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Lecture Two

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10 views21 pages

Lecture Two

Uploaded by

neyna kark
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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PSYCHO COGNITIVE

CONTRIBUTIONS TO LEARNING
DEVELOPMENT AND INSTRUCTION
The cognitive processes within the learner and teacher includes
the development of such processes and developmental
directions for research.
Developmental theory is prominent in its focus on

individual differences in intellectual processes, memory,

meta cognition, self-regulation, and motivation. The lecture

exemplifies the field of educational psychology by relating

theory to instruction and factors affecting individual learners

and teachers within classrooms.


For more than 100 years, psychologists have conducted research

understanding how knowledge is represented and processed in

human minds. Such issues fell under the domain of science as

psychology during the second half of the 20thC, supported by the

publication of Ebbinghaus’s pioneering memory studies in 1885

and Thorndike’s pioneering learning studies in 1898.


1950s / Theorists provided an alternative to

Rebirth for
cognitive
psychology

Mayer reviews the dominant influence of information processing


theories of cognition over the past few decades.
A major premise underlying Information Processing Theory is

that the human mind seeks to build and manipulate mental

representations and that these cognitive processes can be

accessed and studied through physiological responses—and

more recently, by using introspective interviews and other

learning-based observations.
Mayer(1992), argues that a central problem of the information
processing approach is to clarify the nature of mental
representations and the nature of cognitive processes. This task is
made more difficult by the fact that researchers cannot directly
observe the mental representations and cognitive processes of
other people. In the evolution of the information processing
approach to learning and memory, there have been two contrasting
versions:.
The classical information processing approach developed
in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, although its roots predate
psychology (Lachman et al., 1979).

It is based on a human-machine interpretation in which the human


mind is like a computer; knowledge is represented as data that can be
processed by a computer.

Cognition is represented as a program that specifies how data are


processed.
According to the view, humans are processors of information

Information is transferred from one mind to another as a series of


symbols.

Processing involves applying an algorithm to information such that a series of


symbols is manipulated according to a step-by-step procedure. For example,
when given a problem such as

“x * 2 = 4, solve for x,”

a learner forms a mental representation of the problem and applies operators


such as mentally subtracting 2 to both sides in order to generate a new mental
representation, namely

“x=2.”
It appears too limited to account for the full range of human

learning in complex real-world situations.

Metcalfe (1986a, 1986b; Metcalfe & Wiebe, 1987) showed that

people use different cognitive processing for insight problems

(requiring a major reorganization of the problem) and

noninsight problems (requiring the step-by-step application of a

series of cognitive processes).


The constructivist approach developed in the 1980s and 1990s.

Its earlier proponents include Bartlett’s (1932) view of how


people remember stories and Piaget’s (1971) view of how children
learn.

The constructivist view is based on the knowledge construction


in which the human mind is a sort of construction zone in which
learners actively create their own knowledge based on integrating
what is presented and what they already know.
According to this view, learners are sense makers who construct

knowledge. Knowledge is a mental representation that exists in a

human mind. Unlike information, which is an objective entity that can

be moved from one mind to another, knowledge is a personal

construction that cannot be moved directly from one mind to another.

Construction involves cognitive processing including mentally

organizing the material into a coherent structure, and mentally

integrating the material with relevant existing knowledge.


For example, Bartlett argued that when learners are presented with
a folk story, they assimilate story elements to their existing
schemas and mentally reorganize the story in a way that makes
sense to them.

Similarly, Piaget showed how children assimilate their experiences


with their existing schemas in an attempt to make sense of their
environment.

In short, learning involves connecting what is presented with


what the learner already knows, so the outcome of learning
depends both on the material presented by the instructor and the
schemas used by the learner.
S ensory M Working M Long term M

Linguistic Accostic Organizing linguistic


lge Sensation model

Prior
knowledge
Paralinguisti Visual Organizing picturial
cs lge sensation model
According to the information processing approach, knowledge is

at the center of cognition: Learning is the construction of

knowledge; memory is the storage of knowledge. Therefore,

information processing theorists have analyzed the types of

knowledge (or mental representations): factual, conceptual,

procedural, and metacognitive (Anderson et al., 2001).


Factual knowledge

consists of facts—that is, simple descriptions of an object or


element (e.g., “apples are red”).
Conceptual knowledge

Involves relations among elements within a coherent structure that

enables them to function together, and includes classification

hierarchies, cause-and-effect models, explanatory principles, and

organizing generalizations.
Procedural knowledge

Involves a procedure, method, or algorithm—that is, a step-

by step specification of how to do something (e.g., the

procedure for how to carry out long division).


Metacognitive knowledge

Involves strategies for how to coordinate one’s cognitive

processing (e.g., knowing how to monitor the quality of

one’s essay-writing activity).


The information processing approach can be applied to

instructional issues in three subject matter domains: reading,

writing, and mathematics. In each domain the driving question

concerns the cognitive processes or knowledge that a student

needs to perform competently as an authentic academic task such

as comprehending a passage, creating an essay, or solving an

arithmetic word problem.


What are the cognitive processes involved in writing an essay,

such as “how I spent my summer vacation”? Hayes and Flower

(1980; Hayes, 1996) analyzed the essay-writing task in three

component processes: planning, translating, and reviewing.

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