SEINOR PROJECT ON ROAD AND TRANSPORT ENGINEERING:

ROAD DESIGN ON ENDAGABER-05 TAXI

FOR PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF B.S.C DEGREE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

• Prepared by: Aman Kinfemichael

Anteneh Marelign
Ashenafi Girma
Esayas Mulugeta
Getachew Hagos
Henok Ayalew
Tewodros Sitotaw

Advisor: MESGINA G/HER. (Bs.C)

JULY, 2009 G.C
 High way engineering seinor project

Acknowledgment

First of all we would like to thank the Almighty God.

We would like to express our deepest gratitude to Ato Mesgina G/hre, B.Sc. in civil
engineering for his unlimited support and guidance during our work on this project,
starting from supplying the necessary data, manuals and recommending reference books.
It would have been very difficult to have this project finished with out the help of our
advisor. We would like also to thank our department for giving us the chance to do this
project. Finally we would like to thank families for their support during our stay in
Mekelle University.

Special thanks for:

• Design and construction office (Mekelle)

• Ato Haile form design and construction office
• W/ro Yebralem form design and construction office
• Ato Bisrat form Mekelle university, civil engineering laboratory

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ABSTRACT

This project divided in to six units, the first unit and the second give the general idea
about the project, introduction. The third chapter deals with geometric design of high way
in general and the design procedure and computation of vertical and horizontal elements.
It also deals about the cross section of the road like lane width carriage way side and back
slope.
The forth unit deals with the high way drainage especially about the design and
hydrological analysis of the drainage.
The fifth unit deals about the pavement design and all the laboratory tests.
The sixth unit deals about the earth work and quantity of the project. Here the
method of earth work computation and determination of economical hauling distance is
included.

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Table of content
1. Introduction ……………………………….………………… 9

1.1 Objective……………………….………….…………………….10
1.2 Feasibility study…………….…………….……………………..10
1.3 Traffic analysis……………….…….……………………………11
1.4 Design life………………....…………………………………… 12
2. General description of the project area……………............. 14

2.1 Location…………………………………………………….……..14
2.2 Topography…………………………………………....….……....14
2.3 Climate ………………………………………………….………...14
3. Geometric design…………………………………………........15

3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………..……15
3.2 Elements of geometric design……………....................................15
3.3 Design control factors……………………………………………..16
3.3.1 Topography ……………………………… …………..…....16
3.3.2 Design speed………………………………………………...16
3.3.3 Traffic factor……………………………………..................17
3.3.4 Volume and capacity factor………………………………...17
3.3.5 Environmental factor………………………………………..17
3.4 Horizontal alignment ……………………………... …………......18
3.4.1 The circular curve …………………………..……………....18
3.4.2 Curve element…………………………………………….....19
3.4.3 Minimum radius…………………………………………….20
3.4.4 Sight distance……………………………………………….20
3.4.5 Super elevation……………………………………………….22
3.4.6 Horizontal curve calculation………………….....................23
3.4.7 Curve setting out by deflection angle method….. …………29
3.4.8 Attaining the super elevation………………………………..33
3.4.9 Widening of highway………………………………………….34
3.5 Vertical alignment…………………………….………………......36
3.5.1 Introduction…………………………………...………….....36
3.5.2 Gradients and grade control…………………………….......36
3.5.3 Vertical curves……………………………………….…...........39
3.6 Road cross section elements…………………………………......48
3.6.1 Introduction …………………………………...……………..48
3.6.2 Road cross section elements………………….. …………….48

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4. High way drainage……………………………………………54

4.1 Design of surface drainage system……………………………….55

4.1.1 Estimation of quantity of water to be drained……...........55
4.1.2 Hydraulic design of each drainage element……………….59
4.1.3 Summary on drainage and system design……. ………….61
5. Pavement design………………………………………………..63

5.1 Basic structural element…………………………….....................63

5.2 Design process…………………………………………………....64
5.2.1 Estimation the traffic and cumulative equivalent standard
. axles………………….………………………………………..64
5.2.2 Assessment of the sub grade strength of the soil…………..67
5.2.3 Selecting the most economical combination of Pavement
. material and layer thickness……………………………………84
6. Earthwork and quantity………………………………………..86
7. Conclusion…………………………………….............................92
8. Recommendation………………………………………………..93

Reference……………………………………………………...94
Appendix-A…………………………………………A1-A13
Appendix-B…………………………………………B1-B17
Appendix-C………………………………………....C1-C3

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List of Tables

Table 1.1 seven days Traffic Count…………………………………………11

Table 1.2 Design life of different road types……………………………….12

Table 3.1 Minimum radii for horizontal curves…………………………………..19

Table 3.2 Curve setting out for curve 1…………………………………………..31

Table 3.3 Curve setting out for curve 2…………………………………………..33

Table 3-4: Climbing Lanes……………………………………………………….38

Table 3.5 summary of grade selection ……………………………………..…….39

Table 3.6 curve setting out for curve 1...................................................................44

Table 3.7 curve setting out for curve 2…………………………………………...47

Table 3.8 Side slope and back slope.......................................................................51

Table 4.1 c-value for different street types………………………………………57

Table 4.2 Drains from asphalt …………………………………………………...57

Table 4.3 Drains from walkway………………………………………………….57

Table4.4 Average velocity………………………………………………………..58

Table 5.1 Equivalent factors for different types of vehicles……………………...65

Table 5.2 Calculation table for AADT0, AADT1 and T ………………………….66

Table 5.3 Traffic class verse ESA range………………………………………….67

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Table 5.4: Compaction of proctor and modified compactions……………………68

Table 5.5: Data from proctor compaction test for the 1stsoil sample……………..69

Table 5.6: Data from proctor compaction test for the 2nd soil sample………….....71

Table 5.7: Data from proctor compaction test for the 3rdsoil sample………………72

Table 5.8: Reading from CBR test for the 1st soil…………………………………..75

Table 5.9: Reading from CBR test for the 2nd soil ………………………………....77

Table 5.10: Reading from CBR test for the 3rd soil…………………………………79

Table 5.11 Summery of the CBR values……………………………………………81

Table 5.12: liquid limit………………………………………………………….......82

Table 5 .13: plastic limit ……………………………………………………………82

Table 5.14 CBR results from laboratory tests at 500m interval we get…………….84

Table 5.15 Sub grade strength class………………………………………………..84

Table 6.1 Material cost………………………………………………………….......91

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List of figures

Fig 1.1 Sketch of design life……………………………………………………..14

Fig 3.1 Curve Elements…………………………………………………………..19

Fig.3.2 Passing sight distance…………………………………………………….21

Fig. 3.3 Setback distance…………………………………………………………22

Fig.3.4 Super elevation attainment.........................................................................34

Fig. 3.5 Sag curve…………………………………………………….…………..40

Fig. 3.6 Typical cross section for DS4....................................................................53

Fig 4.1 Inlet of drainage………….........................................................................61

Fig 5.1 moisture content vs. dry density for sample 1…………………………...70

Fig 5.2 moisture content vs. dry density for sample 2……………………………72

Fig.5.3 moisture content vs. dry density for sample 3…………………………....73

Fig. 5.4 CBR test graph for sample 1……………………………….……...77

Fig. 5.5 CBR test graph for sample 2…..................................................................79

Fig. 5.6 CBR test for sample 3……………………………………………….…....81

Fig.5.7 Different combination of road surface……………………………….…..85

Fig. 6.1 Mass haul diagram.....................................................................................89

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List of abbreviation
AADT -Average annual daily traffic
AACRA- Addis Ababa Construction Road Authority
CBR-California bearing ratio
DS –Design standard
DTN- Design traffic number
EF- Equivalent factor
ERA- Ethiopian road association
ESAL -Equivalent single axel loads
EWL- Equivalent wheel load
IDF- Intensity duration curve
OMC-Optimum moisture content
PC - point of curve
PI - point of tangent intersection
PT - Point of tangent
PVC - point of vertical curve
PVI - point of vertical intersection
PVT - Point of vertical tangent
SCF- soil conservation formula

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1. Introduction
The movement of people and goods what is called transportation which is under taken to
accomplish those basic objectives or tasks that required transfer form one location to
another

The speed, cost and capacity of available transportation have a significant impact on the
economic vitality of a given area and the ability to make maximum use of its natural
resource. It helps in the movement of unevenly distributed materials to production and
consumption centers at economical cost.

The pattern of growth of a towns and cities is determined by the transport network and its
efficiency.

In the world there are various types of transportations like road, railway, air, water, etc.

But from all means of transportations road transportation system is the most usable and
accessible means due to:
• It is more economical compared to the others
• Gives door to door service
• Construction is flexible
• Covers large area e.t.c...
As road transportation has so much benefit, it has its own negative impacts.
Such as:
• Air pollution(smoke during construction and after construction)
• Noise pollution
• Energy consumption
• Initial cost is high (construction cost) e.t.c...

Road transportation system is essential infrastructure for a nation’s development and

growth both for public and private sector. It is almost impossible to think of development
without having accessible and safe transportation means.

In general highway projects are done in an objective to improve the performance of

transportation system so that a safe and an integrated effective economical development
come true.

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1.1 Objective
1.1.1 General objective

The main objective of this project is to examine the integrated techniques used in the
design of a road which we have thought in the past academic years.

1.1.2 Specific objective

The specific objective of the project is:

• Applying technological and scientific principles to the planning, functional

design and operation.

• To show clearly how lag of appropriate data leads to errors and unsafe design.(the
road we are designing is currently constructed with out traffic count and soil
laboratory test data)
• To design safe and appropriate road for the fast growing traffic for the desired
location.
• To provide access for the society to get social services (schools, health center…).

1.2 Feasibility study

In order to erect plan or a project, on a given area, into real situation it is necessary to do
feasibility study. The main objective of the feasibility study is to compare the cost needed
for design, construction and maintenance of to the road to the benefit obtained from it.
For a given project if benefit obtained is grater or equal to the cost need for the over all
construction and its maintenance, the project is said to be feasible.

According to our study, the project area is more likely to be developed in the future.
Currently, low cost housing (condominium) is under construction. And also the current
road (which is a gravel road) is used by institutes, NGOs, residents and schools.

Based on these studies or results the benefit of the road upgrading is greater than the
construction cost. Therefore the construction (upgrading the road) is feasible.

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1.3 Traffic analyses/ forecasting

-Normal traffic: is the volume of traffic which use the road at no influence

-Generated traffic: is the additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or
improvement of the road.

-Diverted traffic: is the traffic that changes from on other route (or mode of transport) to
the project road because of the improved pavement. In other word, it is the volume of
traffic diverted from another direction when the new road is less congested or when it is
shortcut.

To eliminate or reduce errors we have considered 20% for generated and diverted traffic.
(For Ethiopia the consideration is from 10%-20%)

Table 1.1 7 days Traffic Count

Wednesday

Number in

Number in

Number in
Thursday
Saturday
08/09/01

09/09/01

11/09/01

12/09/01

12/09/01

13/09/01

14/09/01
Tuesday
Monday

AADT◦
Sunday

Friday
Days

month

a year
Cars week

267704
22003
5134
528

498

889

879

679

666

977

734
Light 15383
trucks
1265
295
17

15

59

48

41

47

68

43
Medium
trucks
1987
134

575
19

17

22

14

16

14

32

20

Heavy
trucks
3237
266
12

10

11

13

62
4

Trucks
with
2616
215

tailors
10

11

50
3

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To minimize the counted traffic error and considering the generated and diverted
traffic we add 20% of the counted traffic.

Vehicle type AADT◦

Cars 881

Light trucks 52

Medium trucks 24

Heavy trucks 11

Truck with tailors 10

Total 978
Based on the above result and future development of the route we have selected from
ERA (table 2-1 design standard vs. road classification and AADT)

• design standard DS4

• road functional classification main access road

• an urban road having a design speed of 50 Km/hr

1.4 Design life

Design life of roads is estimated from 10 – 20 years. The design life of road begins
from the time it is open to traffic. In this case the design life of our road is 15
years. Since our road is under DS4.

Table 1.2 Design life of different road types

Road Function Classes Design life(year)

Trunk road 20
Link road 20
Main accessory road . 15 .
Feeder road 10

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Using the pervious equivalent factor the cars and light trucks converted into
medium trucks:-

Total number of = 0.03(cars) + 0.73(light trucks) + medium trucks

Medium trucks = 0.03*881 + 0.73*52 + 24

= 89

Vehicle type AADT◦

Medium trucks 89

Heavy trucks 11

Truck with tailors 10

Calculation of AADT1 for design period of 15 years and cumulative traffic

AADT1 = (AADT◦ /2) (1+ i) N, where

AADT◦/2 = Initial traffic for two lane road

і = 5% traffic growth

N= 15 years, design period

T= 365* AADT1 ([(1+і)N – 1] / і)

The design period can be indicated by the following sketch

Figure 1.1 Sketch of design life

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2. General description of the project area

2.1 Location

The road is found in Endagabr-05 taxi of Mekelle city, Tigray regional state.

2.2 Topography

Based on the topographic map, the altitude of the area ranges from 990.084 to 959.117.
Terrain type, which is a measure of the natural topography, has an influence on the
selection of alignment and gradient. Construction cost also varies with terrain type and
sub grade nature of the area.

2.3 Climate

The external influences of environmental factors such as rain fall, snow fall, temperature
variation and atmospheric condition can cause deterioration of pavement.

Climate has an influence on the selection of pavement material, surfacing material and
construction material. Detail studies of environmental factors of a given location helps in
giving remedial measures for a possible failure. Some of the environmental factors that
cause deterioration of pavement are:

Rain fall: it cause erosion of shoulders, side slopes and ingress of water in to the
pavement structure and sub grade and affects the performance of drainage structure.

Temperature: temperature variation can often the binder and affect the performance
of bituminous surface and cement concrete pavement. In addition to the above, data for
humidity, sunshine etc. should have to be known.

As per the Ethiopian climate classification the area in which the road going to be
constructed is “woina dega”. There fore, for this area the temperatures range from 14°c -
20°c.

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3. Geometric Design
3.1 Introduction
Geometric design in a highway design, deals with the visible dimensions of a road way.
Properly designed highway geometries provide optimum efficiency in the operation of
traffic with safety.

3.2 Elements of geometric design

• Horizontal alignment
— Minimum radius of curve
— Minimum stopping sight distance
— Minimum passing sight distance
• Vertical alignment
— Maximum gradient
— Length of maximum gradient
— Minimum stopping sight distance on vertical curves
— Length of vertical curves
• Cross section
— Width of carriage way
— Width of shoulders
— Right of way
— Cross fall, camber and super elevation
Elements of design are influenced by a variety of design controls engineering criteria
like:

• function and classification of the road

• required design speed
• topography of the surrounding land
• projected traffic volume and composition
• traffic safety considerations
• environmental considerations
• capital cost of construction and
• roadway users etc

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3.3 DESIGN CONTROL FACTORS

For the above categories, there should be a design control to satisfy them. These controls
are the following.

3.3.1 Topography
Topography of the area affects geometric design of a highway.The geometric design
elements strongly depends on the transverse terrain through which the roads passes.
Generally terrain properties are categorized in to four different classes:

Rolling: in this terrain type the slopes generally rise and fall moderately and where
occasional slopes are encountered, resulting in some restrictions in alignment (transverse
terrain slope from 5 to 25 percent).

Mountainous: this class of terrain involves hilly, mountainous and river gorges. This
terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often
involves long steep grades and limited sight distance.

Escarpment: in addition to the terrain classes given above a fourth class is added to cater
to those situations where by the standards associated with each of the above terrain types
cannot be met.

In general construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and
higher standards will become less justifiable or achievable in such situations than for
roads in either flat or rolling terrain

3.3.2 Design speed

It is the most important factor controlling the geometric design element of a highway.
Design speed is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section
of highway when conditions are so favourable that the design features govern.

The choice of design speed is governed primarily by topography, traffic volume, function
and class of highway, capital cost, aesthetic considerations etc. Different speed standards
are assigned for different classes of the road.

Traditionally the first step in choosing geometric standard is to fix the ‘design speed’ for
the road. However when choosing geometric standards for particular situations, it is more
important to consider the purpose for which the road is being provided.

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The design speed is used as an index which links the road function, traffic flow and
terrain to the design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that the driver is
presented with a reasonably consistent speed environment

The design speeds have been determined in accordance with the following guidance:

1. Drivers on long distance journeys need to travel at higher speeds than local traffic.

2. On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high speeds are undesirable.

3. Drivers usually adjust their speeds to physical limitations and prevailing traffic
conditions. Where difficult location is obvious to the driver, he is more apt to accept a
lower speed of operation.

4. Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction costs) may justify a
higher design speed for a road carrying large volumes of traffic than a less heavily
trafficked road in similar topography.

3.3.3 Traffic factor

Vehicular characteristics related to cars, buses trucks, motor cycles all have different
speed and acceleration characteristics. The same traffic behaviour is also affected by
physical, mental and psychological characteristics of drivers and pedestrians.

3.3.4 Volume and capacity factor

A highway is designed for not the traffic flow but slighter lower values, so a reasonable
value of traffic volume is decided by multiplying the peak flow with a factor

3.3.5 Environmental factor

Landscaping, air pollution and aesthetic conditions also affect road geometries.

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3.4 Horizontal alignment

Horizontal alignment consists of a series of straight sections of highway joined by
suitable curves. It is necessary to establish the proper relation between design speed and
curvature as well as the relationship with super elevation and side friction.

Either their radius or the degree of the curve describes horizontal curve.

- The Horizontal alignment of highway consists of series of tangents and straights,

curves and super elevations.

-The horizontal alignment deals with the design of outline of the tangents and curves so
that safe deriving can be secured.

-The centrifugal force associated with a vehicle moving in a curved path may require that
road ways is raised or super elevated on the outer edge of the curve to over come this
centrifugal force.

3.4.1 The Circular Curve

When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radially outward by centrifugal
force.

The centrifugal force is counterbalanced by super elevation of the roadway and/or the
side friction developed between the tires and the road surface. For calculation of the
minimum horizontal radius, R min, for a particular design speed, the following equation
shall be used:

Rmin= (Vd)2 /127(e+f)

Where:

Vd = Design Speed (km/h)

e = Maximum super elevation (%100)

f = Side friction coefficient (given in Tables 8-1 and 8-2, and Figure 8-1)

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(From ERA)Table 8-2: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 4%Superelevation

(Urban Streets)

Table 3.1 Minimum radii for horizontal curves

Design Speed

VD (km/h) 20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120

Min.
Horizontal
15 35 60 100 150 215 320 490 810
Radius R .(m)

Side Friction
Factor (f)
0.40 0.32 0.25 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10

3.4.2 Curve elements

Fig 3.1 Curve Elements

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• Radius, usually measured to the centerline of the road, in meter.

∆ = Central angle of the curve in degrees

• PC = point of curve (the beginning point of the horizontal curve)

• PI = point of tangent intersection

• PT = Point of tangent (the ending point of the horizontal curve)

• T = tangent length in m.

• M = middle ordinate from middle point of cord to middle point of curve in m.

• E = External distance in m.

• L = length of curve

• D = Degree of curvature (the angle subtended by a 20m arc* along the horizontal curve)

• C = chord length from PC to PT

3.4.3 Minimum radius

The minimum radius is a limiting value of curvature for a given design speed and is
determined from the maximum rate of super elevation and the maximum side friction
factor selected for design(limiting value of f). The minimum radius Rmin can be
calculated directly from the

Simplified formula given by;

Rmin=vd2/127(e+f)

3.4.4 Sight distance

Sight distance is the length of the highway that’s visible to a driver. A safe sight distance
is the distance needed by the driver on arterial, or a driver exiting a drive way or a street,
to verify that the road is clear and avoid conflicts with other vehicles. Sight line must be
kept free of objects which might interfere with ability of drivers to see other vehicles.
Features like hills, curves in the road, vegetation, other land escaping, sins and buildings
can reduce sight distance. In design two sight distances are considered: passing sight
distance and stopping sight distance

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3.4.4.1 Stopping sight distance

Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: the distance traversed by the vehicle
from the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes
are applied and the distance required to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application
begins. These are referred to as brake reaction distance and braking distance,
respectively.

3.4.4.2 Passing sight distance

Passing sight distance is the minimum sight distance that must be available to enable the
driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle, safely and comfortably, without interfering
with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed, should it come into
view after the overtaking maneuver is started. The sight distance available for passing at
any place is the longest distance at which a driver whose eyes are 1.07m above the
pavement surface can see the top of an object 1.07m high on the road.

Passing sight distance is considered only on two-lane roads. At critical locations, a stretch
of four-lane construction with stopping sight distance is sometimes more economical than
two lanes with passing sight distance.

Fig.3.2 passing sight distance

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3.4.4.3 Setback distance at the obstruction of horizontal curves

On horizontal curves with obstruction on the inside an important consideration is the
lateral clearance so as to obtain the sight distance.

-sight distance is measured along the arc of the curve.

-if pavement has two or more lanes, sight distance is measured along the arc at the
center line of the inner lane

Sight Distance

Highway Centerline

PC M
Line of sight
P

Sight Obstruction
Centerline of inside lane

R R

Fig. 3.3 set back distance

3.4.5 Super elevation

A vehicle is forced radially out ward by centrifugal force when it moves in a circular
path. The vehicle weight component creates side friction between the road surface and
the tire to counterbalance the centrifugal force. In addition, the super elevated section of a
highway offsets the tendency of the vehicle to slide out ward.

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3.4.5.1 Methods of attaining of super elevation

The normal camber surface on a straight reach of a road is changed into a super elevation
surface in two stages.

- In the first stage the outer half of the camber is gradually raised until it is level (0%
slope).

-In the second stage three methods may be adopted to attain the full super elevation.

1. The surface of the road is rotated about the center line of the carriage way,
gradually lowering the inner edge and raising the upper edge by keeping the level
of the center line constant.
2. The surface the road is rotated about the inner edge raising the center line and the
outer edge.
3. The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the center and
the inner edge.

In our case we have chosen method one since in this method there is a list distortion of
pavement and also, cut and fill are more likely balanced.

3.4.6 Horizontal curve calculation

Curve 1
∆= 42˚

e=4%

PI= 0 + 880

Vd =50Km/hr

f=0.22

Radius of the curve

Rmin=Vd2/127(e+f)

Rmin=50*50/127(0.04+0.22)

Rmin=75.7m

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The minimum value of ‘Rmin’ having e=4% and f=0.22 is recommended to be 100m
(ERA geometric design manual table 8-2)

Then, Rmin=100m

Degree of curvature at 20m standard arc

D=360˚*20/2∏R

=1145.9/100

=11.459˚

Elements of curve

-Tangent distance (T)

T =R tan ∆/2

= 100 tan (42/2)

= 38.38m

- External distance( E )
E = R ( sec ∆/2 – 1)

= 100(sec42/2 -1)

=7.11m

- Middle ordinate (M)

M=R (1- cos∆/2)

=98.325(1-cos42/2)

=6.64m

- Length of curve ( L)
L =∏R∆/ 180

=∏*180*42/180

= 73.3m

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- Length of chord (C)

C = 2Rsin∆/2

=2*100*sin (42/2)

= 71.67m

- Chainage
Station PC=PI-T

=0+ 880 – 38.38

= 0 + 841.62

Station PT = PC + L

= 0 +841.62 + 73.3

= 0 + 914.92

-Sight line (S)

S=2R sin∆/2

=2*100 sin 42/2

=71.67m≈72m for construction simplicity

From table Ѕmin=55m for DS4 urban road (ERA)

Then,

α=360 *Ѕ /2∏ (R-w/2)

X= (R-W/2)-W/2-Y

Y= (R-W/2) cosα/2

Where: W-lane width

X- Length from the inner edge of the road to the obstruction

α- angle subtended at the center by an arc of length Ѕ

Y-the length is obtained by subtracting M from Rn.

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Now,

α =360 *Ѕ /2∏ (R-w/2)

=360 *55/2∏ (100-3.35/2)

=32˚

Y= (R-W/2) cosα/2

= (100-3.35/2) cos16

= 94.5m

X= (R-W/2)-W/2-Y

= (100-3.35/2)-3.35/2-94.5

=2.134m

Curve -2
∆=34˚

e=4%

PI=1+007.6

Vd=50Km/hr

f=0.22

Radius of the curve

Rmin=Vd2/127(e+f)

Rmin=50*50/127(0.04+0.22)

Rmin=75.7m

The minimum value of ‘R’ having e=4% and f=0.22

Is recommended to be 100m (ERA geometric design manual table 8-2)

Then, Rmin=100m

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Elements of circular curve

In Ethiopia 1 chainage is 20m.

-Degree of the curve (D)

D=360˚*20/2∏R

=1145.9/100

=11.459˚

-Tangent distance (T)

T=Rtan∆/2

=100tan34/2

=30.57m

-External distance (E)

E=R (sec∆/2 -1)

=100(sec34/2 -1)

=4.569m

-Middle ordinate (M)

M=R (1- cos∆/2)

=98.325(1- cos34/2)

=3.809m

-Curve length (L)

L=20∆/D

=20*34/11.459

=50.34m

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-Chord from PC to PT(C)

C=2Rsin∆/2

=2*100 sin34/2

=58.47m

-Chainage

Station PC=PI-T

= (1+007.6)-30.5

=0+977.1

Station PT=station of PC+L

= (0+977.1) +59.34

= 1+036.44

Control of sight distance

-Sight line (S)

S=2R sin∆/2

=2*98.325 sin34/2

=54.2m

From table Ѕmin=55m for DS4 urban road (ERA)

Then,

α=360 *Ѕ /2∏ (R-w/2)

X= (R-W/2)-W/2-Y

Y= (R-W/2) cosα/2

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Where: W-lane width

X- Length from the inner edge of the road to the obstruction

α- angle subtended at the center by an arc of length Ѕ

Y-the length is obtained by subtracting M from Rn.

Now,

α =360 *Ѕ /2∏ (R-w/2)

=360 *55/2∏ (100-3.35/2)

=32˚

Y= (R-W/2) cosα/2

= (100-3.35/2) cos16

= 94.5m

X= (R-W/2)-W/2-Y

= (100-3.35/2)-3.35/2-94.5

=2.134m

3.4.7Curve setting out by deflection angle method

Setting out data by assuming the instrument is set up at PC and the initial reading of the
horizontal curve when the instrument is bisecting PI is zero.

3.4.7.1 Curve setting out for curve-1

Length of first sub-chord

L1 =0 + 860 -0 + 841.62

. =18.38m

Length of last sub-chord

L2 = 0 + 914.92 – 0 + 900

= 14.92

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The chainage of each peg will be multiplied of 20.

Total number of full chord= (900-860)/2=2, each of 20m length

Deflection angles

For the first sub-chord

2δ1=180L1/∏R

δ1=90L1/∏R

=90*18.38/ (∏*100)

=5˚15′55″

For full chord

δ1=90*20/ (∏*100) = 5˚43′46″

For last sub-chord

δ 2=90*14.92/ (∏*100) = 4˚16′29″

The deflection angles are found by cumulating the individual deflections to full stations
from PC to PT.

Chord lengths(C)

C=2Rsin∆/2

For 0+860, C1=2*100 sin5˚15′55″

=18.35m

For 0+880, C2=2*100sin (5˚15′55″ + 5˚43′46″)

=38.14m

For 0+900, C3=200sin16˚43′30″

=57.5m

For 0+914.92, C4=200 sin 20˚59′59″

=71.67m

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Table 3.2 Curve setting out for curve 1

Station Deflection angle Chord length(m)

PC 0+841.62 0˚00′00″ 0.00

0+860 5˚15′55″ 18.35

0+880 10˚59′41″ 38.14

0+900 16˚43′30″ 57.7

PT 0+914.92 20˚59′59″ 71.67

Check: δ4= ∆/2 =42˚/2=21˚

20˚59′59″≈21˚…….OK

3.4.7.2 Curve setting out for curve- 2

Length of first sub chord

L1 =0+980 -0+977.1

=2.9m

Length of last sub-chord

L2 = 1+036.44 -1 +020

=16.44m

Number of full chord = (1 + 020 – 0+980)/ 20

= 2, each of 20m length

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Deflection angles

For the first sub-chord

δ1=90L1/∏R

=90*2.9/ (∏*100)

=0˚49′51″

For the full chord

δ=90*20/ (∏*100)

= 5˚43′46″

For the last sub-chord

δ 2 =90*16.44/100*3.14

=4˚42′35″

Chord length

C =2Rsin(S/2)

C1 =2*100 sin 0˚49′51″

=2.9m

C2 =2*100 sin 6˚33′37″

= 22.85m

C3 =2*100 sin 12˚17′23″

= 42.57m

C4 =2*100 sin 16˚59′58″

=58.48m

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Table 3.3 Curve setting out for curve 2

Station Deflection angle Chord length( m )

PC 0 +977.1 0˚ 00′00″ 0.00

0 + 980 0 ˚49′51″ 2.9

1+ 000 6 ˚33′37″ 22.85

1 + 020 12˚ 17′23″ 42.57

PT 1 + 036.44 16˚ 59′58″ 58.48

Check: δ4= ∆/2 =34/2 =17

16˚59′58″ ≈ 17˚ …….OK

3.4.8 Attaining the super elevation

From ERA Geometric design manual (table 8-5)

For 50km /hr design speed and 4% super elevation

-The rate of e=4% &

-minimum length of runoff=28m

For construction simplicity let’s take 30m

Since in our design we didn’t provide spiral curves,

Provide 2/3 of the runoff length at the tangent approach and 1/3 on the curve.

So, use: 2/3 *30= 20m at the tangent approach &

1/3 *30= 10m at the curve

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Fig.3.4 super elevation attainment

3.4.9 Widening of high way

Extra widening of pavements on curves and embankments is provided for the following
reasons.

• Rear wheels follow front wheels in shorter radius.

• Trailers fitted on trucks, don’t follow path of trucks wheels.
• In build up areas in order to have adequate sight distances.
• Psychologically drivers tend to keep greater clearances with vehicles coming from
the opposite direction and might thus move out of a lane when traversing a curve.

Extra widening is provided for two cases.

1. Widening for vehicle operation

W=nL2/2R

2. Extra widening needed for Psychological reason.

W=Vd/10 R

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Then total widening needed for” n” number of lanes of highway is given by:

We=nL2/2R+vd/10R1/2

Where

n =No of lane.

L =length of the vehicle

R = radius of curvature

Vd = design speed.

3.4.9.1 Widening for curve-1 and curve-2

Since the above elements for the widening calculation are the same for curve-1 and
curve-2, the widening will also be the same.

We=nL2/2R+vd/10R1/2

=2*6.52 /2*100 + 0.1*50/1001/2

=0.5 +0.4225

=0.9225 m for construction purpose take We = 1m.

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3.5 Vertical alignment

3.5.1 Introduction Vertical alignment

Vertical alignment of a highway and its effect on the safe and economical operation of
vehicle constitutes one of the most important features of highway design.

Vertical alignment of a highway consists of straight sections of the highway known as

grades, or tangents connected by vertical curves.

The design of vertical alignment therefore involves;

• Selection of suitable grades for the tangent section and

• Design of the vertical curves
The topography of the area through which the road travels has a significant impact on the
design of the vertical alignment.

3.5.2 Gradients and grade controls

One of the important considerations in designing vertical alignment is the gradient. The
cost of operation of vehicles the speed of vehicles and the capacity of a highway are
profoundly affected by the grades provided in order to limit the effect of grade on
vehicular operation; the maximum grade on any highway should be selected judiciously.
The selection of the maximum grade for a highway depends on;

• Visibility related to sight distance.

• Cost of vehicle operation
• Cut and fill (earth work)
• Passengers comfort.
• General appearance and
• Existing road intersections & adjacent land use
The selection of the minimum grade for a highway depends on the drainage condition of
the highway. Longitudinal drainage slope is mostly 0.5% for lined and 1% for unlined
roads.

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3.5.2.1 Selection of grade

We select the grade of the road with considering the following factors;

1. Cut & fill

2. Critical length of gradient according to ERA manual table 9.4
3. Maximum grade limit
4. Phasing of vertical & horizontal curves
1. Cut and fill
When the cut is much greater than the amount of fill there will be an increase in
excavation and damping cost due waste material or excess cut material whereas when
the amount of the fill is much higher there will be cost incurred for bore material.

In our case, we tried to place change of grade from plus to minus in cuts and change
from minus grade to plus grade in fills so that the design will avoid the appearance of
building hills and producing depressions contrary to the general existing contours of
the land.

2. Critical length of gradient according to ERA manual table 9.4

Critical length may be defined at the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed or
the point at which it has lost a certain amount of speed. Critical length of gradient is
considered to be the maximum length of a designated upgrade upon which a loaded
truck can operate without unreasonable reduction in speed.

Critical length of gradient is, to some extent, dependent on the gradient of the
approach; a downhill approach will allow vehicles to gain momentum and increase
the critical length general, the critical length of gradient decreases, as gradient
increases. This is shown in Table 9-4 below. Where it is necessary to exceed the
critical length of gradient on heavily trafficked roads, it is desirable to provide either
with safe passing distances on the rise, or a climbing lane for heavy vehicles.

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Table 3-4: Climbing Lanes

Design Class gradient Critical Length of Maximum

Gradient
(%) Desirable Length
above which a
of Gradient (m)
Climbing

Lane is required (m)

DS2 &3 4 300 900

DS2, 3 & 4 5 240 800

DS2, 3 & 4 6 200 700

DS2, 3 & 4 7 170 600

DS2, 3 & 4 8 150 500

DS2, 3 & 4 9 130 400

DS2, 3 & 4 10 Required 400

DS4 11 Required 400

DS4 12 Required 400

3. Maximum grade limits

In selection of the grade the maximum grade limit of ERA manual was used for the
design standard DS4 used according to the terrain type (according to table 2-3 of ERA
manual). As the road is urban area the maximum limit is 9%.

The grades we have selected or used are smaller than maximum limit. Summery for grade
selection are shown in tabulated below

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Table 3.5 summary of grade selection

Station Grade (%) Remark

0+000 to 0+680 -2.2 <9%

0+680 to1+160 -1.11 <9%

1+160 to 1+485.323 -3 <9%

4. Phasing of curves

Vertical curvature superimposed upon horizontal curvature or vise versa generally results
in a pleasing effect. From safety point of view sharp horizontal curvature should not be
introduced at or near the top of pronounced summit curve. In such case horizontal
curvature is made longer than the vertical curvature. Sharp horizontal curves should be
avoided at or near the low point a pronounced sag curve.

3.5.3 Vertical curves

Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent to another so that
vehicles may run smoothly as they travel the highway. These curves are usually parabolic
in shape. The expressions developed for the minimum length of vertical curve are there-
fore based on the property of parabola.

According position of gradient, vertical curves are of two types.

A. Curves that are offset bellow the tangent line (grade) called crest curve.

B. Curves that are offset above the tangent called sag curve. In this project the two
types of curves are applied

Main criteria used for designing vertical curve

• Provision of minimum stopping sight distance

• Class of highway (DS4)

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• Adequate drainage
• Comfort in operation and passenger
• Appearance

3.5.3.1 Design Vertical curves

The design data are taken from ERA 2001table 2.6 DS4
Design speed 50km pr hr
Topography Urban
Maximum gradient desirable 7%
Maximum gradient absolute 9%
Minimum gradient 0.5%
Min. stopping sight…… 55m
Min .passing sight distance 175m
Curve one
Curve one is between stations 0+000 to station 1+160 Since there is a change in gradient
from small negative to large negative so the vertical curve is sag vertical curve.

Fig. 3.5 sag curve

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Station of PVI is 0+680

Elevation of PVI=975.342m

Gradient, g1 = -2.2%

Gradient, g2 = -1.11%

A= g2-g1

A=1.09%

Computation of the curve length for curve one

1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k
L=AK

K is rate of vertical curvature.

K=12 for sag curve, from ERA table 9.2 of V=50km/hr

L= 1.09*12 =13.08m

2. Length required for safe stopping site distance

When Sd> L

L=2Sd - 200(h+ Sdtan α)/A

Where for sag curve, the height from the ground to the eye of the driver, h =0.6 and the
angle b/n the ray from the observer’s eye to the object, α= 1o

Then, the required curve length is:

L=2(55) - 200(0.6+55tan1o)/1.09

= 15.74m

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3. Length required for safe passing site distance

Lc = 2* Sd - 2(h+S tan α )/A

Lc = 2*175 – 2(0.6+ 175tan1˚) / 1.09

Lc = 105.43m

To get full station, lets use Lc =110m

4. Length required for passengers comfort

Lc = Vd2*A /3.89

Lc = 552*1.09 /389

Lc =8.48m

5. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)

Lc = 30 *A

Lc = 30*1.09

= 32.7m

.But this maximum length is not grater than the minimum curve length recommended by
ERA (i.e. 200m).

Provide, L=200m

Determination of the curve elements

Station of PVI =0+680

Elevation of PVI = 975.342m

Station of PVC = PVI- Lc/2

= 0+680 - 100

Station of PVC =0+580

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Elevation of PVC = Elevation of PVI- Lc/2(g1)

=975.342m-200/2(-2.2/100)

=977.542m

Station of PVT =PVI + Lc/2

=0+680 + 100

Station of PVT =0+780

Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI+Lc/2(g2)

=975.342m+200/2(-1.11/100)

Elevation of PVT =974.232m

Curve setting out

Curve elevation= Elev.PVC+X*g1+Y

Y=AX2

200L

Where

y = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (m)

x = horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (m)

A = algebraic difference in gradients (%)

L = length of vertical curve

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To simplify it is better to use in table form

Table 3.6 curve setting out for curve 1

Station X(m) Tangent elevation(m) Offset(m) Curve elv

Elev.PVC+X*g1 Y=AX2 (5)=(3)+(4)

(1) (2) (3) 200L

(4)

0+580 0 977.542 0 977.542

0+600 20 977.102 0.011 977.113

0+620 40 976.662 0.044 976.706

0+640 60 976.222 0.098 976.320

0+660 80 975.782 0.174 975.956

0+680 100 975.342 0.273 975.615

0+700 120 974.902 0.392 975.294

0+720 140 974.462 0.534 974.996

0+740 160 974.022 0.698 974.720

0+760 180 973.582 0.883 974.465

0+780 200 973.142 1.09 974.232

Curve two
Curve one is between stations 0+680 to station 1+485.323

Since there is a change in gradient from large to small negative so the vertical curve is a
crest vertical curve.

Station of PVI is 1+160

Elevation of PVI=970

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Gradient, g1 =-1.11%

Gradient, g2 = -3%

A=/g2-g1/

A=1.89%

Computation of the curve length for curve two

1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k
L=AK

K is rate of vertical curvature.

K=10 for crest curve, from ERA table 9.1 of V=50km/hr

L= 1.89*10 =18.9m

L=18.9m

2. Length required for safe stopping site distance

When Sd> L

L=2Sd - 200(√H1+√H2)2 /A

=2(55) - 200((√1.07+√0.5)2/1.89

L = -47.10m

Here the negative sign indicates that the curve length is visible and no need for sight
distance consideration

3. Length required for safe passing site distance

L= 2SD -2(H1+h2+2√H1*H2)/A

=2*175-2(1.07+0.5+2√1.07*0.5)/1.89

L =-36m

Here the negative sign indicates that the curve length is visible and no need for passing sit
distance consideration

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4. Length required for passengers comfort

L= Vd2*A/ 389

L= 552*1.89/ 389

L=14.69m

5. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)

L= 30 *A

= 30*1.89

= 56.7m

There fore the maximum of the above values is Lc =56.7m.But this maximum length is
not grater than the minimum curve length recommended by ERA (i.e. 200m).

Provide, L=200m

Determination of the curve elements

Station of PVI =1+160

Elevation of PVI = 970m

Station of PVC = PVI- Lc/2

= 1+160- 100

Station of PVC =1+060

Elevation of PVC = Elevation of PVI- Lc/2(g1)

=970m -200/2(-1.1/100)

=971.1m

Station of PVT =PVI + Lc/2

=1+160+ 100

Station of PVT =1+260

Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI+Lc/2(g2)

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=970m +200/2(-3/100)

Elevation of PVT =967m

Curve setting out

Curve elevation= Elev.PVC+X*g1+Y

Y=AX2

200L

The curve setting out is shown in table form, using the above equation.

Table 3.7 curve setting out for curve 2

Station X(m) Tangent elevation Offset Curve elv

Elev.PVC+X*g1 Y=AX2 (5)=(3)+(4)

(1) (2) (3) 200L

(4)

1+060 0 971.1 0 971.1

1+080 20 970.88 -0.019 970.861

1+100 40 970.66 -0.076 970.584

1+120 60 970.44 -0.170 970.27

1+140 80 970.22 -0.302 969.918

1+160 100 970 -0.473 969.527

1+180 120 969.78 -0.680 969.1

1+200 140 969.56 -0.926 968.634

1+220 160 969.34 -1.210 968.13

1+240 180 969.12 -1.531 967.589

1+260 200 968.90 -1.9 967.000

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3.6 Road cross section elements

3.6.1 Introduction
The road cross section should be designed depending on the terrain characteristics and
traffic requirements. Even though the cross section may vary over a particular route
because of varying controlling factors, the section should be designed in such a way that
it can fulfill the basic requirements.

The basic requirements include:

• Changes in cross section standards shall be uniform with in each subsection of the
route.
• Any changes of a cross section shall be effected gradually & logically over a
transition length. An abrupt or isolated change in cross section leads to increased
hazards, reduced traffic capacity & complicated traffic operation.

3.6.2 Road cross section elements

A cross section will normally consist of the carriage way, shoulders, or curbs, drainage
features and earth work profiles.

Carriage way: the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic. Includes

o Traffic lanes
o Auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and declaration lanes
o Climbing lanes
o Passing lanes
Road way: consists of the carriage way and shoulders and parking lanes

Earth work profile: Includes side slop and back slope.

For urban cross section cross section elements may also includes facilities for

• Pedestrians
• Cyclist
• And other special user groups these includes curbs, foot way and islands.
Since this particular project is urban and design standard four (DS4) ROAD it
contains the above mentioned elements.

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Lane width and shoulder width should be adjusted to traffic requirements and
characteristics of the terrain. The cross section may vary over the particular rout because
of these the terrain but for this particular project all the cross sections are assumed to be
equal because the terrain and the traffic character are constant thought the entire road.

Lane width

It is the width of the carriage way in which the vehicle moves with comfort & safety. To
increase the safety & comfort the width of the carriage way shall be increased & shall be
constructed from good quality asphalt. This increase in width decreases the cost of
maintenance and operation costs after construction, due to this we use a lane width of
3.35m are used which is recommended for DS4 road are shown in table 2.1 ERA2001 for
all roads design standards.

However for low volume roads, narrower lanes are provided & auxiliary lanes at
intersections often help to facilitate traffic movement especially in curves & mountain
areas.

Minimum side clearance is required between two lanes depending on the size of the
vehicle and it should be designed for large sized vehicle. The number of lanes depends on
the traffic volume.

Medians

These are areas between two carriageways of a dual carriageway road. It excludes the
inside shoulder and it is provided in areas with heavy traffic load especially in main
cities. The purpose of design for median is to separate traffic coming in opposite
direction and to separate slow and fast moving traffic in the same direction.

Shoulders

Shoulders is a portion of the road way contiguous to carriage way for the accumulation of
stopped vehicles, traditional and intimidate non motorized traffic, animals, pedestrians
and emergency use. And also used for the recovery of stopped vehicles and lateral
support of the pavement course. Shoulder is not provided since the road is in urban.

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Normal cross fall

Normal cross fall should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage whilst not
being so great as to make steering difficult.

Generally, cambers are transverse slope given to the road surface to drain off water from
the road surface. There are three types of cambers: elliptical, straight and combination of
the two.

According to ERA normal cross fall should be 2.5%on paved roads and 4% on unpaved
road. Shoulders are the some as normal cross fall. Since the project is paved road we take
a normal cross fall of 2.5%for all the shoulders and carriage way.

Side slopes and back slopes

Side slopes and back slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the road way and
to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.

Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of the traffic may be defined as
recoverable or non-recoverable or, critical.

• Recoverable slopes: 1:4 or flatter slopes are categorized under this category. A
driver whom encroaches on this kind of slope can easily stop or return to the road
way easily.
• Non-recoverable slopes: slopes between 1:3 to1:4 generally fall into this category.
A driver will be unable to stop and return the vehicle easily to the road way.
• Critical slopes: slopes on which a vehicle is likely to overturn, Slopes steeper than
1:3 generally falls in to this category
The selection of aside slope & aback slope dependent on three factors:

• safety consideration
• height of cut or fill &
• economic consideration
Three regions of road side important which evaluating the safety of aspect of such as

• The top of the slope (hinge point)

• The side slope

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• The toe of the slope (intersection of the for slope and with level ground or with
back slope )

The selection of a side slope and back slope is depend on safety consideration , height of
cut or fill and economic consideration .ERA 2001 table 6.1 indicates the side slope
recommended for use in the design according to the height of cut and fill and the
material.

Table 3.8 Side slope and back slope

Material Height of the Side slope Back slope Zone

slope description

Cut Fill

Earth or soil 0.0-1.0 m 1:4 1:4 1:3 recoverable

1.0-2.0 m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-

recoverable

Over 2m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 critical

Rock Any height See standards for details critical

Black cotton soil 0.0-2.0 m _ 1:6 _ recoverable

Over 2m 1:4

Depending to the given standard ratio our project is designed and set out the appropriate
and economical road section.

Road side ditches

Cambers, side slopes and back slopes are provided for the purpose drainage in order to
remove this water road side ditches are provided.For this particular project we use a
covered side ditch since the road is urban road.

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Clear zone

For adequate safety it is desirable to have good clear zone road for recovery area. That is
as wide as a practical on the specific high way section. The cleared width should be a
minimum of 15m each side from the edge of roadway for a higher road standards. For
lower road standards it can be reduced as practical lateral clearance between road side
objects and obstruction and the edge of the carriageway should normally be not less than
1.5m.

Curb

It is a vertical /slope member along the edge of pavement, in this particular case we
propose pre-cast concrete of, which protects the edge and clearly define the edge to
vehicle operators.

The main functions are.

• To facilitate and control drainage

• To strengthen and to protect pavement edge
• To give good appearance

Right of way

Right of way is provided in order to accommodate road width and enhance the safety,
operation and appearance of the road. The width of right of way depends on:

• The cross section elements of the highway

• Topography and
• Other physical controls together with economic consideration

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The previously mentioned road cross section elements are shown below in the figure.

Fig. 3.6 typical cross section for DS4

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4. High way drainage

One of the most important considerations in locating and designing rural high way and
streets is providing adequate drainage. Adequate and economical drainage is absolutely
essential for the protection of investment made in high way structure and safeguarding
the lives of the person who use it.

Measures taken to control the flow of surface water are generally termed “surface
drainage ‘’ where as those dealing with ground water are generally termed “sub surface
drainage” or more simply “sub drainage”

Precipitation that occurs on city streets and adjacent areas must be rapidly and
economically removed before it becomes hazard to traffic. The removal of surface water
in municipal areas is accomplished by methods similar to those employed in the drainage
of rural high ways, except that the surface water is commonly carried to its eventual
disposal point by means of under ground pipe drains or “storm drains”. The storm drains
may be designed to provide for the flow of ground water as well as surface water, or
additional sub drains may be required in certain areas.

The surface water drainage system in an average city may be considered to be composed
of the following basic elements

• pavement crown ( camber)

• curb and gutter

Inlets: - are generally provided at inter section to intercept the water following in the
gutters before it can reach the pedestrian side walks.

• It is essential that enough inlets of sufficient size be provided to rapid

remove collected storm water.
• Improperly drained intersection are a consist source of announce and
danger to both vehicular & pedestrian traffic.
• The selection of type of inlets to be used and their positing in the area
adjacent to the intersection are matters of individual choice experience
of the engineer’s.

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4.1 Design of surface drainage systems

The design of surface drainage system for a high way may be divided into three major
phases.

• Estimation of quantity of water to be drained

• Hydraulic design of each drainage element
• The comparison of alternatives systems, alternative materials and other
variables in order to selects the most economical system.

4.1.1 Estimation of quantity of water to be drained

Design discharge computation

Max elevation= 990

Min elevation=959.12

Elevation difference=990-959.12=30.88

Hydraulic flow length=1.5 km

Time of concentration (Tc)

Using soil conservation formula (SCF) is used to compute time of concentration.

Tc = ((0.87 L3)/H) 0.385

Where:

Tc= time of concentration in hours

L=length of water path in km

H= elevation difference

L=1.5km

H=30.88m

Tc = ((0.87*(1.5)3)/30.88)0.385 = 25 min

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IDF (Intensity duration frequency curve)

Essential data for drainage structure the intensity of the rainfall can be expressed for the
specific time period for the given recurrence intervals.

Intensity is defined as the rate of rainfall and is typically given in unit of mm/hr.

Cherkos Tefer (2000) has developed IDF curve for 10 towns of Northern Ethiopia as part
of the fulfillment of MSC degree in Civil Engineering.

The intensity equations for various frequencies developed for Mekelle town (Cherkos
Tefer2000) are:

i2= 804 i5= 863 i10= 696 i25= 1130

(4.1+Tc) 0.895 Tc0.851 Tc0.841 Tc0.835

Where:

i=rainfall intensity for selected return period mm/hr

Tc=concentration time in minutes

Assuming 15 years return period the corresponding intensity becomes:

I25=76.8 mm/hr

i10=16mm/hr

i15=46.4mm/hr from interpolation

Runoff coefficient(c)

Runoff coefficient indicates or tells the permeability or run off generated capacity of a
given water shade. The magnitude of the parameters depends on:

• Type of the development with the catchments area

• Slope of the catchments area
• Availability of the flow the catchments area depressions, gullies, etc
• Types of soil
• Moisture content of the soil, and
• Intensity and duration of the rain fall

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Table 4.1 c-value for different street types

streets c-value

Asphalt 0.7-0.95

concrete 0.8-0.95

Brick 0.7-0.85

walk ways 0.75-0.85

Table 4.2 Drains from asphalt

station Length(m) Width(m) Area(m2)

From 0+00 to 0+841 841 6.85 5760.85

From 0+841 to 0+915 73 14.6 1065.8

From 0+915 to 0+977 62 6.85 424.7

From 0+977 to 1+036 60 14.7 882

From 1+036 to 1+500 464 6.85 3178.4

Total area (A1) =5760.85+1065.8+424.7+882+3178.4=11311.75m2

Run off coefficient for asphalt (C1) =0.9

Table 4.3 Drains from walkway

Station Length(m) Width(m) Area(m2)

From 0+00 to 1+500 1500 2.5 3750

Total area (A2) =3750m2 From Runoff coefficient walkway (C2) =0.8

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Weighted runoff coefficient can be calculated:-

C= (A1*C1+A2*C2 From) / (A1 From+A2)

= (11311.75*0.9 +3750*0.8)/(11311.75+3750) = 0.875

C=0.875

RATIONAL METHOD

• One of the most common methods of estimating run off from a drainage area is the
rational method.

• Why rational method is popular?

Because it combines engineering judgment with calculations made from analysis,
measurement, or estimation.

• The method has direction relationship rainfall and runoff

Q=CIA

Where, Q=Runoff (ft3/sec)

I=Intensity of runoff (inch/hr)

A=Drainage area in hectares. (The area may be determined from filed

. Survey, topographical map or aerial photographs)

• In metric units, the equation becomes

Q=0.0028CIA

Where, Q=Runoff (m3/sec)

C=Runoff coefficient

I=Intensity of runoff (mm/hr)

A=Drainage area (hectares)

Total area, A=A1+A2

=11311.75+3750=15061.75m2=1.51ha

For the given i10=46.4mm/hr, A=1.51ha and C=0.875

Then the discharge Q will be,

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Q=0.0028*0.875*46.4*1.51=0.172 m3/sec

To compensate for different type of unforeseen errors in taking data, it is necessary to

take a factor of safety for calculated discharge. For this case we take the discharge as
twice the total calculated discharge.

Then, Design discharge =2*0.172 m3/sec=0.344 m3/sec

As the discharge is so small circular concert pipe having a bed 2.5% and manning
coefficient of n=0.015 is selected.

Q=1/n AR2/3S1/2

Q=1/0.015AR2/3√0.025

A=∏D2/4

R=A/P=D2/4∏D=D/4

0.344=1/0.015*∏D2/4* (D2/3/2.52)*158

D=0.6m provide 0.7 m for maintenance purpose.

4.1.2 Hydraulic design of each drainage element

Inlet design
Total discharge (design discharge) =0.344 m3/sec from previous calculation.

Table4.4 Average velocity

Description Velocity Flat 4-7% Rolling Mountains

8-10%
Course of runoff 11-20% 21-30%

Covered land 0.15 0.3 0.5 0.55 1.15

Bare soil 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.6 2.00

cultivated 0.3 0.61 0.92 1.2 1.45

Rock areas 1.00 1.3 1.6 2.00 2.4

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-Assuming that the inlet velocity, V=0.15 m/sec

Q=VA

0.344 m3/sec=0.15 m/sec*A

A=2.29≈2.3 m2 (total opening need for inlet)

-Assuming the distance between two causative inlets is 30m.

Total length= 1500m

Number of inlet required=1500m/30m=50

Discharge in one single inlet (q) is

q= (0.344 m3/sec)/50

q=6.88*10-3 m3/sec

Determine the dimension of in let

Q=VA

Where, V=velocity entering into inlet=0.15 m/sec

A=area of inlet

6.88*10-3 m3/sec=0.15A

A=0.05m2

Assuming that A=b*b, where, b=side dimension (width of in let)

0.05 m2 =b2

b=0.224m, then provide 0.3m=30cm

• Provide 36mm bar across one side

• Total opening requires for water inlet is 30cm

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The figural description of inlet design

Fig 4.1 Inlet of drainage

4.1.3 Summery on drainage system design

1. Establish a road side plan
- collect available site data
- Obtain or prepare existing and proposed plan-profile layout
including culverts, bridges…
- Perform the lay out of the proposed road side channels to minimize
flow length
2. The spacing of the inlet depends on design discharge, the geometric configuration
of the curb and gutter section, and the extent to which water is permitted to spread
on the traveled way.
3. Common errors:

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The three common errors should be avoided in calculating Tc(concentration time)

A. application of simplified general equation

B. In some classes runoff from a portion of the catchments area
that is highly impervious may result in a greater pick
discharge than that would occur if the entire area were
considered.
C. When designing a drainage system, the overland flow path is
not necessarily perpendicular to the counters shown on
available mapping.

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5. Pavement Design
The road pavement is the actual surface on which the vehicles will travel. Its purpose is
to hold to provide friction for the vehicles and to transfer normal stresses to the
underlying soils (sub grade).

Some of the desirable characteristics of pavement are:

1. The surface should be impervious so that water doesn’t get in to the lower layers.
2. It should be hard wearing surface so that abrasion action of wheels doesn’t
damage the surface.
3. It should be structural sound to with stand the stresses exerted on it.
4. It should be sufficiently thick to distribute the load and stress to a safe value to the
sub grade soil.
5. It should be smooth enough to provide comfort to the road users.

5.1 Basic Structural Elements

In order to take maximum advantage of this property material layers are usually arranged
in order of descending load bearing capacity material (and most expensive) on the top
and the lowest load bearing capacity material (and least expensive) on the bottom.

A pavement structure consists of:

• Surface course: - the layer in contact with traffic loads. It provides

characteristics such as; friction, smoothness, noise control, rut resistance and
drainage. In addition, it prevents entrance of surface water in to the underlying
base, sub base and sub grade. This top structural layer of material is
sometimes sub divided in to two layers. The wearing course (top) and the
intermediate or binder course (bottom).

• Base course: - the layer immediately beneath the surface course. It provides
additional load distribution and contributes to damage and frost resistance.
Base course are usually constructed out of aggregate.

• Sub base course: - the layer between the base course and sub grade. It
functions primarily as structural support but it can also;

1. Minimize the intrusion of fines from the sub grade in to the pavement
structure.

2. Improve drainage and

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3. Minimize frost action damage

The sub base generally consists of lower quality material than the base course but
better than the sub grade soils. A sub base course is not always needed or used.

Sub grade:- it is usually the natural material located along the horizontal
alignment of the pavement and serves as the foundation of the pavement structure.
This also of a layer of selected borrow materials.

5.2 Design Process

There are three main steps to be followed in designing pavement. These are:

1. Estimating the traffic and cumulative equivalent standard axels that pass
through this road over the design life.

2. Assessment of the sub grade strength of the soil over which the road is to
be built.

3. Selecting the most economical combination of pavement material and layer

thickness that will provide satisfactory service over design life of the road.
5.2.1 Estimating the traffic and cumulative equivalent standard axels.

Axel load
The measurement of the design load for pavement structure is very difficult due to many
unknowns and variables, such as the following:

• Wheel load: - which vary from light passenger cars to transport with many axels,
and resulting relative pavement damage is difficult to estimate.
• Load applications; vary from a few thousands to many millions per year.
• Growth in the amount and type of traffic must be estimated for the design period
of the pavement.
• The decrease in serviceability due to age, climate and type of traffic must be taken
account.
Various methods have been developed by highway authorities and association to find a
method to estimate pavement design loads such as:-

• AADT- average annual daily traffic

• DTN- Design traffic number (average daily number of equivalent 80KN axel
loads)
• Number of trucks and buses using the pavement
• EWL- Equivalent wheel load

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• ESAL: - the total number of equivalent 18 kip (80 KN) single axel loads
expected on the pavement for the design period.
Generally, cars are not considered for design purpose but our road is mostly crowed by
cars. Therefore, using the equivalent factor (EF) = 0.03 from Addis Ababa Construction
Road Authority (AACRA), we able to take them into account.

Design life
Design life of roads is estimated from 10 – 20 years. The design life of road begins from
the time it is open to traffic. In this case the design life of our road is 15 years, since it is
under DS4.

Table 5.1 Equivalent factors for different types of vehicles

Vehicle Class Addis Ababa (A.A) ERA

Typical Lower Upper Typical Lower Upper

Car 0.03 0.00 0.10 0.00 - -

Light 0.73 0.39 1.07 0.70 0.30 1.10

Medium 1.31 0.73 1.89 1.70 0.80 2.60

Heavy 1.61 1.05 2.18 1.80 0.80 3.00

Articulated 3.15 2.15 4.14 2.20 1.00 3.00

Vehicle type AADT◦

Cars 881

Light trucks 52

Medium trucks 24

Heavy trucks 11

Truck with tailors 10

Total 978

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Using the pervious equivalent factor the cars and light trucks converted into medium
trucks:-

Total number of = 0.03(cars) + 0.73(light trucks) + medium trucks

Medium trucks = 0.03*881 + 0.73*52 + 24

= 89

Vehicle type AADT◦

Medium trucks 89

Heavy trucks 11

Truck with tailors 10

Calculation of AADT1 for design period of 15 years and cumulative traffic

AADT1 = AADT◦ (1+ i) N, where

AADT◦ = Initial traffic for two lane road

і = 5% traffic growth

N= 15 years, design period

T= 365* AADT1 [(1+і) N – 1]/i

Table 5.2 Calculation table for AADT0, AADT1 and T

Vehicle type AADT◦ AADT1 T ESA/vehicle

Medium truck 89 94 740,361 3.55

Heavy truck 11 13 102391 5.56

Truck with tailor 10 11 86638 6.25

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Note: ESA factors in the above table are taken from the measured axel load during
construction of Zalanebesa road.

T= 740361*3.55 + 102391*5.56 + 86638*6.25=3739063.01=3.74 * 106ESA

Table 5.3 Traffic class verse ESA range

Traffic Class Range ESA*106

T1 <0.3

T2 0.3 – 0.7

T3 0.7 – 1.5

T4 1.5 – 3.0

T5 3.0 – 6.0

T6 6.0 – 10.0

T7 10.0 – 17.0

T8 17.0 – 30.0

From the above given table the traffic class will be = T5

5.2.2 Assessment of the sub grade strength of the soil

1. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) method for the design of flexible pavement

CBR: Is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of standard plunger under

controlled density and moisture condition.

It is used with an empirical design chart to determine the thickness of the pavement
layers.

We have take three samples at a distance of 500m.

. Standard unit stress for 2.54mm penetration =6.9Mpa

. Standard unit stress for 5.08mm penetration =10.3Mpa

. Standard unit stress for 12.7mm penetration =18.0Mpa

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General Procedures
Step 1: Disturbed samples of the soil, at different moisture contents are compacted in
three layers by static load or impact hammer into cylindrical mold. (Compaction test)
Step 2: The moisture –density curve is plotted and the sample with maximum dry density,
optimum moisture content is selected

Proctor compaction test

Objective is to determine the relation between moisture content and dry density of soils
using proctor compaction and to determine the optimum water content and maximum dry
density.

The purpose of the laboratory test is to determine the proper amount of molding water to
be added while compacting the soil in the field and the degree of denseness which can be
expected.

Two types of proctor test

Standard proctor: application is for small light load applications like highway.
Modified proctor: for heavier load application like air port runways Base course.

Table 5.4: Compaction of proctor and modified compactions

Type of test Hammer Hammer Blows per Number of Compaction

test(kg) drop(m) layer layers Energy(kg/cm)

Standard Proctor 2.5 0.3 25 3 590

Modified 4.5 0.45 25 5 2700

proctor

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CALCULATION

Wet= weight of wet soil

Volume of mold

W = Weight of water (Ww) *100

Weight of dry soil (Ws)

= (wt. of wet soil)-(wt. of dry soil) *100

(Wt. of can + dry soil)-(wt. of can)

Dry density can be calculated as follows

Dry = wet / (1+w)

COMPACTION TEST DATA SHEET

Wt. of the mold = 5073.1 gm

Volume of the mold = 944cm3

Depth of the sample = 15cm minimum

Sample one

Table 5.5: Data from proctor compaction test for the 1stsoil sample

Determination number Observation Obs .2 Obs .3 Obs .4 Obs .5

1

Weight of mould + base + 5073.1 5073.1 5073.1 5073.1 5073.1

compacted soil, g

Weight of mould + base, g 3455.8 3369.4 3232.3 3233.1 3244.4

Weight of compacted soil, g 1617.3 1703.7 1840.8 1840.0 1828.7

Wet density 1.71 1.8 1.95 1.97 1.94

Dry density 1.56 1.61 1.72 1.69 1.64

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Water content, ml 100 150 200 260 320

Can number G-5 C-16 C-12 X-1 X-2

Weight of can, g 18.7 9.6 15.7 15.7 15.5

Weight of can+ wet soil, g 170.3 116.5 152.6 180.9 177.4

Weight of can+ dry soil, g 157.0 105.3 136.2 157.2 152.5

Weight of water, g 13.3 11.2 16.4 23.7 24.9

Weight of dry soil, g 138.3 95.7 120.5 141.5 137.0

Moisture content, % 9.6 11.7 13.61 16.75 18.17

The relation between the dry density and the moisture content is given by:

Density-moisture content relation

1.74
1.72 13.61
dry density(kg/cm3)

1.7
16.75
1.68
1.66
1.64 18.17
1.62
11.7
1.6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
moisture content(%)

Fig 5.1 moisture content vs. dry density for sample 1

From the curve we can see that the OMC is at 1.72 gm/cm3 of dry density.

That is 13.61%. OMC=13.61%

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Sample two

Table 5.6: Data from proctor compaction test for the 2nd soil sample

Determination number Observation 1 Observation.2 Observation.3

Weight of mould + base + 5073.1 5073.1 5073.1

compacted soil, g

Weight of mould +base, g 3225.1 3369.4 3148.2

Weight of compacted soil, g 1848.0 1981.2 1924.9

Wet density 1.95 2.03 2.04

Dry density 1.74 1.77 1.72

Water content, ml 100 150 200

Can number Z-14 G-2 Z-11

Weight of can, g 10 15.9 15.9

Weight of can+ wet soil, g 147.8 142.5 164.6

Weight of can+ dry soil, g 132.9 126.6 141.9

Weight of water, g 14.9 15.9 22.7

Weight of dry soil, g 122.9 110.7 126

Moisture content, % 12.12 14.36 18.016

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The relation between the dry density and the moisture content is given by:

Density-moisture content relation

1.78
1.77 14.36
dry density(kg/cm3)

1.76
1.75
1.74 12.12
1.73
1.72 18.016
1.71
0 5 10 15 20
moisture content(%)

Fig 5.2 moisture content vs. dry density for sample 2

From the curve we can see that the OMC is at 1.77 gm/cm3 of dry density.

That is 14.36%. OMC=14.36%

Sample three

Table 5.7: Data from proctor compaction test for the 3rdsoil sample

Determination number Observation Obs .2 Obs .3 Obs .4 Obs .5

1

Weight of mould + base + 5073.1 5073.1 5073.1 5073.1 5073.1

compacted soil, g

Weight of mould + base, g 3371.7 3369.4 3107 3098 3176.7

Weight of compacted soil, g 1701.4 1785.6 1966.1 1975.1 1896.4

Wet density 1.81 1.89 2.08 2.09 2.01

Dry density 1.67 1.71 1.86 1.84 1.65

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Water content, ml 100 150 200 260 320

Can number Z-18 C-4 Z-16 C-20 G-8

Weight of can, g 9.4 9.8 9.5 9.7 18.2

Weight of can+ wet soil, g 147.2 159.4 146.4 188.6 223.1

Weight of can+ dry soil, g 137.1 144.8 131.9 167.3 196.9

Weight of water, g 10.1 14.6 14.5 21.3 26.2

Weight of dry soil, g 127.7 135 122.4 157.6 178.7

Moisture content, % 7.91 10.81 11.85 13.51 22.07

The relation between the dry density and the moisture content is given by:

Density- moisture content relation

1.9

1.85 11.85
dry density(kg/cm3)

13.51
1.8

1.75

1.7 10.81

1.65 22.07

1.6
0 5 10 15 20 25
mousture content(%)

Fig.5.3 moisture content vs. dry density for sample 3

From the curve we can see that the OMC is 1.86 gm/cm3 of dry density.

That is 11.85%. OMC=11.85%

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Step 3: In this step the specimen of 5kg is prepared to compact CBR mold of soil at the
optimum moisture content of soil as determined from the above dry-density verses
moisture-content chart.

The amount of the water required for a 5kg sample to prepare the mold is

For sample one: 5kg * 13.61% = 0.680 kg = 680ml

For sample two: 5kg * 14.36% = 0.718 kg = 718ml

For sample three: 5kg * 11.85% = 0.590 kg = 590ml

The spacemen in the mold is then immersed in water and soaked for 4 days or 96hrs to
simulate saturation that may occur in service. Expansion of the specimen from soaked is
then measured. And the penetration test could be conducted as follow:

• The mold with base plate is placed under the penetration plunger of the loading
machine.

• The penetration plunger is seated at the center of the specimen.

• The dial gauge for measuring penetration values of the plunger is fitted in position.

• The dial gauge of proving ring (for load reading) and the penetration dial gauge
are set zero.

• The load is applied through the penetration plunger at uniform rate.

• The load recorded at penetration readings and all the calculations are shown
below.

CALCULATIONS

Piston load (kg) = dial reading *ring factor

1000

Penetration stress (kg/m2) = piston load

Area of piston

CBR at different penetration = penetration stress * 100%

Standard unit stress

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CBR TEST DATA SHEET

Sample one

Compacted moisture content = 13.61%

Maximum dry density = 1.72gm/cm3

Condition of test specimen, soaked ** Unsoaked _______

Surcharge weight = 44.5N

Mold diameter = 152.4mm

Mold height = 116mm

Area of piston = 19.4cm2

Ring calibration factor = 8.4 N/division

Table 5.8: Reading from CBR test for the 1st soil

Penetration Penetration on bottom

depth Dial Piston penetration CBR

(mm) Reading Load stress (%)

(div) (KN) (KN/m2)

0 0 0 0

0.64 165 1.386 714.432

1.27 170 1.428 736.082

1.91 174 1.4616 753.402

2.54 177 1.4868 766.392 11.11

3.18 179 1.5036 775.051

3.81 181 1.5204 783.711

4.45 183 1.5372 792.371

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5.08 185 1.554 801.031 7.77

7.62 193 1.6212 835.670

• Penetration on bottom (at 2.54mm depth)

Standard unit stress = 6.9Mpa=6900 KN/m2

Piston load = dial reading * ring factor = 177 * 8.4 = 1.4868KN

1000

Penetration stress = 1.4868KN = 766.392KN/m2

0.00196m

CBR = 766.392KN/m2 * 100 % =11.11%

6900 KN/m2

• Penetration on bottom (at 5.08mm depth)

Standard unit stress = 10.3Mpa=10300 KN/m2

Piston load = dial reading * ring factor =185 * 8.4 = 1.6212KN

1000

Penetration stress = 1.6212KN = 801.031KN/m2

0.00196m2

CBR = 801.031KN/m2* 100 % = 7.77%

10300 KN/m2

Two values of CBR will thus be obtained. Since the value at 2.54mm penetration is
greater than that of at 5.08mm penetration, the 2.54mm is adopted. If it was not the
largest, the test is repeated and if the new value of load at 5.08mm penetration is still
greater, the value is used for the calculation of CBR.

Therefore the CBR value is the value at 2.54mm penetration (11.11%)

The CBR graph for the test is given below:

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CBR test graph for sample one

900
penetration stress(kpa)

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.64 1.27 1.91 2.54 3.18 3.81 4.45 5.08 7.62
penetration depth(mm)

Fig. 5.4 CBR test graph for sample 1

Sample two
Compacted moisture content = 14.36%

Maximum dry density = 1.77gm/cm3

Condition of test specimen, soaked __**___ UN soaked _______

Surcharge weight = 44.5N

Mold diameter = 152.4mm

Mold height = 116mm

Area of piston = 19.4cm2

Ring calibration factor = 8.4 N/division

Table 5.9: Reading from CBR test for the 2nd soil

Penetration Penetration on bottom

depth Dial Piston penetration CBR

(mm) Reading Load stress (%)

(div) (KN) (KN/m2)

0 0 0 0

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0.64 126 1.0584 545.567

1.27 146 1.2264 632.165

1.91 148 1.2432 640.825

2.54 154 1.2904 665.16 9.64

3.18 161 1.3524 697.133

3.81 167 1.4028 723.093

4.45 172 1.445 744.7

5.08 176 1.4784 762.062 7.399

7.62 190 1.596 822.68

• Penetration on bottom (at 2.54mm depth)

Piston load = dial reading * ring factor = 154 * 8.4 = 1.2904 KN

1000 1000

Penetration stress = 1.2904 KN = 665.16KN/m2

0.00196m2

CBR = 665.16KN/m2* 100 % =9.64%

6900 KN/m2

• Penetration on bottom (at 5.08mm depth)

Piston load = dial reading * ring factor = 176 * 8.4 = 1.4784KN

1000

Penetration stress = 1.4784KN = 762.062KN/m2

0.00196m2

CBR = 762.062KN/m2* 100 % = 7.399%

10300 KN/m2

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Therefore the CBR value is the value at 2.54mm penetration (9.64%)

The CBR graph for the test is given below:

CBR test graph for sample two

900
800
penetrationstress(kpa)

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.64 1.27 1.91 2.54 3.18 3.81 4.45 5.08
pe netra tion depth(mm)

Fig. 5.5 CBR test graph for sample 2

Sample three
Compacted moisture content = 11.85%

Maximum dry density = 1.86gm/cm3

Condition of test specimen, soaked __**___ Un soaked _______

Surcharge weight = 44.5N

Mold diameter = 152.4mm

Mold height = 116mm

Area of piston = 19.4cm2

Ring calibration factor = 8.4 N/division

Table 5.10: Reading from CBR test for the 3rd soil

Penetration Penetration on bottom

depth Dial Piston penetration CBR

(mm) Reading Load stress (%)

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(div) (KN) (KN/m2)

0 0 0 0

0.64 201 1.6884 870.310

1.27 202 1.6968 874.640

1.91 204 1.7136 883.299

2.54 205 1.7222 887.628 12.86

3.18 206 1.7304 891.958

3.81 207 1.7388 896.288

4.45 208 1.7472 900.618

5.08 209 1.7556 904.948 8.786

7.62 214 1.7976 926.598

• Penetration on bottom (at 2.54mm depth)

Piston load = dial reading * ring factor = 205 * 8.4 =1.7222KN

1000 1000

Penetration stress = 1.7222KN = 887.628KN/m2

0.00196m2

CBR = 887.628KN/m2 * 100 % = 12.86%

6900 KN/m2

• Penetration on bottom (at 5.08mm depth)

Piston load = dial reading * ring factor = 209 * 8.4 = 1.7556KN

1000

Penetration stress = 1.7556KN = 904.948KN/m2

0.00196m2

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CBR = 904.948KN/m2* 100 % = 8.786%

10300 KN/m2

Therefore the CBR value is the value at 2.54mm penetration (12.86%)

CBR test for sample three

1000
penetration stress(Kpa)

800

600

400

200

0
0 0.64 1.27 1.91 2.54 3.18 3.81 4.45 5.08 7.62
penetration depth(mm)

Fig. 5.6 CBR test for sample 3

Table 5.11 Summery of the CBR values

Soil sample CBR (%)

1 11.11

2 9.64

3 12.86

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LIQUID LIMIT AND PLASTIC LIMIT TESTS

1. LIQUID LIMIT
Cone penetration method can be used to determine the liquid limit.

Sample 1(0+000 to 0+500)

Table 5.12 (a) liquid limit

TRIAL SAMPLE 1 2 3 4

1 Container number Z-5 C-17 C-20 C-2

2 Wt. of container 6.55 9.62 9.77 9.78

3 Wt. of container +wet soil 46.7 45.57 57.8 56.69

4 Wt. of container +dry soil 36.3 36.19 44.63 42.93

5 Wt. of water (Ww) 10.4 9.38 13.17 13.76

6 Wt. of dry soil(Ws) 29.75 26.57 34.86 33.15

7 Water content (W), % 34.96 35.3 37.78 41.51

Average Water Content (LL)=37.6%

2. PLASTIC LIMIT

Table 5 .13(a) plastic limit

TRIAL SAMPLE 1 2

1 Container number B-3 X

2 Wt. of container 6.48 6.26

3 Wt. of container +wet soil 11.24 10.68

4 Wt. of container +dry soil 10.3 9.76

5 Wt. of water (Ww) 0.94 0.92

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6 Wt. of dry soil(Ws) 3.82 3.5

7 Water content (W), % 24.6 25.2

8 Average moisture 24.9 -

content(PL)%

PI = LL – PL=37.6-24.9=12.7%

Sample 2 (0+500 to 1+000)

Liquid limit

Table 5.12(b) liquid limit

TRIAL SAMPLE 1 2 3 4

1 Container number b-45 C-18 D-20 P

2 Wt. of container 6.5 9.4 9.5 9.7

3 Wt. of container +wet soil 45.9 45.37 58.2 57.69

4 Wt. of container +dry soil 36.3 36.19 44.63 42.93

5 Wt. of water (Ww) 9.6 9.18 13.57 14.76

6 Wt. of dry soil(Ws) 29.8 26.79 35.13 33.23

7 Water content (W), % 32.21 34.27 38.63 44.42

Average Water Content (LL)=37.1%

PLASTIC LIMIT

Table 5.13(b) plastic limit

TRIAL SAMPLE 1 2

1 Container number B-3 X

2 Wt. of container 6.26 6.24

3 Wt. of container +wet soil 10.8 10.76

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4 Wt. of container +dry soil 10.3 9.97

5 Wt. of water (Ww) 0.5 0.79

6 Wt. of dry soil(Ws) 4.04 3.73

7 Water content (W), % 21.18 21.06

8 Average moisture 21.06 -

content(PL)%

PI = LL – PL=37.1-21.06=16.04%

5.2.3. Selecting the most economical combination of pavement

material and layer thickness
Table 5.14 CBR results from laboratory tests at 500m interval we get:

Station CBR%

From 0+000 – 0+500 11.11

From 0+500 – 1+000 9.64

From 1+000 – 1+500 12.86

Table 5.15 Sub grade strength class

class Range (CBR %)

S1 2

S2 3–4

S3 5–7

S4 8 – 14

S5 15 – 29

S6 30

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From the above given table the sub grade strength is =S4 (from CBR result)

Therefore, the combination of two results that means traffic class = T5 and sub grade
strength = S4 we have the following layer thickness using ERA method.

Fig.5.7 Different combination of road surface

From the above three alternatives third one is best form the other alternative
because it needs less maintenance cost and material cost while having the same
capacity of giving service.

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6. Earth work and quantity

Earth work is conversion of natural condition to required section and grade. Earth work
in high way design includes determination of cuts and fills, location of borrow, waste
sites, the free haul and over haul distance determination. Therefore the most common
item of work encountered in highway project is earth work.

Earth work includes:

• Clearing
• Grabbing
• Excavation of drainage channels
• Borrows
• Haul & overhaul
• Grading
• Preparation of side slopes
Clearing refers to the removal of materials above existing ground surface, and grubbing
means the removal of roots, stumps and similar objects to a nominal depth of the ground
below the surface.

Excavation

There are mainly three types of excavations in the construction of highway.

• Road ways and drainage excavation

This is the excavating and grading of the road way and ditches including the removal of
all excavated materials and all work needed for the construction and completion of the
cuts, embankments, ditches, approaches, intersections and similar operations of the work.

• Excavation for structures

This refers to the excavation of materials in order to permit the construction of pipe
culverts, concrete box culverts, foundation for bridges, retaining walls and practically all
other structures that may be required in particular work.

• borrow excavation
When sufficient materials for the formation of embankments and other elements of the
road way structures is not available for excavation performed within the limit of the right
of way, additional suitable materials is generally taken from the borrow pits.

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Excavated materials are usually classified as:

o Common excavation: is largely earth, or with detached boulders.

o Loose excavation: usually refers to rock which can be removed pick and bar, also
the use of power shovels or blasting may be advantageous.
o Solid rock excavation: comprises hard rock in place and boulders that can be
removed only by the use of drilling and blasting equipment.
The steps involved in the computation of earth work quantities and the development of
the optimal mass haul diagram are:

1 End area calculation

2 Volume calculation
3 Earthwork calculation
4 Preparation of mass haul diagram
5 Balancing earth works using the mass haul diagram
1 End area calculation

Areas of station cross sections are calculated first for earthwork calculations.

Based on the shape of the cross sections, two types of area calculation methods are
adopted

• Simple geometric method: is calculation method for regular cross sections like
trapezoidal & triangular.
• Coordinate method: is calculation method for irregular cross sections
A = 1/2(y1x2+y2x3+……+ynx1) - (x1y2+x2y3+………xny1)

2 Volume calculations

The volume of earth work from the successive cross sections can be computed by
different formulas like average end area method, (trapezoidal method) or primordial
formula. Since trapezoidal method is simple and widely accepted we have used it to
compute the volume.

Average end area method (trapezoidal method)

 A1 + A2 
V=  * L
 2 

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Where

V= volume in m3

A1and A2 = areas of successive cross-section in m2

L= distance between successive cross section in m

We considered the value L to be 20m

Since the average end area method is simple and is generally preferred, we choose this
method for this particular project.

3 Earth work calculation

This method consists of averaging the cut and fill quantities of adjacent stations and
multiplying by the distance between stations to produce cubic meters of excavation and
embankment between the two stations.

Compaction factors of excavated material must be determined or estimated in order to

determine earth work quantities of excavation and embankment.

• Total accumulated cut is the total of adjusted cuts (excavation volume *adjustment
factor) added from station to station.
Total adjusted cut=excavation volume *adjusted factor

We assume swelling factor of 25% and factor shrinkage 0% because the soil light
ordinary ground.

• Total accumulated fill is the sum of the embankments from station to station (no
adjustment).
The mass ordinate can now be calculated by taking the algebraic sum of the adjusted
excavation and unadjusted embankment from station to station, using “+” for excavation
and “-” for embankment.

Earth work analyses table is given in the APPENDX B

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4. Preparation of mass haul diagram

MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0+000.000
0+100.000

0+300.000
0+400.000
0+500.000
0+600.000
0+660.000
0+760.000
0+860.000
0+920.000
1+012.006
1+080.000
1+180.000
1+280.000
1+380.000
1+480.000
0+200.000

Fig. 6.1 Mass haul diagram

Mass haul diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of earth work and
embankment involved in a project and the manner in which the earth is to be moved

The mass haul diagram is used to determine:

• Proper distribution of excavated material.

• Amount and location of waste.
• Amount and location of borrow.
• Amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters.
• Direction of haul.

5. Balancing earth works using the mass haul diagram

Balancing is to mean proportioning of earth work with haul distance and cost

Terms

• Free haul: is the distance through which excavated material may be transported
with out added cost above the unit bid price.
• Limit of economical haul: is the distance through which it is more economical to
haul excavated material than to waste and borrow.

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• Over haul: It is the product of volume times distance and is represented in the
mass haul diagram as the area between the zero balance line and the curve of the
mass after eliminating all the free haul
• Waste: Is the material excavated from the road way cuts but not required for
making the embankments
Let Ce =cost of excavation per unit volume

Cb =cost of borrow material at borrow pit

Coh=cost of over haul per unit volume-station

Le =economical over haul distance

LT=total haul distance

F = free haul distance.

Assumptions

Cost of excavation = 40birr/m3

Cost of borrow =135birr/m3

Cost of over haul= 5 birr/m3.station

Cost of waste= 2 birr/m3

One station= 20 meters

Free haul distance=300 meters

The limit of the economical over haul distance (Le) is given at the point where the two
are equal.

Ce+Coh*Le= Ce+Cb

Then, by rearranging the above equation, we can get

Le=Cb

Coh

= (135birr/m3)/ (5 birr/m3.station) =27 station

Le =27*20m=540m

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Le total=Le+F

=540+300=400

Total haul distance=AB*CD/100

LT=4800*560/100=26880 station m.

Excavation cost

Ce=4580m3* 40birr/m3

=183,200birr

Coh=5*26880=134,400birr

Total cost of earth work= 317,600birr

Rough estimation of the total cost

The calculation is given on Appendix-B
Material End area Volume Pay unit Cost(birr)

Total Bituminous 55.485 1018.97 1018.97 15284554

Curb 4.949 90.889 90.889 9088.91
Sidewalk 81 1487.548 1487.548 297509.6
Base 138.713 2547.426 2547.426 323523.1
Sub base 221.94 4075.881 4075.881 305691.1
Total 502.087 9220.714 9220.714 16220367
Table 6.1 Material cost

Total cost of the road (excluding labor cost) =material cost + Total cost of earth work

=16,220,367 + 317,600

=16,537,967 birr

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7. Conclusion
First of all, to design a safe and economical highway through the desired design
period, social and environmental factors and traffic volume should be studied.
When we say safe design the road geometric alignment should give comfort for
the road users and minimize the accidental risk which occur on the road. The other
important consideration in our design is economy. After we give a safe geometric
alignment for the road we bother about the durable materials for the desired design
period and selecting the most economical material which is easily available near
the road to minimize transportation cost. When we select the road material we also
consider the amount of material available on the sources. After these work we also
calculate rough cost estimation to the row material.
Next, a safe and economical geometric alignment design is provided based on the
limits set by ERA2001manual and engineering judgments which are related to
the condition of the project. Survey data and hydrological data are the basic to
do the design. Ethiopian road authority (ERA) set guidance for the geometric
design, pavement design, material selection based on the topography, climate and
the economy of the road. Based on the above ERA specification we have done
selection of the most economical pavement thickness using traffic analysis and
laboratory test. So, we provide less material for pavement thickness.
Thirdly, providing appropriate gradients, which is the basic factor which controls
economy and aesthetic as well as drainage of the highway. We provide the
appropriate gradients by considering critical length of gradient, drainage system,
aesthetics and comfort to give the road user the mentioned road values. In our
specific project, the design starts from survey data and goes to geometric design,
pavement design and drainage system stage by stage.
In addition to the above, clear and precise working drawings and typical sections,
where ever necessary, are necessary for the contractors and consultants.

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8. Recommendation
• Since our road alignment pass through the residential houses it was difficult
to take soil sample near their fence. It would have been easier if we had the
department’s recognition paper. So we recommend for the future it is
necessary to have recognition paper from the authorized person.

• Since it was difficult to have axel survey data due to lag of equipments and
expensiveness of the job we have taken a measured axel load from similar
route.

• Current material, labor and construction cost data should always be

considered and updated. Due to the lake of this data we have taken the past
cost data and get the rough cost estimation.

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References:
1. ERA 2002 manual(GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT DESGIN
MANUAL)
2. AACRA 2004 manual(GEOMETRIC AND PAVEMENT
DESGIN MANUAL)
3. TCDSCo standard design manual
4. High way engineering by Paul H. Wright / Karen K. Doxon
5. Adigrat drainage project (Design review project by
Ato Cherkos Tefer 2000 develop IDF curve foe 10 towns of
Northern Ethiopia as partial fulfillment of MSc. Degree in Civil
Engineering)

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