HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS

Mathematics has been the backbone of our civilization. It is exaggeration to say

that history of Mathematics is the no history of civilisation. Mathematics has led
to the development of various subjects, vocations and technology.
In the History of mathematics there have been some very remarkable
development in the form of discovery and evolution of certain ideas and
processes. These ideas and processes claim special status and significance in the
overall progress of mathematical knowledge.
They are considered to be landmarks in the History of the subject. Few of them
are follows:-
Notation system
The origin of notation system is as old as the man himself. Number sense is
something innate is man. The primitive man was able to differentiate one object
from two but could not tell one and one are two. He used various ways to count.
He used fingers, notches, cuts in the trees, lines on the ground. Pebbles etc. for
the purpose. The Notation system originated and developed differently in
different countries. The numeral '1' perhaps meant one lifted finger. 'Two' was
represented by two fingers or lines. If we write two lines without lifting the pen.
It becomes z, which ultimately changed into 2.
The Babylonions used wedge-shaped symbols. One was represented by V. ten
was represented by < and one hundred by vc.
The roman system is based on the idea of counting fingers or lines. Thus I, II
and III represented one, two,
4 Teaching of Mathematics and three respectively. V probably represented the
whole hand. To avoid clumsy IIII they wrote I before V i.e. IV the symbol gave
rise to the idea of postional value. The symbol X was the combination of two
fives i.e. Xone above the other.
The notation system 1, 2, 3,... can be called Hindu-Arabic System. This system
is originated by Hindus perfected and transmitted to the west through the Arabs.
Some ancient symbols carved on stone are found. The symbol O was used to
denote vacuums. The word zero comes from Arabic 'Sifar' which was
translation of the Hindu word 'Shunya'. Arabs also made certain modification in
Hindu numerals. During 13th century and after the Hindu-Arabic system spread
all over the world.
Metric system of weights and measures
In India, Ratti was taken as the basis unit of weight, 'penny' on English unit of
weight was considered as equal to 32 wheat seeds various limbs of body were
used by man to measure length e.g. cubit, span, pace, foot etc. In English
(England) a yard was fixed as the distance from the nose to the thumb of King
Henry I
Because of lack of communication systems the unit of weight and measures
varied from place to place. The unit 'pound' was used by Romans. At some
places the 'pound' was considered to be of 13 ounces at another of 18 ounces, So
there was a lot of confusion in the systems of weights and measures. In 1970 the
king of France appointed a committee for uniformity in system. Now meter is
defined as the length of a standard bar kept in Paris. For smaller measurements,
the meter was divided into tens using Latin prefixed as deci, centi and milli. For
longer measurement, they multiplied by tens using Greek prefixes such as kilo,
deca, hecto etc. Similarly units of area were developed and we have cubic
meter, cubic decimeter, cubic centimeter etc. as units of area.
In the same way, units of volume were developed and we have cubic meter as
unit of volume. The weight of one cubic centimeter of water at 4°c was taken as
one gram. The gram was further subdivided into decigrams, centigrams and
milligrams and multiplied into decagrams hectograms and kilograms.
Logirithms
The word 'logarithms' is derived from the Greek word 'loyos' and 'arithmos'.
Logos means to reason, to reckon, to calculate, arithmos means a number. Thus
logarithms stand for calculations of numbers. Logarithms were invented by
John Napier. The famous mathematician of Scotland, in 1614 he published his
log table after working on several years. His works saved a lot of time and
labour of the mathematicians and scientists over the world.
Starting with the logarithms of sines Napier of applied logarithms to number.
The term Mantissa and characteristics were introduced by Briggs in 1624. The
first label of logarithms of trigonometric functions to the base 10 were made by
Günter in 1620.
CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICIANS
History of Mathematics- "Mathematics is the result of human reasoning which
is free from experiences and its accordance of truth” – Einstein
Mathematics holds the mirror upto civilization. It is no exaggeration to say that
the history of mathematics is the history of civilisation. Mathematicians can
take pride in the fact that their science, more than any other's is an exact
science, and that hardly anything ever done is mathematics has proved to be
useless. The geometry of the Greek and the arithmetic of the Hindus are as
useful and admirable as any research of today mathematics has been a
progressive science. Mathematics is a man- made science. Ancient man also felt
their concern with Teaching of Mathematics this branch of knowledge. Though
their conclusions were not very accurate. Yet their efforts were quite serious
and genuine. They were of course, motivated in their attempt by their social
needs.
Even in the most ancient times they must have done their best on the
computational front of their life. They had their limitations no doubt. Most of
them made astonishing and interesting mathematical discoveries.
The Babylonians
It has been found that Babylonians possessed the knowledge of multiplication
and division tables, tables of squares and square root of geometric progression,
a few computations and the rules for finding the areas of squares, triangles and
right triangles.
Most probably, Plato got the knowledge of the number from the Pythagoreans
and the Pythagoreans from the babylonians. It seems that in geometry they
accomplished little. Like the Hebrews they took л=3. Their astronomy has
attracted much attention. They were the worshippers of heavenly bodies. They
had some calculation about the new and full moon and the eclipses.
The Egyptians
The Egyptians built the pyramids at a very early period. Aristotle says that
mathematics had its birth in Egypt because there the priestly class had leisure
needful for its study. Geometry is said to have originated in Egypt. The
Egyptian kings Sesostris divided the land among all Egyptians in order to give
each one a quadrangle of equal size and to draw from each his revenues through
a tax to a levied yearly.
The period of Ahmes was a flowing time for Egyptian mathematics. It
represents the most advanced attainments of the Egyptians in arithmetic and
geometry. The principal limitation of their arithmetic was the lack of a simple
comprehension symbolism.
It is remarkable that they reached so great a proficiency in mathematics at so
remote a period of human civilization. But strange, indeed is the fact that during
the next two thousand years they made no progress in it at all.
The Greeks
About the seventh-century BC an active commercial intercourse sprang up
between Greece and Egypt. There naturally took place an exchange of ideas as
well as knowledge. Almost all the great Greek philosophers and mathematicians
visited the land of the pyramids. To Egypt, Greece is indebted among other
things for its elementary geometry. But this does not lesson the glory of these
Greek mind, "whatever we Greeks receive we improve and perfect" says Plato.
There are some schools in these period:-
(a) The lonic school
(b) The school of Pythagoreans
(c) The sophist school
(d) The platonic school
(e) The first Alexandrian school
(f)Archimedes
(g) Apollonius
(h) The second Alexandrian school
(i) Claudius Ptolemy
(j) Pappus
(k) Diophantus

The Romans
The sway of the Greeks was a flowering time for mathematic but that of the
Romans of sterility. As a Teaching of Mathematics consequence not only the
higher geometry of Archimedas and Apollonius but even the Element of Eaclid
was neglected. It is thought that even 'Roman Notation' was borrwed from some
outside sources.
Romans had for long been concerned with payments of interest and problems of
interest. The Roman laws of inheritence gave rise to numerous arthmetical
problems.
The Chinese
There are some old publication of Chinese:-
(a) chou-pei
(b) Arithmetic in Nine Section
(c) Arithmetical classic of Sun-Tsu
(d) Sea-Island Arithmetical Classic
(e) Arithmetical classic of change Ch'iuchien
(1) Nine sections of mathematics
(g) Introduction to mathematical studies
(h) The precious mirror of the four elements
(i) The systematized treatise on Arithmetic

Christian missionaries entered China in the sixteenth century. They introduced

European astronomy and mathematics. Euclid's geometry and logarithms.

The Japanese
In about 552AD prince Sho'takn Taishi engaged his attention to mathematics to
such a degree that he came to be called the father of Japanese mathematics. A
little later, Chinese science was imported.
The Seventeenth century was a period of great mathematical activity. It started
with mo'ri Kambei Shigeyoshi who popularized the use of 'suroban'. His pubil
y.s ko`yu wrote a book Jinko-ki in 1627 which is the oldest Japanese
mathematical work now available. Another works are follows: -
(a) Jugairoku (1639) by Imamura Chi Sho
(b) Ketsugisho (1660) by Isomura Kittoku
(c) Kongedki (1666) ‘Sato' 'Seiko'
(d) Hatsubi Sampo 1674 by Seki Ko'wa
The Hindus
Hindus had scaled great heights in mathematics and that was mainly to serve
astronomy. Indian mind are arithmetical. The Hindu dealt with number, Hindu
geometry was merely mensuration, unaccompared by demonstration. Hindu
trigonometry is meritorious, but rest on Arithmetic more than on geometry.
Some works in Hindu period are given below:-
• Aryabhatiyą by Aryabhata (476AD)
• Brahma-sphuta sidhanta by Brahmagupta (628 AD)
• Ganit sara Sangraha by Mahavira
• Ganit -Sara-Sridhara
• Algebra – Padmanabha
• Sidhanta Siromani (Bhaskara 1150)
• Lilavali (Bhaskara)
• Vij Ganita
At the beginning of the twentieth century, mathematical activity along modern
lines sprang up in India. In the year 1907 there was founded the "Indian
Mathematical Society” and in 1909 the “Journal of the Indian Mathematical
Society” was started at Madras.
The Arabs
The Arabs had the good fortune of possess rulers who furthered scientific
research. At the courts of the caliphers. Scientists were supplied with libraries
and observatories. They have to their credit several substantial accomplishment.
They solved cubic equation by geometric construction perfected trigonometry to
a marked degree and made numerous smaller advances all along the line of
mathematics, Physics and astronomy.
They adopted the learning of Greece and India and kept what they received with
care. When love for mathematics began to grow in the west they transmitted
with to the europeans the valuable treasures of mathematics.
Beauty and Precision in Mathematics
1. Beauty in Mathematics
Beauty being a subjective quality is difficult to be quantified by conversion into
measurable parameters or factors. In the same manner, as a common person has
greater appreciation and thus predilection for some art forms more than others,
mathematicians appreciate mathematical beauty differently in different aspects
of mathematics such as theorems, equations, proofs, geometric figures and
process of solving. Despite personal parameters and affinity towards different
aspects of mathematics, there is a broad consensus among mathematicians as to
what imparts beauty to mathematics.
Weyl (1952) connected beauty with symmetry. Chandrasekhar (1979)
considered ‘a proper conformity of the parts to one another and to the whole'
while still showing 'some strangeness in their proportion' as an aesthetic criteria.
Davis and Hersh (1981) derived aesthetic delight from the power of
mathematics to provide order out of chaos. Heisenberg (1985) considered
mathematical structure as a factor, found in the mathematical relationships that
bring together independent parts to form a unitary whole. Dreyfus and
Eisenberg (1986) stated that simplicity, conciseness and clarity of an argument
are the principle factors along with structure, power, cleverness and surprise.
Whitcombe (1988) lists concepts, such as structure, form, relations,
visualization, economy, simplicity, elegance, order, as aesthetic elements.
Stewart (1998) considered imperfect symmetry to be even more beautiful than
exact mathematical symmetry, as our mind loves surprise much like an abstract
art.
Let us discuss few criteria of mathematical beauty:
(a) Beauty in mathematical methods
An elegant proof unravels deep truths, simply and concisely. Euclid's Proof of
the Infinitude of Primes is a classic example that for over 2300 years has been
considered elegant for its simplicity. The elegance of a method or proof can be
ascribed to a number of features such as novelty of approach or the argument,
conciseness, minimum assumptions, independence from existing results, easy
generalization and intuitiveness. A theorem may already have been proven but
the mathematicians still strive to prove it through different methods, not to
validate the earlier proofs but in search of more elegant and creative proofs. The
Pythagorean theorem has been the favourite with over 800 different proofs,
while the theorem of quadratic reciprocity has around 250 published proofs with
Gauss alone publishing eight different proofs of this theorem.
(b) Beauty in mathematical results
The ability of mathematics to weave connections together and establish
relationship by unifying the numbers, different ideas and areas of mathematics
that seemingly appear unconnected at first, is fascinating and hugely appealing
perhaps because of the element of surprise. The realization of an unfathomable
result is what provides the beauty to mathematical results. Euler's formula is one
such classic example and the other is the Gauss's theorem.
(c) Beauty in mathematical principles
Some mathematicians consider mathematical principles to be beautiful because
of their universal application and ability to be applied and convert everything in
the universe to mathematical structures connected through relations. The whole
universe can be regarded as a huge matrix of numbers.
(d) Beauty in mathematical applications
Mathematics allows us to define and describe everything around us with
numbers including the invisible things like sound. A sound is nothing but a
wave with a numerical frequency and amplitude. It is reducible to mathematical
equations. A sound may be a pleasant or a cacophonic noise simply because of
its numerical attributes. Different musical instruments churn out different kinds
of sound simply because they have different attributes.
The most extensive and intensive application of mathematics is probably in
modern day engineering in consumer products, constructing of wondrous
buildings and spaceships. It is indeed the beauty of mathematics that makes it
all possible.

2. Precision in Mathematics
Precision means the state or quality of being precise. Precision is a property of
measurement related to the unit of measure used; the smaller the unit of
measure used, the more exact the measurement is. Measurements must be very
precise to put a satellite in orbit or to determine the amount of x-rays to
administer.
In measuring one's height, it is usually reported in inches. But to say that one is
60 inches tall involves an error as do all measurements. If the person is more
than 60 and 1/2 inches in height, his height is usually reported as 61 inches or if
his height is less than 59 and 1/2 inches, his height is reported as 59 inches.
In reporting a measurement as 60 inches, the greatest possible error is ±1/2 inch.
The measurement is said to be precise to the nearest inch. Had the person's
height been measured with a ruler marked off in tenths of an inch and his height
reported to the nearest tenth of an inch, the measurement would have been
precise to tenths of an inch, and the greatest possible error would have been one
half of one tenth, reported as ±1/20. Precision thus refers to the unit of measure-
in the first example an inch, in the second, tenths of an inch.
Since precision in measurement is very important in science and industry, the
greatest possible error involved in the measurement must be stated.
(a) Precision in whole numbers
Note that in measurement all non-zero numerals are significant. However, a
zero may or may not be significant. For example, a measure such as 3.261 is
said to have four significant digits. Each digit in this measure is significant
because each digit was read from the measuring instrument. Sound is reported
to travel at a speed of 1100 feet per second. A measure reported as 1100 means
that it is precise to the nearest hundred. The greatest possible error then is ±50.
To say that the speed of sound is 1100 feet per second means (1100±50) feet per
second or somewhere between 1050 and 1150 feet per second. The non-zero
numeral farthest to the right indicates the precision, 1100. It is as if this measure
had been with a very large ruler marked off in 100 feet segments. Using such a
ruler the measure would be 11. The unit of measure is 100 feet per second. The
measurement would be reported as 1100 feet per second; the two zeros are used
as place holders and are not significant (not part of the measure). Since the unit
of measure is 100 feet per second, the greatest possible error is ±50 feet per
second. If the zeros had been part of the actual measurements, the measure
should be reported as 1100, indicating a precision to the nearest foot per second.
The greatest possible error in such a measurement is ±.5 feet per second.
(b) Precision in decimal fractions
Note that in decimal fractions as in whole numbers, all non-zero digits are
significant as are all zero digits between non-zero digits. Whereas, terminal
zeros in whole numbers are not considered significant, terminal zeros are
considered significant in decimal fractions.
The measure 2600 has two significant digits, but .2600 has four significant
digits. Also note that the zeros in the numeral 2600 determine only place value
for the numeral 26, but in the measure .2600, the zeros do not affect the place
value of the fraction .26.
In reporting a measure as .2600, the zeros are considered significant; if they
were not, the measure would be reported simply as .26. The measure .2600 is
considered to be precise to ten thousandths or to the place value of the numeral
farthest to the right in the measure. The measure .26 is precise only to
hundredths. The measure .2600 is made with an instrument calibrated to ten
thousandths of a unit and with such an instrument the measure is found to be
2600 of these calibrations. The decimal point in the measure 2600 indicates the
precision of the measuring instrument. In such a measure it is known that the
zero numerals are zero rather than some other number. The zeros are thus
significant. It is not a 'rounding off' or place-holder situation. The greatest
possible error for the measure .2600 is ±.00005.
In contrast, the measure .26 is made with an instrument calibrated to hundredths
of a unit and with such an instrument the measure is found to be 26 of these
calibrations. The measure .26, being precise to hundredths, has a greatest
possible error of ±.005.
In decimal fractions, zeros preceding non-zero digits are place holders only, as
are the terminal zeros in whole numbers, and therefore are not significant. The
measure .026 has two significant digits and is precise to thousandths.

3. Co-existence of Precision and Beauty in Mathematics

Precision and beauty in mathematics may be found to appear side by side
supporting and justifying their intimate relationship. In our day-to-day
experience and practice with mathematics we may see that mathematics has the
power to say the things in an utmost clear way with the use of as much precision
as possible in a particular situation and it is this quality of mathematics that
automatically brings elegance and beauty in its expression and utilization at the
hands of its users.
Here are some examples:
■ Theorem I: There is no rational number whose square is 2.
Theorem II: There is no largest prime number.
■ Euler's formula: E = MC2
■ Mathematical expressions I: Value of variable Z = 8.9 (illustrates transition
from a word statement 'value of variable Z is nearing to 9, but never equal to 9'
to a symbolic statement)
■ Mathematical expressions II:
8 pears - 6 pears = 2 pears
In the words of Hardy (1940), since both the proofs (Theorems I and II) are
easily graspable as well as precise, they are capable of providing aesthetic
experience of delightful and wondering nature.
The small Euler's formula by Einstein is a wonderful synthesis of precision and
beauty. It is capable of explaining the source of energy in an atom explosion
and a nuclear reaction. In its language, mathematics tries to adopt brevity and
precision for communication with its readers and users. Above mentioned
mathematical expressions describe how beautifully mathematical language cut
short the lengthy statements and helps the people to express their ideas or things
in exact form by using notations, symbols and formulae. Mathematics gives a
workable symbolism for the brief and precise expression of ideas.
In a nutshell, the symbolic language of mathematics utilizes, for
communication, the generalized precise formulas it uses for carrying out length
and cumbersome computational work and provides a lot of simplicity, elegance
and beauty in the operations and application of mathematics.