 25 and the other set contains the numbers in the 5x table from 1 to 25.
 The intersecting part shows 10 and 20 that are both even numbers and also multiples of 5 between 1 to 25.

Venn Diagram Symbols

There are more than 30 Venn diagram symbols. We will learn about the three most commonly used symbols in this
section. They are listed below as:
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 Venn
Diagra
Illustration Explanation
m
Symbols

A ∪ B read as A
union B
The
union Elements that belong
symbol - to either set A or set
∪ B or both the sets.

U is the universal
set.

A ∩ B read as A
The intersects B
intersecti
on Elements that belong
symbol - to both sets A and B.
∩
U is the universal
set.

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 The A complement
complem
Elements that don't
ent
belong to set A.
symbol -
Ac or A' U is the universal
set.

Let us understand the concept and the usage of the three basic Venn diagram symbols using the image given below.

Total Elements (No. of

Symbol It refers to
students)

The number of students that prefer either 1 + 10 + 2 + 2 + 6 + 9 =

A∪C
burger or pizza or both. 12

The number of students that prefer both

A∩C 2+2=4
burger and pizza.

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 A∩B∩ The number of students that prefer a burger,
2
C pizza as well as hotdog.

The number of students that do not prefer a

Ac or A' 10 + 6 + 9 = 25
burger.

Venn Diagram for Sets Operations

In set theory, we can perform certain operations on given sets. These operations are as follows,

 Union of Set
 Intersection of set
 Complement of set
 Difference of set

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Union of Sets Venn Diagram

The union of two sets A and B can be given by: A ∪ B = {x | x ∈A or x ∈ B}. This operation on the elements of set A and
B can be represented using a Venn diagram with two circles. The total region of both the circles combined denotes the
union of set A and B.

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Intersection of Set Venn diagram

The intersection of sets, A and B is given by: A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}. This operation on set A and B can be
represented using a Venn diagram with two intersecting circles. The region common to both the circles denote the
intersection of set A and Set B.

Complement of Set Venn diagram

The complement of any set A can be given as A'. This represents elements that are not present in set A and can be
represented using a Venn diagram with a circle. The region covered in the universal set, excluding the region covered by
set A, gives the complement of A.

Boolean Functions using Logic Gates

Any Boolean function can be represented by using a number of logic gates by properly interconnecting them. Logic gates
implementation or logic representation of Boolean functions is very simple and easy form.

The implementation of Boolean functions by using logic gates involves connecting output of one logic gate to the input of
another gate. Commonly used Logic Gates are: AND, OR, NAND and NOR gates.

Logic Gates

Logic Gates are the basic building blocks of digital electronic circuits. A Logic Gate is a piece of electronic circuit, that
can be used to implement Boolean Expressions.

While Laws and Theorems of Boolean Logic are used to manipulate the Boolean Expressions, Logic Gates are used to
implement these Boolean Expressions in Digital Electronics.

AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate are the three basic logic gates used in digital electronics. Using these basic logic gates,
other Logic Gates like NAND, NOR, Exclusive OR (Ex-OR) and Exclusive NOR (Ex-NOR) are derived.

Before seeing the implementation of Boolean Functions using Logic Gates, let us quickly recap some basics about the
important logic gates.

AND Gate
Logic AND gate is a basic logic gate, with two or more inputs and one output. The output of an AND gate is HIGH only
if all the inputs of the gate are HIGH. The output for all the other cases of the inputs is LOW. The logic symbol and the
truth table of an AND gate is shown below.

A B Y = A AND B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0

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 1 1 1
If ‘A’ and ‘B’ are the two inputs of an AND Gate, the output expression is written as:

Y = A . B or Y = A B

It is read as “Y EQUALS A AND B”.

OR Gate
The OR Gate is used to perform logical ‘OR’ operation. OR Gate also contains two or more inputs and one output. The
output of an OR gate is HIGH if either of the inputs are HIGH. The output is LOW when all the inputs are LOW. The
logic symbol and the truth table of an OR gate is shown below.

A B Y = A OR B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

If ‘A’ and ‘B’ are the two inputs of an OR Gate, the output expression is written as:

Y=A+B

It is read as “Y EQUALS A OR B”.

NOT Gate
Logic NOT gate is another basic logic gate with one input and one output. The output of the NOT Gate is always the
complement of the input. If the input is HIGH, the output is LOW and if the input is LOW, the output is HIGH. The logic
symbol and the truth table of a NOT gate is shown below.

X Y = X’

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 0 1

1 0

NOT Gate is used to produce the complement of a variable in Boolean Algebra. So, it is also called as Complementing or
Inverting Circuit.

SOP Boolean Function Implementation using Logic Gates

The sum of product or SOP form is represented by using basic logic gates: AND gate and OR gate. The SOP form
implementation will have AND gates at its input side and as the output of the function is the sum of all product terms, it
has an OR gate at its output side.

An important to remember is that we use NOT gate to represent the inverse or complement of the variables.

Sum of Products (SOP)

Input AND

Output OR

Implementation for 2 Input Variables

Let us understand how we can implement the following Boolean function using basic logic gates.

F=AB+AB

In the given SOP function, we have one compliment term, B. So, to represent the compliment input, we are using the
NOT gates at the input side. And to represent the product term, we use AND gates. See the below given logic diagram for
representation of the Boolean function.

Implementation for 3 Input Variables

Let us now see how to implement the following Boolean function by using basic logic gates. It is a 3 input variable
function.

F=ABC+ABC+ABC

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In the given function, we have two compliment terms, A and C. So, to represent the compliment input, we are using the
NOT gates at the input side. And to represent the product term, we use AND gates. See the below given logic diagram for
representation of the Boolean function.

POS Boolean Function Implementation using Logic Gates

The product of sums or POS form can be represented by using basic logic gates like AND gate and OR gates. The POS
form implementation will have the OR gate at its input side and as the output of the function is product of all sum terms, it
has AND gate at its output side. In POS form implementation, we use NOT gate to represent the inverse or complement
of the variables.

Product of Sums (POS)

Input OR

Output AND

Implementation for 2 Input Variables

Let us now see how to implement the following Boolean function by using basic logic gates.

F = (A + B) . (A + B)

In the given function, we have a complement term, B. So, to represent the compliment input, we are using the NOT gates
at the input side. And to represent the sum term, we use OR gates. See the below logic diagram for representation of the
Boolean function.

Implementation for 3 Input Variables

Implement the Boolean function by using basic logic gates.

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 F = (A + B + C) . (A + B +C) . (A + B + C)

In the given Boolean Function, we have two compliment terms, A and B. So, to represent the compliment input, we are
using the NOT gates at the input side. And to represent the sum term, we use OR gates. See the below given logic
diagram for representation of the Boolean function.

Implementation of Boolean functions using Universal Logic Gates

NAND gate and NOR gate are considered to be ‘Universal Logic Gates’. The reason behind this is, NAND gate and NOR
gate can perform (or can function like) all the 3 basic gates, such as AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate. We can design
any basic logic gate by using NAND gate or NOR gate. This is why they are called as “Universal Gates”.

Let us see the implementation of the Boolean functions using universal logic gates.

Implementation of Boolean functions using NAND gates

NAND gate is a logical combination of AND gate and NOT gate and this can function like AND gate, OR gate and NOT
gate. So, we use NAND gates to implement the Boolean function.

The important thing to remember about NAND gate is this is the inverse of basic AND gate. This means the output of the
NAND gate is equal to the complement of the output of the AND gate.

Let’s see an example to understand the implementation.

Implement the Boolean function by using a NAND logic gate.

F (A, B, C, D, E) = A + (B + C) (D + BE)

In NAND gate implementation, we use NAND gates at both input and output side. Observe the designed logic diagram
below. The step by step procedure to implement the given Boolean function using NAND gates is shown below.

First, the given Boolean function or equation should be represented using AND-OR gates. The AND-OR implementation
is shown below.

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In order to convert the AND gates into NAND gates, a bubble (complement) is introduced at the output of the AND gate.
To compensate the bubble, the input of the next gate is also introduced with a bubble. The implementation is shown
below.

To impose uniformity at the input, if a gate has one input with a bubble, the other input is also introduced with a bubble.
Again, in order to compensate the bubble, the output of the preceding gate is introduced with bubble or complement the
literal. The same is shown in the following figure.

If an OR gate is not having any bubble at either of the inputs, bubbles are introduced and are appropriately compensated
as shown in the figure below.

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An OR gate with two complemented inputs is equivalent to a NAND gate (according to DeMorgan’s Law A’+B’ =
(AB)’). Hence, replacing the OR gate, which is having two complemented inputs, with NAND gate, we get the final
structure of the implementation of the Boolean function using NAND gates. The final implementation is shown below.

Implementation of Boolean functions using NOR gates

NOR gate is the combination of OR gate and NOT gate and this can function like AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate. So,
we use NOR gate to implement the Boolean functions. The important thing to remember about NOR gate is it is the
inverse of basic OR gate. This means the output of the NOR gate is equal to the complement of the output of the OR gate.
Let’s see an example to understand the implementation.

Implement the Boolean function by using NOR logic gate.

g (A, B, C, D, E, F) = (A E) + (B D E) + (B C E F)

We can rewrite the given equation as:

g (A, B, C, D, E, F) = A E + B D E + B C E F

= (A + B D + B C F) E

= (A + B (D + C F)) E

In NOR gate implementation, we use NOR gates at both input and output side. Observe the designed logic diagram
below.

boolean expressions using Karnaugh Map

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As we know that K-map takes both SOP and POS forms. So, there are two possible solutions for K-map, i.e., minterm and
maxterm solution. Let's start and learn about how we can find the minterm and maxterm solution of K-map.

Minterm Solution of K Map

There are the following steps to find the minterm solution or K-map:

Step 1:

Firstly, we define the given expression in its canonical form.

Step 2:

Next, we create the K-map by entering 1 to each product-term into the K-map cell and fill the remaining cells with zeros.

Step 3:

Next, we form the groups by considering each one in the K-map.

Notice that each group should have the largest number of 'ones'. A group cannot contain an empty cell or cell that
contains 0.

In a group, there is a total of 2n number of ones. Here, n=0, 1, 2, …n.

Example: 20=1, 21=2, 22=4, 23=8, or 24=16.

We group the number of ones in the decreasing order. First, we have to try to make the group of eight, then for four, after
that two and lastly for 1.
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In horizontally or vertically manner, the groups of ones are formed in shape of rectangle and square. We cannot perform
the diagonal grouping in K-map.

The elements in one group can also be used in different groups only when the size of the group is increased.

The elements located at the edges of the table are considered to be adjacent. So, we can group these elements.

We can consider the 'don't care condition' only when they aid in increasing the group-size. Otherwise, 'don't care'
elements are discarded.

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Step 4:

In the next step, we find the boolean expression for each group. By looking at the common variables in cell-labeling, we
define the groups in terms of input variables. In the below example, there is a total of two groups, i.e., group 1 and group
2, with two and one number of 'ones'.

In the first group, the ones are present in the row for which the value of A is 0. Thus, they contain the complement of
variable A. Remaining two 'ones' are present in adjacent columns. In these columns, only B term in common is the
product term corresponding to the group as A'B. Just like group 1, in group 2, the one's are present in a row for which the
value of A is 1. So, the corresponding variables of this column are B'C'. The overall product term of this group is AB'C'.

Step 5:

Lastly, we find the boolean expression for the Output. To find the simplified boolean expression in the SOP form, we
combine the product-terms of all individual groups. So the simplified expression of the above k-map is as follows:

A'+AB'C'

Let's take some examples of 2-variable, 3-variable, 4-variable, and 5-variable K-map examples.

Example 1: Y=A'B' + A'B+AB

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Simplified expression: Y=A'+B

Example 2: Y=A'B'C'+A' BC'+AB' C'+AB' C+ABC'+ABC

Simplified expression: Y=A+C'

Example 3: Y=A'B'C' D'+A' B' CD'+A' BCD'+A' BCD+AB' C' D'+ABCD'+ABCD

Simplified expression: Y=BD+B'D'

Maxterm Solution of K-Map

To find the simplified maxterm solution using K-map is the same as to find for the minterm solution. There are some
minor changes in the maxterm solution, which are as follows:

1. We will populate the K-map by entering the value of 0 to each sum-term into the K-map cell and fill the
remaining cells with one's.
2. We will make the groups of 'zeros' not for 'ones'.
3. Now, we will define the boolean expressions for each group as sum-terms.

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 4. At last, to find the simplified boolean expression in the POS form, we will combine the sum-terms of all
individual groups.

Let's take some example of 2-variable, 3-variable, 4-variable and 5-variable K-map examples

Example 1: Y=(A'+B')+(A'+B)+(A+B)

Simplified expression: A'B

Example 2: Y=(A + B + C') + (A + B' + C') + (A' + B' + C) + (A' + B' + C')

Simplified expression: Y=(A + C') .(A' + B')

Example 3: F(A,B,C,D)=π(3,5,7,8,10,11,12,13)

Simplified expression: Y=(A + C') .(A' + B')

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Software

A software or computer software essentially a type of programs which enable the users to perform some particular
specific task or actually used to operate their computer. It essentially directs all of the peripheral devices on the entire
computer system- what exactly to do and how exactly to perform a task. A software plays a key role of a mediator
between the user and the computer hardware. In the absence of software, a user essentially can’t perform any task on
a computer. A software product development company is the one which develops software for the users.

Detailed List of Types of Software

Generally, there are two main classifications of software, which are namely, System Software along with the
Application Software. Let’s discuss them.

1. System Software

In case of system software, it helps the user as well as the hardware to function and even interact with each other
easily. Essentially, it is software which is used to manage the behaviour of the computer hardware in order to offer
basic functionalities which are needed by the user. In simpler word, it can be said that system softwar e is essentially
an intermediate or even a middle layer between the user as well as the hardware.

This software sanctions an environment or platform for the other software to easily work in. Hence, it is the reason
why the system software is quite important in the management of the entire computer system. Whenever you turn on
the computer first, it is this system software which gets initialized and then gets loaded in the system’s memory.
System software essentially runs in the background, and it isn’t actually utilized by the end-users. Due to this reason,
the system software is also known popularly as “low-level software”. Companies usually hire the best software
development company to build system software.

Few of the common system software examples are:

a. Operating System

Being a prominent example for system software, it is essentially a collection of software which handles resources as
well as offers general services for various other application which actually run over them. There are different types of
operating systems like embedded, real-time, distributed, single-user, multi-user, mobile, internet and much more. Full
stack web development services develop apps to operate on a mobile operating system like Android and iOS. Some of
the key examples of operating systems are as follows:

1. MS Windows
2. macOS
3. Linux
4. iOS
5. Android
6. CentOS
7. Ubuntu
8. Unix

b. Device Drivers

This type of software controls particular hardware which is essentially attached to the system. Different hardware
devices which require a driver to connect to a system easily consist of displays, printers, sound cards, hard disks,
keyboard, and mice. Few of the examples of such drivers are:

1. BIOS Driver
2. Motherboard Drivers
3. Display Drivers
4. ROM Drivers
5. Printer Drivers
6. USB Drivers
7. Sound Card Driver
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 8. VGA Drivers

c. Firmware

It is actually permanent software which is embedded in the system’s read-only memory. It is essentially a set of
instructions which are permanently stored onto to the hardware device. It offers vital information regarding how a
particular device interacts with different other hardware. Some of the examples of firmware are:

1. Computer Peripherals
2. Embedded Systems
3. UEFI
4. BIOS

d. Utility

These software are designed to assist in analysing, as well as optimizing, along with configuring and maintaining a
given computer system. It provides support to the computer infrastructure. Software like disk cleanup and
management tools, anti-viruses, defragmenters, compression tools etc. are all utility software. Some of its examples
are:

1. Norton Antivirus
2. McAfee Antivirus
3. WinRAR
4. WinZip
5. Piriform CCleaner
6. Windows File Explorer
7. Directory Opus
8. Razer Cortex

2. Application Software

They are also popularly known as end-user programs or even productivity programs which assist the user in
completing various tasks like conducting online research, making notes, designing graphics, maintaining accounts,
carrying out calculations or even playing computer games. They essentially lie above the system software. They are
actually used by the end-user as well as have specific functionality or tasks which they are designed to perform. These
software are often developed through custom software development, based on the requirements of the users. There is
a variety of application software. Some of them are:

a. Word Processors

Such applications are meant for documentation. It also assists in storing as well as formatting and even printing of the
documents. Key examples of such software are:

1. MS Word
2. Apple iWork-Pages
3. Corel WordPerfect
4. Google Docs

b. Database Software

It is used to create as well as manage a database and also known as Database Management System or in short, DBMS.
Such software assists in the data organization. Some of the examples of DBMS are:

1. MS Access
2. FileMaker
3. dBase

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 4. Clipper
5. MySQL
6. FoxPro

c. Multimedia Software

This is a software which is able to play, create as well as record images, audio or even video files. These software are
utilized for animation, video editing, graphics as well as image editing. Due to the high demand for such software,
every software product development company has vast avenues in developing them. Some of the examples of such
software are:

1. Adobe Photoshop
2. Picasa
3. VLC Media Player
4. Windows Media Player
5. Windows Movie Maker

d. Web Browsers

These software are utilized to browse the internet. Web browsers assist the users in locating as well as retrieving data
well across the web. Some of the key examples of them are:

1. Google Chrome
2. Mozilla Firefox
3. Internet Explorer
4. Opera
5. UC Browser
6. Safari

However, there also exists another classification of the software. They can easily be classified on the basis of their
availability as well as sharability.

Their classification is as below:

1. Freeware

These software are available free of cost. A user can easily download them from the internet and can easily use them
without paying any charges or fees. However, they don’t provide any type of liberty to modify the entire software or
charging a fixed fee for its distribution. A best software development company can develop its own freeware to reach
out to more customers. Some of the examples of these software are:

1. Adobe Reader
2. Skype
3. ImgBurn
4. Audacity
5. Team Viewer
6. Yahoo Messenger

3. Shareware
This software is distributed freely to users on a fixed trial basis. It generally comes with a set time limit, and on
the expiration of the time limit, the user is finally asked to pay a fixed fee for the continued services. There are
different types of shareware such as Freemium, Donationware, Adware, Demoware etc. Few of the examples of
shareware are:

1. Adobe Acrobat
2. PHP Debugger
3. WinZip
4. Getright

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3. Open-source

Such types of software are usually available to users along with their source code which means that the user can
easily modify and distribute the software as well as add additional features to them. They can either be chargeable or
free. Few of the examples of such software are:

1. Mozilla Firefox
2. Thunderbird
3. GNU Compiler Collection
4. Moodle
5. Apache Web Server

Design and Implementation of Correct Efficient and Maintainable Programs

The entire program or software (collection of programs) development process is divided in to a number of phases, where
each phase performs a well- defined task .

Phases in Software development

Life cycle.

Requirements analysis:
In this phase , the user’s expectations are gathered to understand why the program or software has to be developed. Then ,
all the gathered requirements are analyzed and the scope or objective of the overall software product is penned down.
The last activity in this phase involves documenting every identified requirement of the user in order to avoid any doubts
or uncertainty regarding the functionality of the program. The functionality, capability, performance, and availability of
hardware and software components are all analyzed in this phase.
Design:
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The requirement documented in the previous phase act as the input to the design phase. In this phase, a plan of actions is
made before the actual development process starts. This plan will be followed throughout the development process.
Moreover, in the design phase, the core structure of the software or program is broken down in to modules. The solution
of the program is then specified for each module in the form of algorithms or flow charts. The design phase therefore
specifies how the program or software will be developed.
Implementation
In this phase, the designed algorithms are converted in to program code using any of the high level languages. The
particular choice of language will depend on the type of program such as whether it is a system or an application program.
C is preferred for writing system programs, whereas Visual basic might be preferred for an application program. The
program codes are tested by the programmer to ensure their correctness.
Testing:
In this phase, all the modules are tested together to ensure that the overall system works well as a whole product. In this
phase, the software is tested using a large number of varied inputs, also known as test data, to ensure that the software is
working as expected by the user’s requirements identified in the requirements analysis phase.
Software deployment, training, and support:
After the code is tested and the software or the program is approved by the user’s it is then installed or deployed in the
production environment. Software training and support is a crucial phase. Program designers and developers spend a lot
of time creating the software, but if nobody in the organization knows how to use it or to fix certain problems , then no
one will want to use it.
Maintenance:
Maintenance and enhancements are ongoing activities that are done to cope with newly discovered problems or new
requirements. Such activities may take a long time to complete.

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