Navigation 3 Prelims Reviewer

Navigation
 Navigation is a science of determining position, location, distance traveled, and course to a known destination.
 “Navigare necesse est, vivere non est necesse” is latin for: to sail is vital, to live is not. This phrase tells us that
both sailing and the “condition” of positioning are highly intertwined. Indeed, the art of navigation enables you
to set a course and sail to your destination by using only nautical charts, a compass and your common sense.
 The entire navigation depends upon knowing the position of the ship. This is one of the most important tasks of
a navigator. It is of vital importance to know where the ship is in a very particular time, to prevent it from going
to possible danger areas.
 Electronic position finding, or loran, used beacons to fix positions. Developed during World War II, it is a system
that uses master and slave transmitters and calculates position based on the time between the signals arriving
at the ship. This system and others like it had to be used near land.
 Global Positioning System has made other electronic systems obsolete. It is based on the Doppler effect of radio
signals sent from two or more satellites. Its accuracy and reliability has made celestial navigation no longer a
required skill for merchant or naval officers.

Lesson 1 Position and Position Lines

Position and Position Lines
 The position of the ship is determined by its coordinates namely latitude and longitude.
 Latitude is the angular distance north or south of the equator and is measured from 0° to 90
 Longitude is the angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian and is measured from 0° to 180°.
 A position line generally is a line that contains the ship’s position somewhere on it.
o When taking the bearing of a charted object to obtain its position, a straight line is drawn from the
object with obtained degrees; the ship’s position is somewhere on that line, which is called the position
line.
o This line of bearing is basically a part of a great circle that passes through the charted object and the
ship’s position.
o When taking the range from a charted object to obtain the ship’s position, a small circle can be drawn
with the object at it’s the center; the range is the radius, and the circle is called the position circle.
o Instead of drawing the whole circle, a part of it in the vicinity of the ship’s position is drawn; this small
arc of the part of the position circle is called the position line. The position line is therefore a part of a
great or a small circle.
Position Fixing Methods
 In position fixing navigation, a position fix (PF) or simply a fix is a position derived from measuring in relation
to external reference points.
 A visual fix can be made by using any sighting device with a bearing indicator. Two or more objects of known
position are sighted, and the bearings recorded. Bearing lines are then plotted on a chart through the locations
of the sighted items. The intersection of these lines is the current position of the vessel.
 Usually, a fix is where two or more position lines intersect at any given time. If three position lines can be
obtained, the resulting "cocked hat", where the three lines do not intersect at the same point, but create a
triangle, gives the navigator an indication of the accuracy.
 The most accurate fixes occur when the position lines are at right angles to each other.
 Fixes are a necessary part of navigation by dead reckoning because dead reckoning relies on estimates of speed
and course. The fix confirms the actual position during a journey. The fix itself can introduce inaccuracies if the
reference point is not correctly identified or is inaccurately measured.

Lesson 2: Chartwork Exercises

 The Chart
o The chart is essential for the safe navigation of a vessel. The chart is a scaled representation of the area
used by vessels either operating off the coast, on ocean passages or even inland waters.
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Information on a Chart
 Much of the information is in symbol or abbreviated form and colored for easier identification. These are all
listed in the publication NP 5011 Chart Symbols and Abbreviations.

 Chart Number
o The number of the chart is printed boldly outside the margin at the top left and bottom right. The chart
number is used to identify the chart.
 Latitude and Longitude Scale
o The latitude scale is found on the sides of the chart. The longitude scale is at the top and bottom of
the chart. Latitude and longitude is used to identify a position.

 Title
o The title identifies the area covered by the chart
 Scale
o The scale of a chart is a ratio, ie 1:75000, it represents a given distance on the chart to the real distance.

 Depths
o Depths are either in metres or fathoms. Metric charts have the land colored yellow, and also display
the legend ‘depths in metres’ outside the border of the chart next to the chart number. On Imperial
charts, the land is a light grey color.
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 Soundings or depths are always measured below the chart datum.

 Chart datum is a fancy name for a level which is round about the lowest low tide level. This means that the
height of tide is almost always added to the sounding on the chart.
 Rocks and beaches that cover and uncover with the tide may have a drying height marked on or alongside
them. This drying height is measured (in feet or metres) above chart datum.
 Heights
o Heights ashore are measured in feet or metres
 Sources or Authorities
o This will indicate how recently the survey was conducted, in this case, 1990. Modern electronic
equipment, ie echo sounder and sonar, were used to survey the area. Newer charts will have Reliability
Diagrams or Zones of Confidence (ZOC) diagrams to enable the user to assess the accuracy of the chart.
 Notes and Cautions
o There may be other information below the title:
 Navigational marks
 Restricted areas
 Satellite – Derived Positions
 Tidal streams
 Magnetic Anomalies etc
 For example,
o FORMER MINED AREAS Trinity Opening, Papuan, Cruiser and Lark Passages have been swept and are
open to surface navigation only. They are not safe for anchoring, trawling or bottoming by submarines
owing to mines.
o CAUTION – INCOMPLETELY SURVEYE Owing to the incomplete nature of surveys in the areas
indicated, shoaler water than charted may exist.

 Compass Rose
o The compass rose indicates direction on the chart, true north, magnetic north and magnetic
variation for a given year.
 Depth Contours
o A depth contour is a line joining soundings of equal depth, ie 10 metres. On the example, Cape
Bedford. Look closely and identify the 2, 5, 10, 15 and 20 metre depth contours. Note, on a
photocopy how hard it is to distinguish between the shore, 2 and 5 metre depth contours
without colour.
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 Nature of Bottom
o This is the type of bottom, ie mud, sand, shells etc. On a chart mud is abbreviated as M, sand as S and
shells as Sh. There are many variations of bottom types and colour. Look at the example, Cape Bedford
and identify the bottom type. All of the abbreviations are found in NP 5011.
Position and Measurement
 Position
o Latitude and longitude is one method of identifying a vessel’s position at sea. This position is expressed
in degrees, minutes and decimal of a minute, ie 27o 30´.5 (meaning 27 degrees, 30.5 minutes). 60
minutes equals one degree.
 Small Ships Manual or Australian Boating Manual. Chapter on Chartwork.
o Simply, latitude is expressed in degrees between 0-90o North (N) or South (S) of the equator. Latitude
is also referred to as parallels of latitude.
o Longitude is expressed in degrees between 0-180o East (E) or West (W) of Greenwich, the prime
meridian. Longitude is also referred to as ‘a meridian of longitude’.
o When a position is given latitude is always given first,
ie 27o 30´.5 S 153o 45´.5 E
 Measurement
o The nautical mile is always used to measure distance on a chart. One nautical mile (nm) is equal to 2000
yards (1852 metres).
o The latitude scale on the chart is used to measure distance. One degree of latitude equals 60 nm. Since
one degree equals 60 minutes therefore, one minute of latitude equals one nautical mile. One minute or
1´ = 2000 yards, 0´.1 = 200 yards or 1 cable
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 Measurement of direction
o True direction is measured from true north. Direction is defined as the point on the horizon towards
which a vessel is heading.
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 The true course the vessel is steering is the angle between true north and the vessel’s head. The true
bearing of any object from the vessel, is the angle between true north and the line joining the vessel to the
object. The compass rose is used to measure true courses and bearings on a chart.
Using the Chart
 The navigator's instruments
 Data for use in coastal navigation is obtained from the compass and electronic aids such as radar, echo sounder
and GPS. To work on the chart, the coxswain needs
 a soft (2B) pencil
 a soft eraser
 a pair of dividers
 a large compass
 parallel ruler, either roller, Capt Fields type or navigational triangles

Using the instruments

 Position Lines
o When you obtain a bearing of a lighthouse or other terrestrial object, and convert it to a true bearing, it
can now be plotted on a chart. As this is a true bearing, the vessel must lie somewhere on this line. This
line of bearing is called a position line and is the basis of position fixing.
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 To obtain a fix, we could take a bearing of a second object and obtain another position line. We have already
stated that the vessel must lie on a position line, so if we have two position lines then we must be at their point
of intersection.
 For better accuracy, it is better to fix your vessel's position using three position lines if possible. See Fig 6.3.2.

 Figure 6.3.2: Fix by three cross bearings

 How far apart should the bearings be? In general, a good angle of cut is between 60° and 120°, with a third
midway between the two.
Position circles
 Another way of fixing your vessel's position is by position circles. This is done by obtaining ranges of various
landmarks. These ranges are usually found by radar.

Figure 6.3.3
 For example, if you obtain a radar range of a headland of four miles, you must be somewhere on a circle with a
radius of 4 miles from that headland.
 If at the same time, a second range circle can be obtained, your vessel must lie at the point of intersection of the
two range circles. (See Figure 6.3.4).
 Again, it would be more accurate to fix the vessel’s position with three ranges. See Fig 6.3.4.
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 Figure 6.3.4 Fix by three radar ranges

 Ranges must be taken off the adjacent latitude scale and the relevant arc plotted on the chart using compasses.
Both ends of the arcs should be marked with a single arrow, the point of intersection circled, and the time of the
fix written alongside.
 Selection of objects for ranges is as important as it is with bearings.
 Plotting Position by Latitude and Longitude
 We will consider plotting our position on the chart from a given latitude and longitude. There are two methods
of carrying this out.
 You will be able to follow the process by looking at Fig 6.3.5.
 Place one edge of the parallel ruler along one of the parallels of latitude printed on the side of the chart
and walk the ruler until one edge passes through the given latitude.

Pencil in the latitude line.

 Now line up the ruler with a longitude meridian and walk the ruler across the chart until one edge is through the
correct longitude. Pencil in the line and where it crosses the latitude line is your position.
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 An alternative method is shown in Fig 6.3.6.
 Line the ruler up on the correct latitude and then with a pair of dividers measure to the required mark on the
longitude.
 This method can be worked with the ruler on the longitude and the dividers on the latitude.
 Remember to express Latitude and Longitude in degrees, minutes and tenths of a minute.
 e.g. Latitude 25° 15´.2 S
Longitude 150° 25´.9 E
Satellite-Derived Positions
 The United States Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite navigation system widely used by
mariners. Positions from GPS receivers should be corrected before plotting on a chart. Many groundings have
resulted because of incorrect interpretation of GPS position.
 SATELLITE-DERIVED POSITIONS
 Positions obtained from satellite navigation systems are normally referred to WGS72 Datum; such positions
should be moved 0.09 minutes SOUTHWARD and 0.06 minutes WESTWARD to agree with this chart.
 This note may be found under the title block on your chart. Basically, GPS uses a different datum to refer
positions. Therefore, you should apply the adjustments as stated in the note.
 An example of how the adjustment should be made using the above note. The shift is 0.09 minutes
SOUTHWARD and 0.06 minutes WESTWARD.

 Satellite-Derived Position (WGS84) 34o 02´.00 S 151o 30´.00 E

 Lat/long adjustments 0.09 S 0.06 W
 Adjusted position (compatible with chart datum) o
34 02´.09 S o
151 29´.94 W

 Practically the shift is to the south west by approximately 200 yards.

Laying off courses on a chart
 Use the largest scale chart available and study it carefully. When laying off a course bear in mind the following:
 Keep well clear of hazards and dangers near the coast.
 It is preferable to keep close to the coast by day so that identification of terrestrial objects is facilitated and
constant fixing made possible.
 By night, the distance from the coast should be increased keeping within visible range of lights
 If weather and visibility deteriorate, avoid a course that converges with the land.
 Allow for effects of wind, current and tidal streams. Beware a "lee shore", where you may be blown or set into
danger.
 (f) Bear in mind the traffic density.
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 Figure 6.3.7: Reading a Bearing or Course from the Compass Rose

 Put your parallel rules on the course line diagram (Fig 6.3.7) and then manoeuvre the parallel rules to the
nearest compass rose. Put the edge of the parallel rules through the centre of the rose and look at the edge of
the compass rose. Where the parallel rules cuts the edge, you can now read off the course to steer. It should be
065o T.
Measuring Distance
 Take the dividers and open them until the points are on the two places in question. The dividers are moved to
the side of the chart adjacent to the middle of the course and the distance is read.
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 Figure 6.3.8: Measuring Chart Distance Using Dividers
 On most coastal charts the minutes of latitude are subdivided into tenths and it is usual to express distance in
miles and decimals of a mile e.g. 5.8 mile.
Speed, Time & Distance
 The day is a unit of time of twenty-four hours. The start of the day is 0001, or midnight.
 The first two figures represent the hours and the second two figures represent the minutes of the hour. Thus,
looking at the clock as you know it, we have the following:
 The 24-Hour Clock
o Midnight - 0001 12 noon - 1200
o 1 am. - 0100 1 pm. - 1300
o 2 am. - 0200 2 pm. - 1400
o 3 am. - 0300 3 pm. - 1500
o 4 am. - 0400 4 pm. - 1600
o 5 am. - 0500 5 pm. - 1700
o 6 am. - 0600 6 pm. - 1800
o 7 am. - 0700 7 pm. - 1900
o 8 am. - 0800 8 pm. - 2000
o 9 am. - 0900 9 pm. - 2100
o 10 am. - 1000 10 pm. - 2200
o 11 am. - 1100 11 pm. - 2300
o Midnight - 2359

 The minutes are added as follows:

5.10 am. = 0510
1.45 pm. = 1345
 EXAMPLE 1
What is the time interval between 0915 and 1733?
1733
- 0915
0818 or 8 hours 18 minutes
 EXAMPLE 2
What is the time interval between 0312 6th June and 1839 6th June?
1839 6th June
- 0312 6th June
1527 or 15 hours 27 minutes.
Speed and distance
 If you were in a car travelling at 60 kilometres per hour and your passenger asked you how far you would travel
in 3 hours, you would quickly give the answer "180 kilometres". If the time were 3 1/2 hours you would quickly
reply "210 kilometres". But what about 3 hours 42 minutes?
 To decimalise minutes, divide the number of minutes by 60.
 EXAMPLE 1
42 = 0.7 hours
60
42 minutes = 0.7 hours
 Well, we can do exactly the same with time, so in the problem above, 3 hours 42 minutes becomes 3.7 hours,
and at 60 kilometres per hour we would cover 3.7 x 60 = 222 kilometres.
 EXAMPLE 2
What is 12 hours and 54 minutes expressed in hours?
54 = 0.9
60
12 hours 54 minutes = 12 + 0.9 = 12.9
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Distance Calculations
 As mentioned in the introduction to this section, the units used in navigation to express speed, distance and
time are knots, nautical miles, and the 24-hour clock.
 The knot (kn) is the nautical term for expressing speed and is defined as one nautical mile per hour.
 If any two of time, speed and distance are known, the third can be found.
 If we require the distance (D), we multiply S by T (Speed x Time).
 If we require the speed we divide D by T ,
 and if we require the time we divide D by S
 To summarise:
o distance = speed x time
o time = distance/speed
o speed = distance/time
 EXAMPLE 1
Your vessel has been steaming for 7 hours 36 mins at 12 kn. What distance have you covered?
distance = speed x time
= 12 x 7.6
= 91.2 nm
 EXAMPLE 2
Your vessel has 38 nm to go to reach port and your speed is 6.7 kn. How long will it be before you reach port?
time =
=
= 5.67 hours
= 5 hours 40 mins.

 EXAMPLE 3
Your vessel has travelled 48 nm at 10.2 knots. What has been the speed made good?

Transit bearings
 When two charted objects come into line they are said to be in transit. One of the easiest ways of obtaining a
position line is by using a transit. A transit can be used with a radar range or a sounding to obtain a fix without
using a compass. Transit bearings are also an instant way of checking compass error.

 Figure 6.5.1 Transit with Radar Range

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 Figure 6.5.2 Transit with Sounding

Leading Lights
 Leading lights and beacons are established to indicate the centre of a channel. Leading lights are also transits, so
they are position lines and can be used to check compass error.

 Figure 6.5.3 Leading Lights (AUS 220)

 When entering or leaving a harbour you would be using leading lights to keep within the channel and also
monitor the effects of wind and tidal stream on your vessel.
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Beam Marks
 Beam marks are charted objects, ie beacons, edges of land etc, which will pass on a vessel’s beam. You can use a
beam mark to visually estimate your position when running on a transit.
 Since, a transit is a position line and beam marks have a high rate of change it is a very practical way to estimate
a vessel’s position.
 Estimating Distance Off
 There are many ways of estimating a distance off. The four-point bearing and doubling the angle on the bow are
two useful examples. Your master/facilitator would be able to identify other methods.
 The Four-Point Bearing
 This is a type of running fix in which the first bearing is taken when the object is at four points (45°) on the
bow. When the object is on the beam the range will be the same as the distance run since the first bearing was
taken. The disadvantage of the four point bearing is that the range of the single object is not known until it is
abeam. This is of little help in passing at a safe distance.

 Figure 6.5.4 Four Point Bearing

Doubling the Angle on the Bow

 This is a type of running fix which takes advantage of the properties of isosceles triangles.
 As illustrated the angle on the bow when the first bearing is taken is 35°. The time of this bearing is noted and
the bearing then carefully watched until the angle on the bow doubles to 70°. The triangle formed by the two
position lines and the course line is isosceles, therefore the range at the time of the second bearing is equal to
the distance run between bearings.
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 Figure 6.5.5 Doubling the angle of the bow

 In practice the distance run is simply calculated (speed x time) and this distance used as a range in conjunction
with the second bearing.
 Example:
A vessel steering 058°(T) observes a single light at 0606 which bears 035° relative. At 0636 the light bears
070° relative. Vessel’s speed 8 knots. What is the true bearing and distance of the light at 0636?
Time between bearings = 30 minutes (0.5 hrs)
So distance run = 8 x 0.5 miles
= 4.0 n. miles
True course = 058°(T)
Relative bearing = 070°(R)
So true bearing = 128°(T)
Answer: At 0630 the light bears 128°(T) at distance 5.0 n.miles.