SET THEORY

A set is an unordered collection of objects which is well-defined. A notation { } =  is the void set
or empty set, which has no element at all.

Elements, Subsets and Cardinality

Ex: A= {1,2,3,4}.
Find the cardinality of A.
Give example of element and subset of A

If S is a set, then the power set of S, P(S), is the set of all subsets of S. The number of elements of
P(A) = 2n(S).

Ex:
A={1, 2, 3}.
Find P(A) and notice the number of elements of P(A). Find the universal set of A.

Operations
Ex: U = {0,1,2,3,….,10}
A = {1,3,5,7}
B = {2,3,5,7}
Union, intersection, complement, difference, symmetric difference

Inclusion and Exclusion Rule

n( A  B)  n( A)  n( B)  n( A  B)
n( A  B  C )  n( A)  n( B)  n(C )  n( A  B)  n( B  C )  n( A  C )  n( A  B  C )
Ex:
From 17 students, 8 like mathematics and 5 like physics, 7 do not like both. How many of them
like both subjects?

Ex:
From 25 students, 11 take swimming, 10 take tennis and 11 take badminton, 5 take swimming
and tennis, 3 take tennis and badminton, 3 take badminton and swimming, 2 do not take any
kind of the three sports. Find how many of them:
a. take the three sports.
b. Take two sports only.
c. Take one sport only.
d. Now put all the details on the Venn diagram
Some Identities
1. Idempotent: AA=A, AA=A
2. Associative: (AB)C = A(BC)
(AB)C = A(BC)
3. Commutative: AB=BA, AB=BA
4. Distributive: A(BC)=(AB)(AC)
A(BC)=(AB)(AC)
5. Identity: A=A, AU=A
AU=U, A=
6. Complement: AA’=U, AA’=
(A’)’=A, U’=, ’=U
7. De Morgan: (AB)’=A’ B’, (AB)’=A’ B’

Exercise:
1. Let U be the set of integers. Let A = {3, 6}, B = {3, 8, 10, 12} and C = {6, 8, 10}. Perform the
indicated operations.
(a) (A’  C’)’  B
(b) (A – C)  (C – A)
(c) A x C
2. Denote the set A = {x|x ∈ Z and x < 3} by the listing method.
3. A proper subset of a set A is one that is not equal to the set A itself. If a set has 6 elements,
how many proper subsets does it have?
4. Describe the shaded region using ∩,∪, ‘ , − only:

5. One hundred students were surveyed and asked if they are currently taking math (M),
English (E) and/or History (H). The survey findings are summarized here: Table 1.2: Survey
Results n(M) = 45, n(M ∩ E) = 15, n(E) = 41, n(M ∩ H) = 18, n(H) = 40, n(M ∩ E ∩ H)=7,
n[(M ∩ E) ∪ (M ∩ H) ∪ (E ∩ H)] = 36.
(a) Use a Venn diagram to represent this data.
(b) How many students are only taking math?
6. Ninety people at a Superbowl party were surveyed to see what they ate while watching the
game. The following data was collected: 48 had nachos. 39 had wings. 35 had a potato
skins. 20 had both wings and potato skins. 19 had both potato skins and nachos. 22 had
both wings and nachos. 10 had nachos, wings and potato skins.
(a) Use a Venn diagram to represent this data.
(b) How many had nothing?
7. In a competition, a school awarded medals in different categories. 36 medals in dance, 12
medals in dramatics and 18 medals in music. If these medals went to a total of 45 persons
and only 4 persons got medals in all the three categories, how many received medals in
exactly two of these categories?
8. Each student in a class of 40 plays at least one indoor game chess, carrom and scrabble. 18
play chess, 20 play scrabble and 27 play carrom. 7 play chess and scrabble, 12 play scrabble
and carrom and 4 play chess, carrom and scrabble. Find the number of students who play (i)
chess and carrom. (ii) chess, carrom but not scrabble.
9. In a class there are 3 subjects: Mathematics, English and Physics, and there are 28 students
who take at least one subject. The number of students taking Mathematics and English but
not physics equals the number of students taking Mathematics only. There is no students
taking only English or only Physics. Six students take Mathematics and Physics but not
English. The number of students taking English and Physics but not Mathematics is 5 times
the number of students taking the three subjects. If the number of students taking all
subjects is even and not zero, determine the number of students taking Mathematics and
English but not Physics.

FUNCTION

A function f from a set X to a set Y, denoted f : X → Y , is a relation from X, the domain, to Y , the
co–domain, that satisfies two properties: (1) every element in X is related to some element in Y,
and (2) no element in X is related to more than one element in Y .

The set of all values of f taken together is called the range of f or the image of X under f.

Ex–1:
A={1,2,3}, B={2,3,4,6,7}, f:A→B such as f(x) = 2x
Find the domain, co–domain, and range=image(f). Draw the arrow–diagram.
1,2,3 each is called the pre–image and 2,4,6 each is called the image.
How many functions are available from A to B?
How many functions are available from B to A?

Ex–2:
Which one is a function?
Ex–3:
Which one is a function from R to R? State the domain and range.
Use vertical line test.
y y y y

4 4 4 4

2 2 2 2

x x x -4 -2 2 4 x
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4 -2
-2 -2 -2
-4
A -4
B -4 -4
D
C
y
y y y
2
4 4 4
2 2 2

-4 -2 2 4 x
x -4 -2 2 4 x -4 -2 2 4 x
-4 -2 2 4
-2 -2 -2
-2 E -4 F -4 G -4 H
y y y
y

4 4 4
4
2 2 2 2

-4 -2 2 4 x x x x
-4 -2 2 4 -2 2 -2 2
-2 -2 -2 -2
-4 -4
J -4 K -4 L
I
One–to–one (injective) Function
Let F be a function from a set X to a set Y. F is one–to–one (or injective) if, and only if, for all
elements x1 and x2 in X, if F(x1) = F(x2), then x1 = x2, or, equivalently, if x1  x2, then F(x1)  F(x2).
Symbolically, F: X → Y is one–to–one ⇔ ∀x1, x2 ∈ X, if F(x1) = F(x2) then x1 = x2.
Ex–4:
F is one–to–one but G is not.
Ex–5: Which one is one–to–one function?

Onto (Surjective) Function

Let F be a function from a set X to a set Y. F is onto (or surjective) if, and only if, given any element
y in Y, it is possible to find an element x in X with the property that F(x) = y. Symbolically: F:
x→Y is onto ↔ yY, xX such that F(x) = y
Ex–6:
Which one is onto function?

One–to–one Correspondence
A one–to–one correspondence (bijective–function) from a set X to a set Y is a function F: X → Y
that is both one–to–one and onto. So: bijective = injective + surjective.
Ex–7:
 f

A B

Ex–8:
Which one is injective, surjective, bijective?

a b c d

e f g h

Ex–9:
Which one is an injective, a surjective, or a bijective function from R to R?
• A one–to–one (1–1) function (injective function) occurs if each horizontal line cuts the
function at most at one point.
• An onto–function (surjective function) occurs if range = co–domain, or each horizontal
line cuts the function at least at one point.
• A bijective–function (or one–to–one correspondence) occurs if each horizontal line cuts
the function at exactly one point.
 y y y y

4 4 4 4

2 2 2 2

x x x -4 -2 2 4 x
-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4 -2
-2 -2 -2
-4
A -4
B -4 -4
D
C
y
y y y
2
4 4 4
2 2 2

-4 -2 2 4 x
x -4 -2 2 4 x -4 -2 2 4 x
-4 -2 2 4
-2 -2 -2
-2 E -4 F -4 G -4 H
y y y
y

4 4 4
4
2 2 2 2

-4 -2 2 4 x x x x
-4 -2 2 4 -2 2 -2 2
-2 -2 -2 -2
-4 -4
J -4 K -4 L
I

Ex–10:
a. If A={1,2,3} and B={a,b,c}, how many one–to–one correspondence are there from A to B?
b. If n(A)=m and n(B) = m, how many one–to–one correspondence are there from A to B?
c. If A={x: x is a natural number}, B={x: x is an even positive integer} and f: A  B is given by f(x)
= 2x. Is f a one–to–one correspondence?

Inverse of a Function
x 1
F(x)=2x+1. G(x)= . Find F(2) and G(5). What is your conclusion?
2
Steps for finding inverse function:
1. Write y=f(x)
2. Interchange x with y vice versa.
3. Write y as the function of x; this is the f–1(x).

Ex–11: Find the inverse function of:

1. y  2x  3
2. y  x 2
3. y  ( x  2) 3
4. y  2 x
5. y  3 log x
6. y  ex
7. y  ln x
2x  3
8. y
5 x
9. y  sin x
10. y  x 2  4 x  3

Inverse of a function might not be a function. Inverse of a function is again a function if and
only if the function is a one–to–one correspondence.

Ex–12: Which one of the functions in example–11 has an inverse which is also a function?

Composition of Functions
f:A→B, g:B→C, h:C→D
f(x)=3x–4, g(x)=2x, h(x)=9x
Is gof = fog ? (commutative?)
Is (hog)of (x) = ho(gof) (x) ? (associative?)

Property: (fog)1 = g1 of1.

Function and its inverse are like object and its image about y = x.

Odd and Even Functions

Function y = f(x) is odd if f(–x) = –f(x). Function y = f(x) is even if f(–x) = f(x).
Odd function: symmetric about (0, 0). Even function: symmetric about y axis.

Ex: Which one is odd and which one is even?

a. f(x) = x2, b. f(x) = x3, c. f(x) = sin x, d. f(x) = cos x, e. f(x) = tan x,
f. f(x) = x3.cos 2x, g. f(x) = x3.sin x

Piecewise (Piecemeal) Function

Ex: Draw the piecewise (piecemeal) function:
 x2 , x  1
f ( x)  
2  x , x  1
 x  1, for x  1

g ( x)   1, for  1  x  1
 x  1, for x  1


Absolute Function
Ex: Draw: y  x
Ex: Draw: y  2 x  3
Ex: Draw: y  5  4  2 x
x
Ex: Draw: y 
x

Recursively Defined Sequences

Fibonacci sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, …..
How to get the general term of Fibonacci sequence using recursive notation?

Factorial: 0! =1, 1! = 1, 2! = 2, 3! = 6, 4! = 24, …..

How to get the general term of factorial function?

Ex: a1 = –4, an = an–1 + 5

Ex: a1 = 2, a2 = 3, an = an–1 + 2an–2