MN 272 Ground Fragmentation

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1

1.1 Ground Fragmentation ..................................................................................... 1

1.2 Methods of Ground Fragmentation .................................................................. 1

CHAPTER 2 RIPPING ............................................................................................. 3

2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 3

2.2 Main Components of Ripper ............................................................................ 3
2.3 Rippability ........................................................................................................ 4
2.3.1 Determination of Rippability .................................................................... 5
2.3.2 Ripping vs. Drilling and Blasting.............................................................. 5
2.4 Types of Rippers .............................................................................................. 6
2.4.1 General Characteristics of Rippers............................................................ 6
2.5 Selection of Ripper Equipment ........................................................................ 8
2.5.1 Mechanical/Machine Requirements .......................................................... 8
2.5.2 Operating and other factors ....................................................................... 8
2.6 Estimating Ripper Production .......................................................................... 9
2.6.1 Cross – Section Area Method ................................................................... 9
2.6.2 Number of Scraper hauled Method ......................................................... 10
2.6.3 Ripping Distance Method ....................................................................... 10

CHAPTER 3 DRILLING ....................................................................................... 13

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 13

3.2 Drill Holes ...................................................................................................... 13
3.2.1 Mechanical Methods of Rock Penetration by Drilling ........................... 14
3.2.2 Power sources for mechanical attack ...................................................... 14
3.3 Components of Drilling or Penetration .......................................................... 15
3.4 Types of Drills and their Applications ........................................................... 15
3.4.1 Percussive drills ...................................................................................... 15
3.4.2 Rotary drills. ............................................................................................ 16
3.4.3 Rotary-Percussive Drills ......................................................................... 17
3.5 Drilling Accessories ....................................................................................... 17
3.6 Drilling System Performance ......................................................................... 18
3.6.1 Evaluation of Drilling Systems ............................................................... 20
3.6.2 Energy or Power Requirement ................................................................ 20
3.7 Drilling Pattern ............................................................................................... 21
3.7.1 Drilling Pattern for Underground Operations ......................................... 22
3.7.2 Drilling Pattern for Surface drilling operations ...................................... 22

CHAPTER 4 BLASTING ...................................................................................... 23

4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 23

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4.2 Explosives ...................................................................................................... 23

4.2.1 What then are explosives?....................................................................... 23
4.2.2 Constituents of Chemical Explosives ..................................................... 25
4.2.3 Components of an Explosion .................................................................. 25
4.3 Types of and Development of Commercial/Industrial Explosives ............... 25
4.3.1 Black Powder/Gun Powder ..................................................................... 26
4.3.2 Nitroglycerin Explosives......................................................................... 26
4.3.3 Ammonium Nitrate Explosives ............................................................... 27
4.3.4 Slurry Explosives .................................................................................... 31
4.3.5 Emulsion Explosives ............................................................................... 32
4.4 Uses of Industrial or Commercial Explosives ................................................ 33
4.5 Properties of Explosives ................................................................................. 34
4.5.1 Velocity of Detonation, VOD ................................................................. 34
4.5.2 Density .................................................................................................... 35
4.5.3 Detonation Pressure and Blast hole Pressure .......................................... 36
4.5.4 Sensitiveness and Sensitivity .................................................................. 38
4.5.5 Strength and Energy Output .................................................................... 39
4.5.6 Water-Resistance..................................................................................... 40
4.5.7 Shelf Life, Fume and Temperature Characteristics................................. 40
4.6 Classification of Explosives Types ................................................................ 40
4.7 Classification of Commercial Explosives bases Energy Output .................... 41
4.8 Classification of Commercial High Explosives based on Composition ....... 43

CHAPTER 5 BLASTING INITIATION SYSTEM ............................................. 50

5.1 Blast Initiation ................................................................................................ 50

5.2 Capped Fuse (Safety Fuse-and-Plain Detonators) .......................................... 50
5.3 Detonating Cord ............................................................................................. 50
5.4 Electric Firing ................................................................................................. 52
5.5 Electric Initiation ............................................................................................ 53
5.6 Other Non-electric Systems............................................................................ 54
5.7 Detonating Cord ............................................................................................. 55
5.8 Firing Methods ............................................................................................... 66
5.9 Detonating Cord ............................................................................................. 70

CHAPTER 6 CHARGING BLASTHOLES ......................................................... 90

6.1 Background .................................................................................................... 90

6.2 Presence of Water and Hole Blockage ........................................................... 90
6.3 Placing the Primer in the Blasthole ................................................................ 91
6.4 Priming the Charge ......................................................................................... 91
6.4.1 Primer Size .............................................................................................. 91
6.4.2 Primer Location ....................................................................................... 92
6.5 Boosters .......................................................................................................... 92
6.6 Loading the Charge into the Blasthole ........................................................... 93
6.6.1 Column Loading ..................................................................................... 93
6.6.2 Deck Loading .......................................................................................... 93
6.6.3 Reasons for Decking ............................................................................... 94
6.7 Blasting Theory .............................................................................................. 95
6.8 Rock Fragmentation ....................................................................................... 99

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6.9 Blast Design ................................................................................................... 99

6.9.1 The Uncontrollable Variables or factors ................................................. 99
6.9.2 The Controllable Variables or Factors .................................................. 100

CHAPTER 7 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF BLASTING...................... 101

7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 101

7.2 Fly Rock ....................................................................................................... 101
7.2.1 Causes of Fly rock ................................................................................. 101
7.3 Ground Vibration and Airblast ..................................................................... 102
7.3.1 Ground Vibrations ................................................................................. 102
7.3.2 Damage Criteria and Recommendations ............................................... 104
7.3.3 Planning of Blasting Operations ........................................................... 107
7.4 Air Shock Waves .......................................................................................... 109
7.4.1 Air overpressure in Confined Spaces .................................................... 112

CHAPTER 8 EXPLOSIVES REGULATIONS ..................................................... 1

8.1 General Requirement ........................................................................................ 1

8.2 Transportation of Explosives............................................................................ 1
8.2.1 Highway Transport.................................................................................... 1
8.2.2 Minesite Transport .................................................................................... 2
8.2.3 Underground Transport ............................................................................. 2
8.3 Manual Transport ............................................................................................. 2
8.4 Vehicle/Normet Transport ................................................................................ 2
8.5 Introduction of Rock Blasting .......................................................................... 2
8.6 Types of Rock Blasting .................................................................................... 3
8.6.1 Primary Blasting ....................................................................................... 3
8.6.2 Methods or ways of Secondary Blasting ................................................... 3
8.7 Blasting time ..................................................................................................... 4
8.8 Blasting Hazards ............................................................................................... 4
8.9 Magazine .......................................................................................................... 4
8.9.1 Magazine Acquisition ............................................................................... 4
8.9.2 Types of Magazine .................................................................................... 2
8.9.3 License of a Magazine .............................................................................. 2
8.9.4 Safety Features of a Magazine .................................................................. 2
8.9.5 Inscription on Signboards ......................................................................... 2
8.9.6 Provision made against Theft .................................................................... 2
8.9.7 Provision made against Fire Outbreak ...................................................... 2
8.9.8 Regulating Magazine Stock ...................................................................... 2
8.9.9 Storage of explosives ................................................................................ 2
8.9.10 Duties of a magazine clerk ........................................................................ 3

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Ground Fragmentation

Ground fragmentation involves the breaking up of in situ rock/formation into pieces or

fragments of desired sizes for end use, the sizes of the fragments being dependent on the
use to which the broken material is to be put. For example:
i. Crushing to extract the valuable mineral/metal content;
ii. Crushing to produce aggregates/chipping for the building and construction
industry;
iii. Production of larger fragments/boulders for control of erosion on the faces of
earth-filled dams, shoreline or coastline and;
iv. Waste removal to gain access to the economic mineral deposit for exploitation.

In the case of (i) & (ii) small fragments are required to match the size of crushers to be
employed, while in the case of (iii) & (iv) much larger fragment sizes may be desired. In
all cases however, the method adopted should meet the specific needs of the job.

1.2 Methods of Ground Fragmentation

Several techniques have been developed over the years for breaking in situ rock or
formation into smaller fragments for the desired end use. Historically, man has employed
several different types of implements for breaking ground.

For example, in prehistoric times, such tools as bones and horns of animals and flint
(metallic grey rock) were used. With the passage of time metal tools such as moil, chisel,
hammer, etc., were developed for boring holes in the rock that were later filled with
explosive materials and fired for fragmenting/breaking the ground.

Later, powerful mechanical drilling machines such as rock drills and drill rigs were
eventually developed for boring the holes in harder rocks or formations, while improved
explosive materials (such as dynamite and slurries) were also formulated for loading these
drill holes for blasting the rocks. In the case of softer formations direct excavation with
hand held tools and other machinery have also been developed and are currently used
throughout the mining industry. The various breaking methods may thus be categorized as
follows:

i. Primitive (including prehistoric) methods: Using tools such as bones and animal
horns, heat and water, and moil/chisel and hammer with explosive materials such
gunpowder or black powder.

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ii. Drilling and blasting: Machinery such as rock drills and drill rigs with improved
explosive materials.

iii. Ripping: Direct excavation using earthmoving equipment/machinery.

iv. Such other methods as flame cutting, jet piercing (hydrodynamic), etc. have been
developed for achieving ground fragmentation.

Of all the methods employed in the fragmentation process the major ones that are
currently in use are drilling and blasting, and ripping, with the latter being the more widely
used, especially in hard rock mining operations. Jet piercing and flame cutting methods are
the next in importance but being applied on a limited scale. The flame cutting is mainly
used in the production of dimension stone and other rock products for sculptures and
ornamentation. Rock breaker drills are a type of rock drills in which the drill bit is a chisel
for breaking the rock directly (without making holes for explosive application).

In this Course we shall concentrate mainly on Ripping and Drilling & Blasting techniques.

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CHAPTER 2
RIPPING
2.1 Introduction

Ripping is the process whereby soft to medium hard rock is loosened by means a ripper
attached to a dozer or tractor equipment. The method is widely applied in the removal of
overburden in surface mining operations, especially in coal and alluvial deposits, and also
in the construction industry where conditions of the formation are favourable for the
adoption of the method. Fig. 2.1 illustrates the arrangement of a ripper on dozer
equipment.

Figure 2.1 Ripper arranged on a Bulldozer (After: Ripco, 2017)

2.2 Main Components of Ripper

The main components of a ripper as shown in Figure 2.2 are:

i. The point or tip

ii. The shank
iii. The tool bar or beam, and
iv. The power assembly

The Point or Tip

This is that part of the ripper that digs and enters into the ground or formation being ripped
by a wedge action. By so doing it splits and breaks stratified rock while crushing
amorphous rock or formation. The main feature about the point/tip is the critical angle at
which it digs into the formation. This is the angle that the base of the tip makes with the
horizontal, and is also known as angle of penetration.

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The Shank
This is that section of the ripper that holds the tip/point.

Figure 2.2 Components of a Ripper (After: Coal Age, 1979)

The Beam or Tool Bar

This is that section of the whole ripper assemblage on which the shank is attached. It is the
part of the assemblage which is attached to the dozer and which can be adjusted for raising
or lowering or inclining by the power mechanism of the ripper.

The Power Assembly

This provides the power requirements that allow the tool bar/shank mechanism to perform
their function of raising, lowering or inclining actions to effect the fragmentation.

2.3 Rippability

This may be defined as the ability of a formation or material to lend itself to ripping, using
an appropriate tool or equipment. To determine the rippability of a material requires that
field-testing and geological evaluation of the formation be carried out. The physical
characteristics of rocks or formations that favour ripping include the following.

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i. Presence of structural anomalies such as fractures, faults, and such other planes of
weakness as joints and slip planes.
ii. Weathering effects.
iii. Brittleness or crystalline nature.
iv. Stratification of lamination.
v. Large grain size
vi. Moisture permeated clay, and
vii. Rock formations of low compressive strength.

The unfavorable physical characteristics include:

i. Massive and homogeneous formations;

ii. Non-crystalline structure;
iii. Absence of planes of structural weakness such faults, fractures, joints, etc.;
iv. Fine-grained material with solid cementing agent; and
v. Formations of clay origin where moisture makes the material plastic.

2.3.1 Determination of Rippability

To determine the Rippability of a formation requires the use of a technique known as

Refraction Seismograph. The results of this technique give the following indications:
i. Degree of consolidation
ii. Thickness of the various layers of material in the formation, and
iii. The direction of the sub-surface cleavages and laminations in the formation

The Principle Employed is as follows:

Sound travels faster in denser medium than in less dense medium hence the speed of
sound through a material indicates the degree of consolidation of that material. The speed
of the sound wave can be as high as 5500 m/s in hard rock and, as low as 1500 – 1800 m/s
in loose materials. The greater the speed, the harder the material/formation. Therefore by
using the Refraction Seismograph the various characteristics of the rock formation can be
established, that helps to determine whether the material can be ripped or not.

2.3.2 Ripping vs. Drilling and Blasting

The major factors to consider in choosing between ripping and drilling and blasting are:
i. Cost;
ii. Availability of equipment;
iii. End use of material to be fragmented;
iv. Transporting method;
v. Excavating/loading method;
vi. Performance of the various equipment; and
vii. Nature of formation to be fragmented.

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It is estimated that rippers used for production can loosen material at 30 – 50 % the cost of
drilling and blasting. The efficiency of ripping decreases while that of drilling and blasting
increases as formation gets progressively harder and vice versa (See Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3 Efficiency of Breakage: Ripping vs. Drilling & Blasting

2.4 Types of Rippers

There are different types of rippers, the differences being determined by the manner of
attachment to the dozer. Rippers may thus be classified as followed:
i. Radial or Hinged type
ii. Parallelogram type
iii. Adjustable parallelogram type.

Figure 2.4 shows illustrations of various ripper types.

2.4.1 General Characteristics of Rippers

Radial or Hinged Type

i. Are not expensive

ii. Are efficient in slabby material with thin layers and in intermittent ripping jobs.
iii. Give problems in penetration in curves and therefore shorten bit life, an undesired
disadvantage
iv. When the swivel-mounted point hits a boulder it just bounces free, a situation that
might break a parallelogram type, and is therefore an added advantage.
v. Allow up to 20o lateral movement of the shank.

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Figure. 2.4 Ripper Arrangement on a Dozer or Tractor Equipment (After: Caterpillar, 2000)

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Parallelogram Type

i. Have rigid mounting at the tractor

ii. Angle of penetration remains constant at any depth. The fixed shank mounting
does not allow lateral shank movement.
iii. The tip penetrates and does not slip as is the case with the radial type and will
therefore break when it meets an obstacle or obstruction like a boulder, a major
disadvantage of the type.
iv. Production may be 15-20% higher than the radial type.

Adjustable Parallelogram Type

This is also referred to as the variable parallelogram type. It combines the best features of
both the hinged and the regular parallelogram types. In this type, hydraulic cylinders form
part of the linkage with the tractor or dozer. These cylinders can be adjusted to change the
ripping angle for best results in different types of material.

2.5 Selection of Ripper Equipment

Several factors must necessarily be taken into consideration when choosing equipment for
a ripping work. These may be categorized as follows:

2.5.1 Mechanical/Machine Requirements

Three primary factors must be considered here:

i. Down pressure available at the tip. This would determine the penetration that can
be achieved and maintained.
ii. Tractor flywheel horsepower. This determines whether the tractor can advance the
tip
iii. Tractors gross weight. Determines whether the tractor would have sufficient
traction to use the available horsepower.

2.5.2 Operating and other factors

These include:
i. Production requirements. How much tonnage or volume of material is required to
be produced per annum? When this is known the hourly production would then be
estimated.
ii. Type and characteristics of the material to be ripped. Is it top soil (i.e., soft)
material, medium hard material or hard material? Soft material or top soil can
easily be scraped; medium hard material/formation can be ripped and then scraped;
while hard material/rock requires drilling and then blasting with its attendant
assembling of drilling and blasting equipment and consumables, excavators/loaders
and trucks/transport equipment with the resultant higher costs. In hard
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material/rock and unfavorable working conditions “Tandem ripping” has been

found to be rather economical. Tandem ripping (Fig. 2.4) involves the use of two
dozers, both pushing the same shank at the same time. In very hard rock however,
“Cross ripping” is recommended.
iii. Ripping speed. This depends on the hardness of the material. Generally however,
this speed is kept at about 2 kilometers per hour (kph).
iv. Ripping depth. This is the amount of penetration that the ripper could make and
dependent on the material hardness. Where “ripper-scraper” production is
employed the amount of penetration should be kept as constant as possible so as to
avoid the production of lumps of unbroken rock as this may damage the scraper
cutting edges.
v. Rip spacing. This depends on the material size (which is a function of end use) and
the loading equipment available. A “ripper-shovel” combination can load bigger
lumps of material and therefore allows for bigger spacing to be used. For better
production results however, close spacing with less number of shanks is
recommended.

2.6 Estimating Ripper Production

Three methods are available for estimating the productivity of a ripper. These are:
i. Cross – section area method.
ii. Number of scraper hauled method, and
iii. Ripping distance method.

2.6.1 Cross – Section Area Method

In this method the area to be ripped is first determined, and after ripping the ripping depth
or penetration is measured to obtain the volume of material ripped. This is then converted
to obtain the productivity. The procedure here is as follows:
i. Select the site to be ripped and find the cross section area.
ii. Record the time it takes the ripper to rip out the area in question, T minutes.
iii. Then muck out the material so ripped.
iv. Cross-section the area again to determine the volume of material removed, V bm3
v. Divide this volume by the time taken to do the ripping to obtain the bank cubic
volume/unit time, i.e., bm3/min
vi. Convert this to obtain the productivity (production per hour) of the ripper, i.e., V
bm3/hr.

The cross section area method is claimed to be the best of the methods available.

Summary: Volume of material ripped = Area x ripping depth, bm3

60
Productivity = Volume x , bm3/hr.
T

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2.6.2 Number of Scraper hauled Method

In this method the area is ripped out and a scraper is used to remove the ripped material.
The number scraper loads taken is recorded and converted to obtain the productivity of the
ripper. The procedure is as follows:

i. Record the time spent in ripping out the area, T minutes.

ii.Then count the scraper loads hauled from the area over a period of time, N.
iii.
Then weigh or estimate the average load per scraper, W tons.
iv.Convert this to bank cubic meters per scraper load, knowing the bank density of
the material. i.e., V = W / b
v. Then convert into volume produced per hour (Productivity).

W 60
Productivity, P = xNx , bm3/hr,
 T
Where: W = Weight/haul, N = No of scrapers hauled, T = Time for ripping and  is the
bank density of the material
{Summary: Total production = No. of scraper hauled multiplied by average load/scraper
Then divide by time taken to do the ripping and convert into bank volume per hour}.

2.6.3 Ripping Distance Method

In this method ripping distance, rip spacing and penetration or rip depth are determined to
obtain the volume of material ripped over a period of time, and is then converted to give
the productivity of the ripper. This method is claimed to be the least accurate, but is the
one that is most widely adopted. In operation the procedure is as follows:
i. Time the ripper over a measured distance;
ii. Determine an average cycle time from a number of timed cycles (Note that all
times should include turn-around or backup times for the dozer);
iii. Then measure average rip distance, rip spacing and ripping depth (penetration).
The product of these should give the volume per cycle. From this calculate the
bank volume per hour. That is:

Productivity = 2 x Distance x Spacing x Depth, bm3/hr.

where, T = cycle time or time taken to complete one trip or pass, in minutes.

Results obtained by the above method are usually 10-20% higher than from other
methods, as such the results should be adjusted downward by 10-20%. A further
adjustment, taking into consideration the efficiency of the machine/the machine operator,
say 75%, should be made to obtain the true productivity of the ripping operation.

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Fig. 2.5 Tandem Ripping and Ripper Life Estimations

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Fig. 2.6 Typical Performance Chart

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CHAPTER 3

DRILLING
3.1 Introduction

This is the first phase in the drilling and blasting (D&B) operations for the fragmentation
process. It involves making of holes or excavations in the rock or formation, using special
equipment or tools known as rock drills or drill rigs. Drilling is generally carried out for
the following purposes:
A. Exploration - This is for the search of minerals and is referred to as Exploration
Drilling.
B. Hydrology and Drainage - In this wells or bore holes are drilled for the location of
water for domestic, industrial or other usage; or for de-watering or drainage of an
area.
C. Production - This is for mineral exploitation or production.

During this course we shall concern ourselves with Production Drilling. In production
drilling cavities or holes are made into the formation for the placement of explosives that
are detonated to break the formation into the desired pieces, capable of being excavated
using appropriate equipment or tools.

3.2 Drill Holes

A drill hole, also called blast hole or bore hole, may be defined as a cylindrical opening
that has its diameter much smaller than its length or depth. It has the following
characteristics:
 Diameter
 Length or depth
 Straightness, and
 Stability.

Drilling methods may be classified into the following groups, based upon the method of
attack:
1. Mechanical methods: in which mechanical energy is employed to achieve the desired
penetration, and

2. Non-mechanical methods: in which such energy sources as thermal, fluid, sonic,

chemical, electrical, light (laser), nuclear, etc. etc., are employed to achieve the desired
penetration. Most of these methods are still either concepts or are in the experimental
stages, except such methods as Jet piercing or jet channeling and flame cutting (using
thermal energy), and jet drilling or hydrodynamic drilling (using fluid or water energy)

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that are currently available for production. Even then their application is limited due
mainly to their rather high cost.

(Students should refer to the following books for more info on non mechanical drilling: 1.
‘Novell Drilling Techniques’, by William Maurer; 2. ‘Surface Mining’, by Pfleider).

In the following discussions we shall concern ourselves mainly with mechanical methods
of rock attack or penetration, which methods have the widest applications in the Mining
Industry.

3.2.1 Mechanical Methods of Rock Penetration by Drilling

The system applies mechanical energy to attack the rock in two basic ways:
1. Percussive or hammer action, in which penetration is achieved by the blows
delivered to the rock by the tool;
2. Rotary action, in which the rock is penetrated by the rotation action of the tool.

There is a third method that combines of the advantages of the first two principles to
obtain the desired penetration and it is called ‘Rotary-Percussive’ action. In this the tool
uses rotation action to achieve the penetration when the formation is rather soft, but as the
formation gets progressively harder the percussive action is activated to obtain the desired
penetration.

Based upon these two basic principles and their combinations four classes of commercial
drilling methods have been developed for the mining industry. These are:-
 Percussion drilling (applying hammer-like blows to effect the penetration),
 Drag-bit Rotary drilling (applying shaving or ploughing/plowing action using a drag
bit),
 Roller-bit Rotary drilling (this uses the same principle of forces of operation as in the
drag bit using rolling cutter bits: this is a combination of percussion and rotation
action), and
 Rotary-crushing drilling

3.2.2 Power sources for mechanical attack

The main sources of power for effecting mechanical penetration or drilling are:-
1. Compressed air (from compressors or boilers).
2. Diesel
3. Electrical
4. Hydraulic
5. Combinations of the above.

These energy sources are used to power the various tools to effect the required penetration
in the formation.
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Phases of Rock Penetration

In any drilling or penetration system two main separate operations are performed by the
system to ensure the necessary advance/penetration into the rock mass. These are:
1. Fracturing of the material in situ, and
2. Ejecting the debris or cuttings thus formed or produced.

(1) deals with the actual penetration of the rock mass, while (2) deals with the removal of
the cuttings and which actions affect the drilling and therefore drill-performance

3.3 Components of Drilling or Penetration

There are three main functional components of a mechanical drilling system, viz. 1 Source
or drill or prime mover, 2 Transmitter or drill rod or steel or tube and 3 Applicator or drill
bit. Energy is applied through the source or drill, which transmits the energy to the
transmitter or rod/steel and which in turn, transmits it to the bit or applicator which makes
direct contact with the rock to effect the necessary penetration.

There is a fourth and equally important component, called Circulation Fluid or Flushing
Medium. This medium helps to remove the drill cuttings or debris to clean the hole, thus
providing fresh rock surfaces to aid the penetration, controls the dust generated, cools the
bit or applicator, and is sometimes used to stabilize the walls of the hole.

3.4 Types of Drills and their Applications

Generally the type of rock or formation often determines the choice of drilling equipment.
For example, percussive drilling or rotary crushing may be employed in hard formations
while rotary shearing is an economical alternative in soft and unconsolidated formations or
rocks. Drilling systems can thus be categorized as follows:

3.4.1 Percussive drills

These fragment rock by impacting repetitive blows to the rock surface, and may be
classified thus:

1. Rock Drills: Are made up of sinkers, stopers and drifters. They basically consist of a
piston that gives a series of blows (impact) as a hammer to the steel or rod and a built-in
rotating mechanism to re-index the bit so that a fresh rock surface is exposed for each
blow, and thus effecting the penetration. The rock drills are the common drill types used in
mining and other drilling activities for production and development.

2. Down-The–Hole (DTH) Hammer Drills: In this case the drill actually goes down the
hole and impacts directly on the bit. They generally used for drilling hard rock in
relatively deep holes, with diameters from 100mm to 165mm. The conventional

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percussive drilling with this machine is practically limited to diameters of up to 100mm.

When employed underground DTH drilling may be used for production blast holes, pilot
holes in raise driving and for drainage, ventilation and communication holes.

3. Cable Tool Drills: These utilize the principle of free falling weight to deliver the blows
against the bottom of the hole. This process of lifting and dropping (as many as 60 times
per minute) of the percussion drill develops the mechanical energy that breaks up the
ground or rock and bores the holes. Cable tool machines or drills are limited to drilling
vertical holes only as penetration depends upon gravity only.

4 Jumbos: These consist of a carriage on which several drifters are mounted to effect the
drilling of several holes simultaneously at the face.

3.4.2 Rotary drills.

These, unlike the percussive drills, fragment rock by cutting or crushing by rotation action
and comprise the following:

1. Blast hole drills: These are applied to large diameter holes in excess of 150mm. They
are far superior to the DTH or other percussive methods when drilling in fractured fissured
formations and in ground consisting of alternating bands of hard and soft rock or in rock
with substantial clay bands. These drills are useful tools in open pit mining and quarry
drilling operations.

2. Diamond drills: In these drills the principle is achieve penetration by grinding away the
rock by abrasion action. They are used principally for exploration where a core of rock is
retrieved by a circular bit with diamond inserts.

3. Augur drills: These are rotary-cutting drills with spiral bits, used especially in soft,
plastically deformable rocks where cuttings are brought to the surface as spiral shavings.
They are particularly useful in removing remnants of coal seams that cannot normally be
mined by conventional methods of mining.

4. Rotary shearing or crushing drills: These use drag bits or steel tooth or button bits in
drilling through very soft formations which would normally block holes in normal bits
thus causing the bits to get stuck in the holes. They use shearing or ploughing action to
effect the penetration.

5. Rotary drills with down-the-hole motors: In these types of drills the motor is located
directly behind the drill bit in the hole. They help to eliminate the need for turning the drill
rod or pipe and thus reducing surface power consumption, minimizes wear, decreases
torsion stresses, etc. This type of drill is particularly useful in holes in excess of 2400 m.

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3.4.3 Rotary-Percussive Drills

These combine all the advantages of percussive and rotary drills. In softer formations
where the rotary action is required the rotary mechanism is activated and harder
formations requiring percussive action the percussive mechanism is activated.
All the types of drills with variations in their specific design and construction are available
on the international market with literature to match.

3.5 Drilling Accessories

The various drilling accessories include drill bits, drill rods/steel/pipes, coupling sleeves
and shank adapters.

A. Drill rods/steel/pipes/adapters. These transmit the energy from the drill/source to the
drill bits to effect the penetration of the rock or formation. In using the rod or drill steels
the task is to transfer the energy from the piston through the drill-string and bit into the
rock or formation. The piston impacts on the drill-string some 50-60 times per minute and
each time the bit penetrates 0.5-1.5mm into the rock. If the design and setting of the
drilling equipment is matched to the rock energy, transmission will be nearly optimal and
this in turn will positively affect the service life of the drill-string. In operation when the
piston in the rock-drill strikes the drill-steel shank the kinetic energy of the piston is
converted into compressive stress waves, travel through the drill-string and into the rock
mass and breaks it. In a well-matched rock drilling system most of the energy in the
compressive wave is utilized to break the rock. In mismatched system however, some of
the energy in the compressive stress wave will be reflected and returned back up the drill-
string as tensile stress waves and cause more damage to the drill-string.

The joints of the drill-string must be tight enough for energy transmission to be fully
effective. Loose joints result in energy loss and eventual drill-string failure.
Drill rods must be selected to suit the entire drilling system. It is thus being recommended
that the largest possible rod/steel diameter for the drill hole dimension be chosen, since the
larger diameter rod has longer service life and transmits more energy. Large rods/steels are
also more rigid and will therefore give straighter dill holes and better blast results. For the
whole of the drilling system to work as efficiently as possible the drill rod/steel must also
suit the rock drill, its piston and the shank adapter.

B. Drill Bits. These receive the energy transmitted from the drill rod/steel and attack the
rock by chipping or grinding to effect the penetration. The main types of bits commonly
employed for production drilling are classified as:
 Chisel bits
 Cross bits
 X-bits
 Button bits.

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All of these bits have tungsten carbide inserts. When bits become blunt they may be
sharpened using special sharpeners designed for the purpose. Bits are deemed to have
completed their service life when the bits are worn to a given minimum gauge beyond
which they cannot drill useful holes for effective blasts, or when they get damaged in the
cause of drilling operations.

Three parameters must be considered when choosing a drill bit for a drilling system. They
are:
 Penetration rate
 Drill hole straightness
 Service life.

If for example button bits are selected for a drilling job, the ability of the bit to penetrate
the rock efficiently will depend on the contact surface of the buttons, their shape and
number, the bits flushing characteristics and the brittleness or Drillability of the rock.

Generally, there are two types of the button bit:

 The ballistic button, and
 The spherical button.

With the button bits tests have shown that with the same impact energy the ballistic button
bit will penetrate deeper into the rock than the spherical button bit, for the following
reasons:
1. It has smaller contact area than the spherical button bit, and
2. It has larger protrusion that makes it to clean the hole, thus leaving the bit to deal
with fresh rock surface and thereby avoiding secondary crushing under the bit.

This means that the ballistic button bit is more efficient, which efficiency also gives the
best drill hole straightness. In certain types of hard and abrasive rock formations the
spherical button bits perform better than the ballistic button bits and have a superior
service life.

In using the button bit, if the power of the rock drill is insufficient or the buttons have been
worn too flat the penetration rate would decrease resulting in increased drill-hole
deviation. Additionally, wearing the buttons too flat would increase the risk of damaging
them.

3.6 Drilling System Performance

A rock drilling system is complex. Aside from the rock characteristics, a number of factors
have been agreed to as affecting rock penetration or cuttings ejection in the drilling
process. These factors in turn largely determine the performance of a given drilling
machine. The various factors or parameters may be grouped into six (6) categories. These
are:
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1. Drill.
2. Rod.
3. Bit.
4. Circulation Fluid/Flushing Medium.
5. Hole Geometry.
6. Drillability Factors
7. There is 7th factor that does not play a direct role in the drilling process but
influences drill performance immensely and are referred to as Service Factors.

The above factors are further categorized in four main functional groups as follows:

1. Design or Operating Variables.

These are made up of categories 1 – 4, and are generally referred to as the Controllable
Factors and consist of:
 Piston mass and its geometry; the frequency velocity of rock drill impact piston;
rotation speed and feed force of the drill.
 Drill rod/steel type and its geometry
 Bit diameter, its design and button type
 Type of flushing medium used

2. Uncontrollable Variables

Drill hole geometry or dimensions: size or diameter and depth.

3. Drillability Factors.

Rock Factors
a. Properties, such as porosity, strength, moisture content, density, etc.
b. Geologic condition such as petrologic and structural – bedding planes, folds,
faults, joints, etc.
c. State of stress (overburden pressure and formation fluid pressure). This factor
is important especially to deep drilling as in the of oil drilling.

4. Service or Job Factors

These do not play a direct role in the penetration process but a vital role in effecting the
efficiency of the drilling process.
 Labour
 Job site and scale of operation
 Power availability
 Weather condition
 Supervision

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To get the most out of a drilling system all of the above factors must work in harmony.
The system must also match the overall excavation method, which means that the
fragmentation requirement for loading and crushing or end-use must be taken into
consideration when deciding which drilling system to choose for a particular job.

3.6.1 Evaluation of Drilling Systems

This is carried out for purposes of comparing various different drilling systems. To do this
the following factors are exclusively employed or used:

1. Energy or power requirement

2. Rate of penetration (Drillability)
3. Bit wear
4. Cost - Purchase price; operating cost and maintenance cost

(The major cost items include: bit, drill depreciation, labour, maintenance, power and
drilling fluids).

3.6.2 Energy or Power Requirement

The type of drilling system must be considered, i.e. Percussion or Rotary.

Percussion:

Blow energy = E = 1/2mv2, where v = piston impact velocity, m = piston mass

Blow power = P = BE, where B = Blow frequency, bpm

Rotary

Energy per revolution, E = Ef + Er,

where thrust energy, T = Ef = FL, and Rotational energy = Er = 2πt

Power, P = Pf + Pr = FR + 2ΠNT,

where, R = Rate of penetration

H = depth of penetration/revolution
F = Thrust
T = Torque
N = rotary speed, rpm

The specific energy is the energy consumed per volume of rock broken. It is a good
measure of the efficiency of a particular drilling machine and serves as an ideal method of

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comparing various drilling machines and therefore systems. If the specific energy is e,
then
e = E/V = P/AR,

where E = Energy
V = volume of rock broken
A = area of drill hole
R = rate of penetration

Rate of Penetration:- This is expressed as a linear advance of drilling, and is defined by

R = (dV/dt)/A,

Also, V ∞ E, so that R ∞ P for a given bit size. Therefore to drill faster in any rock mass
the only thing to do is to supply more power to the bit.

Bit Wear (Rate of bit wear):- This is the loss of dimension or weight or shape of the
cutting element in the bit per unit time or length of the hole. It is an inverse measure of the
life of the bit (the total length of drilled before the bit is discarded).

For the Percussive drilling, rate of wear, w, is given as

w = (blow energy x fluid viscosity x rock hardness)

(Cutting edge angle x number of edges x bit harness x fluid flow rate)

For rotary drilling, rate of wear, w, is given as

w = (rotary speed x rock hardness)

(thrust x cutting edge angle x bit harness x fluid flow rate).

3.7 Drilling Pattern

To get optimal fragmentation results from drill holes and explosive the drill holes must be
placed at the face in particular order or pattern for the explosives to be placed in them.

The drilling pattern therefore may be defined as the way or manner in which drill holes are
arranged in/or at the face or bench in a particular blast or round in either surface or
underground drilling activities for achieving an effective blast. Drilling patterns are
designed to secure the best blasting results with optimal drilling and charging economics.
See the accompanying supplementary pages for some details.

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3.7.1 Drilling Pattern for Underground Operations

In underground (u/g) and tunnel blasting generally, only one free face is available for
blasting into. For best results therefore it is necessary to create additional free faces for the
holes to effectively break into. This is usually achieved by using what is called cut holes.
All the other holes in the round are then arranged such that they break into the free faces
created by these cut holes. There are several of these cut holes, the most commonly used
being:
 Parallel cuts such as the burn cut,
 Angled cuts such as V or wedge cut, fan cut, pyramid cuts, etc.

A cut hole should create an empty space towards which the rest of the round is blasted.
The cut holes are drilled close to each other, with consideration for geometrical rather than
technical values.

3.7.2 Drilling Pattern for Surface drilling operations

Here, there generally are two or more free faces to break into at the bench, except where a
new bench is being created, in which case additional free faces are created using cut holes
similar to those used ii u/g drilling operations. The drill holes in surface or bench
operations are arranged as square, rectangular or staggered drilling patterns. The
dimensions of the drilling patterns are generally governed by production (tonnage or
output) requirements, blast hole size, bench dimensions, nature of the formation to be
drilled, etc. In all cases the quality of the results will depend, among other things, on the
accuracy of the drilling.

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CHAPTER 4
BLASTING
4.1 Introduction

Blasting is the second phase after drilling has been completed in the Fragmentation
process. This involves placing chemical substances called explosives into the drilled holes
and detonating them to cause an explosion thereby breaking the rock or formation into
smaller pieces or fragments for an appropriate end use.

In hard mining activities blasting is the second most important process after drilling, as
these two together constitute the genesis of rock excavation for achieving the desired
production.

The subjects to be treated during this course will include: explosives, their manufacture
and properties, blast initiation (initiation techniques) and delay blasting, loading explosive
charges into the drill or blast holes, blast design and the effects or impacts of blasting on
the environment.

4.2 Explosives

Explosives constitute a major factor in the rock blasting process because they provide the
principal source of energy for the breaking process. By the very nature of their
composition explosives are characterized by various properties that determine how they
would function under field conditions and by which they may be selected for a particular
blasting work. For example, in an ideal dry hole condition non-water-resistant explosives
may conveniently be used, whereas in wet blast hole conditions good water-resistant
explosives that ensure sensitivity and propagation throughout the explosive column may
have to be considered for the job.

4.2.1 What then are explosives?

They are substances, materials, chemical mixtures, chemical compounds, etc. that have
chemical energy. They are capable of undergoing rapid decomposition and thereby
releasing substantial amounts of heat and gases. This energy may be released by a method
or process called detonation in high explosives and deflagration in low explosives. When
the energy in the explosives is released it is accompanied by high pressures, high
temperatures, high volumes of gases, and explosions. The release of these products takes
place within a very short period of time, i.e., in microseconds. Since there is not
enough time for these products to be released, the explosives break or shatter the
medium in which they are enclosed. This means that the chemical energy in explosives,
when released or liberated is converted into mechanical energy, which does useful work by
deforming or breaking the medium in which it is enclosed, rock.

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The essential characteristic of all explosives therefore is that on initiation they react
suddenly to form large volumes of gases at high temperatures, the almost instantaneous
release of these gases creating very high pressures. This reaction proceeds very rapidly
and is self –sustained, and continued throughout the mass of explosive when set off at any
point within it. Fig 4.1 illustrates matter that can be classified as explosives together with
their applications. These lectures will concentrate on the secondary explosives with
particular emphasis on the commercial or industrial or mining explosives and the initiating
explosives generally made from the primary explosives.

Fig 4.1 Classification of Explosives and its Applications

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4.2.2 Constituents of Chemical Explosives

The four common elements of chemical explosives are: hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and
oxygen. Of these elements hydrogen and carbon are considered as the fuel elements
while oxygen is the oxidizer. Nitrogen acts as the bonding agent that attaches itself to
the oxygen and bonds the oxygen to the elements of the molecule.

As a factor in the blasting process, explosives constitute one of the most important
influencing factors in rock fragmentation, as they are the principal source of energy for
rock breakage. Explosives are characterized by various properties that determine how
they would function under field conditions and by which they may be selected for a
particular work. For example, in an ideal dry hole condition non-water-resistant
explosives may conveniently be used, whereas in wet hole conditions good water-
resistant explosives that ensure sensitivity and propagation throughout the explosive
column may have to be considered for the job.

4.2.3 Components of an Explosion

i. An explosion can be broken down into four phases:

i. Release of gases,
ii. Intense heat
iii.Extreme pressure and
iv. Explosion.

When an explosive is detonated, gases are released and as the temperature of the gases
increase the pressure also increases according to Charles' Law. Therefore when an explosive is
detonated in a medium, such as a blast hole, the pressure exerted against the walls of the hole,
if great enough, will move and break the rock.

ii. An explosive initiated in a medium, such as rock, performs four major functions:
1. Fragmentation
2. Displacement
3. Vibrations and
4. Air blast.

4.3 Types of and Development of Commercial/Industrial Explosives

The safe and efficient use of explosives today is the result of gradual evolution that still
continues. From modest beginnings some 600 years ago to today considerable progress has been
made in this regard. The physical characteristics of commercial explosives can generally, take
three basic forms: These include granular, paste and, slurry. The following sections
illustrate briefly, the path of the gradual development of explosives used for rock breakage in
the minerals industry today.

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4.3.1 Black Powder/Gun Powder

The origin of explosive mixtures is hidden in the development of Chinese fireworks some 2000
years ago; however, it was Roger Bacon (a French man, 1214 - 1292), who first
described the preparation of black powder. The true development, however, had to wait
until the invention of the gun by Berthold Schwartz, a German monk from the city of Friedberg,
who lived in the 13th century. At the beginning of the 1660s, the French physicist,
mathematician and poet, Francois Thyboure composed an epitaph for Berthold Schwartz which
reads: "Here lies Berthold the Black, the most abominable of in-humans, who by his
invention has brought misery to the rest of humanity." It was here that the term "Black
powder" was coined.

For a period of 300 years, black powder was used solely as a rocket and gun propellant. At the
beginning of the 17th century, black powder was introduced in mine blasting and replaced fire
setting as the means of the principal method of loosening/fragmenting rock in the mining
industry in Europe. By the end of the 17th century, most of the European miners used black
powder to fragment rock, and as the use of black powder increased, so also did the number of
accidents increase and safer methods of ignition were demanded. This problem of igniting the
gunpowder was solved, when William Bickford invented the Safety Fuse in 1831 in
Cornwall.

4.3.2 Nitroglycerin Explosives

By the middle of the 19th century scientists in different parts of the world had discovered
several new explosive substances. Edward Howard invented the fulminate of mercury
in 1799; Pelouze worked on nitro-celluloses, and Schonbein discovered gun cotton in
18451846, while Asconio Sombrero produced nitroglycerine in 1846. Much attention
was not paid to the explosive properties of these chemicals until Swedish Engineers
Alfred Nobel and his father began to make serious studies on the manufacture and use of
explosives around 1859. They built a factory at Heleneburg, near Stockholm; to manufacture
these explosives on commercial scale and the Nobel's thus became the first people in human
history to apply nitroglycerine as a blasting apparatus in 1863.

Nitroglycerine is a detonating explosive and it requires a sudden blow or shock wave to

initiate the detonation. Initially Nobel used a priming charge of gunpowder in conjunction
with the nitroglycerine, but finally changed to mercury of fulminate, a better substitute to
initiate nitroglycerine at that time. The possibility of igniting gunpowder by means of an
electric spark occurred to Benjamin Franklin in 1751.One of the earliest demonstrations of
electric firing occurred in Austria in 1804, when Baron Chastel exploded military mines by
lighting the gunpowder charges with electric sparks. Blasting operations by electric firing were
being carried out on a practical scale in Britain by 1815.

Development of Dynamite: Nitroglycerine in the liquid state is dangerous and difficult to

handle. It was originally used in dipping holes and there was appreciable loss of the liquid in

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fissured rock with the result that un-detonated nitroglycerine was left scattered within the
broken rock to the danger to those who had to handle it later.

Leakage of the explosive from its containers during storage and transportation was another
source of danger. To minimize this danger, Nobel mixed 75% of nitroglycerine with 25% of
special earth called kieselguhr, (silicon), to form a plastic mass that could be moulded into
cartridges. This made it possible for the explosive to be handled. The mixture was less sensitive,
but it still formed a powerful explosive.

The mixture of 75% of nitroglycerine with 25% of kieselguhr was called dynamite. The
dynamite was not suitable for wet conditions as water displaced the nitroglycerine and
destroyed the explosive properties of the charge. The inert kieselguhr did not contribute any
energy to the explosive and the useful energy of the nitroglycerine was reduced because part of
its explosive effect was wasted on the kieselguhr, which absorbed heat from the explosion.
Nobel invented the first of the gelatinous explosives in 1875, when he added gun-cotton to
nitroglycerine to form a plastic mass that could be moulded into cartridges that were

comparatively safe to handle. They could be used in wet conditions and they have enormous
explosive properties as the mixture was completely converted into gases on detonation.

A mixture of 92% of nitroglycerine and 8% of nitro-cotton is known as blasting gelatins,

which is the strongest of commercial blasting explosives. Blasting gelatin was too strong for
many blasting operations so Alfred Nobel formed a weaker explosive by adding less nitro-
glycerine to produce thinner gelatins, which could be mixed with wood meal to form a plastic
mass. Potassium nitrate was added to provide the required oxygen to oxidize the wood meal
and the explosive was called gelatins dynamite.

Nobel produced other types of galantine-dynamite explosives by adding ammonium nitrate

and another containing ammonium nitrate of a powdery nature. The Swedish chemists Olsen
and Norrbin had actually invented ammonium nitrate explosives in 1867, but it was Nobel
who realized the potential of this type of explosive.

Gelatinous explosives dominated the mining industry for nearly a century before
cheaper explosive products replaced them.

4.3.3 Ammonium Nitrate Explosives

It is generally believed that disastrous explosions of ammonium nitrate in this century

brought to light the explosive potential of this material. For example:

In October 1918, 400 tonnes of ammonium nitrate exploded at New Jersey during
crystallization.
In April 1920, 1000 tonnes of ammonium nitrate caught fire on board a ship at Brooklyn
and detonated.

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In July, 1921 two carloads of pure ammonium nitrate exploded during loading in
Germany.

In September 1921, the most disastrous explosion recorded involving ammonium nitrate
occurred at Oppau in Germany when about 4000 tonnes of ammonium nitrate
detonated, killing more than 1000 people and leaving a crater of 80 metres in
diameter and 20m deep.

Two other disastrous explosions of shiploads of ammonium nitrate in the 1940s, one at
Brest in France and the other in Texas City, finally prompted scientists to further
investigate the explosive properties of ammonium nitrate.

However, the economic potential of NH4NO3 as a blasting agent was not fully exploited
until 1955, when Professors H B Lee and R L Akre patented the use of fertiliser grade
ammonium nitrate, (FGAN), with solid carbonaceous fuel-sensitizers and successfully
demonstrated its performance. The solid fuel first used, such as coal, was later replaced
by fuel oil, and hence modem ANFO/ANBA was born. By the early 1960s ANFO started to
replace dynamite in dry holes because of its cost saving and safer handling characteristics,
and quick loading properties.

ANFO provides excellent performance as an explosive at a reasonable cost. It excels in

gas production during detonation and provides a moderately high velocity of detonation,
but is very much dependent on the degree of confinement. As a blasting agent, ANFO
requires a primer for adequate initiation. The proper priming of ANFO can optimize its
performance with its resultant economic benefits on the blasting operations. ANFO is
suitable in blasting all types of rocks with the exception of granite, diabase and gabbro
or diorite.

Preparation of Ammonium Nitrate

Ammonium nitrate is prepared by the neutralization of nitric acid with ammonia. The
resulting solution is evaporated and converted into prilled, dense flakes or grained forms of
solid ammonium nitrate. This is illustrated in Fig.4.2

For Blasting Grade Prills a high prilling tower is needed because the ammonium nitrate
liquor delivered to the spray head contains up to 4% water. The additional height
provides a longer time for the prills to congeal in the upcoming stream of air. Mostly the 4%
moisture is driven out of the prills during this controlled drop, thus leaving voids within the
prills. These voids increase the prills porosity, which in turn improves their ability to absorb
fuel oil.

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Fig 4.2 Ammonium Nitrate Prill Manufacturing Schematic (Source: Sharma, 2010)

Properties of Ammonium Nitrate: Properties important for explosive grade (blasting) prills
are: (i) low clay content, (ii) low moisture content, (iii) free flow, (iv) oil absorption (oil
retention), (v) low particle density, (vi) good friability and (vii) non-caking consistency.

Clay or coating agents are put on the outside surface of the prills to inhibit caking. NH4N03
will tend to cake into large unsuitable lumps if not properly treated, especially in hot humid
weather. Blasting grade ammonium nitrate prills contain lesser amount of coating agents
because clay detracts from the explosive properties when mixed with fuel oil.

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Friability is a term that is sometimes used to describe the softness or hardness of prills. It
must be soft enough to break down and provide sensitivity and good bore hole loading
densities in underground mining where oiled prills are usually loaded into small diameter
holes.

Agricultural grade Prills are very hard and dense, and accordingly are not very friable. Good
blasting grade prills, on the other hand, have less strength or a higher friability rating, yet it
must be rigid enough to withstand normal handling in the field so as not to break down into
dust.

Specifications: Size distribution for good blasting grade prills is roughly between 6- and 20-
mesh USA standard screens. This size was chosen because this is the optimum size for free
flow. Finer screen size products provide higher detonation velocities, but its greater tendency to
cake in storage makes its use impracticable. For this reason, 6- to 20-mesh NH4NO3 has been
found to be the best compromise between handling and performance.

A good blasting grade is porous, which enables it to readily absorb and hold the correct
amount of fuel oil, 5.7 %. The oil is distributed throughout the prilled particle, improving the
detonability of the oiled mixture. Under-oiled prills contain an excess of oxygen that
decreases detonation velocity and reduces the energy of the reaction. Prills that are over-oiled
create an oxygen deficiency that also adversely affects performance [Fig.5.4]. The ability of
oiled prills to be detonated depends greatly upon the density of the prills. Dense prills such as the
agricultural grade often are not detonable at all, or if initiated, perform at a very low rate of
detonation and may die out in the borehole, performing no useful work.

Temperature Cycling of Ammonium Nitrate: NH4NO3 responds to temperature

changes by changing its crystalline structure. This phenomenon is called cycling.
Ammonium nitrate is also hygroscopic. The two temperatures at which cycling will occur
under normal conditions are 0 - 90 °F, (-18 - 32°C). Products therefore stored over four
seasons in cold countries will undergo some degree of cycling.

When ammonium nitrate has been exposed to varying degrees of humidity and temperature,
its crystalline structure changes, this is the first cycle. After it has undergone more than one
cycle the waterproof protective coating is broken, recycling continues and more water collects
on the particles. The mass will dissolve and eventually re-crystallize into crystals much larger
than the original size.

Performance of ANFO Type Explosives: All ANFO type products generate a relatively
low detonation pressure with good borehole pressure that generally results in good
heaving action or throw of the burden. ANFO products are non-ideal explosives.

The performance or release of the energy available in ANFO is affected by the following: (1)
Particle size and distribution, (2) Column diameter,

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(3) Fuel oil content, (4) Priming, (5) Moisture content, and
(6) Detonating cord down-lines, where applicable.
Effect of Fuel Oil Content on ANFO Performance: Velocity of detonation is a good
indicator of product performance; the higher the velocity of detonation of the explosive the
greater the release of available energy on detonation.

An Oxygen-balanced ANFO mixture is one with 5.7% fuel oil and 94.3% ammonium nitrate
blasting prills. Any deviation from the oxygen-balanced mixture will result in loss of blasting
energy. The curve illustrates the explosive energy of ANFO mixture with fuel oil content over
the range from 1 % to 10 %. The loss of blasting energy is much greater for mixtures
containing less than 5.7 % fuel oil than for mixtures that have more. When the fuel
content is less than 5.7 %, the ANFO mixture has excess oxygen upon detonation. This excess
oxygen is converted into oxides of nitrogen (the orange fumes that are sometimes visible in a
blast). When the fuel oil content is higher than 5.7 %, there is deficiency of oxygen and some
small quantities of carbon monoxide are produced.

4.3.4 Slurry Explosives

In spite of the popularity of the ANFOs, it does have certain drawbacks. For example: It
has no water resistance, low density, and limited energy absorption.

Water-based ammonium nitrate slurries were invented to circumvent the above

problems. It was found out that by pre-dissolving the ammonium nitrate in a small amount of
water, thickening the solution with guar gum or starch and optionally cross-linking the gum
thickeners to produce a gelled product a certain degree of water resistance could be obtained. In
this system, the fuel components were added as soluble or finely divided insoluble
materials. Additionally, dry oxidizers could also be suspended in the solution, if desired, to
lower the overall water content. The presence of these solids as well as ammonium nitrate
crystals that precipitated upon cooling the formulation led to the general designation of
"slurries" composite explosives. Some ingredients used in slurry formulation include:
i. Oxidizers: ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate, and sodium
perchlorates.
ii. Thickeners: guar gum, starch, and synthetic water-soluble polymers.
iii. Soluble fuels: ethylene glycol, methyl alcohol, sugar alkyl amines.
iv. Insoluble fuels: particulate aluminum, coal dust, charcoal, sulphur, fuel oil.

Theoretically greater energy increases may be obtained by adding small amounts of

aluminum, but aluminum added is non-linear to the percentage of energy output.

Water is used to dissolve the salts and suspend the insoluble ingredients that increase the
intimacy of contact between oxidizers and fuels. It is also a fluidizing medium, allowing the
slurry to be pumped into boreholes or packages before gelling the system with cross-linking
agents.

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Sensitization of Slurries: The first generation of slurries had to be sensitised with molecular
explosive additives such as TNT or with smokeless powder to make them detonable.
However, refinement of formulation and manufacturing techniques allowed sensitization
with organic salts like amine, nitrate and perchlorates or very finely divided paint-grade
aluminum. Today some formulations can even be successfully sensitised by using only
mechanically or chemically generated small air or gas bubbles.

Ingredients can be selected to vary the energy, sensitivity, oxygen balance and the stability of
the final product as desired. This versatility makes it possible to adjust the fume and
detonation characteristics as well as the physical properties of the slurry explosives to meet
specific requirements of varying applications. These results can be achieved using ingredients
that, by themselves, are considered non-explosives. In addition they are commodity items that
have relatively stable supply and price parameters that are widely available.

Slurries represent a very significant advance in the safety and economy of manufacturing,
shipping and application of commercial explosives. Although they perform the same function
as dynamite and other molecular explosives, slurries are much less sensitive to impact, friction,
fire or accidental detonation, since they can be made from non-explosive products.

In the system all the ingredients are loaded in separate compartments on a mixing -truck and
driven to the blasting site. The ingredients are then mixed in the proper proportions and
pumped directly into the boreholes, where the final gassing and gelling reactions occur. This
way, the mixture does not even become detonable until after being loaded into the
borehole.

4.3.5 Emulsion Explosives

These provide significant improvements over ordinary slurries. Typically slurries rely on
chemical sensitizer for performance and are gelled to hold their chemical components
together. Emulsions on the other hand, have a water-in-oil composition and this basic
difference makes them truly revolutionary.

Water-in-oil emulsions consist of microscopic droplets of oxidizer solution, encased in a thin

oil film, making the explosives highly water-resistant. The small particle size results in an
intimate contact between the oxidizer (ammonium nitrate) and the fuel oil. This results in a
rapid and complete detonation, making emulsions extremely efficient explosives.

Explosives are energy efficient and efficient use of energy is a major factor in controlling
blasting costs. High energy, high efficient emulsion explosives improve fragmentation,
thereby reducing production costs. Emulsions are efficient explosives due to their microscopic
particle size. They release 93% of their calculated thermo-chemical energy when compared to
slurries that have energy release from 55% to 70%. The thermo-chemical energy of emulsion
increases as aluminum is added.

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High loading densities and bulk strength characteristics of slurry blasting agents permit less
drilling, high blasting efficiencies and better rock fragmentation. Savings are made in the
labour, drilling, shoveling, hauling, crushing and grinding costs.

Ammonium nitrate fuel oils, slurry explosives and slurry blasting agents are mostly
insensitive to commercial detonators and require powerful boosters for detonation.

Preparation of Emulsions: Emulsions are prepared in the form of water-in-oil emulsion.

The internal phase is composed of a solution of oxidizer salts suspended as microscopically fine
droplets that are surrounded by continuous fuel phase. The emulsion thus formed is stabilized
against liquid separation by emulsifying agent. A bulking agent for density control is then
dispersed throughout the basic emulsion matrix. The bulking agent can be either ultra fine air
bubbles or artificial bubbles from glass, resin, plastic, or some other material.

Combinations of this type can be made at densities from 0.80gr./cc to 1.35gr./cc. The bulking
agent determines and controls the sensitivity of the emulsion product, which affects whether
the final product is detonator sensitive or a blasting agent requiring a booster for initiation. The
resulting emulsions can serve as detonable matrices to carry solid fuel such as aluminum,
which permits formulation of different strengths. Since each micro cell is coated with oily
exterior, the emulsions have excellent water resistance and do not rely on a package for their
ability to function in water.

Physical Properties of the Emulsions: The emulsions can be made in a variety of

forms, from stiff putty-like compositions to fluid, pump able ones. The stiffer consistency
is preferred for package products. Because of the physical nature and characteristics of
these water-in-oil emulsions, they have the unusual property of retaining essentially the
same consistency over a wide temperature range, between 20°F to 90°F (6.7°C to
32.2°C). There is very little difference in the viscosity and nature of the products. The
stability of the emulsions is excellent. Compositions of this type have remained virtually
unchanged for over a year under normal conditions

Function of Air Bubbles in Emulsions: One of the mechanisms by which it is believed that
sensitization by air bubbles occur is that of "hot-spot" formation. When very high pressure
shock waves from the initiation blasting cap or booster passes into the emulsion charge, it
compresses the air bubbles. This compression occurs so rapidly that the volume change is
essentially adiabatic and the gas in the bubbles heats up to a very high temperature. This heat is
dissipated to the surrounding material and decomposition occurs. This process is fast enough so
that the release of energy contributes to the propagation of the shock wave through the entire
column or charge of the explosive.

4.4 Uses of Industrial or Commercial Explosives

The uses of explosives are as follows:

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1. Over 80% of industrial explosives are used in the mining industry.

2. A small amount is used in the manufacture of industrial diamond powder. The high
pressure and temperature of controlled explosion make it possible to manufacture
industrial diamond powder;
3. Explosion bonding, 'Detached," "decoupled," is used to metallurgically mate
sheets on pieces of dissimilar metals that have found wide acceptance in the
manufacturing of processing equipment for the chemical and petro-chemical industries,
shipbuilding, cable joining and installation. It makes it more economical to bond a thin
sheet of costly titanium to steel so that a chemical process-vessel requiring the corrosion
resistance of titanium and the strength of steel to be fabricated;
4. Explosives are also used in agriculture to up root stumps of trees as well as the
demolishing of abandoned structures, buildings, etc.

4.5 Properties of Explosives

The explosive properties that are of particular importance to the blast engineer
include the following:
i. Velocity of detonation, VOD.
ii. Density.
iii. Detonation pressure and blast hole pressure.
iv. Sensitivity and sensitiveness.
v. Strength and energy output.
vi. Water resistance.
vii. Fume properties/characteristics (especially in underground operations).
viii.Temperature characteristics

4.5.1 Velocity of Detonation, VOD

This is the speed at which the detonation front travels through the column of explosive.
Velocity of detonation is important in determining explosive functioning and performance.
It generally varies between 2000 m/s and 7500 m/s for most commercial high explosives
when confined; but when tested under unconfined conditions the value would only be 75
% of the confined value. For an explosive to effectively fragment rock its VOD must
exceed the seismic velocity of the rock being blasted, whereby the explosive shock waves
create adequate tensile stresses responsible for the fragmentation.

The detonation wave starts at the point of initiation in the explosive and travels at
supersonic speeds, relative to the sonic velocity of the explosive material itself. This
velocity, which is referred to as the steady state velocity, remains fairly constant for a
given explosive, but varies from one explosive to another. Its magnitude depends primarily
on:
i. The constituents and particle size of the explosive,
ii. Its density.

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iii. The degree of confinement

iv. The charge diameter, or in the case of bulk explosives, the hole diameter
A popular fragmentation theory is that a shock or stress wave travels outward from the
explosive column and strains the rock mass in which it is located, thus fragmenting the
rock. Later in the process, the resulting gas pressure generated displaces the fractured rock
(See Theory of Rock Breakage)

Explosives with high VODs are more favourable in hard rock, whereas in softer
materials explosives with lower VODs give better results. Generally, lower VOD
explosives tend to release gas pressure over a longer period of time than explosives with
higher VODs. As a result, an explosive with a low VOD has more heave (a property
which is very important where material displacement is desired). When choosing
explosives for a blasting job therefore requires that apart from considerations for the
explosives properties, the purpose for which the blast is being undertaken must also be
adequately assessed so that unnecessary scatter of blasted material may be avoided.

4.5.2 Density

The density of an explosive may be defined as its specific weight expressed as grams per
cubic centimeter (g/cc), or its weight per unit volume or its specific gravity. When
comparing one granular explosive with other granular explosives the density and energy
are correlated. For example, generally, the energy of dynamite increases with the density
of the cartridge. However, in the case of water-based explosives such as emulsions and
the water gels, density and energy are not as related (e.g. it is possible to have two
emulsions with the same densities but which energy output vary considerably.

The practical importance of the explosive density to the blast engineer is in the
determination of the charge weight per unit length of hole referred to as loading
density (LD), and expressed as kg/m or lb/ft of hole length. The loading density may be
obtained by calculation or may be read directly from a Nomograph. To calculate the
density the following equation may be used:

Loading Density or charge weight/ft = p x 0.34 x (De) 2

where
p = Density of the explosive (g/cc)
0.34 = coefficient of determination
De = diameter of explosive column (in)

Note that for bulk loading, the diameter refers to the borehole diameter; and for
cartridge explosive it refers to the cartridge diameter. Additionally, the importance of
the explosive density may be found in its effect on the following:

DP = 2.35 x 107 x (VOD) 2 x P

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1. The buoyancy of the explosive cartridge in wet holes. The cartridge may or
may not sink

2. Energy concentration in blast holes. Given a certain weight strength of an

explosive, a high density enables the maximum amount of energy to be packed
into the blast hole, and allows for considerably wider spaced drilling patterns.
The overall effect is that unit costs of drilling will be minimized with increased drill
productivity.

4.5.3 Detonation Pressure and Blast hole Pressure

The detonation pressure is the pressure in the reaction zone behind the detonation
front at the Chapmen-Jourquet (C-J) plane when the explosive is detonated (See
Fig.4.3). It is often measured in kilo bars.

The detonation pressure is a significant indicator of the ability of an explosive to

produce the desired fragmentation in a well-consolidated burden. It is also an
important character an explosive must have if it is to be used as a primer. The
detonation pressure of an explosive may be estimated by direct reading from a
Nomograph (See Fig.4.4). Its value may also be estimated from a formula, thus: -

p = Density (g/cc)
VOD = velocity of detonation (ft/sec)

While some authorities consider a high detonation pressure that result in a strong
shock wave as being of major importance in breaking very dense, competent rock,
others view it as being of little or no importance. As a general recommendation
therefore, in hard, massive rock, if the explosive being used is not giving adequate
breakage, a higher velocity explosive (i.e. a higher detonation pressure explosive) may be
used to overcome this problem.

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Figure 4.3 Illustration of Detonation

Blast hole or borehole pressure is the pressure exerted on the walls of the blast hole
by the expanding gases of detonation after the completion of the chemical reaction. It
is also sometimes called explosion pressure. It is a function of confinement of the
explosive, and the quantity and temperature of the gases of detonation. It is generally,
considered as one factor that plays the dominant role in breaking most rock and in
displacing all types of rocks encountered in blasting.

This characteristic, coupled with their 100% coupling, gives such explosives as ANFO
and aluminised products that yield low detonation pressures but relatively high
blastholes or borehole pressures, a huge success when used, (an advantage over the
other commercial high explosives such as the dynamites). Many ANFO mixtures have
borehole pressures larger than their detonation pressures, whereas in most high
explosives the detonation pressure is the greater.

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Fig. 4.4 Nomograph for Finding Detonation Pressure (Source: Dick et al., 1983)

4.5.4 Sensitiveness and Sensitivity

Sensitiveness of an explosive may be defined as the capability of that explosive to

propagate detonation once it has been initiated. The length of the air-gap over which a "donor"
cartridge will detonate a "receptor" cartridge under unconfined conditions determines

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it. This is an important property to be considered when selecting an explosive, because

if sensitiveness is low there can be interruptions or failures in the detonation if the
column of explosive is not continuous. If, on the other hand, the sensitiveness is too
high there is the likelihood of "cross" or "sympathetic" propagation between adjacent
holes spaced too closely together or where the formation is badly fractured and faulted.

One major effect of such "sympathetic" propagation is that where millisecond delay
patterns are used their desired influence is eliminated, resulting in poor fragmentati on,
excessive air blast and ground vibration. The diameter of the charge is an important
influencing factor on the sensitiveness of the explosive. If the charge or hole diameter is too
small, i.e. less than the critical diameter (the smallest diameter at which an explosive
will propagate a stable detonation), but the explosive is at the same time insensitive,
then the propagation through the column may fail.

Sensitivity of an explosive is its susceptibility to initiation. It is a measure of how

safe an explosive lends itself to handling. Generally, explosives that require larger
or stronger primers (eg. The blasting agents such as ANFO preparations) have low
sensitivity and are therefore less susceptible to accidental initiation and hence safer to
handle. A substance may be classified as an explosive if it is cap sensitive (i.e.
sensitive to No. 8 test blasting cap or detonator), for example the dynamites. If
however, the substance is not cap sensitive it is classified as a Blasting Agent, and
includes the ANFOS, emulsions, slurries and the water gels.

4.5.5 Strength and Energy Output

The strength of explosive is in most cases expressed as % of the strength of blasting

gelatine. It may be expressed either as weight strength or volume or bulk strength. The
strength of an explosive can also be expressed as an absolute or as a relative number, thus
Absolute Weight Strength (AWS); Absolute Bulk Strength (ABS); Relative Weight
Strength (RWS) and Relative Bulk Strength (RBS). Blasting gelatine was chosen as the
standard when nitro-glycerine was the principal energy-producing ingredient in
explosives. However, with the development of products with decreasing proportions of
nitro-glycerin these strength ratings have become misleading and inaccurate and therefore,
do not give realistic comparison of the effectiveness of various explosives. Lately
therefore, manufacturers have been using calculated energy values to compare the
strengths of explosives. ANFO is now used as a base or standard of 1.0 because blasting
gelatine has been superseded by ANFO as the most widely used explosives in the world
today.

The theoretical energy of an explosive available in a borehole or blast hole may be

calculated using the following formula:

Energy (kcal/ft borehole) = 0. 155 x diameter2 x ABS, OR

Energy (kcal/ft borehole) = 0. 155 x diameter2 x density x AWS

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where, ABS = Absolute Bulk Strength, and AWS = Absolute Weight Strength.

For bulk loading, the diameter of the explosive refers to the borehole diameter, and for
cartridge loading it refers to the diameter of the cartridge.

Explosive energy is released into the surrounding rock in two different forms:

1. Detonation or shock pressure and

2. Borehole or blast hole pressure.

The detonation or shock pressure exerts a fragmenting force on the rock, while the
borehole pressure is due to the gas build-up and is primarily responsible for displacement of
the rock.

4.5.6 Water-Resistance

This is the ability of an explosive to detonate after it has been exposed to water; i.e. the ability of
the explosive to withstand exposure to water without losing its sensitivity and efficiency. It is
dependent on the packing as well as its inherent ability to repel water.

The gelatinous explosives such as the dynamites and the water-gels (slurries and
emulsions) have good water-resistant properties and are therefore suitable for all blast
hole conditions. The non-gelatinised high explosives such as ANFO, on the other
hand, have poor waterresistant properties and are unsuitable for wet blast hole
conditions. Such explosives will dissolve in water and loose their efficacy or potency.

4.5.7 Shelf Life, Fume and Temperature Characteristics

(Briefly discuss and ask students to search for details from referenced and other sources)

4.6 Classification of Explosives Types

Explosive types may generally be classified into two (2) main groups. These are:
1. Military explosives; and
2. Commercial explosives.

The Military Explosives are used for warfare, primarily as propellants. They are more
brisant and less sensitive than the commercial explosives. They are less sensitive due
to the fact that they are used under such very adverse conditions, and for this very
reason nitroglycerine is not used in military explosives. The most common military
explosive is TNT (Trinitrotoluene). It has a velocity of detonation of about 6900
m/sec. And can also be used for demolition charges, bursting charges and booster
charges. All other explosives are measured against or compared to TNT. Other military
explosives include:

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PETN (Pentaerythritol): Has a VOD of 8300 m/s and is used in detonators and
detonating cords and under water blasting because it insoluble in water.

Cyclonite (RDX): Very brisant and highly sensitive with a VOD of 8350 m/s. Forms
the primary base charge in the composition of explosives in detonators.

Tetryl: VOD of 7100 m/s. Used primarily as a boosting charge.

Ammonium Nitrate (NH4NO3): Least sensitive military explosive. Not however,

widely used because of its property of being highly soluble in water. Its most common
use is therefore primarily as a commercial product and is more a blasting agent than an
explosive.

The Commercial or Mining High Explosives on the other hand are commonly
employed in commerce and industry for doing such work as blasting operations in
mining and other activities. The most common types include the dynamites and the
Blasting Agents such as the ANFOs, slurries/water-gels and the emulsions. They may be
alone in the blast hole or in combinations. For example same dynamite may be used as a
primer and as column charge in the same blast hole or it may be used as a primer with
say, ANFO as the column charge. An emulsion may also be used both as the bottom and
the column charge in the same blast hole. In this case however, the bottom charge will
be an emulsion of a higher density than that of the column charge. The choice depends
on prevailing conditions, the practice at that blast site and the economy of the blasting
operation.

Even though the dynamites are still widely used in mine blasting activities,
especially in stone quarries and underground operations, the less expensive slurries,
emulsions and ANFO preparations have largely replaced them.

4.7 Classification of Commercial or Mining Explosives According to their Energy

Output

The commercial explosives may be classified into either two or three main classes:
1. High and Low explosives when initiating explosives are regarded as high
explosives or
2. Initiating explosives, high explosives and low explosives, when initiating explosives
are separated from the high and low explosives because of the high sensitivities
and high Velocities of Detonation of the initiating explosives.

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Comparism of Velocity of Detonation with Respect to Storage Life

Projectile Impact Test

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Initiating explosives are extremely sensitive and relatively easy to explode. They are
used to start the detonation of high explosives. When ignited they produce an intense
local blow or shock that is capable of starting the reaction in the less-sensitive high explosives.
They do not essentially produce large volumes of gases and by themselves are not
suitable for doing work in blasting operations. They are loaded in small quantities into
copper or aluminum tubes to form detonators. Examples of include such primary
explosives as PETN, lead azide, etc.
High explosives detonate at velocities varying from 1500 and 7500m/sec. (i.e.,
supersonic speeds), depending on the explosive composition. The performance of a
high explosive depends both on the volume and temperature of the gases produced
and on the velocity of detonation. High explosives are used for all forms of blasting
except where a very gentle action is required. The products of the reaction are gaseous,
with no solid residue. Examples of these explosives include TNT, nitro-glycerin based
explosives, Ammonium Nitrate Blasting Agents, etc.

Low explosives deflagrate, i.e. they burn rapidly without production of an intense
shock wave. The products of reaction are gaseous with a solid residue. They are
normally ignited by a flame or spark from a safety fuse or fuse-head. An example of
low explosives is the black powder/gun powder.

4.8 Classification of Mining or Commercial High Explosives based on their

Composition
The mining or commercial high explosives may be classified broadly as:
A. Nitro-glycerin based explosives and
B. Non-nitro-glycerin based explosives. These are illustrated in Fig.4.5
Nitro-glycerin based explosives have NG as the base constituent with various
materials added in various proportions to produce the dynamites. They are known as
Blasting Gelatins and are the strongest commercial explosives. The BGs contain 92 % NG
with 8 % nitro-cotton. The other types of dynamites include: semi-gelatins, NG powders,
sodium nitrate gelignite and ammonium nitrate gelignite.

The Non-NG explosives contain no NG at all. They include TNT, ANBA, AN'FO,
ANFOAL, AN-Coal dust, Slurry and Emulsions.

The Dynamites: These are preparations in various composite using the following
components: nitro-glycerin, nitro-glycol, nitro-cellulose, oxidizing salts and fuel ingredients.
The Flow Chart in Fig.4.6 provides the processes of manufacturing dynamites. The N-G
content of the dynamites vary between 90 % and 50 %, depending on the VOD, the
energy release and the water resistance required by the application.

The nitro-cellulose serves as the gelling or thickening agent and prevents the
desensitization of the dynamites by water. The balance is made up of oxidizing salts and fuel
ingredients.

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Fig. 4.5 Classification of Mining or Commercial High Explosives based on their

Composition

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Fig.4.6 Processes of Manufacturing Dynamites

Oxidizers used are principally Ammonium Nitrate (NH4NO3), which is specially sized to
improve density and water resistance, and Sodium Nitrate (NaN03).

The fuel ingredients balance the oxidizing salts and may also contribute to water
resistance and density control.

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Other common ingredients include starches, wood flour (sawdust), sulphur and
vegetable gums. In "permissible dynamites" (used mainly in gaseous mines) an
inert salt such as Sodium Chloride is also added to lower the overall detonation temperature.

By varying the various ingredients in the preparations dynamites are given a wide
range of properties. See Fig. 3.3 for range of dynamites available on the market.

Figure 3.3 Range of Dynamite Explosives on the Market

Ammonium Nitrate Blasting Agents: A blasting agent is a mixture containing both

fuel producing and oxidizing elements. None of the elements in a BA is considered an
explosive on its own until it is mixed. When not confined, BAs cannot be detonated by a
No.8 blasting cap or detonator. The most common BA is Nitro Carbo-Nitrate (NCN)
or more commonly called ANFO or Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil, which is a mixture
of Ammonium Nitrate as the oxidizer and Fuel Oil, which acts as the fuel. The fuel
may be any of the substances such diesel, carbon, sawdust, hydrocarbon or other
carbonaceous substances. The most commonly used ingredients are Ammonium Nitrate

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and Diesel, in the ratio of 94.3 % : 5.7 % by weight. The common types are ANFO,
Slurry, Water Gel and the Emulsions.

Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil (ANFO): ANFO is the most widely used explosive in
mine blasting in the world today because of its reasonably low cost. ANFO produces
relatively excellent performance because of its good gas production qualities, relatively
low detonation pressures but good blast hole pressures that generally result in good
material throw (a property very much desired in open pit blasts).

In preparing ANFO maximum energy is released if the ratio of ammonium nitrate to the
fuel oil is 94%:6%. This however, does not give an oxygen balance (O.B.), thus
resulting in the production of undesired nitrogen gases. Desired oxygen balance is
achieved with the ammonium nitrate: fuel oil ratio of 94.3%: 5.7%. At the O.B. the
theoretical energy is deemed to been optimized at a peak velocity of detonation of
approximately 4400 m/s in large diameter holes (e.g. 250 mm).

Any deviation from the OB results in the loss of blasting energy of the ANFO, hence
the need for careful monitoring of the preparation. The following equations of
reaction amply illustrate this energy problem. Table 4.1 also illustrates energy loss relative to
the amount fuel in the ANFO preparation. The Table shows that considerable energy
is lost with excess oxygen than with insufficient oxygen.

Table 4.1. Loss of energy ANFO relative to Fuel content

Condition Fuel oil content, % Energy loss, % Effect on blasting
Oxygen balance 5.7 None Best blast result
Low oil <5.7 5.0 5.3 Excess oxygen,
4.0 12.1 considerable energy
3.0 20.0 is lost. Orange
nitrous fumes may
be produced
High oil >5.7 7.0 1.5 Insufficient oxygen.
8.0 2.9 Minor loss of
9.0 4.1 energy. Dark fumes
result
Source: Anon (1987)

1. (94.3% NH4NO3 : 5.7% Fuel oil),

3NH4NO3 + CH2 = 7H20 + CO2 + 3N2 + 0.93 kcal./g.

Best blast results are obtained at O2 balance

2. (92% NH4NO3: 8% Fuel oil),

2NH4NO3 + CH2 = 5H2O + CO + 2N2 + 0.81kcal./g.

Excess fuel results in insufficient 02, minor loss of energy with the production of

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3. 96.6% NH4NO3: 3.4% Fuel oil),

5NH4NO3 + CH2 = 11H2O + CO2 + 4N2 + 2NO + 0.6kcal./g

In ANFO preparations the release of the available energy and therefore its
performance is affected also by such other factors as
 Particle size and its distribution,
 Degree of confinement,
 Blast hole diameter,
 Quality of priming and
 Moisture content.

The VOD chimes, with the blast hole diameter: decreasing as the hole diameter
decreases. When the diameter < 25mm (i.e. critical diameter) a non-stable detonation
results where the VOD is less than 2000 m/s. The highest VOD is attained in blast
hole diameters of 250 mm. ANFO is therefore to be most suitable in medium to
large diameter blastholes (i.e. 75 – 250 mm) under dry favourable conditions.
When blastholes of diameters < 100 mm are pneumatically loaded with ANFO
instead of being poured the VODs are found to increase because the charging density
increases. This situation is very much desired in underground blasting operations where
pneumatic loading is rather prevalent.

With ANFO, the priming requirements increase with increasing hole/charge diameter.
When in doubt therefore always use larger quantity or higher quality primer to achieve
desired results and to avoid costly mistakes. ANFO has one major disadvantage which is
its poor water - resistance properties. When used in wet blastholes with insufficient
external protection therefore produces poor blast results, as the water adversely affects its
VOD, sensitivity and the energy output. To avoid undesirable misfires therefore when
water is encountered in any blast hole, the hole should be filled with an appropriate
water-resistant explosive to above the water level before introducing the ANFO. In cases
where the hole is completely filled with water then ANFO should not be used at all. The
water-resistance qualities and performance of ANFO may be improved mixing it with
emulsion preparations in predetermined ratios (e.g. 55 % ANFO : 45 % emulsion). The
resulting product is commonly called Heavy ANFO or Blend in certain quarters. The
emulsions and water-gels are water-based explosives, and are basically ANFOs that have
been gelatinised to make them water-resistant.

The Slurries or water-gels have a gel-like consistency obtained by adding thickening

agents such as waxes, gums and cross-linking agents to water; the amount of water in
the composition varying between 5-40%. Both cap-sensitive and non-cap-sensitive
varieties are available. They are therefore usually prepared for specific job
requirements. Slurries, like ANFOs, require fairly strong primers/boos ters to initiate
them, and when used in combination with these primers at the toe or in zones of

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difficult breakage they produce improved blast efficiency.

Emulsions on the other hand are prepared by blending together hot super-saturated solution of
oxidizer salts, mainly NH4N03, into an oil/wax mixture, which is the fuel. They are made
initiable by mixing in small cavities in the form of micro balloons. In operation the micro
balloons collapse under the influence of the initiating shock waves, thus creating a multitude of
local "hot spots" where the temperatures are sufficient enough to start a fast explosive
combustion in the explosive. Because of the inclusion of the micro balloons, the emulsions can
be made to detonate without the addition of any sensitizers. Its capacity to detonate and its
density can be adjusted by the amount of micro balloons mixed into the composition. The
strength of emulsions can also be regulated by adding an amount of additive fuel (aluminium
powder). The emulsions can therefore be prepared such that in charging the blast hole a higher
strength can be used as the bottom charge while the lower strength composition forms the
column charge in the same blast hole.

Other properties that give the emulsions an advantage over other similar explosives include:
 Excellent water-resistance qualities,
 High VOD,
 Ability to be made primer-sensitive or detonator- sensitive (initiated by No.8
detonator), consistency over a wide range of temperatures from -20°C to + 35 °C,
with their tamping (cartridge form) and pumping characteristics virtually unchanged, and
 Ability to blend with ANFO to produce "Heavy ANFO), with improved water-
resistance and performance qualities.

The density and energy output of ANFO, slurries and emulsions may be improved by
adding aluminium powder or granules: 6-15% for ANFO, and up to 35% slurries and
emulsions. This practice however, increases the cost of preparation, but its use is
recommended as a high-energy toe charge and as a main column charge in difficult
blasting operations. The high-energy output could be attributable to the high heat of
formation of A1203 in the reaction during detonation.

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CHAPTER 5

BLAST INITATION SYSTEM

5.1 Blast Initiation

The effective and efficient initiation of explosive charges is of prime important if

maximum utilization of available energy is to be obtained. An initiation system is a
combination of explosive devices and component accessories designed to convey a
signal and initiate an explosive charge from a safe distance when properly configured
and activated. The signal function may be either electric or non-electric. Electric initiation
systems use electrical power source with associated circuit wiring to convey the needed
energy, while the non-electric systems use various types of chemical reactions
ranging from deflagration to detonation to convey the impulse to the non-electric
detonators, or in the case of detonating cord, it is the initiator.

The initiation systems commonly employed in surface blasting are safety fuse with caps
(mainly in quarries for secondary blasts), detonating cord, electric caps or detonators and
NONEL assemblies. Because of its advantage of combining the best qualities of electric
and non-electric systems leading to improved safety and efficiency, the NONEL system is
currently gaining wider application in most mines and quarries in this country.

The subject of Blast Initiation has been treated extensively in most standard
literature on explosives and blasting practice. This discussion therefore attempts only
to briefly highlight relevant areas. Students are advised to read more on the subject on their
own.

5.2 Capped Fuse (Safety Fuse-and-Plain Detonators)

Throughout the mining world today, the capped fuse has been superseded by the other
three systems for primary blasts due primarily to safety hazards, slow burning rates and
poor water-resistance properties. Its use is now largely for secondary blasting and for the
ignition of detonating cords. See diagrams

5.3 Detonating Cord

Probably the most widely used initiation system in the mining industry worldwide is
the detonating cord due to the following qualities:
 Safety. Has been widely adopted, especially in countries with difficult climatic
conditions with frequent thunderstorms, which make the use of electric firin g
methods unsuitable. Apart from being used in difficult electric conditions it is
also used when an exact simultaneous detonation of several holes is desired, especially
as in pre-split blasting.

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 Versatility. Can be adaptable to any surface-blasting situation.

 All cords can be detonated with blasting caps and electric detonators.
 Has a high VOD, over 7000m/sec.
 Have relatively minimal costs.
 Has the ability to produce reasonable blasting results.
 Can be used with both millisecond surface connectors or detonating relays and
electric detonators.

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Firing Pattern for a detonating Cord

Multiple-row blasting can be carried out with detonating cord, where the delays between the
rows are obtained by means of relay connectors. A wide range of relays with delay times
from 5 ms to 50 ms are available from different manufacturers.
Connection of detonating cord:
 keep each connection at a right angle. Plastic connectors are convenient and reliable.
 the distance between parallel cords should be no less than 0.2 m.
 the distance between relay connector and parallel cord should be at least 1.0 m.
 no kinks or loops are permitted in the round
 the initiating detonator should always be pointed in the desired direction of the
detonating cord detonation.

5.4 Electric Firing

The introduction of electric firing gave a higher degree of safety for the people involved in
blasting operations. The blaster became able to fire the blast from a protected area and could
have the moment of firing completely under control. As it became possible to check with
instruments that all the detonators were connected, the risk of misfires decreased.
• Provides continuous initiation where the explosive column has been "decked" or subjected
to desensitisation of some kind resulting from i) collapse of the hole sides, ii) ingress of water
during loading, iii) inflow of drill cuttings during loading, and iv) flushthrough from
adjacent holes.

The detonating cord however, has the following main disadvantages:

 The unconfined trunk lines are a major source of noise.

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 Detonating cord down-lines eject stemming material, and create both noise and dust.
 In situations where excessive ground vibration might cause structural damage, detonating
cord systems cannot be tailored to reduce this problem.
 Effect on bulk and pumped explosives. The chief disadvantage of the down-line cord is
that it tends to compress and reduce the sensitivity of these blasting agents in the blast hole.
 When ANFO is used in small to medium diameter blast holes with low core loads
incomplete initiation results, which sometimes causes "dead pressing" of the ANFO,
thereby reducing its effectiveness.

Generally, the effect of detonating cords on blasting agents is dependent on the following
factors:
 Strength of the cord.
 Sensitivity of the blasting agent.
 Blast hole diameter.
 Position of the cord within the blast hole.

Detonating cord strengths of 20-40 g/m are sometimes used where continuous column
initiation of a blasting agent is desired. At other times cords with strengths of 40-80g/m are
occasionally used as a substitute for explosive cartridges in very sensitive or small, controlled
blasting jobs. For delaying blasts using detonating cord, millisecond delay surface connectors
may be used, or the detonating cord may be used as down-lines with surface electric detonators.

5.5 Electric Initiation

Electric detonators are designed to be detonated by a pulse of electrical energy. They are
therefore, susceptible to accidental initiation by extraneous electricity such as stray currents,
static electricity, Radio Frequency Energy (RFE), electrical storms, and high-voltage power
lines; and constitute a major disadvantage of the system. This therefore, suggests that due
consideration must be given to the potential hazard from extraneous electricity when using
electric detonators or when choosing electrical initiation system for blasting operations.
Electric detonators may be classified into 3 main groups according to their inherent timing
properties. These are:

Instantaneous detonators. These are employed mainly for boulder or stone blasting and pre-
splitting, where no delay interval between the different charges is desired.

Millisecond detonators. These are mainly used in bench and tunnel blasting.

Half-second detonators. These are exclusively for tunnel blasting where longer delays are
required to prepare space for the movement of the blasted rock masses. Electric
detonators may be connected in anyone of the following ways
i. In series
ii. In parallel, or

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iii. In parallel-series.

The series circuit is generally preferred because of its simplicity. However, it requires
larger current than that for firing a single detonator. If a current small enough to fire only one
detonator is used, there is the possibility of failure or misfires. Insufficient current may
be caused by anyone of the following sources:
 High resistance of the circuit due to loose or dirty connections.
 Attempting to fire larger round than the capacity of the exploder.
Pushing down the exploder handle with insufficient force.
 Faulty exploder.
 Voltage of power supply falling below the designed level. Current leakage due to
poor insulation.

It is recommended that the number of detonators in a single series be limited to between 4050
depending on the length of the leg wire. Then the number of detonators in a round exceeds 50
then the parallel-series circuit should be used. However, the maximum number of
detonators in each individual series should not exceed 50 or the equivalent maximum resistance
of 100ohms. The straight parallel circuit is less desirable and therefore not appropriate for
surface blasts because of the following reasons:

The nature of the connections is that it cannot be checked. Faulty connections and
broken leg wires cannot be detected once the circuit has been completed. Because the available
current is divided by the number of detonators in the circuit, power line firing must often be
employed, where -the capacity of available blasting machines is inadequate to provide
adequate current with its attendant problems if adequate precautions are not taken..

In general, exploders providing DC currents are suited for series blasting. Research has
shown that minimum current requirements for straight series circuit is 1.5 amperes for Dc or
3.0 amperes for AC; and for parallel-series circuits the minimum DC or AC current should be
2.0 amperes in each series circuit. Similarly, for straight parallel circuits the
recommended minimum current per detonator is 1.0 ampere.

5.6 Other Non-electric Systems

Q l non-electric initiation systems available for open pit and other surface blasting operations
combine the advantages of electric and detonating cord systems and are generally referred to as
NONEL DETONATORS. They consist, basically, of a cap similar to an electric blast cap or
detonator and having a tube that extends from the cap similar to those of the leg wires in the
electric detonator or cap. Inside the tube is a powdery material that propagates a mild detonation,
which activates the cap. The systems are incorporated with delay periods

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5.7 Detonating Cord

This is one of the most widely used initiation system in the mining industry because of the
following qualities:
 Its safety. Has been widely adopted, especially in countries with difficult climatic
conditions with frequent thunderstorms, which make the use of electric firing
methods unsuitable. Apart from being used in difficult electric conditions it is also
used when an exact simultaneous detonation of several holes is desired,
especially as in pre-split blasting.
 Its versatility. Can be adaptable to any surface-blasting situation.
 All cords can be detonated with blasting caps and electric detonators.
 It has a high VOD, over 7000m/sec.
 Has relatively minimal costs.
 Has the ability to produce reasonable blasting results.
 Can be used with both millisecond surface connectors or detonating relays and
electric detonators.
 Provides continuous initiation where the explosive column has been "decked" or
subjected to desensitisation of some kind resulting from i) collapse of the hole sides,
ii) ingress of water during loading, iii) inflow of drill cuttings during loading, and
iv) flush through from adjacent holes.

The detonating cord however, has the following main disadvantages:

 The unconfined trunk lines are a major source of noise.
 Detonating cord down-lines eject stemming material, and create both noise and
dust.
 In situations where excessive ground vibration might cause structural damage,
detonating cord systems cannot be tailored to reduce this problem.
 Effect on bulk and pumped explosives. The chief disadvantage of the down-line
cord is that it tends to compress and reduce the sensitivity of these blasting agents in
the blast hole.
 When ANFO is used in small to medium diameter blast holes with low core loads
incomplete initiation results, which sometimes causes "dead pressing" of the
ANFO, thereby reducing its effectiveness.

Generally, the effect of detonating cords on blasting agents is dependent on the

following factors:
 Strength of the cord.
 Sensitivity of the blasting agent.
 Blast hole diameter.
 Position of the cord within the blast hole.

Detonating cord strengths of 20-40 g/m are sometimes used where continuous column
initiation of a blasting agent is desired.

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Similar to those of the electric blasting detonators, the major advantages of these systems
include:
 Non-susceptibility to external electrical charges,
 Creation of little or no air blast,
 Non-disruption of the charge in the blast hole, and
 Having delay accuracy's similar to those of electric and detonating cord systems.

Most explosives manufacturers manufacture the NONEL systems, even though Nitro Nobel in
Sweden initially developed these.

In all explosives matters where the blast engineer is doubt it is recommended that the
manufacturers or accredited agents be consulted for advice.

Firing of Tunnel Round with Nonel

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General

Before William Bickford invented the "Miners Safety Fuse" in 1831, the initiation of
blasts was a hazardous task. A lot of more or less dangerous methods were applied to initiate
black powder. With the invention of the safety fuse, the blaster was given the facility to
initiate black powder with reasonable precision and reliability. The increased use of
nitroglycerin in the 1850s and of dynamite in the 1860s, made it necessary to
supplement the safety fuse with a detonator, as the safety fuse alone could not initiate
the new explosives.

Alfred Nobel's invention of the fulminate of mercury blasting cap in 1867 made the
initiation of all explosives safer and more efficient. Detonators in civil use have all
been developed from Nobel’s basic ideas. The introduction of the electric milli-second
detonator has been of utmost importance for the development of new blasting techniques,
where throw, fragmentation and ground vibrations can be controlled in large blasting
rounds. Electric initiation has been more widely accepted in Europe than in U.S.A.,
where non-electric firing methods are more commonly used.

Lately, a new non-electric milli-second detonator, NONEL, has come into wide use. Its
inherent short delay characteristics are the same as for its electric counterpart, but the
electric hazards have been eliminated by replacing the electric wires with a shock tube.
The firing methods can be divided into two main groups:
* Non-electric Safety fuse with plain detonator Detonating cord NONEL
* Electric detonators

5.8 Firing Methods

The firing methods will be presented in historical order, starting with the safety fuse and
ending with the sophisticated NONEL system.

Safety fuse and plain detonator

Initiation with safety fuse is a method which is increasingly being replaced by less time
consuming and more sophisticated initiating methods. However, the method is still used
in small operations, in secondary blasting and for stone and stump blasting, where it is
still the simplest and most economical method.

The safety fuse consists of a black powder core which is tightly wrapped with coverings
of textile and insulated against moisture by waterproofing materials like asphalt and
plastics. The coverings act as protection for the black powder core against water, oil
and other materials which can change the burning speed or desensitize the powder.
The covering also prevents "side-spit" which can cause premature detonation if it
sets fire to the explosives charge.

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The safety fuse has a steady and well controlled burning speed, but as there are many
brands of safety fuse in the world, the burning speed may differ between different
brands. The burning rate of most brands in U.S.A. is 130 seconds per meter (120
sec/yard) at sea level with allowable variation of 10 seconds from standard. InEurope,
the standard burning rate is 120 seconds per meter with the same variation. '

It should be taken into account that the safety fuse will burn faster if it is subject to
confinement or pressure, and that the use at high altitudes slows down the burning
speed. Therefore, some occurrences that are referred to as "premature" or "delayed"
detonations may not be due to inherent properties of the fuse, but to conditions on the
work-site or poor storage or handling of the fuse.
As the burning speed does vary, the speed should be verified by accurate timing of a
ample from each coil just before use.

To initiate the explosive, a plain detonator has to be attached to the safety fuse. Due to
varying sensitivity of different explosives, detonators of different strengths are available.
The strength of the detonator is expressed in numbers, of which #6 and #8 are presently
ailable on the market. The #8 detonator contains approximately 1.0 gram of high explosives
and the #6 contains approxi¬mately 0.8 gram. As explosives have become safer to handle
and thus less sensitive to impact, the #8 detonator has become more widely used.

The plain detonator consists of an aluminum or copper cylinder which is closed at one end.
A charge of high explosive like hexytol, Aryl or similar, is placed in the base of the
cylinder. On top of the base charge, a primary charge is placed normally lead acid. The
primary charge is sensitive to initiation by the endspit of the safety fuse and subsequently
initiates the base charge. Assembly of plain detonators to a safety fuse:
 cut the fuse so the black powder core is visible.
 cut the end of the fuse squarely and introduce it gently into the detonator
against the primary charge - leave no airgap. Slanting cuts must be avoided
as the tapered end can fold over and block the endspit.
 crimp the detonator thoroughly to the fuse with a crimper. Two types are
available, hand crimpers and bench crimpers.

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 in wet conditions, insul, to the crimp with grease.

The length of the safety fuse should generally not fall below 1.0 m, but for single shots a
length of 0.6 m may be allowed. However, the fuse should have sufficient length to exceed
the collar of the blasthole with at least 0.1 m.

A safety fuse may be lit by using matches or, better, special igniter torches. When several
fuses are lit, a control) l fuse, the length of which is 0.6 m shorter than the shortest fuse of
the round, may be lit and carried around as an extra safety measure. When the control fuse
has burnt out, the blasting crew should evacuate the blasting site immediately.

When a large amount of fuses are to be lit in the same area, it may be practical to use igniter
cord and bean-hole connectors. The bean-hole connector, which contains a pyrochemical
compound, is crimped to the end of the safety fuse and the igniter cord is inserted into a slot
in the bean-hole connector. When the igniter cord is lit, it ignites the connector, which in
turn lights the safety fuse.

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5.9 Detonating Cord

Detonating cord is a very common firing device throughout the world. It has especially been
adopted in countries with difficult climatic conditions, with frequent thunderstorms, which
disallows the use of electric firing systems. Apart from being used in difficult electric
conditions, it is also used when an exact simultaneous detonation of several holes is desired,
as in presplitting. Detonating cord is also used as a supplement to other firing methods in
blastholes that are ragged and difficult to charge.

The detonating cord consists of a PETN core, which is wrapped in coverings of textiles,
waterproofing materials and plastics. It may be initiated with a #6 strength detonator and
detonates along its entire length with a velocity of about 7000 m/s. It initiates most
explosives, but care must be taken when detonating cord is used together with ANFO in small
and medium size blastholes, where cords with low core load tend to give incomplete initiation
and sometimes cause dead pressing of the ANFO.

Detonating cord is manufactured with core loads ranging from 3 grams per meter to 80 grams per
meter. The most widely used cord has a core load of 10 grams per meter (50 grains per foot). The
powerful detonating cords with core loads of 40 and 80 grams per meter are mainly used for
seismic prospecting and other special purposes.

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CHAPTER 6

CHARGING BLASTHOLES

6.1 Background

Charging blastholes involve the loading of the explosives into the blast hole, an
appropriate initiating system and thereafter firing the assemblage.

The procedure for loading the charges into the hole is as follows:
1. Check and ensure that there is no blockage and water in the hole, using a linen
tape with a weight attached to the end.
2. Prepare the primer.
3. Introduce primer into the bottom of hole, and add booster charge, if required.
4. Add main or column charge onto the primer/bottom charge.
5. Then add the stemming (or tamping) onto the column charge to complete the
loading operation.
6. Connect up the firing system and check the circuit. Correct all faults thus
detected.
7. After this, ensure all personnel are withdrawn to safety, and post guards at all
the entry points to the blast area.
8. Give the appropriate prearranged signal to indicate firing is about to take
place.
9. The check again to ensure that there is no one in the vicinity of the blast.
10. Give the signal again and receive a reply from the guards, indicating all is clear. Then
fire.
11. After firing, allow adequate time for the blast fumes to clear (about 5 minutes
for surface blasts, but much longer for underground-30 minutes or more).
12. Then inspect the blast for its quality (presence of boulders, etc.), and any
misfires. Note that the first person to enter any workings after a blast is the
blastman or the certified officer in charge of the blasting crew.
13. Normal work may then be resumed.
14. Any boulders encountered may then be put aside, during loading/mucking
operations, for subsequent secondary reduction or blasting.

6.2 Presence of Water and Hole Blockage

In all situations the depth or length of holes drilled should be known. Charge stick/rod or linen tape
with a weight attached to the end can be used to detect any blockage or presence of water by
dropping this assemblage into the hole.

In underground blasting, where shallow holes are usually drilled, the holes are usually
cleared/cleaned by blowing out, using water under adequate pressure, and barring that,

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water and compressed air.

In surface operations, deeper holes usually drilled are more difficult to blow or cleaned out.
Where there is a blockage that cannot be dislodged that hole should be ignored and either a new
hole is drilled close to the existing one or the adjacent holes are loaded with slightly larger
charges to effect the fragmentation. Should water be present, either use more water-resistant
explosives to above the water level before continuing with the less water-resistant
explosives or use water-resistant explosives throughout.

6.3 Placing the Primer in the Blasthole

The primer cartridge should be introduced into the hole-bottom with the base of the
detonator facing the column of explosive. It should be noted that bottom priming gives the best
confinement at the initiating point and makes sure that no explosive is left un-detonated at
the bottom of the hole should it be blocked during charging. The primer cartridge should
never be dropped into the hole but should be lowered gently so as not to dislodge the detonator
or the detonating-cord from the cartridge.

6.4 Priming the Charge

Priming is of significant importance to blasting. A primer is generally an explosive that

accepts initiation from a detonator or detonating cord, with the resulting detonation being
transmitted to an equal or less sensitive explosive. Its primary function therefore is to initiate a full
explosive reaction in the main explosive charge in the blasthole by providing the initial
detonating shock wave. The primer should therefore have a VOD higher than or equal to that of
the main or column charge being initiated.

6.4.1 Primer Size

If maximum explosive energy release is to be produced, a reaction must be developed as quickly as

possible in the explosive, because at the onset of the detonation reaction there will be a finite time
interval between the initiation of the reaction and the development into fully fledged detonation.

If the initiation is prolonged a low-velocity reaction will result which produces lower
energy. This will be the case when the charge is not sufficiently primed or if the correct quality of
primer is not used (i.e., in terms of strength, diameter, length and weight of explosive used for
primer). In the case where sufficient or strong primer is used the explosive column will be
initiated with a high impulse that will result in a short but high-velocity energy zone.

After a distance equaling 4 times the diameter of explosive or blasthole (i.e., 4d), in the charge
column this velocity will drop to a "steady state." Once this "steady state" velocity has been
attained it will remain constant throughout the explosive column. For this reason it is not
necessary to add multiple primers to secure constant velocity of detonation. It must be noted
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sufficient or is insufficient.

6.4.2 Primer Location

In most cases the primer will be located at the bottom of the blasthole because it is at this region that
the rock must not only be shattered but must also be displaced so as to produce the desired
breakage. Priming may also be located at the collar region of the blasthole. In either case there are
disadvantages. With bottom priming it has the disadvantage of scattering or spreading the broken
rock over the floor of the bench or working place, while with collar priming it has the
disadvantage of promoting high muck-piles directly against the vertical. Fig.6.1 Illustrates
Primer Conditions in ANFO Initiation.

Fig. 6.1 Illustrates Primer Conditions in ANFO Initiation.

Generally, multiple priming is not encouraged however, under certain circumstances multiple
priming may be undertaken, eg.,
i. In deck loading of charges;
ii. In very high benches in surface operations;
iii. As a safety measure to assure total column detonation.

6.5 Boosters

These are explosives of high VOD that are placed between the primer and the main explosive
column in the blasthole. Its main function is to improve the detonation performance of the
explosive column. They must therefore have the following conditions:

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 The diameter must be large enough to go down the blasthole

 Should have high VOD.
 Should have high explosive density
 The booster explosive should have no suspicion of dual VOD.
 The minimum length of the booster should be at least 2 x hole diameter.

6.6 Loading the Charge into the Blasthole

This may be done in one of two ways:

 Column Loading, and
 Deck Loading

6.6.1 Column Loading

This is the most commonly used method of loading explosives into blastholes in mining
operations. In the method the explosive column is continuous from the bottom of the hole to the
stemming. The explosive column will be made up as follows:
 Bottom charge, and
 Column charge.

When loading, the entire explosive column may comprise the same type of explosive such as all
dynamite, all emulsion {with the primer being made of a higher density/strength than the main
column}, or it may be of different types of explosives, with the bottom charge being of higher
strength (such as 80% gelatine) than the column charge of, say, ANFO. In any case, it is necessary
to have a higher energy explosive at the bottom of the hole than the main column to assure good
breakage at the toe, since that is the region where most work is done in the breaking process.

6.6.2 Deck Loading

This involves alternating explosives and stemming, spreading over the total explosive column in
the blasthole. In this case, instead of having a continuous column of explosive, some of the explosive
is replaced with stemming material. In deck loading the main explosive quantity is divided into
smaller units and when these are placed into the blasthole they are interspersed with stemming
material, resulting in an overall smaller quantity of explosive charge being used in the hole. The
length of stemming between the charges should be 10-20 times the hole diameter, i.e., TL = (10 -
20) D, where TL = Stemming length, and D = Hole diameter.

For example: If the total quantity of explosive to be used in the main column of the hole is 50 kg,
and 5 decks are required, then the charge/deck = 10 kg; so that the total charge that be used in the
deck column becomes only 3 x 10 = 30 kg., with 2 lengths of stemming in the column.

Check from a sketch.

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6.6.3 Reasons for Decking

Decking may be adopted for the following reasons:

i) To spread a fixed quantity of charge uniformly along the length of the blasthole, and
thereby reducing the amount, especially as the hole length/depth increases.
ii) To locate a satellite charge in a hard band of rock along the hole or to break up a boulder
prone cap-rock in the stemming area of the blast.
iii) In order to enable the use of a smaller weight per delay so as to reduce ground vibration
and other adverse environmental effects.

In the case of (i) and (ii) independent initiation (i.e., each deck having its own delay or primer)
is not necessary. All that needs to be done is to use a line of detonating cord linking the various
decks. In (iii) however, it is important for the decks to be initiated on different delays, i.e., the
decks must be initiated independently.

Generally, deck loading may be preferred as the hole depth increases, from the point of
view of controlling cut-offs and misfires, air blast, ground vibration, over break, fragmentation
sizing and excessive fly rock.

It must be noted however, that any savings made in explosives consumption by the decking
method may be offset by the extra cost of priming, initiation and costs of labour incurred in
putting the additional stemming into the blast holes.

The accompanying diagrams illustrate the various methods of loading charges into blast holes.
See Fig. 6.2

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Fig. 6.2 Various Methods of Loading Charges into Blast holes

6.7 Blasting Theory

In the preceding sections we have been discussing topics related to explosives and blasting in
general. In the following sections however, we shall take a brief look into what happens when the
explosive is detonated in the blasthole in the rock mass: Blasting Theory

The sudden release of energy and the reaction products at high pressure by the rapid chemical
reaction in an explosive contained in a blasthole in rock gives rise to compression waves in the
explosive and in the surrounding rock material. These compressive waves are called detonation
waves or shock waves, depending on whether they involve chemical reaction or not. They play a
central role in the functioning of the explosive and in the fragmentation of the rock mass.

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On detonation of an explosive in a rock mass the rock is affected in 3 principal ways or

stages:

Stage One

In this stage, and starting from the point of initiation, the blasthole expands by the crushing of the
walls immediately surrounding the explosive due to the development of the high pressure,
followed by a development of radial cracks

Stage Two

At this stage compressive stress waves emanate or radiate in all directions from the blasthole with
a velocity equal to the sonic wave velocity in the rock mass. New cracks are developed while old
ones are enlarged. When these compressive stress waves reflect against a free face in the rock
mass, they cause tensile stresses in the rock mass between the blasthole and the free face. If the
tensile strength of the rock is exceeded in the process, then the rock breaks in the burden area,
which should be the case in a correctly designed blast, otherwise the compressive stress waves will
just disappear in the rock mass and the rock does not break.

Stage Three

In this stage, large volumes of gases are produced under very high pressures. These are dissipated
into the cracks formed during the first and second stages of the process, and expand the cracks. If
the distance between the blasthole and free face is correctly calculated, the rock mass between
the blasthole and the free face will give way or yield and be thrown forward, thus fragmenting
the rock.

These basically describe the processes that result in a rock mass being fragmented when an
explosive energy is released into it, resulting from the detonation of the explosive in the blast
hole.

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Radial crack formation

Compressive Stress Wave

Gas Penetration of
Cracked Formation

Figs. 14a And 14b Illustrate the Various Stages of the Processes

It must be noted that the explosive reaction in the blasthole is very fast (in 1000th of a second or
milliseconds) and the effective work done by the explosive is considered complete when the
volume of the blasthole has been expanded to 10 times its original volume in approximately 5
milliseconds.

The Theory of Breakage is useful in understanding the value of the burden in the design of all
blasts.

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6.8 Rock Fragmentation

Very often the end purpose of rock blasting is to produce material that fulfils the objective of the
blast. For example: crushing for mineral beneficiation, road construction, dam building, erosion
control etc., etc. In the case of mining and construction fragments of rock should not only be small
enough for the loading and transport equipment, but should also be small enough to pass through
the crusher opening: a state on which the economic success of the mining operation hinges, since
the primary crusher becomes a bottleneck, choking the flow of ore into the beneficiation plant.

Sometimes it is necessary to produce quantities of large and regularly shaped fragments, as is the
case in dam building or constructing wave breakers. Even where the main purpose of excavation is
to create an empty space surrounded by rock walls such as in tunnels, drives, etc., in underground
mining the fragment size is important because it influences the speed of loading/mucking and the
capacity of the transport equipment. In all cases therefore the degree of fragmentation
influences the economy of the excavation job. Basically, 3 main factors control the fragment size
distribution of a blast. These are:
1. Quantity of explosive used
2. Its distribution in the rock mass, and
3. The rock structure

The ideally fragmented rock is that which does not need further treatment after the primary
blast. The parameters of the subsequent operations are therefore, the guidelines for deciding on
the desired fragmentation of the formation. Since the fragment size is of the utmost importance
to the operation all possible efforts should be made to keep the size down, without making the
blast do the work of the crusher.

6.9 Blast Design

In order to achieve optimum results from the explosive energy, the blast designed as to balance all
the parameters that contribute to the desired fragmentation. The blastholes must be arranged in the
desired manner with the correct depth, the right amount/quantity of explosive must be placed into
the holes and the appropriate initiating technique/system must be used to effect the detonation. Due
consideration must also be given as to whether the blast is being carried out underground or on
the surface.

There are several factors that affect the results of a blast and therefore, their design. These
factors may be generally, classified into two main groups. These are:
 Uncontrollable Factors or Variables
 Controllable Factors or Variables

6.9.1 The Uncontrollable Variables or factors

These are the geological factors that are out of the control of the Blaster. However, the Blaster's
knowledge of the geology of the area being blasted will help him place values on the controllable

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factors to safely achieve the desired fragmentation at a minimum cost. Such geological factors as
the structure (fissures, faults, fractures, joint planes, cavities/voids and mud-seams), compressive
and tensile strength, density and porosity have profound effects on blast results. For example,
knowledge of the rock structure helps in selecting a blast hole diameter and therefore a drilling
pattern that will produce fine fragmentation. If a large diameter is selected and therefore large
spacing between the blast holes, there is the danger of the material separating into large blocks or
boulders according to the joint planes or fractures.

This would require expensive secondary blasting; and there is also a possibility of frozen ground
and difficulty in mucking the blocky muck pile, with a resultant increased cost of mucking,
hauling and crushing. Smaller diameter holes would increase drilling costs, however,
fragmentation will be finer and mucking, hauling and crushing costs will also reduce
considerably. The discontinuities also present a lot of problems for drilling and blasting operations,
because they provide channels through which in drilling compressed air energy is dissipated
causing reduction in drill penetration, while at the same time they provide openings along which
much of the explosive energy is lost in the case of blasting, and thereby resulting in coarser
fragmentation with consequent higher costs of production.

6.9.2 The Controllable Variables or Factors

These are factors over which the Blaster can exercise control and therefore can balance them in their
selection to achieve the desired results. The variable factors include: hole diameter, burden,
spacing, stemming and the firing system. These variables are mutually interdependent, i.e., the
results of one affect those of the others.

Other equally important Factors that do not play direct roles in the design are the Human
factors and Cost.

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CHAPTER 7

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF BLASTING

7.1 Introduction

Blasting is usually carried out to do beneficial work for man. However, in the process of venting
of the explosive energy in the rock formation side effects that are undesirable do occur. These
side effects will result whether the blast is properly designed and executed or not. It is the
magnitude that matters in the occurrence of actual damage. The following discussions are an
introduction to this rather complex subject. The undesirable effects of blasting include:
1. Fly rock
2. Ground vibration
3. Air blast and noise.

7.2 Fly Rock

In bench blasting two types of movement occur. These are:

 Forward movement of the entire rock mass. This is mainly horizontal. This forward
movement of the rock mass is dependent on the specific charge and rarely presents any
hazard in the blasting operation, but may cause inconvenience when miscalculated.

 Fly rock, which is scatter from the rock surface and the front of the blast.

Fly rock may be defined as the rocks ejected from the blast. They tend to travel long
distances and are the main cause of on-site fatalities and damage to equipment.

7.2.1 Causes of Fly rock

Mainly caused by improperly designed or improperly executed blasts; and is often a result of
incompetent rock, where the gases may break through easily due to less resistance than in the
more competent parts of the rock (i.e., venting of gases through incompetent rock or
formation). Extreme care should be exercised when charging such blasts. It must be noted that the
incompetent zones may be natural, such as joints, fissures/cracks/fractures filled with debris,
etc., or may be caused by the previous blast, especially in a heavily charged bottom part of the
hole.

Prevention
To prevent or at best minimize the occurrence of fly rock the following steps must be taken:
 Clean the rock surface of all loose stones, which eject easily if gases vent through the
blast hole collar.
 Avoid too short stemming
 Use good stemming material

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 Ensure the correct drilling pattern and correct hole inclination.

 Look out for incompetent zones and voids and charge with care, ensuring that the
incompetent zones are stemmed instead of being loaded with explosive.
 Check that the correct quantity of charge is used. Do not over-charge the holes. - In
built-up areas or residential areas make sure that you cover the blast.

7.3 Ground Vibration and Airblast

This section consist of blast induced ground vibration and airblast.

7.3.1 Ground Vibrations

The Theory of Ground Vibrations

Ground vibrations are seismic movements in the ground caused by rock blasting, piling,
traffic, excavation, vibration compaction etc. Ground vibrations, which are a form of energy
transport through the ground, may damage adjacent structures when they reach a certain
level. Some of the energy released from a blast propagates in all directions from the hole as
seismic waves with diff rent frequencies. The energy from these seismic waves is damped by
distance and the waves with the highest frequency are damped fastest. This means that the
dominant frequencies from the blast are high at short distances and lower at longer distances.
The size of the ground vibrations depends on:
 quantity of co-operating charges
 constriction
 characteristics of the rock
 distance from the blasting site
 geology of covering earth deposits

By selecting the right blasting method and correct drilling and firing patterns the size of the
ground vibrations can be controlled.

Fig. 6.1 Illustration of Ground Vibration Relations

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Ground vibrations are complicated type of seismic waves and consist of different kinds of
waves:

P-wave
The P-wave is also called the primary or compressional wave. It is the fastest wave through
the ground. The particles in the wave move in the same direction as the propagation of the
wave. The density of the material will change when the wave passes.

S-wave
The S-wave is also called the secondary or shear wave. It moves through the medium at right
angle to the wave propagation but slower than the P-wave. The S-wave changes the shape of
the material but not the density. The common denomination for P-waves and S-waves is body
waves.

R-wave
The R-wave (Raleigh wave) is a surface wave which fades fast with depth. It propagates
more slowly than the P and S waves and the particles move elliptically in the vertical plane
and in the same direction as the propagation. At the surface the movement is retrograde to the
movement of the wave.

The measuring of the ground vibrations is usually done at one or several points at ground
level. For a total analysis, the practice is to measure in three directions: vertical, longitudinal
and transverse. Normally the vertical component is dominant 'at shorter distances. It is
therefore, usually sufficient to measure in the vertical direction. For vibration analysis of the
measured values, the vibration phenomenon may be recorded as a function of time - time
history. Then the displacement, particle velocity and acceleration can be recorded.

The basic rule is that the vibration velocity is measured on structures (buildings etc.) with a
Geophone and the acceleration on installations (computers etc.) with an accelerometer.
If the vibration velocity is measured, the acceleration can be calculated and vice versa. Which
of these parameters that is the most interesting depends on the damage criterion for the
structure to be protected? If this is known, it is normally sufficient to measure the peak value
of the desired parameter.

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Fig. 6.2 Seismic waves

7.3.2 Damage Criteria and Recommendations

Experience over many years of measuring has shown that the particle velocity of the ground
vibrations affecting a foundation constitutes the best parameter for k criterion for damage. As
ground vibrations are approximately a sine vibration, the particle velocity can be calculated in
accordance with the following formula:

v= 2πfA
Where
v = particle velocity (mm/sec)
f = frequency (periods/sec)
A = displacement in mm

From the above formula, the acceleration of the vibration can be calculated:
a= 4Π2f2A

Where
a= acceleration in g (9.81 m/sec2)
A = displacement in mm

Control of the particle velocity is important, as it has been shown to be directly proportional
to the stress to which the building material is exposed. The relationship between particle
velocity and stress in an ideal case, when a shock wave passes through an infinite elastic
medium can be expressed as follows:
y = v/c

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Where y = shearing angle (mm/m)

v = particle velocity (mm/sec)
c = propagation velocity (m/sec)

To recommend realistic permitted levels of ground vibrations for buildings, engineers with
extensive experience of rock blasting and vibration measurement evaluation should be
consulted. Any restriction in the form of reduced vibration levels will increase the cost of
drilling and blasting considerably. For that reason it is important to start all blasting
operations in populated areas with an inspection of surrounding buildings. This will be
followed by a risk analysis in order to assess the sensitivity of the buildings and foundations
to ground vibrations. The most important parameters are:
 Vibration resistance of the building materials.
 The general condition of the building.
 Duration and character of the ground vibration.
 Presence of equipment sensitive to ground vibrations within the building.
 How the foundation is constructed.
 The quality of the foundation.
 The velocity of the wave propagation in rock, soil and construction material.

The following table shows the values that are normally permitted and which are used to
evaluate the potential damage risk through ground vibration to standard residential housing.

Although the vibration velocity is stated as the permitted value it is the shearing angle which
determines the dimensions. The accuracy of the values in the table has been confirmed by
hundreds of thousands of readings over more than 40 years.

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In the case of older buildings of poorer quality, it is customary to decrease the permissible
vibration velocity from 70 mm/sec. to 50 mm/sec., in buildings of concrete it should be
decreased to 35 mm/sec. Conversely, there have been occasions where velocity values of
more than 100 mm/sec. were attained without age to buildings. In the case of individual
blasting operations, sturdy cone structures can stand values exceeding 150 mm/sec. The size
of the ground vibrations depends on:
 number of co-operating charges
 the constriction of the blast
 the characteristics of the rock
 the distance from the blasting site
 the geology of the surrounding ground

For the planning of blasting operations where ground vibration problems occur, it is
important to be aware of the relationship between distance, charge and ground vibration.

Using Langefors’ formula for determining the charge level the vibration velocity can be
calculated:

Charge level = Q/R3/2

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Where Q indicates the charge in one hole [cooperating charge] in kg or several

instantaneously fired charges at the same distance R in meters.

Vibration velocity

Q
vK
R3 / 2

where Q = instantaneously detonating charge (kg)

R = distance (m)
v = vibration (particle) velocity (mm/sec)
K = transmission factor, constant depending on the homogeneity of the rock and the
presence of faults and cracks. For hard Swedish granite it is approximately 400 but it
is normally lower.

Fig. 6.3 Illustration of Ground Vibration Relations

The relationship between charge/distance and ground vibration can be used to make a simple
table which may serve as ready-reckoner for the planning of blasting operations.

7.3.3 Planning of Blasting Operations

At the planning stage of the blasting operation, attention must be paid to the geological
characteristics of the rock. If there are zones of weathered and fissured rock between the
blasting site and objects sensitive to vibrations with a damping effect on the ground
vibrations, the geological characteristics of the rock may change to more homogeneous rock
as the work proceeds, increasing the ground vibrations. It may than be necessary to decrease
the charge to avoid damage. Therefore the test blasting should be measured to make a seismic

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profile where the seismic waves are measured at various points giving information on how
the characteristics of the rock vary.

When planning and executing the blasting operation, it is important that the constriction of
the round is minimized by correct drilling and firing patterns.

Fig.6.4 By Changing The Firing Pattern, The Internal Burden May Be Minimized And
The Constriction Lowered

The vibration velocity also depends on the inclination of the hole. Steeper hole inclinations or
other conditions increasing the constriction of the blast (misfires etc.) may cause considerable
increase of the vibration velocity. The ground vibrations will also increase if the blast fails to
break the rock down to the intended level.

The first rounds blasted at a work site must be considered as test blasting and the vibration
measurements should be used as guidance for the planning of an optimum blasting operation.
The results from the vibration measurements should be utilized during all blasting operations
to find the most economic drilling and firing pattern. However, a certain margin to the
permitted vibration velocity should always be maintained as the ground vibrations may
increase sharply if the blast does not go according to plan.

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Fig.6.5 Vibration Velocity In Relation To Hole Inclination with the Same Burden And
Explosive Charge (Trench Blasting)

This can be difficult in cases when the drilling is far ahead of the blasting operation, but
using the result of the initial risk analysis and a thorough follow-up during the blasting
operation, the drilling pattern maybe selected in such a way that several charges may be used
in each hole if the vibration velocity values become too high.

Investigations show that people in general react to vibration values far below the limit for
damage on build. It has also been demonstrated that blasting operations which are executed in
a short time are better accepted by people in the area than operations lasting for a long time,
even if there are long gaps between the blasts. The best way to forestall complaints is if those
responsible for the blasting operations give comprehensive information to the people
affected.

7.4 Air Shock Waves

The immediate effect of blasting is not only to cause ground vibrations and throw, but also an
air shock wave. In most routine blasting, in which the explosives are enclosed in blast holes,
and which are designed for ground vibration velocities of 70 mm/sec or less, the blasting does
not cause air shock waves of the magnitude that may cause damage to buildings. However, a
low level of air shock wave overpressure does play an important role in distressing
neighboring residents by rattling windows etc. Therefore, complaints may be reduced by
taking actions to reduce overpressure from air shock waves.

Air shock waves are pressure waves which radiate in the air from a detonating charge. The
intensity of the pressure depends on the size of the charge and on its degree of confinement.
When a pressure wave passes a given position, the pressure of the air rises very rapidly to a

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value over the ambient atmospheric pressure. It then falls relatively slowly to a pressure
below the atmospheric value before returning to the atmospheric pressure after a series of
oscillations. The maximum pressure is known as the peak air overpressure. The air shock
waves are within a wide range of frequencies, typically between 0.1 Hz and 200 Hz. In the
portion of the spectrum lying over 20 Hz the air shock waves are audible and known as noise,
while concussion is the portion under 20 Hz and inaudible.

The lower, inaudible, frequencies are damped more slowly than the higher, audible,
frequencies and cause overpressure over greater distances. These low frequencies can
occasionally cause direct damage onto structures, but can more commonly induce higher
frequency vibrations which are noticed as noise in windows, doors, crockery etc. Under such
circumstances it is impossible to determine whether the ground vibration or air shock wave is
being perceived without monitoring the blast.

Fig. 6.6 Pressure/Time Curve for Air Shock Wave

The air overpressure is measured as units of pressure and usually pressure unit millibar
(mbar) is used. The units decibel (dB) and kilopascal (kPa) are also used.
The decibel unit is expressed as:

dB = 20 log P/Po

where P is the measured pressure and Po the reference pressure of 0.00002 Pa.

Knowing the charge weight, Q kg and the distance R m to the charge, the overpressure can be
calculated from the formula:

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P = 700 Q1/3/ R (mbar)

Fig. 6.7 Relation kPa/dB

The relationship applies to TNT, which means that for civil explosives type Emulite 150 and
Dynamex M the charge weight should be reduced by 25 % when used in the formula.
The relationship applies to unconfined charges. The unconfined charges cause problems in
populated areas are concussion charges (mud capping), trunk lines of detonating cord,
welding of power lines with explosive, presplitting with unstemmed holes etc. As can be seen
in Fig. 10.25, a trunk line consisting of 100 m 10 gr detonating cord can cause broken
windows at a distance of up to 100 m.

Fig. 6.8 Charge as a Function of Distance for Different Levels of Air Overpressure
The propagation of the air shock waves is influenced by atmospheric conditions where the
wind direction, wind velocity, temperature and air pressure have a great effect. Reflections in
the atmosphere may be caused by temperature inversion, where the air shock wave is

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reflected against the boundary layer of air strata with different temperatures. Temperature
inversion frequently occurs on cloudless evenings, nights and mornings. The phenomenon
can cause local amplification of the air overpressure, which is greater than that which would
normally have been expected at a certain distance.

Even if the air overpressure is kept under the threshold value for buildings (0.4 kPa), it is not
always sufficient to safeguard against complaints. The blasts should therefore be designed for
the minimum practical level.

7.4.1 Air overpressure in Confined Spaces

In the case of blasting in underground chambers and tunnels, different conditions prevail as
the pressure; wave is confined and in the case of tunnels concentrated in one direction. This
means that the pressure is amplified compared to blasts in an open space.

Fig. 6.9 Pressure as a Function of Charge and Volume from a Detonation in a Confined
Space

The principal sources of air overpressure are:

 Detonation of unconfined charges. The most common are concussion charges
 (plaster charges), trunk lines of unconfined detonating cord, blast welding of
 Power lines and presplitting with unstemmed holes.
 Too short stemming and/or wrong stemming material. Inadequate stemming
 Might not confine the explosive on detonation.
 Venting of high velocity gases may occur in poorly designed blasts where no
 consideration has been given to incompetent zones, principally in the burden
 area. Overcharging of a blasthole could cause the same effect.
 The sudden movement of the blasted rock mass towards the free face or faces

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 will raise the air pressure.

 In order to control the air shock waves, the following steps should be considered:
 Design the blast in such a way that the amount of explosives is in accordance with
blasting requirements and minimum air overpressure.
 Pay particular attention to incompetent zones, over break from previous round, mud
seams etc. through which gases may vent and cause overpressure.
 Accurate drilling is necessary to maintain the designed blasting pattern. Too big a
burden could cause venting in the collar part of the hole. Use setbacks to determine
the burden of the next round.
 Bottom initiation decreases venting in the stemming area.
 Reduction of the size of the round tends to reduce the air overpressure.

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 CHAPTER 8

EXPLOSIVES REGULATIONS

8.1 General Requirement

A. Qualifications of a blastman
 Age = 22yrs  No bodily infirmity likely to
 Literate interfere with work
 Enough mining experience = 2yrs  Certify examiners in your
 Physically fit knowledge in the mining &
 Medically fit – sight & hearing minerals law
 Valid first aid certificate

B. Responsibility of a blastman
 SHE issues of your men  Security
 Production  Good housekeeping & sanitation
 Efficient ventilation system  Proper observance of the mining,
 Discipline – IRO (Industrial minerals & explosives regulations
Relations Officer)

C. Duties of a blastman
 Reporting to job early  Face marking
 Receiving job instructions  Treating of sockets/misfires
 Discuss job instruction with crew  Preparing primers
 Arrange for required materials for  Charging of holes
job  Stemming charges/blastholes
 Transportation of explosives  Posting of guards
 Storage of explosives  Opening & closing of waterblast
 Issuing and receiving of explosives  Firing of charges
 Mixing of ANFO  Extension of waterblast
 Destruction of explosives
 Scaling

8.2 Transportation of Explosives

There are three ways to transport explosives. These are

 High way transport
 Minesite transport
 Underground transport

8.2.1 Highway Transport

This is the movement of explosives through towns of operation using public roads. The
explosives truck driver must not consume alcohol, no smoking, no unnecessary stoppings,
travel between 6 am and 6 pm and must not exceed a speed limit of 60 km/hr. The following
must be ensured in the transport of explosives on high ways.
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 Obtain permit form ‘M’ to acquire or possess explosives

 A well-conditioned diesel truck
 An experienced driver preferably driver-mechanic
 A police escort
 Blasting certificate competency holder
 Two red flags with letter ‘E’ boldly written in the middle
 Two triangular reflectors
 A tapoline and a rope
 Enough assistants or helpers

8.2.2 Minesite Transport

This is the movement of explosives on and around the concessions of the mine. No police
escort is however required during minesite transportation of explosives. Furthermore,
requisition form is required before issue of explosives for usage. Explosive vehicles are not to
be partitioned.

8.2.3 Underground Transport

There are two ways of conveying explosives in underground. These include manual and
vehicle or normet transports.

8.3 Manual Transport

The transport of explosives manually involves the following:

 Blastman and at least two helpers
 One helper takes the lead but he doesn’t carry any explosives. The lead is at least 15
m ahead.
 This helper clears the way and makes the route safe
 The second helper is by law to carry the high explosives
 The blastman carries the low explosives or detonators at 15 m from the second helper

8.4 Vehicle/Normet Transport

The transport of explosives with vehicles involves the following:

 A well-conditioned diesel truck with red reflective light, a siren or a self-ringing bell
 The driver must possess company permit to move vehicle
 The explosive is transported in a box or canister
 Maximum speed of 15 km/hr should be ensured
 No unnecessary stopping

8.5 Introduction of Rock Blasting

The Purpose of blasting a rock includes

 Civil & other constructional works
 To win minerals
 For easy handling

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 Because it’s hard

 To create access
 To create space

8.6 Types of Rock Blasting

 Primary – blasting insitu rock.

 Secondary – blasting of boulders resulted from poor primary blast

8.6.1 Primary Blasting

The above earlier section of this handout discusses primary blasting.

8.6.2 Methods or ways of Secondary Blasting

Three ways/methods are available

 Plaster blasting
 Pop blasting
 Snake hole blasting

Plaster blasting
 Seek permission
 Check waterblast and ventilation
 Safely transport explosives to site
 Keep under safe ground i.e. no cracks, no water, supported area
 Barricade area or postguards on all access leading to job site
 Wear appropriate PPEs
 Prepare the primer using the pricker
 Place primer on boulder
 Put sand/mud on primer
 Check on guards again
 Signal guards before firing
 Communicate “FIRE AWAY” to guards
 Wait for a “FIRE AWAY” response
 Quickly connect up to the stinger and FIRE.

Note:
Blasting is called sand blasting if sand was placed on primer. Also, if mud was used, the
blasting is called mud blasting. This blasting does not involve flyrocks. It’s also termed
chemical hammering.

Pop blasting
 Seek permission
 Wash boulder thoroughly & inspect for misfire and sockets
 Measure height/length of boulder
 Drill short holes into the boulder. A shorthole is about 1/3 length of the boulder
 Check your waterblast and ventilation
 Safely transport explosives to site

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 Keep under safe/good grounds

 Wear PPEs
 Prepare the primer. NB: let the tip of the detonator face the major part of the rock.
 Insert primer straight/direct in the hole and stem
 Follow the rest of blasting procedure

Snake hole blasting

 Seek permission
 Create a hole beneath boulder if none exists
 Check waterblasts and ventilation
 Follow rest of blasting procedure as above.
 Insert primer in the snakehole
 Follow rest of blasting procedure until you FIRE

8.7 Blasting time

 Time to conduct safe blasting operations

 Blasting time is reviewed monthly to access air movement (not by law)
 Blasting time is issued in the last week of the month of first week of the next month
 Shiftboss will relay blasting time to blastman
 Record blasting time communication in blasting time book
 Blastman signs/thumb prints blasting time book

The significance of blasting time includes

 Permits continuous shift activities
 Ensures safe blasting or prevents blasting hazards from affecting other workers or
colleagues

8.8 Blasting Hazards

 Noise  Loose hangings
 Dust  Flyrocks
 Smoke  Accidents
 Gasses (noxious)  Airblast
 Ground vibration

8.9 Magazine

Magazine is an isolated building/structure approved for storing mining/civil explosives.

8.9.1 Magazine Acquisition

 Application for acquisition in triplicate
 Site plan required in triplicate
 Construction/building plan in triplicate
 Forward to Chief Inspector of Mines for approval

The content of letter include the following

 Place of residence
 Reasons for trying to acquire explosives

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 Type of explosives
 Quantity at any one particular moment
 Suitability of area – free of farms, settlement, road, high tension pylons, aircraft fly
path
 Radius of 500 m required

8.9.2 Types of Magazine

In terms of construction (5 types)

 Concrete-block magazine
 Container magazine
 Wooden box magazine
 Adit magazine
 Pre-fabricated magazine

In terms of explosives (2 types)

 High explosives magazine
 Low explosives magazine

In terms of location (2 types)

 Surface magazine
 Underground magazine

In terms of mobility (2 types)

 Mobile
 In-mobile/stationary

In terms of quantity (2 types)

 Bulk storage magazine
 Distributive magazine

8.9.3 License of a Magazine

The magazine license contains the following:

 Name of owner  Type of explosives to be stored
 Place of residence – construction  Quantity of explosives
plan number  Signature of Chief Inspector of
 Condition Mines
 Date of issue  Fee paid
 Date of expiry  Receipt number

8.9.4 Safety Features of a Magazine

 Internal safety features

 External safety features

Internal Safety Features

 Concrete floor  Removable wooden duck boards

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 Panel walls and inside of steel  Bottommost shelf to the floor is 15

walls countersunk nails/screw and cm
puttied  Uppermost shelf to floor is 2.8 m
 Magazine license displayed  Delineate or mark the 2.8 m height
 Extract of the mining and mineral on the inner walls of the magazine
regulation  Distance between shelves is 75 cm
 Thermometer (at least)
 Rows of explosives or shelf to wall  Stock book
is 30 cm

External safety features

 Adequate sign boards/post  Drainage surrounding the magazine
 Wire meshed fence  Ventilation holes (top and bottom)
 Fire extinquishers  Steel door with at least 2 protected
 First aid kits padlocks
 Bucket of dry sand  Effective lightening
 24-hr security guards/sentry arrester/conductor
 At least 30 m weeded surrounding  Safety/security light
(firebelt)  Recording video camera
 A ramp of loose earth surrounding  Provide spare generator
the building to the eave of the
building

8.9.5 Inscription on Signboards

 Explosives magazine  No unauthorized entry (human

 Warnings (underlined) picture)
 No smoking (cigarette picture)  Danger (skull picture with 2 bones
 No naked light/fire (matches crossed)
picture)  No thoroughfare
 No farming

8.9.6 Provision made against Theft

 24-hr security guard/sentry

 Wire-meshed fence
 Clear view because of firebelt
 Steel door with 2 protected padlocks
 Video camera
 The generator
 Safety or security light

8.9.7 Provision made against Fire Outbreak

 Signboards
 24-hr security guard/sentry
 Fire extinguishers

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 Bucket of sand
 30 m weeded surrounding/firebelt
 Effective lightening conductor

8.9.8 Regulating Magazine Stock

 Issuing and
 receiving

Receiving Explosives into a Magazine

 Receive/collect waybill (check destination, type of explosives, quality, date of

departure
 Check if there is enough space to receive explosives
 Check physical state and condition of explosives
 Ensure there is no naked light (the cardinal rule to explosives safety is “No naked
light”)
 Give helpers and assistants appropriate instruction per job at hand
 Count during offloading of explosives
 Ensure explosives are packed according to requirement
 Record current received in stock book or explosives register
 Log-up

Issuing of explosives

 Receive request from explosives

 Check the request for the explosives types, quantity, date of request form and
authorization, etc.
 Check available stock with request
 Allow truck to park at appropriate area
 Ensure no naked light
 Give appropriate instruction
 Record amount issued
 Log-down stock

8.9.9 Storage of explosives

 Permit form ‘O’ required

Procedure

 Separate high explosives from low or detonators

 Ensure FIFO (First In First Out)
 Make old ones easily accessible
 Arrange explosives to lie on the flat side in the shelves exposing the manufacturing
and expiry dates
 Store explosives 30 cm from the side wall
 Store explosives 15 cm from the floor
 Store explosives not to attain a height of 2.8 m from the floor

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 Store explosives in rows @ 75 cm interval

Safety in the storage of explosives

 Ensure no smoking occurs in and around magazine
 Ensure no combustible material is left in magazine
 Ensure no metals are under boots
 Ensure no horseplay
 Ensure no farming within the fenced area

8.9.10 Duties of a magazine clerk

 He keeps record of magazine stock

 He ensures all sub-standard safety features are made standard

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