Rocketry Basics

Rocket Anatomy 101

Frequently, nose cones on large home-built
rockets are constructed by stacking and glu-
ing sheets of foam, shaping the stack with a
hot wire cutter, then covering the foam with
a fiberglass/carbon fiber skin. The variations
By Mark Newton nose cone. are endless.

Most rockets are composed of sections or Nose cones come in many shapes: round-
parts, carefully chosen and arranged to cre- ed, elliptical, parabolic, ogive, and conical, Airframe
ate a flight-worthy vessel. Understanding the to name a few. The nose cone usually has a
shoulder Ñ a section that fits inside the air- Sometimes called the body tube, the air-
name and purpose of each part is one of the
frame to keep it centered on the rocket Ñ frame provides the main structure of the rock-
first steps into the hobby of model rocketry.
and a place on the bottom where the recov- et, supporting the nose cone and fins. During
Let’s examine these and how they contribute
ery system can be attached. This attachment flight, the airframe is compressed from two
to the flight of a rocket.
varies in size with the rocket: model rockets directions: the motor pushes up from the bot-
have a plastic slot or small screw eye, while tom during thrust, and the nose cone pushes
Nose Cone mid-sized rockets often have eyebolts, and down as it parts the air. If the rocket veers to
large rockets have massive U-bolts or welded one side during flight, the airframe can be
The nose cone is usually the part that first hit with air resistance from the side as well.
eyebolts. Once the recovery system has been
interacts with the air in flight. The nose cone The airframe must be able to withstand these
attached, the nose cone stays joined to the
parts the air as the rocket moves through the forces, or the rocket will buckle or break. On
rocket throughout the flight.
atmosphere. Pushing the air out of the rock- the inside, the airframe holds the recovery
et’s way creates friction. The friction pushes Nose cones are made from many different system -- the parachute, streamer, etc -- as well
the nose cone downward, transferring the materials as well: small ones are often mold- as other parts, such as centering rings or mo-
air’s force to the airframe. The rocket’s pas- ed plastic or wood (balsa wood, basswood); tor tubes, some of which can also strengthen
sage through the air creates heat of friction; high power manufacturers frequently use fi- the airframe.
for most model rockets, this heat is trivial, be- berglass, carbon fiber, or other composite
cause it lasts only for a few seconds. However, materials. Composite provide greater strength Rolled paper tubes are the most common
for a slender high-powered rocket that flies and less weight, but cost more to purchase. form of airframe. They are relatively light-
several miles high at twice the speed of sound, Some people make their own nose cones from weight, and they crush during a crash to ab-
the heat of friction can melt the paint off the wood turned in a drill chuck or wood lathe. sorb the impact force -- a desirable safety char-
acteristic. In high power rocketry, airframes
shift to heavy-walled paper, phenolic tubing
(paper soaked in a high-temperature phenolic
resin), plastic tubing, fiberglass, carbon fiber
and other materials. These advanced mate-
rials handle the greater forces imposed by
high-thrust motors and greater weights. Some
builders reinforce their airframes by covering
them with epoxy and fiberglass or other ma-
terials. For scratch-built rockets, paper tubes
of all sizes, from paper towel rolls to oatmeal
containers to concrete forming tubes, have
been employed as airframes. Most airframe
tubes can be purchased in lengths of 2-5 feet.
When longer airframes are needed, a coupler
is placed between two tubes to join them into
one long tube. The coupler is usually made of
the same material as the airframe. No matter
the material, the goal is to create a structure
that will not fold under the stresses of flight.

Fins
Fins provide the rocket’s guidance. In flight,
air flows over the fins, beginning at the leading
edges and ending at the trailing edges. When a
rocket is flying in a straight path, it encounters
less air resistance (drag) than if it flies at an
angle. If the rocket attempts to turn, the fins
opposite the direction of turning are moved
Regardless of their shape, rockets are
into the airflow, and the air pushes more on
all constructed with a nose cone,
the exposed fin surfaces than on the other fins,
and airframe and fins.
until the rocket rights itself, just as a weather

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 Rocketry Basics

vane always points into the wind. Fins are ally at motor burnout), sometimes at speeds the heat produced by the motor, where sur-
usually the first part of a rocket to fail during beyond 1000 miles per hour. Model rocket fins face temperatures can go beyond 200F.
powered flight, because they have air flowing are usually just glued to the airframe surface,
around them on every side, and they are made while high power rockets often have fins with
of thin material to reduce their air resistance tabs that fit through slots cut in the airframe; Centering Rings
and weight. Fins can fail because they literally the tabs are glued to The centering rings
flutter apart, or can simply separate from the the motor tube. These center the motor tube
rocket because they are not properly attached. are known as through- inside the airframe
In either case, failure of one fin usually dooms the-wall fins; they gain and transfer the thrust
the flight, as its guidance system is now unbal- strength by being glued of the motor to the air-
anced, and there is less air resistance near the both to the motor tube frame. Model-rocket
tail once the fin is gone, moving the center of and to the airframe. centering rings are
pressure (CP) forward, perhaps even ahead of There are many other made of cardboard
the center of gravity (CG). At this point, the techniques to strength- or balsa wood. For
rocket often does a few quick loops to cele- en fin attachment that high power rockets,
brate the loss, likely tearing the airframe apart you will find as you aircraft-grade ply-
in the process. progress in the hobby. wood or G-10 is the
No matter the tech- material of choice. A
Because thin fins have less air resistance
nique, the goal is to rocket weighing up to
than thick ones, rigid materials are used to
keep the fins attached 3 pound would proba-
provide stiffness with minimum thickness. For
to the rocket through- bly have 1/8"-thick plywood centering rings; a
model rockets, balsa wood or basswood are fa-
out the flight. 30-pound rocket might use 3/4" plywood. Just
vorites. Competition models may use wafer-
glass, a thin material made from plastics and like fins, centering rings get very heavy as they
fiberglass called G-10 (garolite). High power Motor Tube get larger and thicker. As with fins, centering
rings can be made from lighter materials, re-
rockets use aircraft-grade birch plywood or
thicker sheets of G-10. These materials are The motor tube contains the motor and is inforced with composites like epoxy/fiberglass
strong, but they become very heavy as their attached to the airframe in some manner, usu- to give the same strength as wood but with
size and thickness increases. To reduce the ally with centering rings. The motor tube is of- less weight.
weight of large fins, some builders use lighter ten made of the same material as the airframe.
A model-rocket motor tube often has a thrust In larger rockets, it is common for the for-
materials for the center (core) such as foam ward centering ring to do double duty: a U-
or balsa wood, add hardwood strips for the fin ring inside and the motor pushes against the
bolt or forged eyebolt in the centering ring
edges, then reinforce the core with a skin of ring during thrust. High power rockets have
no thrust ring inside -- the thrust ring is at the provides a solid attachment point for the re-
thin hardwood or composites, such as fiber- covery system. Likewise, the aft centering ring
glass/epoxy. If built properly, these reinforced aft end of the motor. This lets you insert mo-
often holds the motor-retention hardware.
fins can perform as well as solid fins, but with tors of different lengths without spacers. The
a fraction of the weight. motor tube transfers the thrust of the motor
to the centering rings, which transfer it to Motor Retention
Whatever material is chosen, the fins must the airframe. Therefore, the motor tube and
be secured to the rocket at their root edges, so centering rings must be able to withstand the Once a model-rocket motor’s propellant has
they will not separate from the airframe dur- highest impulse produced by the motor. In ad- burned out, its delay charge gives the rocket
ing the most stressful part of the flight (usu- dition, the motor tube must be able to handle time to coast to maximum altitude. Once this

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Rocketry Basics
niques, including parachute, streamer, glider,
helicopter, featherweight, tumble, and nose
blow for starters. The most common recov-
ery method is the parachute or streamer for
model rockets, with parachutes being the
rule for high power rockets. Parachutes also
change as rockets change, from inexpensive
plastic sheets in model rockets to the more
expensive, bulkier, and heavier nylon fabric
for large rockets. Plastic parachutes, even well
constructed ones, cannot handle the stresses
imposed by large, heavy rockets. Streamers
work well for small rockets, but are not effec-
tive for safe recovery of heavy rockets.
Commercial motors typically use black pow-
der (BP) to pressurize and separate the rocket
for recovery. BP burns at temperatures near
2000F, which can destroy nylon or plastic. To
protect heat-sensitive rocket parts, flameproof
delay burns through, the charge pressurizes wadding is placed between the motor and the
If everything goes perfectly, the recovery
the interior of the rocket, forcing it apart and recovery system. As rockets get larger, the
system is deployed precisely at apogee, the
deploying the recovery system; however, when wadding may be replaced with a cloth made
peak of flight, when the rocket is moving very
the interior is pressurized, the rocket motor of flameproof aramid fibers, such as Kevlar or
slowly. Things do not always happen perfect-
will be blown out the aft end of the rocket Nomex. Another approach is to cool ejection
ly. If the recovery system is deployed a few
unless something restrains it. The motor-re- gas before it contacts the sensitive parts, by
seconds before (or after) apogee, the rocket
tention system secures the motor, so it can- making the gas pass through a series of off-
may be moving upward (or downward) at
not leave the motor tube in flight. An engine set baffles or a mass of heat-resistant material
high speed. Ejecting a parachute, while mov-
holder, a lightweight metal clip, is frequently such as coarse stainless steel wool.
ing at 300 feet per second(fps), puts a great
used for small motors. The clip snaps over strain on the chute, the shock cord, the attach-
the motor to restrain it, then the clip can be ment points, and the airframe itself. Recovery Launch Lug/Rail
pulled back to release the burned-out motor. systems must be able to handle forces 40-60
This style of clip is found in most kits in the times the rocket’s total weight. Model rock- Buttons
hobby shop. ets are relatively lightweight, so a folded-over The launch lug is a small but important
piece of paper, glued to the shock cord and to part of the model rocket. The lug fits over the
Such a clip is inadequate for high power
the inside of the airframe, is adequate. Some launch rod, so that the rocket is guided along
rocket motors: most large rocket kits do not
models use a piece of Kevlar around the mo- the rod for the first few feet of flight, while it is
include motor retention, allowing the build-
tor tube for the attachment point. still moving too slowly to be stabilized by fins.
er to choose a suitable method. As a result,
other retention devices have been developed However, the attachment point must be The launch rod may be 1/8" in diameter for
for larger motors. A common homemade de- much stronger for bigger, heavier rockets. small model rockets, up to 1" for large rockets.
sign is the “Kaplow clip”, in which a bolt is Large rockets use one or more U-bolts or It is important to select a rod that is proper
threaded into a blind T-nut set in the center- forged eyebolts through the centering rings for the weight and length of the rocket: a 1/8"
ing ring. The bolt and T-nut secure a metal to absorb the large stresses of deploying the rod works fine for small rockets, but it is inad-
tab that hooks over the aft ring of the motor. recovery system. Large rockets may also use a equate for, say, a 1-pound rocket, where a 1/4"
Several commercial retainers are available, Nomex deployment bag or some similar tech- rod is a better choice. Most flyers use a rod
including variations of the Kaplow clip (e.g. nique to delay the opening of the parachute. between 3 and 6 feet long. One disadvantage
PML), retainers with snap rings (e.g. Giant A delayed opening has advantages: when the of a launch rod is “rod whip”: as the rocket
Leap Rocketry) and threaded retainers (e.g. rocket deploys its recovery system, it sepa- leaves, the rod whips, sometimes throwing the
Aeropack). All these devices have different rates into pieces connected by the shock cord, rocket off its flight path.
benefits and costs, but all accomplish the pri- usually (a) the nose cone, (b) the chute, and Since rails are stiffer than rods, they are a
mary job: keep the motor in the rocket. (c) the airframe, motor, and fins. While the good choice for high power rockets. Rail but-
assembled rocket is highly streamlined, so tons or guides are then used on the rocket in-
that it can move through the air with minimal
Recovery System drag, its individual components are not. Once
stead of lugs. Seen from the top, a rail appears
like the letter C. The button or guide slides
The recovery system consists of several the nose cone and airframe separate, the in- down the gap in the rail. The rocket moves up
parts that work together to reduce the air- creased drag will quickly slow down the rock- the gap during flight. A rail can be reinforced
speed of the rocket, so it can be recovered and et, even before the parachute opens. Delaying with guy wires, and it can handle large rock-
flown again. The NAR safety code requires ev- the parachute opening for a second or two can ets without rod whip. In spite of the greater
ery rocket to have a recovery system. A typical mean the difference between opening at 300 cost of rails, they are increasing in popular-
recovery system consists of shock-cord attach- fps or 100 fps -- a large difference in stress on ity. Launch buttons and rail guides differ only
ment point(s), a length of shock cord, flame the recovery system. slightly: a button looks like a miniature sewing
protection, and the recovery device itself, Rockets can be recovered by many tech- spool, while a guide is a longer piece with a
which is usually a parachute. slot on each side, to fit down the rail.

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 Rocketry Basics

Building a Rocket
tempt to shred fins from the airframe. The fins
usually also receive a beating when the rocket
hits the ground. Reinforcement and building
techniques can increase the strength of fins.
Let’s discuss some techniques for wringing
By Mark Newton two items made from different materials. more performance from your fins:
Yes, it is the always the first rule in construc- NOTE: You will become hypersensitive (al- Reinforce your fin stock. Balsa or plywood
tion: read and follow the directions. But now lergic) to epoxy over time if you work with it fins can be reinforced with a layer of typing
you want to build a rocket using your own without wearing protective equipment such as paper. Coat the fins on both sides with a thin
parts, or you want to modify a manufacturer’s nitrile gloves. Latex gloves do not protect you coat of yellow glue, cover each side with typ-
kit for more radical flights. What can you do from epoxy. Also, use epoxy cement only in ing paper, then put a layer of wax paper over
to keep it together with that F motor, when areas with good ventilation. the typing paper. Press the whole setup un-
the kit was really designed for a D motor? der books, bricks, or something else flat and
Now, having talked up epoxy for most mate-
Simple: use your bag of building tricks to rein- heavy for several hours while the glue dries.
rials, let’s look at the exceptions. When build-
force key parts of the rocket so it can “return After the glue has dried, remove the fins, peel
ing many of the new ready-to-fly kits, you can
alive” from that flight you’ve planned. off the wax paper, and carefully coat the typ-
use modeling cement to bond plastic to plas-
ing paper with CA. The CA will stiffen the pa-
tic. Also, most epoxies do not hold up under
per and wood so that it sands easily. From this
The Fundamental high temperatures. For bonding metal motor

Rule of Building
All right, maybe there are more rules than
one to remember. But over time this rule
keeps moving to the top of the list: MORE
ATTACHMENT SURFACE AREA IS BET-
TER. You will notice how much the surface
area impacts the various components when
the rocket is assembled, for example, sand-
ing a surface before gluing cuts micro-ridges
in the surface. These ridges provide more sur-
face area for the glue to bond to, increasing
the strength of the bond. You will build stron-
ger rockets if you do things to increase surface
area as you build.

Choose Your
Adhesive Wisely
Rocket parts come in a variety of materi-
als: molded plastic, paper, cardboard, ply-
point, the fin can be sanded, cut, or treated
wood, balsa wood/basswood, phenolic tubing, mounts or retainers to motor tubes, special
like any other balsa fin. This technique also
Quantum tubing, fiberglass, and aluminum high-temperature epoxies are recommended.
eliminates the need for sealing balsa fins prior
are some of the materials in your rocket. No For field repairs, nothing beats cyanoacry-
to painting.
single glue has the ideal properties to bond late (CA), also known as “super glue.” It will
all these materials together. To achieve the repair broken fins and launch lugs. It is won- Reinforce your fin joints. Increasing the
greatest strength with the least weight, you derful stuff to have in your field box. CA also surface area of your fin joint will keep fins
must choose adhesives with the best proper- has another feature: when soaked into paper attached through those high-performance
ties for the materials you want to bond. For or wood, it acts like an instant sealer, making flights, especially if your fins are attached di-
example, two-part epoxy gives a strong bond the fibers stiff. CA-soaked items sand easily, rectly to the airframe (surface mounted). The
to hold wood fins on a paper body tube, but without the “fuzz” that normally accompanies simplest reinforcement is a glue fillet, which
it adds more weight to the rocket than yellow sanded wood or paper. You have to pick the forms a smooth joint between airframe and fin
(aliphatic) glue does. For bonding paper and right CA for the job, as it comes in thin, me- surfaces. Proper fillet technique is discussed
wood products together, yellow glue is your dium, and thick viscosities. Thin CA is best in most basic rocket kits. For more strength,
best choice. It is stronger than the materials for soaking into wood/paper, while medium use reinforcement materials. Tissue paper and
you will bond. Once glued, the parts will strip or thick CA is best for bonding materials yellow glue work great for model rockets. Cut
away from the glue before the glue itself fails, in construction or field repair. Some rocket a rectangle of tissue paper as long as the fin
and yellow glue is much easier to handle than manufacturers recommend CA for construct- joint to be reinforced, and about two inches
epoxy: no mixing, no gloves, less expense, and ing their kits. in width. Cover the tissue with a thin coat of
water clean-up. Outside of wood and paper, yellow glue and gently push it into the joint-
most other materials adhere best with epoxy, a Popsicle stick helps. You can increase the
including phenolic tubes, G-10 fins, Quantum Fins strength further with a second layer of tissue.
tubing, plastic nose cones, and aluminum. For the typical rocket, fins and motor mounts After you’ve done several, you will be able
Epoxy is the rocketeer’s friend when bonding are the parts that receive the most stress in to create a smooth reinforcement that keeps
flight. Motor thrust and wind shear both at-

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Rocketry Basics
those fins attached. This technique also works with lightweight woods like balsa, basswood,
for high-power rockets-substitute fiberglass or spruce. Consider a combination: a tube
cloth and epoxy as reinforcement materials. within a tube, centered with a series of balsa
wood strips. This can turn a model rocket air-
Use through-the-wall (TTW) fins. Through-
frame into a mid-power (or even high power)
the-wall fins have tabs that go through the airframe. If you have enough couplers, gluing
airframe and bond directly to the motor tube.
them inside the airframe is a simple way to
This requires fin slots to be cut through the
double the airframe’s thickness.
airframe. TTW fins achieve greater strength
by providing multiple locations (that’s surface One more trick: the ends of a body tube can
area) to bond the fins to the airframe and mo- be hardened by adding a few drops of thin cya-
Motor Mount
Tube with Front tor tube: fillets can be placed on the inside and noacrylate (CA) and giving it several minutes
and Middle outside of the airframe and on the motor tube, to cure. Once cured, the hardened ends can
Centering Rings especially if the aft centering ring is removed be sanded to a smooth finish-a great way to
to permit access to the interior of the rocket. permit nose cones and transitions to slide eas-
To get this access, slide in the motor mount ily on/off the tubing. Do this in a well-venti-
and centering rings, but glue only the forward lated area because of the strong CA fumes.
centering ring to the motor tube—do not put
When a long rocket has an airframe failure,
any glue on the aft centering ring. Once the
it almost always occurs at a coupler joint. As
forward ring has dried, carefully remove the
a rule, couplers are made to be the same thick-
aft ring, using a hobby knife. Once the aft ring
ness as the airframe tubing. If your coupler ap-
is removed, you will have access to the TTW
pears to be thin, you might want to strengthen
fins, and can now put glue fillets or reinforce-
it. Think of a coupler as an airframe, and use
ments on every fin/airframe joint. This makes
the same techniques to stiffen the inner wall
an incredibly strong fin joint. Once all glue is
of the coupler.
set, the aft centering ring can be glued into
place. Another way to create a TTW setup
Cutaway is to glue centering rings, fins, and recovery Nose Cone
Airframe with attachment to the motor tube, then slide the Really, there is not much you should do to
Motor Mount whole unit into the airframe. This is a great
Assembly increase the performance of your nose cone.
way to build a strong structure, but requires One area that you can improve is the attach-
the rocket’s fin slots to extend to the rear of ment point of the nose cone to the recovery
the airframe. system. Some nose cones provide no attach-
Cutaway
Airframe with Your choice of technique may be limited ment point, and some provide a point that is
TTW Fins Glued probably too weak. In general, you want an
to Motor by your rocket choice: for example, a kit with
Mount Tube surface-mounted fins will eliminate the TTW attachment point that is able to handle loads
technique, but you could reinforce the fin and that are fifty times the weight of the nose
the fin joint. In addition, these techniques can cone. For example, a 6-ounce nose cone needs
be combined: paper-reinforced balsa fins can an attachment point that can handle loads of
be designed for through-the-wall mounting, 6 ounces x 50 = 300 ounces.
with tissue paper reinforcements at the joint. There are several ways to get this type of at-
tachment point. Some nose cones have a spot
Airframe and Coupler in their base to permit a quarter-inch eye to be
screwed into the base. If an eye is used, always
It is pretty rare to have a rocket fail in flight
try to use one that does not have any break
due to collapse of the airframe if the airframe
where the circle closes. Solid eyes, whether
is commercially available tubing intended for
welded, cast, or forged, can handle 2–3 times
the size motor used. Your chance of failure be-
the working load of an open eye, and will not
comes greater with long, slender rockets such
TTW Fins
as SuperRoc competition models. To strength- open up under high loads. If your nose cone
Filleted to has no attachment point, then create one: in-
Airframe with en airframes, two general techniques are rein-
Aft Centering forcement with composite materials like fiber- vert the nose cone and pour a small amount
Ring glass (or carbon fiber) and epoxy, or using a of epoxy into the nose tip. Use a stick to push
a piece of tubular nylon or Kevlar string into
smaller tube inside the airframe-a “tube in a
the epoxy, and permit it to cure. Another
tube” design. The tube in a tube is a simple
simple attachment point can be made by plac-
technique to add considerable strength to the
ing a piece of Kevlar or tubular nylon under
airframe. A set of centering rings keeps the in-
a small square of fiberglass, saturated with
ner tube correctly located inside the airframe.
epoxy glue. Press the square inside the nose
This technique can be even more effective
cone, and permit it to cure. The larger the fi-
when two-part foam is poured between the two
tubes and permitted to harden. Another varia- berglass square, the less likely that it will be
tion is a ring of wooden strips glued around pulled from the nose cone.
the inside (or outside) of a tube. You have If your nose cone is made of balsa wood, you
to be careful about wood choice here: stay can seal the nose cone and give it a hard shell

8 NAR MEMBER GUIDEBOOK, January 2012 Edition

 Rocketry Basics
by dripping thin cyanoacrylate (CA) over the guide, and place the guide on the airframe. some questions, you will be ready to make
nose cone. This will harden the wood’s fi- It is important that these surface-mounted your own system. For a time-tested design,
bers, making it easy to sand. Next, fill in deep rails be kept under pressure for several hours. look at “Kaplow clip” below. There are doz-
groves with Elmer’s Fill-N-Finish Lite, sand Pressure can be applied with clamps (spring, ens of designs that all function well. Attend a
again, and you’re ready for final finishing. rope, woodworking clamps, etc.). Tradition- club launch and just look around-you’ll see for
al rail buttons are not surface mounted-they yourself. A personal favorite is a piece of quar-
must be attached through the airframe, and ter-inch all-thread, attached to the side of the
ideally, also through a small piece of wooden motor tube with a wrap or two of glue-soaked
reinforcement inside the airframe. An extra paper and positioned so the threads protrude
piece of wood adds significant strength to the about half an inch beyond the aft end of the
button. It’s a good thing. Retrofitting rail but- motor tube. On the field, slide in your motor,
tons to an existing rocket is more problemat- place a washer and quarter-inch nut on the all-
ic, since you cannot get inside the rocket to thread, and snug it down: simple, cheap, and
get a good attachment point for each button. effective.
In this case, think about hanging a picture at
home: use drywall anchors. Find a screw that
fits the rail button, and buy the matching plas-
Photo courtesy of
www.apogeerockets.com tic expansion piece. Drill the hole, insert the
plastic expansion piece, then screw the button
down on the airframe. This trick also works
Launch Lugs/ well for retrofitting motor-retention tabs.

Rail Buttons Photo courtesy of www.aeropack.net

Among fliers of mid and high-power rockets,
there is a move away from launch lugs toward
rail buttons/guides. Rails are more rigid than
rods, making them a better choice for those
long and heavy rockets. Whether you use
launch lugs or rail buttons, the biggest con-
cern is always getting a good attachment to
the airframe. For launch lugs, it is easier to
use paper launch lugs on paper airframes, and
brass or aluminum lugs on phenolic, fiberglass,
or Quantum tubing. Paper lugs on paper air-
frames bond firmly if both surfaces are sand-
ed before applying yellow glue. A little more
work is required for brass or aluminum launch
lugs, as they have a much smoother surface.
To prepare metallic lugs, first sand the lug and
the airframe with extra-fine sandpaper to in-
Recovery System
crease the bonding surface, then clean both
Motor Retention Nowhere does focusing on surface area pay
Nothing ruins your day like losing your hun- more dividends than in recovery-system con-
surfaces thoroughly (alcohol is recommended struction. An adequate system has to handle
dred-dollar reload case and driving your beau-
as a cleaning solvent). The surfaces can then about fifty times the rocket’s weight as it
tiful rocket into the earth because the recovery
be bonded with epoxy or, for more strength, slows the rocket to a safe descent rate. The
system did not deploy because the motor cas-
cover the lug with a piece of epoxy-soaked fi-
ing was ejected. It’s almost enough to make ideal situation is to spread this load out over
berglass, extending over onto the body tube an
you want to go back to the office-almost. This a large area. Attaching the recovery system in
inch on each side. This increases the bonded
need not happen to you. A little time and ef- two or three places or bonding the recovery
surface area, decreasing the chance that the
fort spent on motor retention will pay rewards strap down the side of the motor tube or along
lug will pull off during flight. the edge of two or three through-the-wall fins
in recovering your rocket to fly again. Most
Rail buttons and rail guides vary. Some rail model-rocket kits provide motor retention in are some ways to spread that recovery load
guides are designed for a surface mount, using the form of a clip, but as you move into larger across the rocket. Many model rocket kits
an adhesive strip. These are simple to attach, rockets, you are left to provide your own re- advise you to glue a shock cord in a paper
but great care has to be given to assure a good tention system. In general, retention systems tab, and then attach the tab to the airframe
fit to the airframe and a clean surface for the are designed to work with motor casings that sidewall. This technique works well for small,
adhesive. Before applying the adhesive, lay a have a thrust ring built into the aft end of the light rockets but generally not on large, heavy
piece of sandpaper, rough side up, on the air- motor. A retention system works best when it ones. Another place to beef up your recovery
frame. Slide the rail guide back and forth on is built into the rocket during construction. If system is the parachute. You can replace plas-
the sandpaper, keeping it firmly against the you are new to retention systems, start with tic ‘chutes with nylon ones for extended dura-
airframe. This sanding will gradually make a purchased one. They are available from a bility; however, you can also strengthen that
the base of the guide conform to the curvature number of vendors, such as Aeropack, Public plastic ’chute for a few pennies. Remove the
of the airframe. Once the sanding is complete, Missiles, Giant Leap Rocketry, Rocketman, shroud lines that came with the ’chute, and
sand the area on the airframe, clean both Bourne Again Rocketry, to name a few. Once make your own with upholstery thread from
surfaces, place the adhesive strip on the rail you’ve seen a few homebrew setups and asked a fabric store. Better yet, cut the thread long

NAR MEMBER GUIDEBOOK, January 2012 Edition 9

Rocketry Basics
enough to go across the center of the para-
chute canopy and down two opposite sides to
Centering Rings terials for strength. The problem with materi-
als like plywood and phenolic is their weight-a
The lowly centering ring is a hidden part
form two shroud lines. Tape the thread down that performs an essential duty. At liftoff, your pair of rings can add significant weight to the
to the canopy with a good quality tape, such rocket motor pushes rocket. You have to challenge yourself to build
as 3M. This will produce a parachute that is against the thrust ring, strength, not weight. For
much tougher and more resistant to shroud- which pushes against example, a rocket with
line failure. the motor tube, which through-the-wall (TTW)
pushes against the cen- fins needs centering
Elastic shock cords are a source of conten-
tering rings, which rings mainly just to cen-
tion in rocket circles. Your rocket will be more
finally pushes the air- ter the airframe and con-
reliable if you discard the elastic shock cord
frame. Centering rings tain the ejection charge-
that comes with the kit and replace it with the fins carry most of the
one that is the same diameter but 4-5 times therefore transfer the
motor’s thrust to the flight stresses, since they
the length of the rocket. Longer is good, as
airframe. In most large are attached to both the
it provides more shock cord to absorb open-
rockets, they are also motor tube and the air-
ing loads. Longer cords also lessen the chance
the attachment point frame. In this situation,
that two separated rocket parts will snap to-
for the recovery system. the rings could be made
gether and hit each other. Elastic is available
They must be able to of foam core (foam with
at fabric stores. In larger rockets, avoid elastic
withstand more force a layer of poster board
and use to tubular nylon or Kevlar.
than your motor can on each side), available
For flight prep, abandon the wadding in fa- produce. Model rockets at hobby and graphics
vor of Nomex cloth available from vendors, typically use cardboard stores. This can cut sev-
or install an ejection baffle system. Although or balsa wood for cen- eral ounces of weight
they cost money up front, they simplify your tering rings, while mid from your kit. Lacking
flight prep every time you use them. and high-power rockets TTW fins, another ap-
use plywood, G-10 phe- proach to reduce weight
nolic, or composite ma- is to choose one ring and
build it to handle both
motor thrust and recov-

Homemade Sanding Jig ery loads. This permits the other ring to be
made of lightweight materials. The forward
centering ring is often the best one to build
Perfectly round bulkheads and centering rings for rockets can be made with the simple, up, as it moves the center of gravity forward,
homemade fixture. The fixture is clamped to the work table of a small inexpensive disk making the rocket more stable in flight.
sander. Dimensions are not shown here, as they will vary with the size of the disk sander
used. The drawing provides enough detail to build this fixture. Another approach to stiff centering rings is
to build them up from lightweight materials,
Make a 3/4-inch thick plywood lever with two 1/4-inch dia. holes located generally as much like an I-beam in skyscraper construc-
shown. Make a 3/4-inch thick plywood base with one 1/4-inch dia. hole and glue a 1/4-inch tion. For example, two flat rings become very
dia. dowel rod with 3/4-inch extending up. Glue another 1/4-inch dia. dowel rod in the lever, stiff when separated with spacers. Centering
also extending up. Mount the lever on the dowel rod protruding from the base. rings like this are easy to build from materials
To make a disk, use a compass to draw the disk diameter on a piece of thin plywood, such like foam core, balsa, or thin plywood. They
as 3/16-inch. Saw out the disk, being careful to saw outside the line drawn by with the com- also have the advantage of greater surface
pass. Slip the roughly sawn disk onto the dowel rod protruding from the lever. With the base area when glued into the airframe. You can
securely clamped to your disk sander work table, slowly rotate the lever until the sawn disk even fill the void in the structure with a two-
engages the sanding disk. Hold the lever down tightly with one hand to keep it from mov- part expanding foam to add stiffness.
ing in relation to the disk sander. And at the same time, slowly rotate the sawn disk against Given these options, there simply is no rea-
the spinning sandpa- son to slap heavy centering rings in a rocket.
per disk until you have Disk Sander Table Rotate bulkhead to be rounded Remember, the lighter your rocket, the higher
against sanding disk with
made a full revolution. one hand while pressing it flies on a given motor and the less robust
down with the other
Now, move the lever a hand on the lever. your recovery needs to be for safe recovery.
Base
little to remove more of
the circumference of the Disk

disk, and continue the

Sander

Ba
Conclusion
process. It works best to Le se
ve
There is simply no substitute for looking at
Lever r
remove a little at a time the ways that other people build their rockets.
and to stop after two or Building stock kits is enjoyable, but after you
three passes to check the complete a few of them, it is time to start mod-
diameter of the disk with Pivot pin for bulkhead to be sanded round
ifying them for less weight, more airspeed, and
the tube into which it will Pivot pin for Lever
greater durability. The tips and tricks above
be ultimately inserted. Top View will keep you busy for a while, and by the time
you’ve tried them, you will have seen enough
variations that you’ll never run out of tricks to
try on your next project.

10 NAR MEMBER GUIDEBOOK, January 2012 Edition

Rocket Stability

Rocket Stability
er’s, as shown in Figure 3a. When it balances
evenly, imagine that the knife slices through
the rocket at this location. (Just imagine this;
don’t guillotine your model!) The CG lies at
the center of the circle that would be formed
By Rick Weber by the stroke of our imaginary knife.

This article covers the basic concepts of Besides having a CG, every object that flies
model rocket stability. For those readers wish- through the air also has a center of pressure
ing to learn more about this subject, there are (CP). The CP is the point on a rocket where
several excellent books listed at the end. all the aerodynamic forces acting on it bal-
ance out. To understand what that means,
A stable model rocket will fly straight and let’s break it down. Aero means air. Dynamic
true. An unstable rocket will fly erratically— means moving. In simple terms, aerodynam-
posing unwanted danger to spectators and ics explains how an object, such as a model
probably ending up a pile of wreckage. You rocket, moves through air. When you stick
might think that building a stable rocket is your hand out of a car window, you can feel
easy. With a pointed nose in front and fins at the aerodynamic forces at work.
the rear, it should fly like an arrow, right? Not
always. As a rocket designer, it is your job to Unlike the easy way we have to find the
ensure that the rocket you build will remain CG of a rocket, finding the CP is more in-
stable in flight, flying wobble-free in a vertical volved. There are two methods generally used
or near-vertical path. to locate the CP. One is the cardboard-cutout
method, and the other is the calculation meth-
To understand how to make your rocket od. The cardboard-cutout method has been
stable, you first need to know the ways that used by model rocket builders for many years
a rocket can move about in flight. Figure 1 and is relatively simple. Although the calcu-
shows that a rocket can roll around its cen- lation method provides a more accurate CP
ter axis and pitch about its center of gravity. location, it does involve some rather lengthy,
Aside from its forward motion, rolling and tedious math. Fortunately, in recent years,
pitching are the rocket’s two basic degrees solving this math has been greatly simplified
of freedom. A rocket can be designed to pur- by computer programs designed specifically
posely make it roll, which can actually add to Figure 1. to do this task. Two popular programs are
its stability. However, for most model rockets, RockSim and SpaceCAD. Because this article
and especially for beginners, it is best not to in which the rocket gradually pitches during will be read by people new to rocketry and be-
design them to roll. So, that leaves one mo- its time aloft, or they can go straight up, per- cause of limitations of space, we will present
tion—pitch—for us to deal with. To make your fectly vertically. At the very top of a vertical only the cutout method here. Those readers
rocket fly stable, your job boils down to con- flight, a rocket will abruptly pitch over 180 de- who wish to delve into the math and comput-
trolling its pitching motion. grees as it begins its return to earth. er programs will find links to sources of this
information at the end of this article.
It is perfectly natural for a rocket to pitch What we don’t want is uncontrolled pitch,
during a normal flight. Most rocket flights which can cause the rocket to wobble, and in To create a cardboard cutout of your model
follow one of the two flight paths shown in the worse case, deviate off course so as to be rocket, you simply draw the rocket’s profile
Figure 2. They can follow a parabolic path, dangerous to spectators or to fly so far away on a piece of stiff cardboard of uniform thick-
as to be irretrievable. ness, as shown in Figure 3b. Place the card-
Figure 2. board cutout on the edge of a ruler, and mark
Here are those conditions that can cause
the point along the center axis where the cut-
uncontrolled pitch in a model rocket:
out perfectly balances; this point is the CP of
1. Basic instability in the design.
the cutout. The corresponding point on your
2. Imperfections in construction.
model is the approximate CP of the model.
3. Flying in excessive wind.
Mark this location with the CP symbol.
Let’s take these points one at a time:
Now that you have located the CG and the
1. Basic Instability in the design—For you to CP, here is the most important rule for creat-
understand why a rocket is stable or unstable, ing a stable rocket: The CG must be located
it is necessary to understand two terms: the forward of the CP, as shown in Figure 3c. Ide-
center of gravity and the center of pressure. ally, the CG must not be any closer to the CP
than 1.5 times the diameter of the body tube.
Every object, including your model rocket,
has a center of gravity (CG). The CG is a sin- So what do you do if you find that the CG
gle point where all the mass of the object can of your rocket is too close to or even to the
be considered to be concentrated. rear of the CP? You can either move the CG
forward or move the CP aft.
It is relatively easy to find the CG of a model
rocket. You merely balance the fully loaded, To move the CG forward you can:
ready-to-fly rocket on an edge, such as a rul- a. Increase weight forward of original CG.

18 NAR MEMBER GUIDEBOOK, January 2012 Edition

 Rocket
HEADERStability
HERE
here than to watch it catastrophi- trial and error until you figure out the best an-
Figure 3A.
cally disassemble in flight. gle for your particular rocket for various wind
speeds. Under no circumstances should you
b. It is especially important to launch a model rocket in a wind that exceeds
make sure the fins are all the same 20 mph or at a launch angle greater than 30
size and are aligned parallel to degrees from vertical. These are two cardinal
the tube and are equally spaced NAR safety rules.
around the body tube. See Figure
4. One crookedly mounted fin can That is model rocket stability in a nutshell.
cause a rocket to fly radically off For those of you wishing to learn more about
course. Skilled model rocket build- this subject, check into these sources:
ers often use a fixture to hold the
“Model Rocket Design and Construction”,
fins in perfect alignment while they
Timothy S. Van Milligan,
are being glued to the body tube.
http://www.apogeerockets.com
“Handbook of Model Rocketry”,
Figure 3B. G. Harry Stine, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
b. Decrease weight rearward of 605 Third Ave., NY, NY 10158-0012
original CG.
“Advanced Model Rocketry”,
To move the CP rearward, you can: Michael Banks and Tim Van Milligan,
a. Increase the area of each fin. http://www.kalmbach.com
b. Increase the number of fins.
c. Move the fins rearward.
2. Imperfections in Construction—
How many ways can a model rocket Figure 3C.
builder goof up the rocket’s construc-
tion? More ways than we have space
for here. But let’s look at some of the
more common ones.
a. Adhesives that are not intended for as-
sembling model rocket components or adhe- c. It is also important to be
sure the motor mounts are at-
tached so that they are aligned
parallel to the body tube, so that
the motor will not thrust off cen-
ter. Off-center thrust can cause
a rocket to pitch away from a
proper flight path (Figure 2) and
crash.
d. The rocket’s guides for a launch rod or Figure 5.
rail must be attached firmly to the body tube
Figure 4.
and parallel to it. If a guide were to break off
before the rocket gained enough speed to keep
it stable, the rocket could pitch away from its
sives that are applied incorrectly account for intended flight path.
a lot of rockets coming apart in flight. When a
fin comes off, your rocket will probably fly er- 3. Flying in Excessive Wind—Flying your
ratically until it crashes. Epoxy, cyanoacrylate model rocket in winds above 15 miles per hour
(CA, also known as Super Glue), and white can cause it to fly far off course. Weathercock-
or yellow glue are strong when applied accord- ing can cause your rocket to turn and head
ing to the directions on the containers. Make into the direction of the wind. Figure 5 shows
sure the materials you are joining are compat- how wind can push on a rocket, much as it
ible with the adhesive you are using. For ex- does on a weathervane, so as to turn the nose
ample, white glue works well attaching wood into the wind, just as it turns the arrow of the
fins to a cardboard body tube, but not well weathervane. If the launch rod is not set at
in attaching plastic fins to a cardboard body the correct angle for the prevailing wind and
tube. When mixing epoxy, be careful to mix for your rocket, weathercocking can cause the
the two parts in their correct proportions. In- rocket to pitch over and fly a long way—into
sufficient amounts of even the best adhesives the wind. Fortunately, the same wind can grab
will leave a weak bond. Be sure to “test” your your rocket’s deployed parachute and return
finished rocket by wiggling the parts that have it downwind to you. The trick is to set the
been joined by adhesives. Better to break it launch angle correctly. This can be done by

NAR MEMBER GUIDEBOOK, January 2012 Edition 19

Rocket Motors

What’s in a Types of Motors

Let’s start off with what various motors are

Rocket Motor
made of. Today’s motors fall into three basic
types: black powder, ammonium perchlorate,
and hybrid. The smaller motors are usually
black powder (BP), while the larger motors
are usually ammonium perchlorate and hy-
brids.
By Greg May dizer, is pressed or molded into a solid grain
Since BP motors are the most widely used
that burns to produce a large amount of gas.
by model rocketeers, we will start here. The
Introduction The delay burns slowly after the propellant first thing to understand is the engine-identifi-
cation system, printed on the motor casings.
is used. It produces smoke to aid in tracking
Building your rocket is just the first step your rocket and allows the rocket to slow be- The markings consist of a letter and a number
toward a successful flight; you need a motor fore the ejection charge is fired. followed by another number or letter.
to make it fly. Motors come in a wide variety
of sizes and power. Understanding the differ- An ejection charge is provided to activate
ences in the various motors is key to deciding the recovery system. In a typical model rocket What Do the Motor
the ejection charge blows the nose cone off
which motor to use.
the top of the body tube and deploys the re-
Codes Mean?
Your motor needs to have the right amount covery system. Flameproof recovery wadding For an example, let’s start with a common
of power. Too much power, and your rocket is used to protect the recovery system from BP motor, a B6-4. This breaks down into three
could literally come apart; not enough, and the ejection gases. parts, the B, the 6, and the 4. Let’s see what
the rocket could just sit on the pad. Your mo- they mean.
tor also needs to have the correct delay for
deploying the recovery system. Too short a de- Standard Motor Sizes B The letter indicates the total impulse, or
lay, and the recovery system can be torn from total power, produced by the engine. Each let-
Rocket Motor Sizes
the rocket; too long, and the rocket may im- ter indicates twice the power of the previous
Size (mm) Type
pact the ground before the recovery system is letter. Letters for motors range from A to O.
13 mm Mini Motor
deployed. This article will help you learn how Note that the letter indicates a range for the
18 mm Standard Motor
to choose the correct motor for your rocket. total impulse of the motor, not an exact value.
24 mm D Motor
For instance; a B motor has a total impulse
Mid- and High-Power
between 2.501 newton-seconds and 5.000 new-
How Does it Work? 29 mm Mid-Power to Level 1
ton-seconds. The ranges are listed below:
38 mm Mid-Power to Level 2
A model rocket motor is a miniature version 54 mm Level 1 to Level 2
of solid-propellant motors used by profession- 75 mm Level 2
als. They are commercially made and tested
Model and High-Power Motors
98 mm Level 3 Code Impulse Range
for reliability. Figure 1 shows a cross-section
Size is also important. Your model rocket 1/2A 0.625–1.250
of a typical model rocket motor:
has been designed to hold a certain size mo- A 1.251–2.500
The paper casing to holds everything inside tor. Both diameter and length are important B 2.501–5.000
and protects your rocket from the hot gases here. The table above shows the more com- C 5.001–10.000
produced when the motor burns. mon motor diameters. D 10.001–20.000
E 20.001–40.000
The clay nozzle concentrates and directs the The length depends on the amount of thrust F 40.001–80.000
flow of the gases to produce usable thrust. in the motor. For the smaller motors (13 mm, G 80.001–160.000
The propellant, a mixture of fuel and an oxi- 18 mm, and 24 mm), the length is usually fixed H 160.001–320.000
(1.75", 2.75", and 2.75" or 3.75" respectively). I 320.001–640.000
J 640.001–1280.000
K 1280.001–2560.000
TYPICAL ROCKET Paper L 2560.001–5120.000
MOTOR CUTAWAY Casing M 5120.001–10240.000
N 10240.001–20480.000
Clay O 20480.001–40960.000
Nozzle As you can see, when the power doubles
with each letter, it doesn’t take long to reach
Clay powerful motors; a G motor averages 64 times
Retainer the power of an A motor. Motors ranging
Cap from H to O require special certification from
Ejection Charge either NAR or Tripoli to purchase and fly.
Propellant for Delay for
to Activate the 6 The first number shows the engine’s av-
Lift-off and Coast Phase and Recovery System
Tracking Smoke erage thrust in newtons, or the average push
Acceleration exerted by the engine. (4.45 newtons = 1 lb.)

26 NAR MEMBER GUIDEBOOK, January 2012 Edition

 Rocket Motors
when properly maintained. Once the casing is
obtained, the cost per reload is less than for
the comparable single-use motor. The reload-
able motor takes some skill to assemble, so
it’s important to follow the manufacturer’s in-
structions carefully. Below is an example of a
29mm reloadable motor.
Reloadable motors come in a wide variety
of diameters and lengths: the more or less
standard diameters are 18mm, 24mm, 29mm,
38mm, 54mm, 75mm, and 98mm. The lengths
vary from as short as 3 inches to as long as
49 inches. Each casing has a limited number

Average thrust = total thrust in newton-seconds

divided by thrust duration in seconds
The thrust curve for the B6-4 motor is above. RELOADABLE
As you can see, the average thrust is roughly ROCKET
6 newtons over the burn duration, while the MOTOR
maximum thrust is about 12 newtons for a
very short time. This sort of pattern is typi- CUTAWAY
cal of rocket motors. To find out about the
thrust curve for a particular motor, contact
the manufacturer or search for the motor at Now, more about the various types of pro- of propellant variants. For instance, an Aero-
http://www.thrustcurve.org. All rocket-motor pellant. As mentioned, black powder is the tech 29mm/240 casing can be loaded with
manufacturers publish thrust curves for their most common and is typically used from 1/4A H97, H180, H210, and H220 reloads. For this
motors. The total thrust will fall inside the up to D motors. There are some BP motors reason, you may want to purchase various
range of the letter classification of the motor. that have a higher impulse, but these are not case sizes so that you can fly a large variety of
From the graph above, the average impulse is common. For motors higher than D, the usual reloads. The end hardware remains the same
6 newtons, and burnout occurs at about 0.8 propellant is ammonium perchlorate. This is for a given diameter. Be aware that some case
seconds. The total impulse is about 4.8 new- the same propellant that is used in the solid- lengths may need larger nozzles and/or seal
ton-seconds, which falls inside the range of rocket boosters on NASA’s space shuttle. discs.
2.51 to 5.00 newton-seconds. This same calcu-
lation can be derived from most manufactur- Most BP motors are single-use motors. This
ers’ thrust curves. means that you purchase and use the motor Hybrid Motors
as a complete unit and then throw away the
4 The second number tells you the time in used casing. Most medium and high-power The third type of motor is known as a hybrid
seconds between the end of the thrust and the motors are reloadable. These motors employ motor. The hybrid motor does not use either
firing of the ejection charge. a reusable casing (typically aluminum alloy) black powder or APCP. As fuel, the hybrid
and a separate propellant. Reloadable motors uses ordinary flammable solid materials, such
This number is placed on the motor for the as plastic or even cardboard, which burn when
rocket flyer to use to determine the delay de- are more complicated to use than single-use,
since the motor must be assembled before ignited in the presence of a compressed-gas
sired for deployment of the recovery system oxidizer, usually nitrous oxide. The fuel and
(streamer, parachute, etc.). This usually de- each use. The advantage is that the propellant
is less expensive than the single-use motor. If oxidizer remain separate until the oxidizer
pends on the weight of the rocket. A lighter is introduced into the combustion chamber.
rocket may need a longer delay than a heavi- you fly your rocket many times, the reloadable
motor can save you money. These motors are exempt from federal regula-
er one, because the lighter rocket will coast tion because their components are not highly
higher before slowing to a safe ejection speed, Model rockets usually use BP motors; this combustible until combined.
while a heavier rocket will slow more quickly includes rockets from Estes, Quest, and oth-
and so will need a shorter delay. Some mo- ers. Medium-size rockets use the larger BP Hybrid motors for the rocket hobbyist are
tors, known as boosters, have a 0 for the delay motors, usually D motors, or the ammonium not new and are gaining popularity because
time, indicating that they have no delay. These perchlorate composite propellant (APCP) of the lower costs per flight and their easily
motors are used for the lower stages of multi- motors. Large rockets, i.e. high-power rockets, accessible components. However, there is a
stage rockets; as soon as the lower-stage mo- mostly use APCP motors. high initial investment in the ground equip-
tor burns out, it immediately ignites the next ment used to prepare the motor. Also, hybrid
stage. Be careful not to use a booster motor in motors are more complicated to assemble,
a single-stage rocket, since the recovery sys- Reloadable Motors first, because there are more parts than with
tem will deploy immediately upon burnout. a solid-propellant motor and, second, because
Reloadable motors are a way to reduce mo-
compressed gases require special handling.
The motor code provides this information tor expenses. The initial costs are high be-
More information about hybrids can be found
— total thrust range, average thrust, and delay cause you need to purchase a motor casing
at http://www.pratthobbies.com/info_pages/
— so rocket flyers can determine how best to and end closures. This casing and closures are
hybrids.htm.”.
fly their rockets in the safest possible manner. reusable and should last for a very long time

NAR MEMBER GUIDEBOOK, January 2012 Edition 27

 NAR ®

AR ®

R S H I P
M B E
ME PONS
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k e a d b y u s o n s .
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