Bio

BIOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE

• Life is a profound scientific undertaking

• Organisms are so complex and are diverse having different functions, structures, manner of growth and
origin.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

• Living things are made up of cells.

• Living things reproduce.

• Living things grow and develop.

• Living things obtain and use energy.

• Living things respond to their environment.

TERMS TO REMEMBER:

•Unicellular - A single cell can form an entire living organism.

•Multicellular - composed of more than one cell, with groups of cells differentiating to take on specialized
functions.

•Sexual reproduction - requires that two cells from different individuals unite to produce the first cell of a new
organism.

•Asexual reproduction - is a single organism can reproduce without the aid of another.

•Anabolism - is the process of putting together, or synthesizing complex substances into simpler substances.

•Catabolism - the breakdown of complex into simpler ones using the release of energy.

•Metabolism - is the sum total of all the chemical reactions in the body.

•Homeostasis - is the process by which organisms respond to stimuli in ways to keep conditions in the body suitable
for life.

WHAT ARE CELLS?

•All organisms are composed of the fundamental unit of life, the cell.

•The cell is the simplest unit of matter that is alive.

•Cells are the defined as the structural and functional unit of life.

WHAT IS A MICROSCOPE?

• A microscope, from the Ancient Greek words mikrós or "small" and skopein or "to look or see"

• It is a tool that is used to view smaller objects that the human eye can see.
• Microscopy is the scientific field of study which is used to study minute structures and objects by a microscope.

•It was in the 16th century when the first compound microscope was discovered by and credited to Zacharias
Janssen.

DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSCOPE
Nimrud lens

The Nimrud lens – a piece of rock crystal may have been used as a magnifying glass or as a burning-glass to start fires
by concentrating sunlight. It is later unearthed by Austen Henry Layard at the Assyrian palace of Nimrud in modern-
day Iraq.

First eyeglasses

Salvino D’Armate is credited with inventing the first wearable eye glasses

Early microscope

Zacharias Janssen and his son Hans place multiple lenses in a tube. They observe that viewed objects in front of the
tube appear greatly enlarged. This is a forerunner of the compound microscope and the telescope.

Compound microscope

Galileo Galilei develops a compound microscope with a convex and a concave lens.

1625 – First use of term ‘microscope’

Giovanni Faber coins the name ‘microscope’ for Galileo Galilei’s compound microscope.

1665 – First use of term ‘cells’

English physicist Robert Hooke publishes Micrographia, in which he coins the term ‘cells’ when describing tissue. The
book includes drawings of hairs on a nettle and the honeycomb structure of cork. He uses a simple, single-lens
microscope illuminated by a candle.

1830 – Spherical aberration solved

Joseph Jackson Lister reduces spherical aberration (which produces imperfect images) by using several weak lenses
together at certain distances to give good magnification without blurring the image.

1874 – Abbe equation

Ernst Abbe writes a mathematical formula that correlates resolving power to the wavelength of light. Abbe’s formula
makes it possible to calculate the theoretical maximum resolution of a microscope.

Explaining the Postulates of the Cell Theory

DID YOU KNOW?

• Every organism, no matter what size becomes when fully grown, comes from a multicellular unit called "cell", A
single unit of this cell continuously divide and replicate to make up an organism.
• The cell theory states that all organisms are composed of cells. It also has postulates that describes other
properties of the cell

• Louis Pasteur (disproving spontaneous generation) is credited with conclusively disproving the theory of
spontaneous generation with his famous swan-neck flask experiment. He subsequently proposed that “life only
comes from life.”

• Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (father of microscopy) - is the first to discover free-living algae Spirogyra cells in water in
the pond in 1674 with the improved microscope. The living cells were first discovered by Antony Van Leeuwenhoek.
He observed living cells and called them 'animalcules Some small 'animalcules are now called bacteria.

• The existence of cells was first discovered by an English scientist named Robert Hooke. In 1665, Hooke was able to
observe these structural units in a cork using his compound microscope. He then published this discovery that
inspired other scientists to investigate more about cells.

• Giovanni Faber coins the name “ microscope”

THE CELL THEORY

• The Cell Theory is one of the basic principles of Biology. It was formally established in 1839 following the
discoveries of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden

• The theory originally consists of three tenets, the third of which was contributed by Robert Virchow.

•The original postulates of the cell theory states that:

1. All living cells are made of cell

 Schleiden and Schwann's discovery of cells being present in both plant and animal tissue led them to conclude that
all living are made of cells. Basically, cells make up the structure and organization of organisms — without the cells,
there would be no tissue that would then make up the organs of the body.

 Organisms may have different cell type: Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells.

 Matthias Jakob Schleiden - He investigated plants microscopically and conceived that plants were made up of
recognizable units, or cells. He thought plant growth came about through the production of new cells, which, he
speculated, came from the nuclei of old cells.

 Theodore Schwann - a German biologist who reached the same conclusion as Schleiden about animal tissue being
composed of cells, ending speculations that plants and animals were different in structure.

2. Cells are the basic unit of life

The cells of an organism are where all metabolic processes occur that keeps the organism alive, hence it is called the
fundamental unit of life. Its structure houses different molecules and compounds with different but cooperative
functions.

3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells

Rudolph Virchow correctly revised the original third postulate of Schleiden and Schwann, that cells arise from
spontaneous generation. Virchow's discovery stated that one cell essentially just splits numerous times forming new
cells.

Rudolph Virchow - was studying cells under a microscope when he happens to see them dividing and forming new
cells. He realized that living cells produce new cells through division. Based on this realization, Virchow proposed that
living cells arise only from other living cells.

THE MODERN CELL THEORY

• The cell theory holds true for all living things, no matter how big or small, or how simple or complex. With
the original postulates as foundation, scientists discovered new information about this fundamental unit of life and
developed the "Modern Cell Theory".

• With the advancement of technology, new discoveries about the cell allowed the revision of the cell theory.

• The general accepted postulates of the modern cell theory are:

1. All living things are made of cells.

2. Cells come from pre-existing cells.

3. Cells are the basic unit of life.

4. Cells contain hereditary information (DNA).

5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species.

6. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) happens in cells.

ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
Endosymbiotic theory is the unified and widely accepted theory of how organelles arose in organisms, differing
prokaryotic organisms from eukaryotic organisms.

ORGANELLES
• An organelle is a membrane-bound structure within the cell. Its membrane is similar with the cell's lipid
membrane that holds all the cell's components.

• Each organelle in the cell performs a specific task wherein the combination of these tasks expresses the
overall function of the cell.

CELL ORGANELLES

• Cell Membrane

• Golgi Body

• Nucleus

• Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Mitochondrion

• Lysosomes

• Chloroplast

• Cytoskeleton

1. PLASMA MEMBRANE

•Extremely delicate, thin, elastic, living and semi-permeable membrane

•Made up of two layers of lipid molecules in which protein molecules are floating

•Thickness varies from 75-110 A

•Can be observed under an electron microscope only

FUNCTIONS:

•Maintains shape & size of the cell

•Protects internal contents of the cell

•Regulates entry and exit of substances in and out of the cell

•Maintains homeostasis

2. CELL WALL
• Non-living and outermost covering of a cell (plants & bacteria)
• Can be tough, rigid and sometimes flexible
• Made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin
• May be thin or thick, multilayered structure
• Thickness varies from 50-1000 A
FUNCTIONS:
• Provides definite shape, strength & rigidity
• Prevents drying up (desiccation) of cells
• Helps in controlling cell expansion

3. NUCLEUS
 • Dense spherical body located near the centre of the cell
• Diameter varies from 10-25 um
• Present in all the cells except red blood cells and sieve tube cells
• Well developed in plant and animal cells
• Undeveloped in bacteria and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria)
• Most of the cells are uninucleated (having only one nucleus)
• Few types of cells have more than one nucleus (skeletal muscle cells)

• Nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane

• Nuclear membrane has pores of diameter about 80-100 nm
• Colourless dense sap present inside the nucleus known as nucleoplasm
• Nucleoplasm contains round shaped nucleolus and network of chromatin fibres
• Fibres are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein histone
• These fibres condense to form chromosomes during cell division

• Chromosomes contain stretches of DNA called genes

• Genes transfer the hereditary information from one generation to the next

FUNCTIONS:
• Control all the cell activities like metabolism, protein synthesis, growth and cell division
• Nucleolus synthesizes ribonucleic acid (RNA) to constitute ribosomes
• Store hereditary information in genes

4. CYTOPLASM
• Jelly-like material formed by 80% of water
• Present between the plasma membrane and the nucleus
• Contains a clear liquid portion called cytosol and various particles
• Particles are proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids and inorganic ions
• Also contains many organelles with distinct structure and function
• Some of these organelles are visible only under an electron microscope
• Granular and dense in animal cells and thin in plant cells

5. CYTOSKELETON
• Formed by microtubules and microfilaments
• Microtubules are hollow tubules made up of protein called tubulin
• Microfilaments are rod shaped thin filaments made up of protein called actin
FUNCTION:
• Determine the shape of the cell
• Give structural strength to the cell
• Responsible for cellular movements

6. RIBOSOMES
•Ribosomes appear flattened and spherical in shape when viewed under an electron microscope, with a
diameter ranging between 15 to 25 nm. These structures are comprised of two major ribonucleoprotein
subunits (RNA and protein)

FUNCTIONS:
 • A ribosome is an intercellular structure made of both RNA and protein, and it is the site of protein synthesis
in the cell. The ribosome reads the messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence and translates that genetic code into a
specified string of amino acids, which grow into long chains that fold to form proteins.

7. ENDOPLASMATIC RETICULUM
• Network of tubular and vesicular structures which are interconnected with one another
• Some parts are connected to the nuclear membrane, while others are connected to the cell
membrane
• Two types: smooth (lacks ribosomes) and rough(studded with ribosomes)

FUNCTIONS:

• Gives internal support to the cytoplasm

• RER synthesize secretory proteins and membrane proteins
• SER synthesize lipids for cell membrane
• In liver cells SER detoxify drugs & poisons
• In muscle cells SER store calcium ions

8. GOLGI BODY/ APPARATUS

• Discovered by Camillo Golgi
• Formed by stacks of 5-8 membranous sacs
• Sacs are usually flattened and are called the cisternae
• Has two ends: cis face situated near the endoplasmic reticulum and trans face situated near the cell
membrane

FUNCTION:

• Modifies, sorts and packs materials synthesized in the cell

• Delivers synthesized materials to various targets inside the cell and outside the cell
• Produces vacuoles and secretory vesicles
• Forms plasma membrane and lysosomes

9. MITOCHONDRIA
• Small, rod shaped organelles bounded by two membranes - inner and outer
• Outer membrane is smooth and encloses the contents of mitochondria
• Inner membrane is folded in the form of shelf like inward projections called cristae
• Inner cavity is filled with matrix which contains many enzymes
• Contain their own DNA which are responsible for many enzymatic actions

FUNCTIONS:

• Synthesize energy rich compound ATP

• ATP molecules provide energy for the vital activities of living cell
10. LYSOSOMES

• Small, spherical, single membrane sac

• Found throughout the cytoplasm

• Filled with hydrolytic enzymes

• Occur in most animal cells and in few type of plant cells

FUNCTIONS:

• Help in digesting of large molecules

• Protect cell by destroying foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses

 • Degradation of worn out organelles

• In dead cells perform autolysis

11. PEROXISOMES

• Peroxisomes vary in shape, size and number depending upon the energy requirements of the cell.
These are made of a phospholipid bilayer with many membrane-bound proteins. The enzymes involved in lipid
metabolism are synthesized on free ribosomes and selectively imported to peroxisomes.

FUNCTIONS:

• Peroxisomes are organelles that sequester diverse oxidative reactions and play important roles in
metabolism, reactive oxygen species detoxification, and signaling. Oxidative pathways housed in peroxisomes include
fatty acid B-oxidation, which contributes to embryogenesis, seedling growth, and stomatal opening.1

12. CENTROSOMES
• Centrosome is the membrane bound organelle present near the nucleus
• Consists of two structures called centrioles
• Centrioles are hollow, cylindrical structures made of microtubules
• Centrioles are arranged at right angles to each other
FUNCTIONS:
• Form spindle fibres which help in the movement of chromosomes during cell division
• Help in the formation of cilia and flagella

13. BASAL BODIES

• Both, centrioles and basal bodies have the same molecular organization and can be interchangeable
in the cell. That is, a centriole can move near the plasma membrane and form a cilium, and a basal body can
travel to the inner part of the cell and forms a centrosome.
FUNCTIONS:
• The basal body plays a role in motility, cell-cycle progression, morphogenesis and sensation,
depending upon the cell type, via its function in organizing the cilium or, in some cases, organizing the
architecture of the cytoskeleton.

14. VACOULE
• Single membrane sac filled with liquid or sap (water, sugar and ions)
• In animal cells, vacuoles are temporary, small in size and few in number
• In plant cells, vacuoles are large and more in number
• May be contractile or non-contractile
FUNCTIONS:
• Store various substances including waste products
• Maintain osmotic pressure of the cell
• Store food particles in amoeba cells
• Provide turgidity and rigidity to plant cells

15. CHLOROPLAST
• Double membrane-bound organelles found mainly in plant cells
• Usually spherical or discoidal in shape
• Shows two distinct regions-grana and stroma
• Grana are stacks of thylakoids (membrane- bound, flattened discs)
• Thylakoids contain chlorophyll molecules which are responsible for photosynthesis
• Stroma is a colourless dense fluid
 FUNCTIONS:
• Convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of food
• Provide green colour to leaves, stems and vegetables

PROKARYOTIC AND EYKARYOTIC CELL