DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY ➔ Lifespan development is a specific field

THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT within human development that focuses on

WEEK 2 the patterns and processes of change that
occur throughout the lifespan. It emphasizes
DEVELOPMENT the complex interplay of biological,
➔ The pattern of change that begins at psychological, and social factors that
conception and continues through the influence development across all stages of
lifespan. Most development involves growth, life.
although it also includes decline brought on
by aging and dying ➔ Focus: This is a subfield of human
development that specifically studies the
2 patterns of development: patterns and processes of change across a
1. Human development person's entire lifespan.
2. Life-span development
➔ Scope: It emphasizes the continuity and
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT change throughout life, looking at how early
➔ Focus: This is the broader term that experiences can influence later
encompasses the physical, cognitive, and development.
psychosocial changes that happen
throughout a person's life. ➔ Applications: Lifespan development helps
us understand how people grow and adapt
➔ Scope: It can refer to specific at every stage of life, promoting well-being
developmental stages (e.g., infancy, across the lifespan.
adolescence) or the entire lifespan.
GOALS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
➔ Applications: Understanding human 1. Describe behavior
development is important in various fields 2. Explain behavior
like education, healthcare, and social work. 3. Predict behavior
It helps professionals support people at 4. Change behavior
different stages of life
★ Description
➔ Scientific study of processes of change & ➔ Lifespan development is a specific
stability throughout the human life span. field within human development that
focuses on the patterns and
➔ Human development is a broad term that processes of change that occur
encompasses the physical, cognitive, and throughout the lifespan.
psychosocial changes that occur throughout
a person's entire life. This includes ➔ It emphasizes the complex interplay
everything from prenatal development of biological, psychological, and
(before birth) to late adulthood. It looks at social factors that influence
how we grow, learn, and interact with the development across all stages of life
world around us.
★ Explanation
life-span development ➔ The goal of explaining human
➔ Concept of human development as a development is to uncover the
lifelong process, which can be studied underlying mechanisms and
scientifically. processes that drive growth and
change.
 ➔ This involves identifying biological, ◆ (2) In Erikson’s eight-stage theory,
psychological, and social factors that the socially and culturally influenced
influence development and process of development of the ego,
understanding how they interact and or self.
shape individuals' trajectories.
social construction
★ Prediction ➔ A concept or practice that may appear
➔ The goal of predicting human natural and obvious to those who accept it
development is to anticipate the but that in reality is an invention of a
outcomes and trajectories of particular culture or society.
individuals based on their early
experiences, characteristics, and ➔ Social construction refers to the idea that
environments. aspects of reality are shaped by social
processes, rather than being inherent or
➔ This involves identifying risk and natural. It suggests that various concepts,
protective factors that can influence beliefs, and phenomena are created,
development and using this negotiated, and maintained through
information to forecast potential interactions within a society or social group.
developmental pathways. These constructions are often influenced by
cultural norms, historical contexts,
★ Intervention language, power dynamics, and individual
➔ The goal of intervening in human perceptions.
development is to promote positive
outcomes and mitigate negative
ones by implementing strategies and TYPICAL MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN 8
programs aimed at supporting PERIODS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
individuals' growth and well-being.
Age Period: Prenatal Period (conception to birth)
➔ This involves designing and
implementing interventions at ● Physical Developments
various levels, including individual, ○ Conceptions occurs by normal
family, community, and societal fertilization or other means
levels. ○ The genetic endowment interacts
with environment influences from the
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT start
➔ physical development Growth of body and ○ Basic body structures and organs
brain, including patterns of change in form: brain growth & spurt begins
sensory capacities, motor skills, and health. ○ Physical growth is the most rapid in
the life span
➔ cognitive development Pattern of change in ○ Vulnerability to environmental
mental abilities, such as learning, attention, influences is great
memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and
creativity. ● Cognitive Developments
○ Abilities to learn and remember and
➔ psychosocial development to respond to sensory stimuli are
◆ (1) Pattern of change in emotions, developing.
personality, and social relationships.
 ● Psychosocial Developments ● Cognitive Developments
○ Fetus responds to the mother's voice ○ Thinking is somewhat egocentric,
and develops a preference for it. but understanding of other people’s
perspectives grows
Age Period: Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth to ○ Cognitive immaturity results in some
age 3) illogical ideas about the world
○ Memory and language improve
● Physical Developments ○ Intelligence becomes more
○ All sensed and body systems predictable
operate at birth to verifying degrees ○ Preschool experience is common
○ The brain grows in complexity and is and kindergarten is more so.
highly sensitive to environmental
influence ● Psychosocial Developments
○ Physical growth and development of ○ Self-concept and understanding of
motor skills are rapid emotions become more complex;
self-esteem is global
● Cognitive Developments ○ Independence, initiative, and
○ Abilities to learn and remember are self-control increase
present, even in early weeks ○ Gender identity develops
○ Use of symbols and ability to solve ○ Play becomes more imaginative,
problems develop by 2nd year more elaborate, and usually more
○ Comprehension and use of social
language develop rapidly ○ Altruism, aggression, and
fearfulness are common
● Psychosocial Developments ○ Family is still the focus of social life,
○ Attachment to parents and others but other children become more
form important
○ Self-awareness develops
○ Shift from dependence toward Age Period: Middle Childhood (ages 6 to 11)
autonomy occurs
○ Interest in other children increases ● Physical Developments
○ Growth slows
○ Strength and athletic skills improve
Age Period: Early Childhood (ages 3 to 6) ○ Respiratory illnesses are common,
but health is generally better than
● Physical Developments any other time in the lifespan
○ Growth is steady; appearance
becomes more slender and ● Cognitive Developments
proportions more adultlike ○ Egocentrism diminishes
○ Appetite diminishes, and sleep ○ Children begin to think logically but
problems are common concretely
○ Handedness appears; fine and gross ○ Memory and language skills
motor skills and strength improve increase
○ Cognitive gains permit children to
○ Uresis occurs during this stage benefit from formal schooling
○ Some children show special
educational needs and strengths

○ Autism develop during this stage

 ○ The most important stage ○ Educational and occupational
choices are made, sometime after
● Psychosocial Developments period of exploration
○ Self-concept becomes more
complex, affecting self-esteem ● Psychosocial Developments
○ Coregulation reflects gradual shift in ○ Personality traits and styles become
control from parents to child relatively stable, but changes in
○ Peers assume central importance personality may be influenced by life
stages and events
Age Period: Adolescence (ages 11 to 20) ○ Intimate relationships and personal
lifestyles are established but may
● Physical Developments not be lasting
○ Physical growth and other changes ○ More people marry, and most
are rapid and profound become parents
○ Reproductive maturity occurs
○ Major health risks arise from
behavioral issues, such as eating Age Period: Adulthood (ages 40 to 65)
disorders and drug abuse
● Physical Developments
● Cognitive Developments ○ Slow deterioration of sensory
○ Ability to think abstractly and use abilities, health, stamina, and
scientific reasoning develops strength may begin, but individual
○ Immature thinking persists in some differences are wide
attitudes and behaviors ○ Women experience menopause
○ Education focuses on preparation for
college or vocation ○ Andropause: Slowly reproduce of
sperm cell (men)
● Psychosocial Developments
○ Search for identity, including sexual ● Cognitive Developments
identity, becomes central ○ Mental abilities peaks, expertise are
○ Relationships with parents are practical problem-solving skills are
generally good high
○ Peer group may exert positive or ○ Creative output may decline but
negative influence improve in quality
○ For some, career success and
earning powers peak; for others,
Age Period: Emerging and Young Childhood burnout or career change may occur
(ages 20 to 40)
● Psychosocial Developments
● Physical Developments ○ Sense of identity continues to
○ Physical condition peaks, then develop; midlife transition may
declines slightly occur.
○ Lifestyle choices influence health ○ Dual responsibilities of caring for
children and parents may cause
● Cognitive Developments stress
○ Thought and moral judgments ○ Launching of children leaves empty
become more complex nest
Age Period: Late Adulthood (ages 65 and over) ➔ Individual differences in development refer
to variations in the trajectory and outcomes
● Physical Developments of development among individuals. These
○ Most people are healthy and active, differences can manifest in various aspects,
although health and physical abilities including cognitive, social, emotional, and
generally decline physical development.
○ Slowing of reaction time effects
some aspects of functioning Maturation
➔ Unfolding of a natural sequence of physical
● Cognitive Developments and behavioral changes.
○ Most people are mentally alert
○ Although intelligence and memory ➔ Maturation refers to the biological process
may deteriorate in some areas, most through which an organism undergoes
people find way to compensate natural, predetermined changes in its
physical and behavioral characteristics over
● Psychosocial Developments time. It involves the unfolding of a
○ Retirement from workplace may genetically programmed sequence of
occur and may offer new options for developmental milestones and stages that
use of time are typical for a species.
○ People develop more flexible
strategies to cope with personal CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT
losses and impending death ➔ Humans develop within various social and
○ Relationships with family and close historical contexts. Infants primarily grow
friends can provide important within families, influenced by broader
support factors like neighborhood, community, and
○ Search for meaning in life assumes society.
central importance
➔ Families come in diverse forms, including
single, childless, unmarried, gay and
Influences on Development lesbian, and mixed-race households,
➔ Influences on development come from both reflecting the evolving societal landscape
heredity and environment. Many typical (Krogstad, 2014).
changes during childhood are related to
maturation. Individual differences tend to nuclear family
increase with age ➔ The nuclear family refers to a family unit
consisting of two parents (usually a
1. heredity heterosexual couple) and their children,
- Inborn traits or characteristics living together in the same household. This
inherited from the biological parents. family structure is often seen as the
traditional or ideal family arrangement in
2. environment many societies.
- Totality of nonhereditary, or
experiential, influences on ➔ Two-generational kinship, economic, and
development. household unit consisting of one or two
parents and their biological children,
individual differences adopted children, or stepchildren.
➔ Differences in characteristics, influences, or
developmental outcomes.
extended family ■ Earns less than 11,690 per
➔ The extended family refers to a family month
structure that includes not only parents and ■ 11,690 is so-called poverty
children but also other relatives such as line
grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. In
this arrangement, multiple generations often ➢ Low income
live together or in close proximity and ■ But not poor
provide mutual support, childcare, and ■ Between the poverty line and
economic cooperation twice poverty line
■ Earns between 11,690 and
➔ Multigenerational kinship network of 23,381 per month
parents, children, & other relatives,
sometimes living together in an extended ➢ Lower middle class
family household ■ Between twice and 4 times
the poverty line
Polygamy ■ Earns between 23,381 and
➔ Polygamy is a marital system in which an 46,671 per month
individual is married to multiple spouses
simultaneously. It can take different forms, ➢ Middle class
including polygyny (one husband with ■ Between 4 and 7 times the
multiple wives), polyandry (one wife with poverty line
multiple husbands), or group marriage ■ Earns between 46,761 and
(multiple husbands and wives forming a 81,832 per month
marital unit).
➢ Upper middle class
➔ Family structure in which one spouse, most ■ Between 7 and 12 times the
commonly a man, is married to more than poverty line
one partner. ■ Earns between 81,832 and
140,284 per month
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
➔ Socioeconomic Status (SES) is determined ➢ Upper class
by family income, education, and ■ But not rich
occupations. It influences developmental ■ Between 12 and 20 times the
processes through living conditions, access poverty line
to resources like nutrition, healthcare, and ■ Earns between 140,284 and
schooling 233,807 per month

➔ For example, SES affects developmental ➢ Rich

processes and outcomes indirectly through ■ Equivalent to at least 20
the kinds of homes and neighborhoods times the poverty line
people live in and the quality of nutrition, ■ Earns above 233,807 per
medical care, and schooling available to month
them.
Risk factors
❖ Philippine income classes: ➔ Risk factors are conditions or characteristics
➢ Poor that increase the likelihood of experiencing
■ less than official poverty negative developmental outcomes or
threshold adverse effects on well-being
 ➔ These factors can encompass various Ethnicity and race
aspects of an individual's life, environment, ➔ Ethnicity refers to the cultural heritage,
or circumstances and may interact with traditions, customs, and practices shared by
each other to compound their impact. a particular group of people.
Identifying and understanding risk factors is
crucial for assessing vulnerability and ➔ Race typically refers to physical
implementing interventions to mitigate their characteristics such as skin color, hair
effects texture, and facial features, often used to
categorize people into different racial
Culture groups
➔ A society’s or group’s total way of life,
including customs, traditions, beliefs, ethnic group
values, language, and physical products - ➔ A group united by ancestry, race, religion,
all learned behavior, passed on from language, or national origins, which
parents to children. contribute to a sense of shared identity.

➔ Additionally, culture shapes identities, ➔ Members of an ethnic group typically

aspirations, and perceptions of self and perceive themselves and are perceived by
others. Recognizing the interplay between others as belonging to the same cultural
culture and development is vital for fostering community, distinguished from other groups
positive outcomes and addressing diverse by their cultural practices & shared history.
individual and community needs.
Intersectionality
individualistic culture ➔ An analytic framework focused on how a
➔ A culture in which people tend to prioritize person’s multiple identities combine to
personal goals ahead of collective goals create differences in privilege or
and to view themselves as distinct discrimination.
individuals.
➔ Intersectionality is a concept that highlights
➔ Individualistic culture emphasizes personal how various social identities, such as race,
goals and self-expression over collective ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation,
interests. In such cultures, individuals are socioeconomic status, and others, intersect
encouraged to prioritize their own needs and interact to shape individuals'
and achievements and to view themselves experiences of privilege, disadvantage, and
as distinct entities. discrimination

collectivistic culture ➔ Black Lives Matter A political and social

➔ A culture in which people tend to prioritize movement focused on eliminating racially
collaborative social goals ahead of based violence against Black people
individual goals and to view themselves in through nonviolent protest and activism.
the context of their social relationships.
➔ BIPOC - Acronym stands for Black,
➔ collectivistic cultures value harmony, indigenous and people of color.
cooperation, and loyalty to the group,
fostering a strong sense of Ethnic gloss
interconnectedness and mutual support ➔ Ethnic gloss is a term that refers to the
among members practice of using simplistic labels or
generalizations to describe ethnocultural
groups. These groups include American
 Indians, Asian Americans, Hispanics, people within a particular culture or society.
African Americans, and other indigenous or These influences are often tied to biological
nationalistic groups. or developmental processes and occur
during predictable stages of the lifespan.
➔ Ethnic gloss is the practice of inferring that
all members of an ethnic group tend to ➔ Examples include milestones like learning to
share a common set of culture-related walk, starting school, puberty, and
characteristics. These characteristics retirement. These events are normative
include Ethnic identification, Acculturation to because they tend to happen to most
the dominant or host society, Political individuals within a specific age range.
opinions, Interpersonal style, Language,
Music and food preferences Normative History-Graded Influences
➔ Normative history-graded influences refer to
➔ How other countries portray us events or experiences that are common to
people of a particular generation or cohort
Historical Context due to the historical or societal context in
➔ In the past, developmentalists often which they live. These influences are not
overlooked or minimized the importance of tied to specific ages but rather to the time
the historical context, meaning they didn't period in which individuals are born and
consider how the time period and societal grow up.
conditions might shape individuals'
experiences and development. ➔ Examples include wars, economic
recessions, technological advancements,
➔ However, as research progressed, scholars cultural movements, and major societal
started to realize that factors such as shifts. These events can shape the
cultural shifts, economic changes, attitudes, values, opportunities, and
technological advancements, and historical experiences of an entire generation,
events profoundly influence people's lives. influencing their development and life
trajectories.
Normative influence
➔ These are influences that most people in a Historical generation
particular age group or historical period will ➔ "Historical generation" refers to a group of
experience. They are often tied to biological individuals who were born and lived during
or social expectations. the same historical period or era. These
individuals typically share common
➔ Normative influence refers to the experiences, events, and cultural influences
phenomenon where certain events or that shape their attitudes, values, and
behaviors occur in a similar way for most behaviors.
individuals within a group or society. These
events or behaviors are considered typical ➔ Historical generations are often defined by
or expected within a particular cultural or significant events or social, political, and
social context cultural movements that occurred during
their formative years
➔ One’s experience also experienced by
others Cohort
➔ cohort refers to a group of individuals who
Normative Age-Graded Influences share a particular characteristic or
➔ These are events or experiences that are experience in common, typically based on
typical or expected at certain ages for most factors such as age, birth year, or life
 experiences. Cohorts are often used to TIMING OF INFLUENCES
study and analyze trends, behaviors, and ➔ Imprinting
attitudes within specific groups of people. ◆ Instinctive form of learning in which,
during a critical period in early
➔ For example, individuals born in the same development, a young animal forms
year or range of years are considered part an attachment to the first moving
of the same birth cohort. This allows object it sees, usually the mother
researchers to examine how factors such as
historical events, societal changes, & ➔ critical period
cultural shifts may have influenced the ◆ Specific time when a given event or
development and experiences of people its absence has a specific impact on
within that cohort. development

nonnormative influence
➔ These are influences that are unique or ➔ Plasticity
unexpected and don't happen to everyone ◆ Range of modifiability of
in the same way. performance. It encompasses the
➔ They can be positive or negative, but they degree to which this change can
have a significant impact on the individual occur.
experiencing them. ◆ Modifiability, or “molding, ” of the
brain through experience.
➔ Personal experiences: A car accident,
losing a loved one, winning the lottery, or ➔ sensitive periods
overcoming a serious illness. ◆ Times in development when a
➔ Individual circumstances: Growing up in a person is particularly open to certain
single-parent household, being a gifted kinds of experiences
child, or having a chronic illness.
➔ Not experienced by everyone The Life-Span Developmental Approach
1. development is lifelong
2. Development is influenced by the historical
Feature Normative Nonnormative
Influence Influence and cultural context.
3. development is multidirectional
normative nonnormative 4. Development shows plasticity
influences influences can 5. development is multidimensional
provide a add unique 6. Relative influences of biology & culture shift
foundation for experiences and
over the lifespan.
development challenges that
contribute to our 7. Development involves changing resource
individuality. allocations.

Frequency Common, Uncommon,

expected unexpected Theory and research
Predictability Predictable Unpredictable,
based on age or unique to the Theory VS Law
historical period individual
Scientific Law
Impact on Shapes Can have a ➔ Describes what happens
Development development in a significant but
similar way for varied impact on
most people individuals Scientific Theory
➔ Explains why or how it happens
Hypothesis explore and interact with the world,
➔ Possible explanations for phenomena, used actively working on mastering
to predict the outcome of research. coordination and balance.

1. Null Hypothesis (Ho)

- No effect
2. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)
- Has effect

Independent variable (IV)

➔ Also called:
◆ Exposure variable
◆ Control variable
◆ Explanatory variable
◆ Manipulated variable

➔ Variable that is changed

IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR
Dependent variable DISCONTINUOUS?
➔ Also called:
◆ Outcome variable ★ Quantitative Change
◆ Controlled variable ○ This includes changes in physical
◆ Explained variable size, strength, and cognitive abilities
◆ Response variable that can be readily quantified

➔ Variable affected by the change ★ Qualitative Change

○ These changes involve
transformations in how we think,
IS DEVELOPMENT ACTIVE OR REACTIVE? feel, and interact with the world.
They are often more difficult to
★ mechanistic model measure directly.
○ Model that views human
development as a series of Major Child Development Theories
predictable responses to stimuli. 1. Cognitive development
2. Psychosexual development
○ Example: A baby learns to walk 3. Behavioral child development
through repeated conditioning of 4. Psychosocial development
muscles and reflexes in response to 5. Sociocultural theory
gravity and visual cues. 6. Social learning theory
7. Attachment theory
★ organismic model
○ Model that views human
development as internally initiated
by an active organism and as
5 Perspective on Human
occurring in a sequence of Development
qualitatively different stages.
1. Psychoanalytic
○ Example: A baby learns to walk ● Important theories
because of an intrinsic desire to 1. Freud’s psychosexual theory
 2. Erikson’s psychosocial theory 3. Cognitive
● Important theories
● Basic propositions 1. Piaget’s cognitive-stage theory
1. Behavior is controlled by powerful 2. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
unconscious urges 3. Information-processing theory
2. Personality is influenced by society
and develops through a series of ● Basic propositions
crises 1. Qualitative changes in thought occur
with development. Children are
● Stage-oriented active initiators of development
1. Yes 2. Social interaction is central cognitive
2. Yes development
3. Human beings are processors of
● Causal emphasis symbols
1. Innate factors modified by
experience ● Stage-oriented
2. Interaction of innate and 1. Yes
experimental factors 2. Yes (for concept formation)
3. No
● Active / Reactive individual
1. Reactive ● Causal emphasis
2. Active 1. Interaction of innate and experiential
factors
2. Learning 2. Experience
● Important theories 3. Interaction of innate and experiential
1. Behaviorism, or traditional learning factors
theory (Pavlov, Skinner, Watson)
2. Social learning (social cognitive) ● Active / Reactive individual
theory (bandura) 1. Active
2. active
● Basic propositions
1. People are respondents; the 4. Contextual
environment controls behavior ● Important theories
2. Children learn in a social context by 1. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological
observing and imitating models; they theory
are active learners
● Basic propositions
● Stage-oriented 1. Development occurs through
1. No interaction between a developing
2. No person and five surrounding,
interlocking contextual systems of
● Causal emphasis influences
1. Experience
2. Experience modified by innate ● Stage-oriented
factors 1. No

● Active / Reactive individual ● Causal emphasis

1. Reactive 1. Interaction of innate and experiential
2. Active and reactive factors
 ● Active / Reactive individual irrational & impulsive. Operates at
1. Active unconscious level

5. Evolutionary / Sociobiological ★ EGO

● Important theories ➢ Executive mediating between id
1. Evolutionary psychology; Bowlby’s impulses and superego inhibitions;
attachment theory rational. Operates mainly at
conscious level but also at
● Basic propositions preconscious level
1. Human beings are the product of
adaptive processes, which interact ★ SUPEREGO
with the current environment to ➢ Ideals and morals; striving for
shape behavior perfection; incorporated from
parents; becoming a person’s
● Stage-oriented conscience. Operates mostly at
1. No preconscious level

● Causal emphasis Psychosexual Stages (Freud)

1. Interaction of innate and experiential
factors ➔ Oral (birth to 12-18 months).
◆ Baby's chief source of pleasure
● Active / Reactive individual involves mouth-oriented activities
1. Active and reactive (theorists vary) (sucking and feeding).

◆ Birth to 1 year
Developmental Stages According to Various ◆ Erogenous zone: mouth
Theories
➢ Forceful feeding
psychoanalytic perspective ◆ underfed
● Oral passive (trusting,
➔ Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) dependency)
◆ Overfed
➔ The psychoanalytic perspective is a theory ● Oral aggressive (aggressive,
of personality development and dominating)
psychotherapy founded by Sigmund Freud.
It emphasizes the role of the unconscious ➔ Anal (12-18 months to 3 years).
mind in human behavior, motivation, and ◆ Child derives sensual gratification
personality. from withholding and expelling
feces. Zone of gratification is anal
➔ Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was a region, and toilet training is an
Viennese physician and the originator of the important activity.
psychoanalytic perspective. He believed in
reactive development, as well as qualitative ◆ 1 to 3 year
changes over time. ◆ Erogenous zone: bowel and bladder
control
★ ID
➢ Basic impulses (sex & aggression); ➢ Toilet training
seeking immediate gratification; ○ Too harsh
 ■ Anal retentive - perineum
(tidiness, - Foreskin
obsessiveness, - Scrotum +testicles
mean, stubborn) - Prostate

○ Too lax ● FEMALE

■ Anal expulsive - Clitoris
(untidiness, - G-spot
generosity) - Pubic mound
- Cervix
➔ Phallic (3 to 6 years). - A-spot
◆ Child becomes attached to parents
of the other sex and later identifies Examples of Psychological Fixations
with same-sex parents. Superego 1. Oral Fixations
develops. Zone of gratification shifts - Smoking
to genital region. - Gum-chewing
- Nail-biting
◆ Erogenous zone: genitals
2. Anal Fixations
➢ Abnormal family set-up leading to - Orderliness
unusual relationship with - Obsessiveness
mother/father - Rigidity
○ Vanity, self-obsession, sexual
anxiety, inadequacy, 3. Phallic Fixations
inferiority, envy - Vanity
- Exhibitionism
➔ Latency (6 years to puberty). - Pride
◆ Time of relative calm between more
turbulent stages.
◆ Libido active
Psychosocial development
➔ Genital (puberty through adulthood).
◆ Reemergence of sexual impulses of ➔ Erik Erikson
phallic stage. Channeled into mature
adult sexuality. ➔ Psychosocial development refers to the way
in which a person's personality unfolds and
◆ Puberty to death their social skills are learned throughout
◆ Maturing sexual interests their lifespan. It takes into account how both
psychological and social factors influence
➢ Settling down in a loving one-to-one how we develop.
relationship with another
○ Well adjusted, mature, able to love ➔ Erikson believed that throughout our lives,
and be loved. Sexual instinct is we face what he called "psychosocial
directed to heterosexual pleasure crises" that shape our personalities. These
crises arise at specific points in our lives
Erogenous Zone and involve a conflict between two opposing
● MALE forces we need to resolve. Successfully
- Glans navigating these crises leads to the
- Frenulum development of positive personality traits,
 while failing to do so can lead to negative ❖ Successful outcome:
outcomes ➢ Kids develop a sense of purpose
and the motivation to try new things.
Psychosocial Stages (Erikson)
❖ unsuccessful outcome:
★ Basic trust versus mistrust (birth to ➢ Children are left with feelings of guilt
12-18 months). and a lack of initiative.
○ Age: 0-2
○ infancy ★ Industry versus inferiority (6 years to
○ Baby develop a sense of whether puberty).
the world is a good and safe place. ○ Age: 5-12
○ Virtue: hope ○ School age
○ Child must learn skills of the culture
❖ Successful outcome: or face feelings of incompetence.
➢ Children develop a sense of trust in ○ Virtue: skill / competence
the world and the people who are
supposed to care for them. ❖ Successful outcome:
➢ Success leads to feelings of
❖ unsuccessful outcome: competence.
➢ Failure at this stage leads to a sense
of distrust in the world and do not ❖ unsuccessful outcome:
believe that others are dependable. ➢ Failure leads to feelings of inferiority.

★ Autonomy versus shame and doubt ★ Identity versus identity confusion

(12-18 months to 3 years). (puberty to young adulthood).
○ Age: 2-4 ○ Age: 12-19
○ Early childhood ○ Adolescents
○ Child develops a balance of ○ Adolescents must determine own
independence and self-sufficiency sense of self ("Who am I?") or
over shame and doubt. experience confusion about roles.
○ Virtue: will ○ Virtue: fidelity

❖ Successful outcome: ❖ Successful outcome:

➢ Children develop a sense of ➢ Teens develop a strong sense of
independence and personal control. self.

❖ unsuccessful outcome: ❖ unsuccessful outcome:

➢ Children may be left with feelings of ➢ Teens may emerge from this stage
doubt and shame over their own not sure of who they are
abilities.
★ Intimacy versus isolation (young
★ Initiative versus guilt (3 to 6 years). adulthood).
○ Age: 4-5 ○ Age: 20-40
○ Preschool ○ Young adulthood
○ Child develops initiative when trying ○ Person seeks to make commitments
new activities and is not to others; if unsuccessful, may suffer
overwhelmed by guilt. from Isolation and self absorption.
○ Virtue: purpose ○ Virtue: love
❖ Successful outcome:
➢ Adults are able to form loving and ➔ The cognitive perspective within personality
lasting relationships with others. theories explores how our thinking patterns
and intellectual development contribute to
❖ unsuccessful outcome: shaping who we are.
➢ Failure at this stage can lead to
feelings of loneliness and isolation. ➔ cognitive perspective: Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development, Vygotsky’s
★ Generativity versus stagnation (middle sociocultural theory of cognitive
adulthood). development, and the information
○ Age: 40-65 processing approach.
○ Middle adulthood
○ Mature adult is concerned with piaget's stages of cognitive development
establishing and guiding the next ➔ The Theory of Cognitive Development by
generation or else feels personal Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist,
impoverishment. suggests that children's intelligence
○ Virtue care undergoes changes as they grow.

❖ Successful outcome: ➔ Cognitive development in children is not

➢ Contributing to the world helps only related to acquiring knowledge,
adults feel a sense of children need to build or develop a mental
accomplishment. model of their surrounding world (Miller,
2011).
❖ unsuccessful outcome:
➢ Failure at this stage may lead people Cognitive Stages (Piaget)
to feel uninvolved in the world.
1. Sensory (birth to 2 years).
★ Integrity versus despair (late adulthood). ◆ Infant gradually becomes able to
○ Age: 65-death organize activities in relation to the
○ Maturity environment through sensory and
○ Older adults achieve acceptance of motor activity.
their own life, allowing acceptance of
death, or else despair over inability ◆ The infant explores the world
to relive life. through direct sensory and motor
○ Virtue: wisdom. contact. Object permanence and
separation anxiety develop during
❖ Successful outcome: this stage
➢ Older adults look back on their lives
with a sense of satisfaction 2. Preoperational (2 to 7 years).
◆ Child develops a representational
❖ unsuccessful outcome: system and uses symbols to
➢ Failure at this stage may lead people represent people, places, and
to look back at their lives with regret, events. Language and imaginative
sorrow and bitterness play are important manifestations of
this stage. Thinking is still not
logical.
cognitive perspective
◆ The child uses symbols (words and
➔ Jean William Fritz Piaget images) to represent objects but
 does not reason logically. The child
also has the ability to pretend. 2. Classical Conditioning
During this stage, the child is - Subject learns to associate two
egocentric unrelated stimuli with each other

3. Concrete operational (7 to 11 years). 3 Major Types of Behavioral Learning

◆ Child can solve problems logically if 1. Classical Conditioning
they are focused on the here and - A neutral stimulus is associated with
now but cannot think abstractly. a natural response

◆ The child can think logically about 2. Operant Conditioning

concrete objects and can thus add - A response is increased or
and subtract. The child also decreased due to reinforcement or
understands conservation punishment

4. Formal operational (11 years through 3. Observational Learning

adulthood). - Leaving occurs through observation
◆ Person can think abstractly, deal and imitation of others
with hypothetical situations, and
think about possibilities.
1. Classical Conditioning
◆ The adolescent can reason
abstractly and think in hypothetical ➔ Ivan Pavlov
terms
➔ Based on the work of Ivan Pavlov, this
theory proposes that personality can be
learning perspective shaped through learned associations.

➔ View of human development that holds that ➔ Repeated pairings of stimuli (like a parent's
changes in behavior result from experience disapproval and a specific behavior) can
or from adaptation to the environment. lead to conditioned responses (like avoiding
that behavior). Over time, these conditioned
➔ The learning perspective within the realm of responses can become ingrained
personality theories focuses on how we personality traits
learn and how those learning experiences
shape who we are. It emphasizes how our ❖ Before Conditioning
interactions with the environment and the ➢ Unconditioned stimulus
consequences of our actions play a ➢ Unconditioned response
significant role in molding our personality
traits and behaviors. ➢ Neutral stimulus
➢ No response
What is Behaviorism
➔ The theory that psychology can be ❖ During Conditioning
objectively studied through observable ➢ Unconditioned response
action.
❖ After Conditioning
1. Operant Conditioning ➢ conditioned stimulus
- Subject learning behavior by ➢ conditioned response
associating it with consequences
 2. Operant Conditioning 3. Learning does not necessarily lead to
behavioral change
➔ Burrhus Frederic Skinner

➔ B.F. Skinner's theory suggests that Sociocultural Learning Theory

personality is shaped by the consequences
of our behaviors. ➔ Lev Vygotsky

➔ If a behavior leads to positive reinforcement ➔ Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural learning theory

(praise, rewards), we're more likely to is a field of psychology that studies how
repeat it. Conversely, if a behavior leads to society contributes to individual
punishment or negative reinforcement development.
(withdrawal of something desirable), we're
less likely to repeat it. Through this process, ➔ The theory states that learning is a social
we learn which behaviors are encouraged process, and that social interaction plays a
or discouraged in our environment, fundamental role in the development of
influencing the development of personality cognition.
traits.
Sociocultural Theory of Development
❖ Specific consequences are associated with - A person’s cognitive development is largely
a voluntary behavior influenced by their surrounding culture
➢ Rewards introduced to increase a
behavior
➢ Punishment introduced to decrease
a behavior

Social Learning Theory

➔ Albert Bandura

➔ Albert Bandura's theory emphasizes

observational learning and the role of
models in shaping personality. The Information-Processing Approach
➔ Approach to the study of cognitive
➔ We learn by observing others (parents, development by observing and analyzing
peers, role models) and the consequences the mental processes involved in perceiving
of their actions. If we see a behavior being and handling information.
rewarded, we're more likely to adopt it
ourselves. Similarly, if we see a behavior ➔ Approach to the study of cognitive
being punished, we're less likely to imitate it. development that analyzes processes
Through observing and imitating successful involved in perceiving and handling
behaviors, we acquire new skills and information.
personality traits.

What to know about Social Learning Theory

1. People can learn through observation
2. Mental states are important to learning
contextual perspective
➔ View of human development that sees the
individual as inseparable from the social
context

Ecological Systems Theory

➔ Urie Bronfenbrenner
evolutionary/sociobiological
➔ The ecological model, developed by Urie perspective
Bronfenbrenner, is a theory of human
development that proposes that a child's ➔ Edward O. Wilson
development is influenced by a complex
system of interrelated environmental ➔ View of human development that focuses
factors. on evolutionary and biological bases of
behavior
➔ These factors range from the immediate
surroundings of the child (the microsystem) ➔ is a way of understanding human behavior
to the broader culture in which they live (the by looking at how it has been shaped by
macrosystem). natural selection. suggests that many of our
social behaviors, such as mating patterns,
parental care, and aggression, are the result
of adaptations that helped our ancestors
survive and reproduce.

Ethology
➔ Ethology is the scientific study of animal
behavior, particularly in their natural
habitats. It delves into how animals act,
communicate, and interact with their
environment.

➔ Ethologists study animal behavior (finding

food, mating, etc.) influenced by internal
(hormones) and external factors (predators).
They also look at how animals communicate
(calls, scents) and socialize (groups,
dominance).
evolutionary psychology ● Sampling
➔ Application of Darwinian principles of ○ Purposive
natural selection and survival of the fittest to ■ Intent to select “small”, not
individual behavior. necessarily representative.
Sample in order to get an
➔ Evolutionary psychology is a field that in-depth understanding
studies how our thoughts, emotions, and
behaviors were shaped by evolution. It ● Design and Method
basically asks: how did our minds become ○ Flexible, specified only in general
wired in a way that helped our ancestors terms in advance of study
survive and reproduce? ○ Nonintervention, minimal
disturbance
scientific method ○ All descriptive - history, biography,
➔ System of established principles and ethnography, phenomenology,
processes of scientific inquiry, which grounded theory, case study,
includes identifying a problem to be studied, (hybrids of these)
formulating a hypothesis to be tested by ○ Consider many variables, small
research, collecting data, analyzing the group
data, forming tentative conclusions, and
disseminating findings. ● Data Collection Strategies
○ Document and artifact (something
➔ Steps of scientific method observed) that is collection
◆ Make an observation (participant, non participant).
◆ Ask a question Interviews/Focus Groups
◆ Test hypothesis and gather data (un-/structed, in-/formal).
◆ Examine test results and form a Administration of questionnaires
conclusion (open ended). Taling of extensive,
◆ Report findings detailed field notes.

● Data Analysis
QUALITATIVE & QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ○ Raw data are in words. Essentially
ongoing, involves using the
2 GENERAL TYPES OF RESEARCH observations / comments to come to
a conclusion
Qualitative
● Purpose ● Data Interpretation
○ explain and gain insight and ○ Conclusions are tentative
understanding of phenomena (conclusions can change), reviewed
through intensive collection of on an ongoing basis, conclusions
narrative data are generalizations. The validity of
○ Generate hypothesis to be test, the inferences/generalizations are
inductive the reader’s responsibility

● Overview (approach to inquiry, hypothesis, Quantitative

research setting) ● Purpose
○ Subjective, holistic, process-oriented ○ Explain, predict, and control
○ Tentative, evolving, based on a phenomena through focused
particular study collection of numerical data.
○ Controlled setting not as important ○ Test hypothesis, deductive
● Overview (approach to inquiry, hypothesis, Population VS Sample
research setting)
○ Objective, focused, Population
outcome-oriented ➔ Entire group that you want to draw
○ Specific, testable, stated prior to a conclusions about
particular study ➔ In research, population doesn’t always refer
○ Controlled to the degree possible to people. It can mean a group containing
elements of anything you want to study,
● Sampling such as objects, events, organizations,
○ Random countries, species, organisms, etc.
■ Intent to select “large”,
representative sample in Sample
order to generalize results to ➔ Specific group that you will collect data
a population from. The size of the sample is always less
than the total size of the population
● Design and Method
○ Structured, inflexible, specified in Collecting Data from a Population
detail in advance of study ➔ Populations are used when your research
○ Intervention, manipulation, and question requires, or when you have access
control to, data from every member of the
○ Correlation population
○ Causal-Comparative ➔ Usually, it is straightforward to collect data
○ Experimental from a whole population when it is small,
○ Consider few variables, large group accessible, and cooperative

● Data Collection Strategies Collecting Data from a Sample

○ Observations (non-participant). ➔ When your population is large in size,
Interviews and focus groups geographically dispersed, or difficult to
(semi-structured, formal). contact, it’s necessary to use a sample.
Administration of tests and With statistical analysis, you can use
questionnaires (close ended) sample data to make estimates or test
hypothesis about population data
● Data Analysis
○ Raw data are numbers performed at ➔ Ideally, a sample should be randomly
the end of the study, involves selected and representative of the
statistics (using numbers to come to population. Using probability sampling
conclusions) methods (such as simple random sampling
or stratified sampling) reduces the risk of
● Data Interpretation sampling boas and enhances both internal
○ Conclusions and generalizations and external validity
formulated at the end of study,
stated with predetermined degree of
certainty. Inferences/generalizations Major Methods of Data Collection
are the researcher’s responsibility.
Never 100% certain of our findings. Self-report: diary, visual reports, interview, or
questionnaire

● Main characteristics
 - Participants are asked about some ● Disadvantages
aspect of their lives; questioning - Observer bias; controlled situation
may be highly structured or more can be artificial
flexible; self-report may be verbal or
visual. Behavioral and performance measures

● Advantages ● Main characteristics

- Can provide first hand information - Participants are tested on abilities,
about a person's Life, attitudes, or skills, knowledge, competencies, or
opinions Visual techniques (e.g. physical responses.
drawing, mapping, graphing) avoid
the need for verbal skills. ● Advantages
- Provides objectively measurable
● Disadvantages information; avoids subjective
- Participants may not remember distortions
information accurately or may distort
responses in a socially desirable ● Disadvantages
way, how question is asked or by - Cannot measure attitudes or other
whom may affect answer. non behavioral phenomena; results
may be affected by extraneous
Naturalistic Observation factors

● Main characteristics Case study

- People are observed in their normal
setting, with no attempt to ● Main characteristics
manipulate behavior. - In-depth study of single individual
● Advantages ● Advantages
- Provides good description of - Provides detailed picture of one
behavior; does not subject people to person's behavior and development;
unnatural settings that may distort can generate hypotheses
behavior
● Disadvantages
● Disadvantages - May not generalize to others;
- Lack of control: observer bias conclusions not directly testable;
cannot establish cause and effect
Laboratory Observation
Ethnographic study
● Main characteristics
- Participants are observed in the ● Main characteristics
laboratory, with no attempt to - In-depth study of a culture or
manipulate behavior. subculture

● Advantages ● Advantages
- Provides good descriptions; offers - Can help overcome culturally based
greater control than naturalistic biases in theory and research; can
observation because all participants test universality of developmental
are observed under same controlled phenomena
conditions
 ● Disadvantages 2. Experimental
- Subject to observer bias - Used to test causal relationships
- Involves manipulating an
Correlational study independent variable and measuring
its effect on a dependent variable
● Main characteristics - Subjects are randomly assigned to
- Attempt to find positive or negative groups
relationship between variables - Usually conducted in a controlled
environment
● Advantages
- Enables prediction of one variable 3. Correlational
on basis of another; can suggest - Used to test whether (and how
hypotheses about causal strongly) variables are related
relationships - Variables are measured without
influencing them
● Disadvantages
- Cannot establish cause and effect 4. Quasi-experimental
- Used to test causal relationships
Experiment - Similar to experimental design but
without random assignment
● Main characteristics - Often involves comparing the
- Controlled procedure conducted in a outcomes of pre-existing groups
laboratory or the field in which an
independent variable is manipulated
to determine its effect on a TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
dependent variable
1. Case study
● Advantages - Detailed study of a specific subject
- Establishes cause-and-effect (e.g., a place, event, organization)
relationships; is highly controlled and - Data can be collected using a variety
can be repeated by another of sources and methods
investigator - Focuses on gaining a holistic
understanding of the case
● Disadvantages
- Findings, especially when derived 2. Phenomenology
from laboratory experiments, may - Aims to understand a phenomenon
not generalize to situations outside or event by describing participants
the laboratory lived experiences

3. Ethnography
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH - Detailed study of the culture of a
DESIGNS specific community or group
- Data is collected by extended
1. Descriptive immersion and close observation
- Describe characteristics, averages, - Focuses on describing and
trends, etc interpreting beliefs, conventions,
- Variables are measured without social dynamics
influencing them
 4. Grounded theory ❖ It has a set of requirement (e.g.,
- Aims to develop a theory inductively should be categorized)
by systematically analyzing
qualitative data SEQUENTIAL
➢ Procedure
Types of Study: - Data are collected on successive
1. CROSS-SECTIONAL cross sectional or longitudinal
2. LONGITUDINAL samples
3. SEQUENTIAL RESEARCH
● Advantages
CROSS-SECTIONAL - Can avoid drawbacks of both cross
sectional and longitudinal designs
➢ Procedure
- Data are collected on people of ● Disadvantages
different ages at the same time - Requires large amount of time and
effort and analysis of very complex
➢ Advantages data
- Can show similarities and
differences among age groups; Additional Informations:
speedy, economical; presents no Burrhus Frederic Skinner
problem attrition or repeated testing - Operal conditioning
- Positive and negative reinforcement
➢ Disadvantages
Naturalistic Observation
- Cannot establish age effects; masks
- Observation in a natural setting
individual differences; can be
- Gaano kadalas nagpapakita ng same action ang
confounded by cohort effects isang bagay sa isang environment

❖ Random Sigmund Schlomo Freud

- Theory: psychosexual
LONGITUDINAL - According to freud, we have fixation because of
unsatisfied desires
➢ Procedure
- Data are collected on the same John Broadus Watson
- Behaviorism
person or persons over a period of
time
Jean William Fritz Piaget
- theory: cognitive development
● Advantages - Stages of cognitive: sensory, pre-operation,
- Can show age related change or concrete operation, & formal operation
continuity; avoids confounding age
with cohort effects Lev Semyonovicn Vygotsky
- child development
● Disadvantages
- Time consuming, expensive; Edward John Mostyn Bowlby
- attachment theory
presents problems of attrition, bias in
sample, and effects of repeated
Urie Bronfenbenner
testing; results may be valid only for - ecological system
cohort tested or sample studied
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
❖ 10-15yrs to conduct this study - classical conditioning