4th edition 2019-2020

SCIE 1005L

Environmental
Science Laboratory
Manual
Phil Hightower & Christopher Beals
Edited by Christopher Beals, Carrie Crabtree,
Phil Hightower, & Matthew Aderholt
Special thanks to Kirk Winkbetter and Gloria Smith
Abraham Baldwin Agriculture College
Department of Science & Mathematics
"Man not only survives and functions in his environment,
he shapes it and he is shaped by it."
René Dubos

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 Table of Contents

Exercise Pages

1. Evaluating Seed Germination Using the Scientific Method 5-12

2. Natural Selection-Predators and Prey 13-20

3. Environmental Impacts on Campus 21-24

4. Gathering of the Fishes 25-28

5. An Investigation of Soils 29-34

6. Examining Biodiversity Using Simpson’s Index 35-42

7. Investigation of a Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystem 43-50

8. Air Components 51-60

9. Waste Management 61-66

10. The Population Bomb 67-68

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4
Name

Ex. 1 Evaluating Seed Germination Using the Scientific Method

Materials needed per setup

Five pots of equal size
One greenhouse tray
Markers/labeling tape
Access to a balance
One 100mL Graduated cylinder
One 15 cm ruler
Unsharpened pencils
One 250 mL beaker
Radish, corn, or bean seeds
Mortar & pestle
Gloves
Potential allelopathic plant material – green & brown pine straw, various
black walnut materials

Objectives:
 Establish a familiarity with the steps of the scientific method.
 Understand the appropriate use of terminology associated with the
scientific method.
 Gain the ability to design a hypothesis-based experiment.
 Gain an understanding of the concept of allelopathy and its importance in
ecosystems with limited resources.

Introduction:
Have you ever wondered why or how something happens? How does a plant know to grow
roots down and shoots up? What is causing a specific disease? What are the best conditions
under which to raise an animal? All of these are questions that can be answered by the
scientific method, a logical process of testing ideas.

There are many steps to the scientific method and, although often depicted as linear, each
step can affect all of the others. The basic steps are described below.

First: Make an observation

We observe many things in our day to day lives—the sky is blue, one plant is taller than the
other, I felt sick after eating lunch—and each of these can lead to a question that can be
answered by science.

Second: Ask a question

Any question we ask about an observation—What makes the sky blue? What is making one
plant taller? What did I eat that made me sick? —should be reasonable and possible to
answer scientifically. Questions about the supernatural (ghosts, miracles, etc.) cannot be
answered by science.

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Third: Develop a hypothesis to answer that question
A hypothesis is an educated guess one makes to answer a specific question and gives a
reason for the observation. Given the examples above, one hypothesis might be “the taller
plant is getting more sunlight than the other plant.” Notice that a hypothesis is a statement
NOT a question. Additionally, a hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable through
experimentation. Your hypothesis will likely lead to one or more predictions that should
support your hypothesis if it holds true when tested.

Fourth: Make a prediction about your hypothesis

A prediction is stated as an If/Then statement suggesting what should happen if your
hypothesis is supported. Predictions often point you toward the type of experiment you
should perform or additional observations you may need to make. For example, “If the
shorter plant is given more sun, then it will grow taller”.

Fifth: Design an experiment to test your prediction

The next step is to determine HOW you will test your prediction including what you need to
measure, how you will measure it, and how you will analyze your data. This is called an
experiment, a test designed to examine a single factor, or variable, at a time. The variable
is the factor you predict is the cause of your initial observation. Experiments should be
controlled and replicated. The control group is tested alongside the variable and should
show either a positive (what something should look like) or a negative (what nothing
looks like) test.

If the outcome of an experiment differs between the control group and the variable, you can
conclude that the difference was likely due to the variable. Replication, including multiple
parallel tests of the same variable and control group combinations, is important for
experimentation as a single result could be a fluke or due to a random variable not
considered; but, multiple consistent results more strongly support a hypothesis. How could
you test the prediction about the plants above?

Sixth: Collect and record data from your experiment

Data is any result of an experiment. There are two main types of data that can be collected
from an experiment: qualitative data (non-numerical, observatory, descriptive) and
quantitative data (numerical). Both are often gathered during experimentation, but most
people rely on quantitative data as it can be counted, measured and statistically analyzed.
Data is often recorded in a table and reported using scientific units, usually metric.
Depending on your test for the plant problem, you would likely be collecting data on plant
height (in centimeters or meters) under different levels of sunlight.

Seventh: Analyze data and make a conclusion

Now that you have collected your data, what are you going to need to do to analyze them?
Visuals such as tables and graphs may be the best way to show others any trends you have
found. Additionally, graphs often allow you to present complex information clearly.
Typically, the independent variable (the variable you tested) should be on the X
(horizontal) axis, while the dependent variable (what you actually measured) should be
on the Y (vertical) axis. Each experiment will also have a number of controlled variables
that must be kept the same across all groups in the experiment. For example, if you wanted
to test the effect of sunlight on plant growth, variables that must be controlled would
include the amount of water the plants are given, size of the pot, type of soil used, etc.

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In many cases, numerical data can be analyzed with a variety of statistical tools to
determine trends and significance of results. A conclusion is a statement either supporting
or refuting your prediction or hypothesis based on the data you collected.

Eighth: Use the conclusion to reflect on your hypothesis

Does your conclusion support your hypothesis? If so, then you may want to re-test your
experiment to be sure or run a different test that should also support your hypothesis. Does
your conclusion refute your hypothesis? If so, you should modify your hypothesis, come up
with new predictions and test new experiments. Depending on your hypothesis, you may
need additional observations or experiments to get at the root of the question asked.
Additionally, even if your results, and those of several other tests, do support your
hypothesis, you must still be cautious. It is possible that future experiments, new results, or
even a new hypothesis could refute your hypothesis or provide a more accurate answer to
your question.

Watch out for confounding variables!

A confounding variable is an additional variable that you have not controlled in your
experiment whose effects cannot be separated from those of the variable you set out to test.
In other words, it is an independent variable in addition to the one that differs in the
experimental and control groups. For example: A person grows a tomato plant in direct
sunlight with added fertilizer. That same person grows an identical tomato plant in the dark
with no fertilizer. The plant in the sun grows much taller than the one in the dark. This
person then concludes that sunlight will make tomato plants grow taller. Is this a valid
conclusion? Why or why not? What if it is actually the fertilizer that is causing the difference
in height? Or maybe it is the interaction of the two variables? What could this person do to
support this conclusion?

Activity 1: Seed Germination

You will be evaluating the effects of different conditions on the germination
of common garden seeds using the scientific method. You will design a controlled
experiment to test your predictions. After you have planted your seeds, you will
observe them for the next several weeks to see what happens. Then, you will turn in
the completed lab exercise along with any appropriate graphs.

Scientific experiments are conducted so that results can either support (fail to
reject) or not support (reject) a hypothesis. Experimental results do not prove
anything.

Observations and Questions:

When you look at garden seed packs, you will notice that there is a specific
recommended planting depth for different types of seeds. The seed company
apparently thinks this is important, but does it really make a difference in the
number of seeds that germinate? You will design and conduct an experiment to find
out.

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 Allelopathy is the suppression of growth of one plant species by another
species through the release of toxic chemicals to reduce the competition for light
and resources. These chemicals may be released into the air by leaves, into the soil
by roots, or may be introduced into the soil through fallen leaves or other materials.
Many plants synthesize chemicals that inhibit the germination of seeds. Examples of
plants that use allelopathic chemicals to prevent the germination of seeds near them
include black walnut, creosote, apricot, ragwood, eucalyptus, tobacco, wiregrass,
some pine species, and many desert plants. Trees, like the black walnut, are well
documented as having allelopathic impacts on other plants when exposed to various
parts of the tree.
This method of reducing competition helps to explain the regular spacing of
individual plants in many resource-deprived habitats. You will choose a plant
material to evaluate for allelopathic effects from those provided. (If you decide to
use the black walnut husk then you should wear gloves to prevent the material from
rubbing off on your hands) Will this plant material have an allelopathic effect on the
germination rate of seeds?

Hypothesis A: Seed planting depth is an important factor in germination.

Hypothesis B: The plant material added to the pots is allelopathic and will inhibit
seed germination.

Write out your predictions below. Remember that they must be testable!

1. a. Prediction(s) regarding seed planting depth: If seed depth is an important

factor in germination, then the seeds planted closest to the recommended depth
should germinate the best and those that deviate shouldn’t do as good.

b. Prediction regarding allelopathic plant material: If allelopathic materials

hinders the growth of plants that come in contact with it, then the seeds in
contact with the allelopathic material will not grow as fast as the others

2. Testing: In this section (in a and b), you will describe in detail the materials and
methods you will use to test your predictions. You should write this
section up so that anyone could repeat your tests just by reading your
descriptions. Review the definitions of the words: treatment, control,
independent variable, and dependent variable before proceeding.
Remember, you have five pots only to test both of your predictions. You
will plant at least 3 seeds per pot. Check with your instructor to see if
your methods are appropriate before implementation.

Define the following:

- Treatment: The use of an agent to preserve or give particular
properties to something
- Control: What stays the same
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 - Independent Variable: What can be changed
- Dependent Variable: What is measured

a. Describe how you will test your predictions regarding seed planting
depth. Be sure to note the amount of soil used, number of seeds
planted, depth of seeds, etc. Use four pots for part a.

For the seed depth prediction, we have four pots. Each pot contains three seeds but is
measured at different depths in the soil and the amount of soil. Pot one is the control planted
at the recommended depth of 1/2 inch deep with 75g of soil. Pot two the seeds are planted at
1 inch deep with 80g of soil. Pot three is planted at 2 inches deep with 73g of soil. Pot four the
seeds are planted at 0 inches deep covered by very little soil with g of soil

b. Describe how you will test your predictions regarding the allelopathic
plant material. Be sure to note the amount of soil used, number of seeds
planted, depth of seed, amount of plant material mixed into the soil, etc.
Due to limited availability of pots, use only one pot as a treatment with
the plant material. You may use the same control as in part a.

For the seed allelopathic prediction, we have 2 pots. Each pot contains 3 seeds. The seeds are
planted at the same depth in the soil. Pot one the control is planted at ½ inch in 75g of soil.
Pot two is the allelopathy pot. The seeds are planted at ½ inch depth also in 75 of soil

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You will check your plants in one week. Record your results below.

3. Data/Results of Experiment 1:

a. Seed Depth Experiment

Date 1:

Number of Average
Germinated Stem Length of Germinated Seedlings Stem
Seedlings Length

Control 0 0 0 0 0
Pot 1 0 0 0 0 0
Pot 2 0 0 0 0 0
Pot 3 0 0 0 0 0

Date 2:

Number of Average
Germinated Stem Length of Germinated Seedlings Stem
Seedlings Length

Control 0 0 0 0 0
Pot 1 0 0 0 0 0
Pot 2 0 0 0 0 0
Pot 3 0 0 0 0 0

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 b. Allelopathic Treatment Experiment

Date 1:

Number of Average
Germinated Stem Length of Germinated Seedlings Stem
Seedlings Length

Control 0 0 0 0 0
Treatment 0 0 0 0 0

Date 2:

Number of Average
Germinated Stem Length of Germinated Seedlings Stem
Seedlings Length

Control 0 0 0 0 0
Treatment 0 0 0 0 0

c. Attach a printed XY scatterplot or bar graph showing your final results for
the seed depth part of the experiment. Label the graph appropriately
(Title and student name at the top, axes labeled, bars or symbols labeled).
Be sure to put the dependent and independent variables on the correct
axes. Everything should be clearly shown so that a person with no prior
knowledge of your experiment could easily read your results.

Chart Title

Depth

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

0 inch 2 inch 1 inch .5 inch

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(Optional)

4. Experiment Re-testing: After your results from the first part of your experiment
have been analyzed, a re-test must be designed. To re-test your experiment you
will need to consider several factors, such as

- Should the experiment simply be repeated as it is currently designed?

- Should we add in additional experimental variables? (i.e. should we have
an additional pot with the allelopathic material used in a different way)

Remember that the purpose of re-testing is to add more information that would
either support or not support the original hypothesis/predictions. Also, if additional
variables are added into your experiment, they must be testable with the materials
provided in the lab. It is still vital that all of your information be written down in the
space below. Check with your instructor to see if your methods are appropriate
before implementing them.

a. Describe how you will re-test your predictions regarding seed planting
depth or allelopathic material. Be sure to note the amount of soil used,
number of seeds planted, depth of seeds, amount of allelopathic material,
etc.

5. Data/Results of Experiment Re-

Testing: Variable =

Number of Average
Germinated Stem Length of Germinated Seedlings Stem
Seedlings Length

Control
Pot 1
Pot 2
Pot 3

b. Attach a printed XY scatterplot or bar graph showing your final results for
the seed depth part of the experiment. Label the graph appropriately
(Title and student name at the top, axes labeled, bars or symbols labeled).
Be sure to put the dependent and independent variables on the correct
axes. Everything should be clearly shown so that a person with no prior
knowledge of your experiment could easily read your results.

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6. Discussion: Answer each of the following questions about your experiments.

a. Seed Depth

1. Did planting at different depths have an effect on the germination

rate of the seeds?

2. If an effect was noted, why/how might conditions be different

for seeds planted at different depths?

4. Allelopathic Treatment

1. Did the plant material appear to affect the germination rate for
the seeds?

2. What other variables could have affected your results in this

experiment?

3. Other than leaching chemicals into the soil, what other effect
might the plant material have had on your test?

c. Results

1. What possible sources of error in your experimental design may have

occurred?

2. Based on your results, should you reject or fail to reject the

hypotheses? Address each hypothesis.

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d. Re-testing (optional)

1. According to the re-test results, should you reject or fail to reject the
hypotheses?

2. What further future recommendations could you make?

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Name

Ex. 2 Natural Selection-Predators and Prey

Materials needed
One cup per student
One plastic knife, spoon, fork, and straw per group
Access to 1 m2 plots in varying habitats
Beans-Lima, Great Northern, Pinto, Red (kidney), Lentils
Note: Instructor will have students pre-counted the 1st generation of
beans for the plots
Objectives:
 Understand the difference between predator and prey.
 Gain an awareness of the evolutionary pressures involved in
predator/prey relationships.
 Understand the mechanisms by which natural selection works
as demonstrated by the simulation.
 Be able to predict likely changes in populations based on current data trends.
 Learn some examples of prey defense adaptations and predator
adaptations to counter those defenses.

Predators greatly influence the evolution of prey through natural selection.

Prey species develop many traits to avoid detection and capture by predators. These
traits can be morphological, as in cryptic and warning coloration, behavioral, as in
vigilance and mobbing, or physiological, as in venom resistance and malodor. The
pressure to avoid death is intense for prey. Prey organisms that get consumed by
predators do not get to pass on their genes afterwards.
Predators are also influenced by their prey selection. Predators that are not
successful will not be able to produce offspring as healthy or as numerous as those
of more efficient predators. Thus, successful predators contribute to the overall
gene pool of succeeding generations at a higher rate than unsuccessful predators.
In lab, you will be simulating the process of natural selection between a
group of predators and a group of prey. You will be playing the role of predators and
try to capture beans that will represent prey. As predators, you will be equipped
with different feeding “appendages” in the form of knives, forks, spoons, or straws
that will enable you to capture your prey and place it in your “stomach” represented
by a cup. The handle end of your feeding appendage is used as an attachment point
to your hand and should not be used to capture prey. You may not use your hands
or your “stomach” to capture prey either. All predators represent the same species,
but some predators may be more successful than others at catching prey. To
represent variable prey capture, the different feeding appendages (knives, forks,
spoons, or straws) are used. You can probably guess which appendage will be most
successful and which will be the least successful at capturing prey.

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 The prey species in this simulation are represented by beans. Examine the
different types of beans: Lima, Great Northern, Pinto, Red, and Lentils. You will need
to know what they look like for identification and sorting purposed later.
Three Habitat sites have been set up for testing purposes. Examine Habitat
Sites A, B, & C. To start the simulation, we will run one 45 second feeding trial at
each habitat site. There will be an equal number of prey species at each site at the
beginning. There will be one of each predator type at each site for each trial.
At the end of each feeding trial, we will examine the contents of each
predator’s stomach to determine capture rates of each prey species and to record
our data. (We will sort and count the beans in the cup.) We will then step back and
allow the prey to “reproduce.” Each prey organism will produce one additional prey
species per generation. We will determine how many beans of each type are needed
to represent the new progeny for each habitat and evenly disperse the new beans
across each site.
After the prey have “reproduced”, we then run another 45 second feeding
trial at each habitat site with each predator type present. Each student should
participate in at least one feeding trial. Should time and prey supplies permit, we
will run a third feeding trial at one of the habitat sites.
Record your own data in the following tables after each trial. At the end
of the trial, each predator feeding group should determine the number of each
prey type left. They will then give these numbers to the instructor and assist in
counting beans for the next trial (if any). After the last trial, we will retreat
from the feeding grounds back to the lab so that everyone can get all the
needed information.

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 Trial 1: Beginning Population Natural Selection: Predators and Prey
Habitat A Prey Total
Description: Captures by
each
predator
Lima Northern Pinto Red Lentils
Knife captures
Spoon captures
Fork captures
Straw captures
Number Prey Start 75 75 75 75 75
Total prey captures
Number of prey left (b) sum of row

% of prey left (a)

Percent of prey left = [number of prey left (a) / total number of prey left (b)] x 100

Habitat B Prey Total

Description: Captures by
each
predator
Lima Northern Pinto Red Lentils
Knife captures
Spoon captures
Fork captures
Straw captures
Number Prey Start 75 75 75 75 75
Total prey captures
Number of prey left (b) sum of row

% of prey left (a)

Percent of prey left = [number of prey left (a) / total number of prey left (b)] x 100

Habitat C Prey Total

Description: Captures by
each
predator
Lima Northern Pinto Red Lentils
Knife captures
Spoon captures
Fork captures
Straw captures
Number Prey Start 75 75 75 75 75
Total prey captures
Number of prey left (b) sum of row

% of prey left (a)

Percent of prey left = [number of prey left (a) / total number of prey left (b)] x 100

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 Trial 2: Beginning Population Natural Selection: Predators and Prey
Habitat A Prey Total
Description: Captures by
each
predator
Lima Northern Pinto Red Lentils
Knife captures
Spoon captures
Fork captures
Straw captures
Number Prey Start 75 75 75 75 75
Total prey captures
Number of prey left (b) sum of row

% of prey left (a)

Percent of prey left = [number of prey left (a) / total number of prey left (b)] x 100

Habitat B Prey Total

Description: Captures by
each
predator
Lima Northern Pinto Red Lentils
Knife captures
Spoon captures
Fork captures
Straw captures
Number Prey Start 75 75 75 75 75
Total prey captures
Number of prey left (b) sum of row

% of prey left (a)

Percent of prey left = [number of prey left (a) / total number of prey left (b)] x 100

Habitat C Prey Total

Description: Captures by
each
predator
Lima Northern Pinto Red Lentils
Knife captures
Spoon captures
Fork captures
Straw captures
Number Prey Start 75 75 75 75 75
Total prey captures
Number of prey left (b) sum of row

% of prey left (a)

Percent of prey left = [number of prey left (a) / total number of prey left (b)] x 100

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 Trial 3: Beginning Population Natural Selection: Predators and Prey
Habitat ______ Prey Total
Description: Captures by
each
predator
Lima Northern Pinto Red Lentils
Knife captures
Spoon captures
Fork captures
Straw captures
Number Prey Start 75 75 75 75 75
Total prey captures
Number of prey left (b) sum of row

% of prey left (a)

Percent of prey left = [number of prey left (a) / total number of prey left (b)] x 100

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Natural Selection: Predation and Prey
1. Look at the overall trends across all the simulations. How did the overall
composition of the prey populations change over succeeding generations?

2. Which prey species was better adapted to survival overall? Why do

you think this species fared better?

3. Look at your data for each habitat. Did certain prey species survive
better in different habitats? Give examples and explain why they
survived better.

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 4. What would likely have happened over time to the overall composition
of the prey populations if we had introduced a brightly marked
“unpalatable” prey species to the habitats that induced sickness in a
predator?

5. Determine the total captures each predator type for each habitat and fill
in the table below.

Habitat A Habitat B Habitat C

Knife Captures
Spoon Captures
Fork Captures
Straw Captures

6. Examine your data above. Determine which predator was most successful
in each habitat. What traits among the predators do you think
contributed to their success or lack thereof?

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Various predator and prey species with different adaptations.

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Name

Ex. 3 Environmental Impacts on Campus

Materials Needed
Campus map with assigned areas
Objectives:
 Demonstrate an ability to make assessments of site usage.
 Be able to make accurate and complete observations of environmental
impacts to an area.
 Gain an awareness of the environmental actions and concerns existing at the
college.
 Demonstrate an ability to make recommendations to lessen the human
environmental impact on an area.
 Understand that the meaning of “natural” is subjective.
Environmental Science involves the relationship of humans with their
environment. Many topics in the field involve human impacts on the “natural” world.
You will visit four different locations on the ABAC campus and evaluate the sites for
environmental impacts. Reference the campus map to locate your group’s assigned
areas.
Write a brief description of each site and the environmental impacts you
observe at each location. Your description should be complete enough to give a
reader a very good idea of what the area looks like and its function.
Look for anything “unnatural” produced or caused by ABAC personnel or
students that may affect living (plants, animals, fungi, protests, bacteria, etc.) or non-
living (soils, rocks, water, air, etc.) members of the “natural” environment. Large,
small, outside, and inside impacts are acceptable subjects. Be observant! Think
about how the area would look and function with minimal human impact versus
how it is now.
Each student will turn in the lab individually. Since you are working in
groups, similarities in descriptions and answers will be allowed for this lab.
A brief history:
Tift’s Town was established in the mid 1800’s when Captain Henry Tift left
Connecticut to start a timber industry in an area dominated by pines. What
followed was the conversion from a pine forest interspersed with other species of
trees to a mixed use patch landscape of pine monoculture, agriculture, ranching, and
urban and rural development. Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College began as
Second District A&M School in 1908 to service the congressional district’s lack of
accredited state high schools. What began as a boarding school providing
agriculture education to young men and home economics for girls evolved into a
men’s college in 1924 and joined the university system in 1933. Think about the
human impacts around you as the college expands, undergoes construction
activities, replaces vegetation with ornamental plants, etc.

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Group 1: Areas 1, 2, 4, & A

Group 2: Areas B, C, 42, & 45

Group 3: Areas 17, 18, 39, & 40

Group 4: Areas 28, 29, 32, 33

Group 5: Areas D, E, 27, & 31

Group 6: Areas 15, 16, 21, 26

1st Site:_______________________________________________

Description:

Human activities which occur at the site:

Observed Environmental Impacts:

2nd Site:_______________________________________________

Description:

Human activities which occur at the site:

Observed Environmental Impacts:

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3rd Site:_______________________________________________

Description:

Human activities which occur at the site:

Observed Environmental Impacts:

4th Site:_______________________________________________

Description:

Human activities which occur at the site:

Observed Environmental Impacts:

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Questions: Think about the observations you have made about the campus. Then
answer the questions below IN ORDER.

1. Are there any natural places on the ABAC campus? If so, list these sites.

2. Define “natural” as used in your answer to question #1?

3. Choose one of the sites that you visited. Develop a cost-efficient detailed plan
to: A-Decrease the human impacts to the area; B-Maintain the functionality of
the site; AND C-Return the site to as natural a state as possible.

A:

B:

C:

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Name

Ex.4 Gathering of the Fishes

Materials needed
Fish Image Cards
Access to two classrooms or hallway

Objectives:
 Gain a better understanding of Hardin’s Tragedy of the Commons
concept as applied to the usage of resources.
 Develop an awareness of the tendency of people to take a self-centered and
short-term view of the usage of resources.

Today, you will be involved in the simulation of a village whose main

resources are fish from a shallow area of a local river or pond. Fish will swim up and
down the river at will if no one is watching them but tend to freeze in place when
fishers are present. Each lab group will represent a family from the village. Each
family will elect a provider to go “fishing” in the village’s fishing grounds. Each
family’s elected provider should collect at least one “fish” per “day” per person. Fish
will be represented by cards with fish images printed on them. After the allotted
foraging time (30 seconds), the provider will return to the village to feed their
family. No running or pushing is allowed!

Fish distribution rules

- There is only one provider for each family who knows how to fish.
- The provider will distribute one fish to each family member per day.
- The provider may only eat if there are enough fish for all other members of
your family.
- Extra fish may be distributed as the provider sees fit.
- Fresh fish will spoil if not consumed and may not be saved until the next time
period.
- If there is not enough fish for every family member, those who do not receive
fish will die and cannot be included in the next round.
- Extra fish that are gathered may be sold to the market for $1 per fish
- If a group fails to gather enough fish for every family member, fish can
be bought from the market for $2 each

Number of people in your group: 2

Your group’s goal: 3 FISH A DAY AND SURVIVE

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Results
“Day” 1: Record your results below.
Were you successful in feeding everyone in your group? Yes/No

Number of Number of Number of Number of Money Money

people in fish caught family extra fish earned required to
the family by the members caught from sale of purchase
(including provider who extra fish fish
provider) survived

2 4 2 2 $2 $0

“Day” 2: Record your results below.

Were you successful in feeding everyone in your group? Yes/No

Number of Number of Number of Number of Money Money

people in fish caught family extra fish earned required to
the family by the members caught from sale of purchase
(including provider who extra fish fish
provider) survived

2 3 2 1 $3 $0

“Day” 3: Record your results below.

Were you successful in feeding everyone in your group? Yes/No

Number of Number of Number of Number of Money Money

people in fish caught family extra fish earned required to
the family by the members caught from sale of purchase
(including provider who extra fish fish
provider) survived

2 0 1 0 $3 $2

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 Questions

1. Did your group meet its goal? Explain.

No, the fish population ran out so we couldn’t catch we a day and only one
survived 3 days
2. Was your goal considerate of the entire village or just your
own family?
Just my own family
3. If used properly, would there have been enough fish to feed the
entire village every day? Explain.
Yes, there would have been enough fish to feed the whole village there were 66
fished need for everyone to survive all 3 days and there were 70 fish in total.
4. The Tragedy of the Commons was an essay written in 1968 by
Garrett Hardin, which described that when publicly accessible
resources are open to unregulated exploitation, they inevitably
become overused, damaged, or depleted. Based on a 19th century
pamphlet about a public pasture, each person who grazes animals
will be motivated by self-interest to increase the number of their
animals in the pasture. With no ownership, there is no incentive to
expend effort or conserve the resource. It is to the benefit of everyone
involved to use as much of the resource as possible even when the
costs are shared by all. Several solutions have been suggested: 1)
private ownership, 2) voluntary organization, and 3) government
regulation.

Explain how this simulation relates to Hardin’s “Tragedy of the

Commons”.
If everyone in the village only gathered what they needed everyone would have
survived but because most all groups took more than they needed the supply of
fish ran out causing most people to suffer
5. Imagine that the town council has called a meeting to address the use
of resources and hungry villagers. Briefly describe a proposal below
that would solve the situation.

The town council could set a limit of how much each family could gather to only
one fish per person in each household

29
This page intentionally left blank. Use for notes or calculations if needed.

30
Name

Ex. 5 An Investigation of Soils

Materials Required
Access to Soil A
Access to Soil B
Access to soil sieves
Access to discard bucket
Wax pencil
Triple beam balance
15cm ruler
Glass jar with lid
Pen-type pH meters
Glass specimen dishes
Tweezers

Objectives:
 Understand the soil characteristics of color, structure, texture and pH
along with appropriate terminology.
 Gain an awareness of how soil characteristics affect the soil system.
 Gain an awareness of how human activities affect soil characteristics.

Introduction

Soil is a system consisting of biotic and abiotic components. Abiotic

components of soil include lithic materials, air, and water. Biotic components
include all living organisms that can be found in soil. Plants have their roots
embedded in the soil, allowing allows them to obtain water and nutrients. Larger
animals, like snakes, tortoises, foxes, and rodents, often make their burrows in soil
and help aerate the soil. However, these larger plants and animals are usually left
out of the “soil” definition. Smaller organisms like algae, bacteria, earthworms,
nematodes, and protozoans that play a role in aeration and nutrient cycling, are an
integral part of the soil system, and are considered a part of soil by many
authorities.

Pieces of nutrient rich materials that were once living are called organic
matter. Observable organic matter is usually restricted to detritus (decomposing
vegetation) since the abundance of cellulose slows the decomposition of plant
material. Organic matter from animals also plays a role in enriching soil, but is
rarely observed with the naked eye since it decays quickly.

Soil has several important physical characteristics, including soil color, soil
structure, soil texture, and pH. Soil color combined with location can give clues as
to the origin of the soil/type of parent rock. Soil color that is grey to black in
southern Georgia usually has lots of organic material. Orange soil in our area is

31
usually high in iron rich clay particles. Whitish colored soil in our area is usually
high in sand content or may have a high composition of newly decomposed
limestone.

Soil structure refers to the amount of clumpiness of the soil. Clumps form
when soil particles stick to organic matter or when soil dries unevenly. Soil with no
clumps is easily washed away and may become too compacted as the soil particles
pack in tight next to one another. Compacted soil is very resistant to air and water
penetration, which are both important to living organisms. Soil with too many
clumps is difficult for plant root hairs to penetrate.

Soil texture refers to the size of the lithic particles. Although these particles
typically exist in various sizes along a continuum, soil scientists find it convenient to
divide the size continuum into discrete segments and classify different sizes of
particles as silt, clay, or sand. Sand is the largest particle type and is between 0.05
mm and 2.0 mm in diameter. Silt is smaller than sand and is between 0.002 mm and
0.05 mm in diameter. Clay is the smallest classification and is smaller than 0.002
mm in diameter. Classifications larger than sand, such as pebbles, gravel, and rocks
also exist.

Soils are often classified by their physical characteristics beginning with their
soil texture. Your instructor will provide a soil pyramid for your use in categorizing
soil texture class. You may also view one in your book or online. If still available,
there is an easily readable and simple version found at the website:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/SoilComposition.png/1170px-
SoilComposition.png

Once the relative percentages of clay, silt, and sand have been determined,
you should be able to determine the general soil type of a sample using the soil
pyramid. Most plants generally grow best in loamy soils, soils with an approximately
equal mix of different size particles. Loams preceded by a texture type, (Ex. clay
loam), have all textures present, but have more of one particle type than the others.
Soil types labeled by just one texture type, “silt” for example, are almost all one
particle type, as indicated by the name. Other descriptive terms are possible based
on texture composition (“sandy clay loam“ for example), geographic location,
vegetation types, depth of soil, age of soil, source of parent material, etc.

Soil pH is an important chemical characteristic of soils. The pH scale is a

method of measuring the amount of H+ cations. Measurements below 7 on the pH
scale are acidic and have more H+ than OH-. Measurements above 7 on the pH scale
are basic and have more OH- than H+. A pH of 7 is neutral and has an equal
concentration of H+ and OH-. Soil pH is important for soil life. Soils that are
extremely acidic or extremely basic severely restrict the types of organisms that can
live in them. Soil pH can also be an important restriction in the amount of cation
exchange that occurs between negatively charged soil particles (usually clay) and
plant root tendrils. Plants flood the area around their roots with H, causing other

32
cations (Ca+, Mg2+, etc.) that the plant needs to be released by soil particles. The
plant can then absorb the needed nutrients along with the water they become
dissolved in. Farmers in our area must periodically add lime to their fields to ensure
the soil does not become too acidic for cation exchange.

Investigation

Today, you will be examining two different soil samples. One sample comes from
a pine/oak woodland area that has never been farmed. The other sample comes
from a field that has been farmed annually for over 50 years. Obtain an amount of
each soil.

1. Make observations of the color of both samples.

Soil A:

Soil B:

2. Make observations of the structure of both samples. Do they have no,

few, some, many, or very many clumps?

Soil A:

Soil B:

3. Usually soil structure observations are best observed in the field. What
factors involved in the collection of the samples may have disturbed the soil
structure?

33
4. Fill a jar one half full of one of the soil samples. Label the jar as either A or
B. Half the lab groups should do one soil type and half the other soil type.
Fill the jar almost full of tap water but be sure to leave a little air space.
Shake thoroughly to momentarily suspend the soil in the water. Place the
jar on a flat surface and allow it to settle naturally for at least 30 minutes.
Then, observe samples A and B without disturbing them. Measure any
layers of deposited soil you see form.

Thickness of layers (in cm) seen in sample A:

Thickness of layers (in cm) seen in sample B:

What particle type do you think comprises the bottom layer of deposited
soil?

What particle type do you think comprises the top layer of deposited soil?

If there are still soil particles floating in the water, what particle type do you
think they are?

After you finish, place your jar on a shelf and examine it again a week from
now at your leisure.

34
 5. Determine where one of the soils falls on the soil texture pyramid. Weigh out
a 500 g minimum sample. Using the soil sieves, divide the soil into different
sizes of particles. To avoid excess dust in the lab, do the sieving step
outside or in the greenhouse. Determine which sizes are silt, clay, and
sand-sized. Weigh each particle type and determine the percentage of each.
Write your percentages below and then determine what type of soil you
have. (If the size of the soil sieves do not precisely match the real sizes of silt,
clay, and sand, then you may readjust the definitions. If you do so, make note
of each of your proxy size classifications in mm.)

Did you use Soil Sample A or B?

Wt. of sample after Rock/Debris were removed

% Silt Wt Silt
% Clay Wt Clay
% Sand Wt Sand

Soil Type (according to pyramid) _

6. Fill a small jar half way with one of the soil samples. Finish filling it with
DISTILLED WATER. Shake and allow it to sit for two minutes. Shake again
and measure the pH of the mixture. Repeat for the other soil type. Note: this
is not the best procedure for measuring soil pH but is should give us a
coarse estimate.

Sample A pH

Sample B pH

35
 7. Weigh out a 50-200 g sample of each soil. Use the same weight for each
sample. Count the number of organic particles (living or once living
materials, not rocks) in each sample over 2.0 mm in length. You may use the
appropriate soil sieve to screen your sample.

Number of organic particles in Sample A

Number of organic particles in Sample B

8. Which soil sample came from the woodland area? Provide evidence based on
your test results.

9. Which soil sample came from the farmed area? Provide evidence based on
your test results.

10. Inquire of your instructor which soil sample came from which location.
Write the information below.

Sample A

Sample B _

11. Sample A and Sample B were taken within 100 m of one another. List the
processes, events, or conditions at each site that account for the
differences in observations and test results for the soils.

36
Name

Ex. 6 Examining Biodiversity using Simpson’s Index

Other Students in _____________________

Group
_____________________

_____________________

Materials needed per group

Data sheets
Calculator (student supplied)
5 m transect sampling line
Objectives:
 Learn that there are different aspects of biodiversity.
 Gain an understanding of species richness and evenness
 Develop an awareness of conditions that affect species diversity
 Demonstrate an ability to collect precise and accurate data
 Become familiar with the components, meaning, and use of Simpson’s Index
of Diversity

Note: This exercise is adapted from http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/simpsons.htm

Biodiversity can be quantified in many different ways. Ecologists often take

into account species, genetic, and ecological diversity. Today, we will be using
Simpson’s Index of Diversity to explore the concept of species diversity.

The two main factors taken into account when measuring species diversity
are richness and evenness. Richness is a measure of the number of different kinds
of organisms present in a particular area. For example, species richness is the
number of different species present. One might also measure the richness of other
taxonomic categories such as genus or family.

Species diversity depends not only on richness, but also on evenness.

Evenness compares the similarity of the population sizes of each of the species
present. As species richness and evenness increase, so diversity increases.

Many factors can affect the species diversity of an area. Long-term factors
include the rate of speciation, immigration, and extirpation (or possibly extinction).
Factors occurring on a shorter time span and more likely to be noticeable to you
include normal succession, disturbances that interrupt normal succession, pollution,
exotic species, natural competition, change in weather/climate, migration patterns,
seasonal changes, etc.

37
 Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity that takes into account
both richness and evenness. In ecology, it is often used to quantify the biodiversity
of terrestrial habitats. It takes into account the number of species present, as well as
the abundance of each species. Before looking at Simpson's Diversity Index in more
detail, it is important to understand the basic concepts of richness and evenness in
more detail as outlined below.
1. Richness
The number of species per sample is a measure of richness. The more species
present in a sample, the 'richer' the sample. Species richness as a measure on its
own does not take into account the number of individuals of each species present. It
gives as much weight to those species which have very few individuals as to those
which have many individuals. Thus, one daisy has as much influence on the richness
of an area as 1000 buttercups.
2. Evenness
Evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of the different species
making up the richness of an area. To give an example, we might sample two
different fields for wildflowers. The sample from the first field consists of 330
daisies, 333 dandelions and 337 buttercups. The sample from the second field
comprises 20 daisies, 49 dandelions and 931 buttercups. Both samples have the
same richness (3 species) and the same total number of individuals (1000).
However, the first sample has more evenness than the second. This is because the
total number of individuals in the sample is quite evenly distributed between the
three species. In the second sample, most of the individuals are buttercups, with
only a few daisies and dandelions present. By simple inference, we can probably
state that Sample 2 is less diverse than sample 1. A community dominated by one or
two species is considered to be less diverse than one in which several different
species have a similar abundance.
Simpson's Diversity Indices
The term 'Simpson's Diversity Index' can actually refer to any one of 3 closely
related indices. Simpson's Index (D), Simpson's Index of Diversity (1 – D), and
Simpson's Reciprocal Index (1 / D).
We will use: Simpson's Index of Diversity 1 - D
The value of this index ranges between 0 and 1, the greater the value, the
greater the sample diversity. In this case, the index represents the probability that
two individuals randomly selected from a sample will belong to different species.
Thus, the higher the probability, the more diverse the sample.

38
D =  (n / N)2

n = the total number of organisms of a particular species

N = the total number of organisms of all species

And, Simpson's Index of Diversity = 1 - D

Now that we know that Simpson's Index of Diversity 1 – D is simply one

minus D, let us examine those two samples of daisies, dandelions, and buttercups
again and see if our index of interest produces numbers that confirm our inferences.

For example, for sample 1 from above with three different species (a,b,c) we
have…

N = 330 + 333 + 337 = 1000

D = (na /N)2 + (nb/N)2 +(nc /N)2

D = (330 /1000)2 + (333 /1000)2 +(337 /1000)2

Then D = (0.330)2 + (0.333)2 +(0.337)2
Then D = (0.109) + (0.111) +(0.114)
So, for sample 1 above: D = 0.231 and 1-D =0.769

If we randomly select two individuals from sample 1, there is a 76.9% chance

that they will be different species.

For sample 2 from our example with three different species (a,b,c) we have…

N = 20 + 49 + 931 = 1000
D = (na /N)2 + (nb/N)2 +(nc /N)2
D = (20 /1000)2 + (49/1000)2 +(931/1000)2
Then D = (0.022 + (0.049)2 +(0.931)2
Then D = (0.000400) + (0.00240) +(0.867)
So, for sample 2 above: D = 0.870 and 1-D =0.130

So there is only a 13% chance that two individuals randomly selected from
the sample will be different species.

Our inferences have been confirmed. Sample 1 showed greater biodiversity

than sample 2.

39
Before you proceed with the exercise, examine the data below. You should now be
able to determine which of the habitats listed have the highest or lowest species
diversity. Terms that may not be familiar to you are defined following the data.

Examples of Simpson’s Index of Diversity in Use

Fish in European Rivers1 Macroinvertebrates in European

1-D for reaches = 0.371 Rivers1
1-D for streams = 0.186 1-D for reaches = 0.235
1-D for basins = 0.129 1-D for streams = 0.195
1-D for basins = 0.0570
Aquatic plants in European Rivers1
1-D for reaches = 0.0378 Benthic diatoms in European Rivers1
1-D for streams = 0.0247 1-D for reaches = 0.0622
1-D for basins = 0.0135 1-D for streams = 0.0405
1-D for basins = 0.0188

Vegetation in forests managed for Charcoal Productions2

1-D for plots harvested within last 6 years = 0.495
1-D for plots undisturbed for over 6 years = 0.749

Macroinvertebrates: small animals without a vertebral column (a backbone)

but that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye

Benthic diatoms: a classification of algae with hardened silicon shells that live
at the bottom of bodies of water.

1Springe, G., L. Sandin, A. Briede, & A. Skuja. 2006. “Biological quality metrics: their
variability and appropriate scale for assessing streams.” Hydrobiological. 566:153-
172.

2K.
Wurster. 2010. “Management Matter? Effects of charcoal production
management on woodland regeneration in Senegal.” PhD. Dissertation. University of
Maryland. 192 pages.

40
Procedure
Now that you understand the concept, you are going to collect data and then
calculate a Simpson's Index of Diversity 1 – D for the vascular (standing upright)
plant species of two different habitat areas. Unless otherwise indicated by your
instructor, these areas will be: 1. Mowed lawn area and 2. “Natural” pine area
Each group will count the number of species and the quantity of each species along a
5m line transect for each area. You will make 2 trials at each site. As you find new
species, make a drawing and then tally the number of individuals you find of each
species. You need not identify the species but you should be able to recognize when
you find a new species and when you find one you have already drawn. Remember
that your results depend on how well you collect your data. You should be both
precise and accurate when drawing and counting your plant species.
After you are finished collecting data for all trials, determine n (number present) for
each species in the sample and N (total number of organisms present, not species!)
for the sample. Then calculate Simpson's Index of Diversity 1 – D for each sample.
Dealing with your trials (repetitions): Calculate 1-D separately for each of your
trials. Then take the average of trials 1 and 2 for each habitat.

Note: Each student has two copies of the data sheet. It will be necessary for students
in the same lab group to pool their data sheets.

Questions

At the next lab meeting, each group should turn in all their work (including
drawings, tallies, calculations, etc.). Each individual should answer questions 3-9.
Each individual should be sure they retain sufficient materials (copies of drawings,
tallies, calculations, etc.) to understand the exercise. Each individual student should
be able to calculate and understand Simpson’s index of diversity.

1. PER GROUP: Attach your drawings and tallies (counts).

2. PER GROUP: Attach your correctly figured calculations. (If you

disagree with your group’s calculations, you may attach your own.)

3. What is your Simpson’s Index of Diversity 1-D for the mowed lawn area?
Trial one:
Trial two:

Mean:

41
 4. What is your Simpson’s Index of Diversity1-D for the natural pine area?
Trial one:
Trial two:

Mean:

5. Why is it more likely that your Simpson’s Index of Diversity is higher for the
natural pine area than for the mowed area?

6. Based on available data from Examples of Simpson’s Index of Diversity in Use

in this lab, which habitat area of European rivers is likely to be the most diverse?

7. If two plants were randomly selected from a forest managed for charcoal
production in Senegal, Africa and harvested within the last 6 years, what would
be the chance (based on available data on page 40) that they would be of
different species?

For a local planted slash pine forest, a researcher obtained the following numbers
for vegetation.

1-D
A: six months after harvesting and replanting = 0.404
B: four years after replanting = 0.755
C: 15 years after replanting = 0.312

8. What events have occurred that would most likely explain the differences in 1-D
between times A and B?

9. What events have occurred that would most likely explain the differences in 1-D
between times B and C?

42
DATA COLLECTION SHEET (Input answers into the questions above)
Remember: n = the total number of organisms of a particular species
N = the total number of organisms of all species
Habitat ____________ Observations of habitat:
Trial 1or 2?
Species Drawing of species Tallies of # of individuals
(a,b,c, etc.) &
description
a na=

b nb =

c nc =

d nd =

e ne=

f nf =

g ng=

h nh=

N=
CONTINUE ON ANOTHER SHEET IF NEEDED!

43
DATA COLLECTION SHEET (Input answers into the questions above)
Remember: n = the total number of organisms of a particular species
N = the total number of organisms of all species

Habitat ____________ Observations of habitat:

Trial 1or 2?
Species Drawing of species Tallies of # of individuals
(a,b,c, etc.) &
description
a na=

b nb =

c nc =

d nd =

e ne=

f nf =

g ng=

h nh=

N=
CONTINUE ON ANOTHER SHEET IF NEEDED!

44
Name

Ex. 7 Investigation of a Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystem

Other Students in _____________________
Group
_____________________
_____________________
Materials needed per group
Large plastic container with:
Collection jars or bottles
Thermometer
Plastic transfer pipets
15 cm rulers
Tweezers
Net
Basic guides to aquatic life
pH testing kit
Phosphate and Nitrate testing pack
Dissolved Oxygen testing pack

Materials needed per lab section

Secchi disk with attached rope
Meter stick
Posters or printouts of aquatic life
Magnifying glasses

Objectives:
 Understand the basic physical and chemical parameters that govern aquatic life.
 Gain an understanding of the importance of nutrients to aquatic life and be aware
of the importance of nutrients as limiting factors in primary productivity.
 Understand the role that temperature, atmosphere interactions, and photosynthesis
play in dissolved oxygen levels.
 Become familiar with appropriate pH levels for aquatic life and the consequences of
incorrect pH levels.
 Be able to use common testing methods to measure abiotic factors of aquatic
ecosystems.
 Be able to identify common aquatic macroinvertebrates.
 Assess water quality based on a macroinvertebrate study.

Ecosystems are composed of both abiotic (nonliving) and biotic (living)

factors. Today you will be investigating some of the abiotic factors that play a large
role in determining the characteristics and communities of aquatic ecosystems. You
will be observing water conditions and testing for pH, nutrients (nitrate and
phosphate levels), dissolved oxygen levels, and temperature.
Macroinvertebrates are animals without a vertebral column (backbone) that
are large enough to see without the aid of a microscope. Macroinvertebrates are

45
 crucial components of aquatic communities. Although diet varies by species, as a
group they function to move nutrients from plants and detritus to primary and
secondary consumers. They are also sensitive to low water quality and can be used
as indicators of overall aquatic ecosystem health. You will be conducting a
macroinvertebrate survey of a local aquatic ecosystem (Lake Baldwin or the Duck
Pond). Using the results of this survey, you will determine the quality of the water.
Abiotic Factors
- Be sure to include correct units for all data reported when appropriate.
- For our purposes, you may assume that ppm (parts per million) is the same as
mg per liter.
- If numbers are off the scale, you may use the symbol > (greater than 4ppm or
whatever the maximum number is on your scale).

1. Terrestrial Conditions. Observe the Pond area. List any possible

environmental factors that may be affecting it.
Run off, trash debris

2. Light Conditions. Is the pond exposed fully to the sun, partly shaded, or
completely shaded?
Full sun coverage

3. Water Transparency. One important factor for aquatic systems is the depth
that light penetrates the water. Using a Secchi disk, determine the depth at
which the disk can no longer be seen. This should be done from the shady
side of a dock or boat, if possible, during midday for best results. Lower the
Secchi disk until it just disappears from view. Record the distance at which
it disappeared. Now lower the disk until it disappears and lower it a little
further. Then raise the disk slowly until it is visible and measure the depth.
Take the average of your two measurements (depth disappeared and depth
reappeared) as your light penetration depth. Factors such as light intensity,
color of water, and turbidity (suspended solids) all play a role in
determining water transparency.

Depth Secchi disk disappears 4.5 ft Depth Secchi disk reappears 4 ft

46
Light Penetration Depth 4.25ft
4. Dissolved Oxygen (DO). Oxygen is introduced into surface water through
either photosynthesis or atmospheric diffusion. Levels of photosynthesis
vary based on temperature and light intensity. Atmospheric diffusion
occurs through wave and wind action. Oxygen levels in water decrease from
being used in cellular respiration and by diffusion if the water is over-
saturated.

You will be exploring the effect of water temperature on oxygen saturation

but be aware that salinity content and air pressure can also be factors. As water gets
colder, it loses energy of motion and slows down. As this occurs, more hydrogen
bonds form and more oxygen gas can be physically trapped and held for longer
periods of time. As water warms, its molecules speed up, hydrogen bonds are less
stable, and less oxygen can be held. Or more simply, colder water has the potential
to hold more oxygen than warm water.

Determine the percent saturation of dissolved oxygen (DO) using the

nomogram below. First take the water temperature. Then determine the dissolved
oxygen level using the testing equipment provided. Take special care to not aerate
the water when taking samples. Next, draw a straight line on the nomogram below
between the water temperature and the level of dissolved oxygen. Record the point
that the line crosses the % saturation scale as % DO saturation.

DO 7.5 Water Temperature % DO saturation

mg/l 24.5 C 87.5%

47
 5. Nutrients. Phosphorous and nitrogen are both macronutrients that are
important for living organisms. In typical nutrient cycles, these nutrients
cycle through primary producers, consumers, and
detritivores/decomposers.
Recall from class discussions that phosphate (PO4)3- is water soluble, found
naturally in rocks and sediments, found in fertilizers and detergents, and is not
found in the atmosphere in significant quantities. Phosphate levels should generally
be between 0.01 to 0.03mg/l in order to avoid excessive algal blooms. The EPA
standard is 0.025mg/l total phosphorous for lakes or reservoirs. Using the
equipment provided, determine the phosphate level for the pond.
Phosphate level 4
Recall from class discussions that Nitrogen gas (N2) is a large component of
the atmosphere but in order to be usable to life must be converted to ions such as
ammonia (NH4)+, nitrate (NO3)-, or nitrite (NO2)-. As there is generally a chemical
equilibrium between the nitrogen containing ions, it is common to test for just
nitrates. Generally total nitrate levels should be below 10mg/l for humans and
below 100mg/l for livestock use.) Use the equipment provided to determine the
level of nitrates for the pond.
Nitrate level 5
Phosphorous is generally the limiting factor in freshwater ecosystems.
(Nitrogen is usually limiting in saltwater environments.) No matter how high the
nitrates, plant growth will cease if all the phosphorous is gone. High nitrate levels
can adversely affect animal life in freshwater systems. You must generally have total
nitrate levels present in a 10:1 or greater ratio to phosphorous levels for optimal
plant growth. Ratios higher that 10:1 mean that phosphorous is limiting since
photosynthetic organisms will use all the phosphorous and still have unused
nitrogen left over. Ratios below 10:1 mean that nitrogen is the nutrient limiting
photosynthetic activity since plants will have phosphorous left over after using all
the nitrogen. Using your data above determine, if possible, the ratio of nitrates to
phosphates.
Ratio of nitrates to phosphates 5: 4

6. pH levels, The levels of hydronium (H+) and hydroxide (OH)- ions can also
limit certain organisms. Crustaceans and shellfish have a difficult time
absorbing calcium for exoskeletons and shells at low pH levels (low
absorbance <5.8 and generally no absorbance <4). Levels below pH 4.5 can
also inhibit the development of insects and juvenile fish. High pH levels (9-
14) can harm most animal life by harming cellular membranes and cause
ammonium ions to be converted to toxic ammonia. Levels of pH in ponds are
influenced by tannic acids leaching from plant material (typically leaves from
surrounding vegetation) and by runoff. Using the equipment provided,
determine the pH level for the pond.
pH 6.5

48
 Biotic Factors-Macroinvertebrate Survey
As discussed previously, macroinvertebrates are sensitive to poor water
quality conditions. In addition, different species have differing sensitivities. Some
such as mayfly larvae and gilled snails can only thrive in high quality water with
proper pH levels, high DO levels, and low nitrate levels. Others such as leeches and
aquatic worms can tolerate almost any type of water conditions. Accordingly, these
different types of organisms or taxa are grouped together and assigned different
point values when assessing water quality.
For the reminder of the lab period, you will be collecting and identifying
macroinvertebrates from the pond. Using your net, scoop vegetation or mud from
the pond onto the land. Then, using tweezers, sort through your collecting material
and remove any small invertebrates you may find. Place them in small jars for
identification. Animals such as fish, frogs and tadpoles, and salamanders are
vertebrates and should be returned to the pond immediately. Once you have about
10 specimens, take them to the central identification area and determine what they
are. Then return to the pond for more sampling.
Once your instructor determines your class has a representative sample of
macroinvertebrates from the pond, the class will gather to tally the types of found
and fill out the survey below. After filling out the table, circle the category that
indicates the quality of water determined.
Macroinvertebrate Survey Water Quality Index
Group 1 Taxa Y/N Group 2 Taxa Y/N Group 3 Taxa Y/N
found found found
Caddisfly larvae Y Beetle larvae Y Aquatic Worms
Dobsonfly larvae Clams/Mussels Blackfly larvae Y
Gilled snails (have Cranefly larvae Leeches
operculum)
Mayfly larvae Y Crayfish Limpets
Riffle beetle Damselfly larvae Y Lunged Snails (no Y
operculum)
Stonefly Larvae Dragonfly larvae Y Midge Larvae
Waterpenny larvae Scuds (Amphipods)
Sowbugs (Isopods)
Total # Taxa Total # Taxa Total # Taxa
Group 1 Taxa 2 Group 2 Taxa 3 Group 3 Taxa 2
multiplied by Index multiplied by Index multiplied by
Value of 3 =6 Value of 2 =6 Index Value of 1 =2
Cumulative Index 14
Value (Group
values added) =

Water Quality Assessment Using Cumulative Index Value

> 22 = Excellent 17-22 = Good
11-16 = Fair <11 = Poor

49
Questions

1. What determines water quality aspects such as color, transparency,

and turbidity?

2. Would the pond have more photosynthetic organisms at greater depths

or shallower depths? Shallower waters Why? They can get more sunlight
to grow

3. During what time (sunset, noon, midnight, or sunrise) on any given date do
you think oxygen levels in the water would be the highest and the lowest?
Why?

4. Using the nomogram, determine the % DO saturation for the following

samples. Be aware of what happens to the water’s capacity to hold oxygen
gas (% DO saturation) when the temperature changes but the DO levels are
the same.

Sample 1 If, DO = 7mg/L Water Temperature = 10C % DO saturation

Sample 2 If, DO = 7mg/L Water Temperature = 15C % DO saturation

Using the nomogram, determine the % DO saturation for the following

samples. Learn what happens to the water’s capacity to hold oxygen gas (%
DO saturation) when the DO levels stay the same but temperature changes.

Sample 3 If, DO = 4mg/L Water Temperature = 10C % DO saturation

Sample 4 If, DO = 9mg/L Water Temperature = 10C % DO saturation

5. Does the pond exceed the safe limits for phosphate or nitrate levels? Explain.

6. Using your knowledge of the phosphorous cycle derived from class,

what would be some likely sources of phosphorous for the pond?

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 7. Which nutrient is limiting in the pond: nitrate, phosphate, or unable to
determine?

8. Does the pond have a pH well suited for animal life? Explain.

9. Determine the Cumulative Index Value and associated Water Quality for
the sample below.

Macroinvertebrate Survey Water Quality Index

Group 1 Taxa Y/N Group 2 Taxa Y/N Group 3 Taxa Y/N
found found found
Caddisfly larvae Y Beetle larvae Y Aquatic Worms Y
Dobsonfly larvae Clams/Mussels Blackfly larvae Y
Gilled snails (have Y Cranefly larvae Y Leeches Y
operculum)
Mayfly larvae Crayfish Limpets Y
Riffle beetle Damselfly larvae Y Lunged Snails (no Y
operculum)
Stonefly Larvae Dragonfly larvae Midge Larvae Y
Waterpenny larvae Y Scuds (Amphipods) Y
Sowbugs (Isopods)
Total # Taxa Total # Taxa Total # Taxa
Group 1 Taxa Group 2 Taxa Group 3 Taxa
multiplied by Index multiplied by Index multiplied by
Value of 3 =9 Value of 2 =8 Index Value of 1
=6
Cumulative Index 23
Value (Group
values added) =

Water Quality Assessment Using Cumulative Index Value

> 22 = Excellent 17-22 = Good
11-16 = Fair <11 = Poor

51
Crayfish

52
Name
Ex. 8 Atmospheric components and pollutants
Materials needed per lab section
Particulate matter air sampler
Filters for air sampler
Thermometer
Extension cord
Access to digital balance
Tweezers
Stopwatch
Gastec 50ml air sampling syringe
Glass tube breaker
Air sampling tubes:
Two oxygen (O2)
Two carbon dioxide (CO2)
Two carbon monoxide (CO)
One ozone (O3)

Objectives:
 Gain an awareness of the components of air.
 Understand the effects of cellular respiration and photosynthesis on the
components of air.
 Learn about the sources of some air pollutants.
 Demonstrate an ability to read sampling equipment and use proper units
of measurement.
 Learn about bioindicators and their roles in air quality assessment

Note to instructor: The air sampling tubes for this lab are very expensive. Use only the amount required.
The instructor should take the samples. Handle tubes with care after sampling as they may be hot.

The atmosphere is commonly divided into different sphere or layers for

study because of common characteristics and trends in air density and
temperatures. The four layers most often used in environmental science are in
ascending order from sea level (0km): the troposphere (0-10km up), the
stratosphere (10-50km up), the mesosphere (50-85km up), and the thermosphere
(85-500km up). Note that the heights of these levels vary slightly with location and
weather.
Earth’s atmosphere is composed of many gases. Some of these gases vary in
the amount found in the atmosphere while the concentration of other gases remains
stable. The primary component of the atmosphere is nitrogen (N2) which composes
around 78% of air. Oxygen (O2) makes up the next largest component of the

53
atmosphere at around 21%. Argon (Ar) is next at about 0.9% and then carbon
dioxide (CO2) with almost 0.04% of the atmosphere. Although it depends on current
conditions, these four gases usually make up over 99.9% of air.
Other gases such as neon, helium, hydrogen, methane, and ozone (O3)
account for very small portions of the atmosphere. Water vapor (H2O) can vary
from 0 to 4% of atmospheric content and can thus change the number listed above
since they are percents. Local rates of photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and
pollution can also affect the percents listed above on a small or large scale basis. You
may find it helpful to review the net formulas for the cellular processes listed below.
Net Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2→ 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Net Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Common air pollutants include particulate matter such as dust and

soot,
carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide , and ozone. We will further
discuss and then test for particulate matter, carbon monoxide and ozone.
Particulate matter, sometimes called PM, consists of a mixture of different
sizes and types of solid particles suspended in the air. Some components such as
dust, pollen, ash/soot, and smoke are visible to the human eye under certain
conditions. Other types of particulate matter such as aerosols, ion groups (sulfates,
nitrates, etc.), and organic vapors are either transparent, too small, or rarely
concentrated enough to be noticeable by human vision.
The EPA divides particulate pollution into two groups based on diameter:
coarse particles (2.5 -10 m) and fine particles (<2.5m). The EPA recommends
limiting human exposure to fine particles to less than 35g/m3/24hrs on peak days
and to levels of less than 15g/m3/24hrs for long-term exposure. It may be useful to
know that micro () means one millionth. Review the following regarding units if
needed.
Measurements of Length
1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (cm)= 1000 millimeters (mm)
1 m = 1,000,000 micrometre/microns (m)

Measurements of Mass
1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)= 1,000,000,000 micrograms (g)
1g = 1,000,000 (g)

Measurements of Time
1 day = 24 hours (hrs) = 1440 minutes (min)

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 Heavy concentrations of particulate matter can cause reduced visibility
affecting pilots, drivers, and tourism. In addition, fine particles inhaled by humans
can reach deep lung tissue and even enter the blood stream to cause health
problems and exacerbate medical conditions already present. Excessive particulate
matter can contribute to smog and can also decrease crop production through the
reduction of sunlight reaching plants.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a gas that is difficult to detect because it has no

color or odor. It is produced by the incomplete combustion of fuels in engines,
industrial processes, and heating devices. It is toxic to humans because it interferes
with hemoglobin’s ability to bind oxygen. As a consequence, it unfortunately
accounts for many human deaths each year, primarily from the improper use of
heating devices.

Ozone (O3) is a colorless gas but it does have a slight odor that some people
can detect. In the stratosphere, ozone is considered normal and desirable. It aids in
reflecting dangerous UV light back into space. However, in the troposphere where
life occurs, ozone is not desirable. It is toxic to humans because it readily oxidizes
cells and tissues in the lungs and leads to breathing problems. Ozone is produced in
the troposphere from a combination of heat, light, and pollutants such as nitrogen
oxides.
Procedures – Air Quality Sampling (Part 1)
Particulate Matter

You will sample particulate matter as a class exercise. Your instructor will set
up the particulate matter air sampler and monitor it through-out the lab exercise.
The air sampler draws air through a filter paper trapping particulate matter. The
amount of particulate matter trapped can be determined by weighing the filter
paper before and after air sampling. The time of the sample and the average flow
rate of the sampling device are used to calculate the amount of particulate matter in
the air.

Although, the sampler is designed to sample air for up to four hours at a time,
the exhaust temperature must be monitored every 15 minutes to ensure it does not
overheat. Maximum exhaust temperatures should not exceed 75C or the plastic
housing may melt.

1. First obtain a 12.5cm diameter filter paper. Handle it with tweezers to

minimize moisture transfer. Weigh the filter paper on an electronic
balance and record the mass below. Be sure you only have one piece of
filter paper.

2. Place the weighed filter paper into the air sampler. This is accomplished
by loosening the right wing nut on the black metal rain guard and then by

55
 raising the white plastic cover. Place the filter paper on top of the wire
mesh grate and secure with the white plastic cover. Return the rain guard
to its upright position.
3. Place the sampler in an outside location with power access where it will
not be disturbed and allow it to run for approximately 1hr. The switch
is on the bottom of the sampler.
4. Return to check the exhaust temperature every 15 minutes with
a thermometer. Cease sampling if 75C is exceeded.
5. Record the sampling time in minutes.
6. At the end of the sampling time, reweigh the filter paper and record
the mass below.
7. Calculate the amount of particulate matter in units of g/m3/24hrs.

Example Actual
Mass of filter paper 2.50 .4
before sampling (g)
Mass of filter paper 2.65 .41
after sampling (g)
Mass of particulate 2.65-2.50 .01
matter collected (g) =0.15
Mass of particulate 0.15 x 100,000
matter collected in 1,000,000 =
micrograms (g) 150,000

Example Actual
Sampling time period 69
(min)
Particulate collected 150,000 /
(g/min) 69 = 2174

Example Actual
Average flow rate of 0.78 0.78
air sampler (m3/min)
Particulate collected 2174/0.78 =
(g/m3/min) 2787
Particulate collected 2787 x 1440
(g/m3/24hrs) = 4,013,280

56
 Gaseous components of air

Using the Gastec air syringe and detector tubes, your class will be measuring
the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide of the air in the
laboratory room and outside. You will also measure the ozone level outside. Your
instructor will take the samples and then pass the tubes around so students can take
their own readings.
Results of testing gas components:

Parameter Location Results with units

Oxygen Lab 20%

Oxygen Outside, near 21%

plants
Carbon dioxide Lab .045%
Carbon dioxide Outside, near .04%
plants
Carbon monoxide Lab 0
Carbon monoxide Outside, near 0
exhaust source
Ozone Outside 0

Questions:

1. Particulate Matter Sampling

a. How much particulate matter (in g/m3/24hrs) would a human be

exposed to by breathing in the air tested by the particulate sampler?

b. Does the air sampled exceed the peak day limit set by the EPA?

c. Does the air sampled exceed the peak long-term exposure limit set by the
EPA?

57
2. Address any differences in inside and outside measurements for the gas
components listed below. Explain how/why variances might exist.

a. Oxygen in lab vs. outside near plants

b. Carbon dioxide in lab vs. outside near plants

c. Carbon monoxide in lab vs. outside near exhaust source

58
 Procedures – Parking Lot Survey (Part 2)

Choose one of the large student parking lots, either the parking lot next to the gym
or the parking lot across from the horticulture building.
Choose one row in the parking lot that is at least at 75% capacity with parked
vehicles.
As well as you can, determine the make, model and year of each vehicle. You can
estimate the year. Do this for the first 15 vehicles in your row.
Record your findings:

Greenhouse
Estimated Make Model MPG Fuel Barrels of Gas
Year Cost Oil / Year Emissions
(g/mile)

2020 Ford Bronco Sport 26 11.4 342g/mile

2017 Chevy Colorado
2015 Honda Elantra
2015 Nisson Altima
2018 chevy Equinox
2022 Superu Impresa
2017 chevy Traverse
2011 Mazda 3
2013 ford F-150
2015 Chrisler 300
2024 Chevy Silverado
2018 Mazda Cx5
2018 Ford Edge
2018 Mazda 6
2013 Ford F-150 17 $2800 17.5 519g/mile

Use the link below for average MPG and barrels of oil/year consumed for each
vehicle.

http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/findacar.shtml

 Choose the model date or a range if you are unsure of the date (for example:
2000 – 2005)
 Choose the make and then the model
 Record the miles per gallon and fuel cost
 Choose the “Energy and Environment” tab
 Record barrels of oil consumed per year
 Record greenhouse gas emissions produced per year

59
Student Parking Lot

Average Barrels of Average

Average MPG Average Fuel Cost Oil / Year Greenhouse Gas
consumed Emissions

Now choose one of the faculty/staff parking lots. There is a parking lot next to the
library and another next the Health Sciences building.

As you did before, choose a row that is at 75% capacity with parked vehicles.

As well as you can, determine the make, model and year of each vehicle. You can
estimate the year. Do this for the first 15 vehicles in your row.

Greenhouse
Estimated Make Model MPG Fuel Barrels of Gas
Year Cost Oil / Year Emissions
(g/mile)

60
Faculty/Staff Parking Lot

Average Barrels of Average

Average MPG Average Fuel Cost Oil / Year Greenhouse Gas
consumed Emissions

1. Was there a difference in the mpg of the two parking lots you studied?

2. Why might there be a difference in the types of vehicles in the two parking
lots?

3. How do you think these results compare to other parts of the country? For
example, California, the northeast, the midwest?

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Name

Ex. 9 Waste Management

Materials needed
Access to a balance
Calculator (student
provided)

Objectives:
 Become aware of the quantities and types of waste produced by a typical
student both on a daily and an annual basis.
 Learn which items are recyclable.
 Learn the decomposition times of different items of trash.
 Develop strategies to reduce waste production on a personal level.
Management of wastes by communities such as Tifton, GA is an expensive
and involved process. There are many regulations about how items are disposed
and about how landfills and sewage treatment plants are maintained. Industrial and
business waste is often processed in special ways depending on the waste material
type. Sewage is treated at a wastewater treatment plant. Solids are removed and
spread over a reclamation field. Liquids are purified, treated, and released into a
local river.

Garbage is handled in several different ways. Yard wastes (lawn clippings,

leaves, sticks, etc.) along with non-hazardous construction material (concrete, non-
treated lumber, soil, etc.) are sent to the inert landfill for grinding into mulch or
reuse. Recycle drop-off points are located throughout the community for voluntary
residential use. Pick-ups of recyclables at local businesses can also be arranged.
Most of the remaining garbage is sent to the sanitary landfill for burial. Sanitary
landfills are expensive to build, operate, and retire. Residents should realize that
they have some control over how long landfills are useful as they can produce less
garbage and recycle more items with a conscientious effort.

Sanitary landfills generally have an underlying layer of clay covered with a

synthetic liner to control leachate. Pipes allow oxygen diffusion to occur inside the
landfill while also allowing methane to be released. Methane is produced by some
types of bacteria as they decompose some waste products. Drilled wells surround
the landfill so that water quality measurements can be taken in order to monitor
possible groundwater contamination. See the link below for a diagram of a typical
landfill:
https://www.stclaircounty.org/Offices/landfill/anatomy.aspx

In order to reduce the amount of materials entering the landfill, the City of
Tifton offers recycling services. In Tifton, the following materials may be recycled:
plastic (all numbers), metal cans, and paper/cardboard but not pizza boxes (due to
the grease). The numbers that generally appear on the underside of plastic

63
containers indicate the type of plastic that container is made of and helps recycling
centers sort the plastic appropriately.
Currently, Tifton does not recycle glass though this may change in the future.
Plastic grocery bags can be recycled at some grocery stores and rechargeable
batteries can be recycled at most home improvement stores.

Procedure

To begin the Waste Management exercise, you will be completing a two-day

log of all the items you throw away. You may pick any whole days between now and
our next scheduled lab day but please be sure you record everything you throw
away on those days. You may wish to pick a week-day and a weekend day to see if
your habits change. If you cannot record everything on a certain day, then start over
and try again the next day. There are extra charts provided if needed. You might
keep the log sheets by your trash can as a reminder or take them around with you
each day. Do what works to help you remember.

Record the quantity of each of the items that you throw away in the charts
provided for a minimum of two days. Use the Other category for items that don’t fit
in the labeled categories. Do not record any sanitary/personal hygiene items (toilet
paper, q-tips, razors, etc.) as they are not typically targeted items for waste
reduction. After you have a good estimate of how much trash you produce, answer
the questions.

Note: You may need to use a balance in the lab to answer all the questions so plan
accordingly!

64
Day 1 Day of Week
ITEM QUANTITY
Beverage bottles (plastic)
Beverage bottles (glass)
Beverage cans
Other cans
Food wrappers/containers
Bags
Caps and lids
Cups, plates, forks, knives, spoons
Straws, stirrers
Cigarettes/Cigarette filters
Nonfood Product packaging/wrappers
Pen/Pencil
Paper: towels or napkins
Paper: writing/printer
Cardboard: box or piece
Other

Day 2 Day of Week

ITEM QUANTITY
Beverage bottles (plastic)
Beverage bottles (glass)
Beverage cans
Other cans
Food wrappers/containers
Bags
Caps and lids
Cups, plates, forks, knives, spoons
Straws, stirrers
Cigarettes/Cigarette filters
Nonfood Product packaging/wrappers
Pen/Pencil
Paper: towels or napkins
Paper: writing/printer
Cardboard: box or piece
Other

65
Extra Chart if needed Day of Week

ITEM QUANTITY
Beverage bottles (plastic)
Beverage bottles (glass)
Beverage cans
Other cans
Food wrappers/containers
Bags
Caps and lids
Cups, plates, forks, knives, spoons
Straws, stirrers
Cigarettes/Cigarette filters
Nonfood Product packaging/wrappers
Pen/Pencil
Paper: towels or napkins
Paper: writing/printer
Cardboard: box or piece
Pizza box
Other

Extra Chart if needed Day of Week

ITEM QUANTITY
Beverage bottles (plastic)
Beverage bottles (glass)
Beverage cans
Other cans
Food wrappers/containers
Bags
Caps and lids
Cups, plates, forks, knives, spoons
Straws, stirrers
Cigarettes/Cigarette filters
Nonfood Product packaging/wrappers
Pen/Pencil
Paper: towels or napkins
Paper: writing/printer
Cardboard: box or piece
Pizza box
Other

66
Questions:
Note: These are to be answered AFTER you complete your two-day log.
1. What are the three categories of items you most commonly throw away?

2. Which categories of items on the lists can be recycled? Which of these, if any,
do you currently recycle?

3. Which category of item on the lists has the longest decomposition times (days,
months, years, etc)? How long does it take to decompose? Give your source
for your information (website, book, etc.).

4. Which category of item on the lists has the shortest decomposition times
(days, months, years, etc)? How long does it take to decompose? Give your
source for your information (website, book, etc.).

5. Assume your two days of data are a good sample of your trashy habits.
a. How many of each of the three items you listed in #1 do you throw away
each year?

Item1: Item 2: Item3:

b. In grams, how much does your most commonly thrown away item weigh?
(Use a balance in the lab to weigh a sample item if needed.)

c. In grams, how much does a year’s worth of your most commonly thrown
away item weigh?

6. What are three ways you can reduce the amount of landfill trash you produce?

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Name

Ex. 10 The Population Bomb

Objectives:
 Understand the reasons for human overpopulation in certain areas.
 Be aware of the environmental consequences of human overpopulation.
 Learn the methods by which governments and societies have attempted
to control population growth and the social and ethical complexities of
these methods.

“The People Bomb” is a video from 1992 based on footage from CNN archives
and based on Paul Ehrlich’s book, The Population Bomb. It illustrates population
growth problems in various countries. Although the video is somewhat dated in
some aspects, the basic environmental and social problems caused by human
overpopulation have not changed since the video first came out. The problems of
several countries and attempts to correct the problems are discussed. Since the
publication of this video, numerous videos have been recorded, many of them
featuring interviews with Paul Ehrlich, people he worked with, and updated
anecdotal and quantified results. Your instructor will select one of these videos and
present it in the lab. As you watch the video, please answer the questions below.

1. As discussed on the video, what are a few reasons why the human
population is growing?

2. As discussed on the video, list a few ways that could be used to control the
human population. Can you think of any reasons why they might not
work?

69
3. What are some potential problems that the increasing human population
might cause?

4. What are some of the countries where population growth is causing the most
problems?

70