General Biology 1 Midterm

LESSON 1: Current Beliefs About the

BIOLOGY: The science of Origin of Life
life. Theory of Divine Creation
- Religion literature talks about
What is BIOLOGY? God, the supernatural being
-Greek words: bios- life; logos- created the earth, light, plants, and
study. animals.
It is the science that deals with States that life is created by
structures, functions of living extraordinary beings.
things, and their relationships with
their environment. Theory of Panspermia/
-It unifies much of natural life, Cosmozoic Theory
attempts to define life, and reveals - Early Greek philosophers
the hierarchical organization of thought units called “spores” or
living systems. “pansperms” came on Earth along
with meteorites and they might
How did life arise on Earth? have evolved into present day
Early Beliefs forms.
Current Beliefs
Mutation Theory -
EARLY BELIEFS ABOUT Environmental mutagens (x-rays
THE ORIGIN OF LIFE or radiations: alcoholism; drugs
Theory of Spontaneous and pills contribute to sudden
Generation or Abiogenesis - It is change in characteristics of an
the idea that life originates from organism that includes the genetic
nonliving matter. make up and physical
Proposed by Aristotle (4th century characteristics.
– 17th century). States that life
originated from non-living Theory of Evolution - There is a
matters. gradual change in the
characteristics of an organism that
includes the genetic make-up and
Biogenesis - It is the idea that life physical characteristics.
originates from pre existing life.
States that life comes from pre- The Characteristics of Life
existing life. Made of One or More Cells -
Living things are made of one or
more cells.Cells are the basic unit characteristic that results from
of structure and function in all changes to a species over time.
living things.
Displays Organization - Living CELL: CELL THEORY
things also display organization, STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
which means they are arranged in
an orderly way. The Cell is the basic structural
Grows and Develops - Growth and functional unit of life. All life
results in the addition of mass to forms are made up of cells.
an organism and, in many An organism can be:
organisms, the formation of new unicellular, consisting of a single
cells and new structures. cell
Reproduces - A species is a multicellular, consisting of many
group of organisms that can breed cells.
with one another and produce
fertile offspring.
Responds to Stimuli - Anything EARLY CONTRIBUTIONS
that is part of the internal or In 1650, Hans Lippershey and
external environments and causes Zacharias Jansen produced the
some sort of reaction by the first microscope
organism is called a stimulus. The Robert Hooke used a
reaction to a stimulus is a microscope examine a thin slice of
response. cork tree under the microscope
Requires Energy - Living and coined the term "cell“.
things get their energy from food. -because they looked like the
Most plants and some unicellular small rooms that monks lived in
organisms use light energy from called Cells .
the Sun to make their own food In 1673, Anton van
and fuel their activities.Organisms Leeuwenhoek (Father of
that cannot make their own food Microbiology), was first to view
get energy by consuming other organism (living things)
organisms. Leeuwenhoek used a simple,
Maintains Homeostasis - handheld microscope to view pond
Regulation of an organism’s water & scrapings from his teeth.
internal conditions to maintain life “animalcules
is called homeostasis.If anything 1831 – Robert Brown
happens within or to an organism discovered the nucleus in cells as
that affects its normal state, the central part of the cell.
processes to restore the normal 1835 – Felix Dujardin
state begin. discovered that cells have a living
Adaptations Evolve over Time - substance, which he named as
An adaptation is any inherited sarcode (cytoplasm)
THE CELL THEORY - Light microscopes (LMs) - Pass
The cell theory, a foundation of visible light through a specimen.
modern biology, states that cells Magnify cellular structures with
are the fundamental units of life. lenses.
THE CELL THEORY Electron microscopes (EMs) -
(Unified Cell Theories) Focus a beam of electrons through
1. Every living thing is made of a specimen (TEM) or onto its
one or more cells. surface (SEM)
2. The cell is the basic unit of A. The scanning electron
structure and function. microscope (SEM
3. All cells come from other cells. Provides for detailed study of
the surface of a specimen.
The Development of the Cell 100,000X magnification
Theory B. The transmission electron
In 1838, a German botanist microscope (TEM)
named Matthias Schleiden Provides for detailed study of
“concluded that all plants were the internal ultrastructure of cells.
made of cells” 200,000x magnification
In 1839, a German zoologist
named Theodore Schwann CELL ORGANELLES
“concluded that all animals were
made of cells” The Parts of the Cell
In 1855, a German medical doctor Cell Membrane/ Plasma
named Rudolph Virchow Membrane
observed, under the microscope, -Controls the movement of
cells dividing. He reasoned that nutrients into and out of the cell.
“all cells come from other pre- (Fluid Mosaic Model)
existing cells” by cell division. -It is composed of double layers of
“Omnis cellula e cellula” phospholipids (head and tail),
proteins, carbohydrates, and
Microscopy - Scientists use steroids.
microscopes to visualize cells too
small to see with the naked eye.
2 key characteristics of a reliable
microscope:
Resolution or the resolving power
-microscope’s capacity to make Mitochondrion
clear images of very small objects -converts food energy into a
Magnification chemical energy called ATP that
-the ability to make objects appear can be used by the cell. A double-
enlarged membrane structure where the
inner membrane is folded forming
Different types of Microscope cristae.
Vacuole Lysosome
-Stores water, nutrients and -digests wastes, worn out cell
even wastes. parts, and foreign invaders
- a compartment covered by a -it is a single-membrane
single membrane called tonoplast. compartment containing powerful
hydrolytic enzymes.
Golgi Apparatus
Separates proteins & lipids Chloroplasts
received from the ER according to -makes plant food.
their destinations.
Modifies some molecules Granum: Solar power
Packages materials into the Stroma: fluid with enzymes.
vesicles that are transported to the Thylakoids: stack of grana
plasma membrane for export.
Chloroplasts – green
Nucleus pigments.
-it is a spherical body that is Chromoplasts – red or
composed of organelles. colored pigments.
Leucoplasts – white or
colorless pigments.
Endoplasmic Reticulum Elioplasts – oily
-it allow proteins & other pigments.
materials to pass from one place to Xanthophyll – pale
another. yellow pigments.
- (a) Smooth ER and (b) Rough Carotene – orange
ER pigment.
Cytoskeleton
Rough ER is studded with - Helps cell maintain shape.
ribosomes and is the site of protein - Involved in movement.
synthesis and processing.
Structures that function in
Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and movement
is the site of synthesis of Flagella - tail-like structures, cells
phospholipids used in the maybe one of two.
membrane formation. Cilia - shorter, hair-like structure,
cell have many.
Centrioles
- aid in cell division that divides in Cytoplasm
perpendicular fashion during cell -is the fluid outside the nucleus
division. containing organelles.
-it is a double-membrane structure
found in pairs. Cytosol
-is the liquid portion of cytoplasm
and it is where many chemical
reactions occur excluding
organelles.

LESSON 2: organelles such as the nucleus, ER

Basic Principles of Animal and Golgi.
Form and Function Features of the bacteria and
archaea
(Varieties of Cells and Bacterial Capsule - Many
Tissues in the Body) pathogenic bacteria are surrounded
by a mucous-like protective layer
Two kinds of living cells:
called a capsule
Prokaryotic cell and Eukaryotic
cell

Prokaryotic Cells - A prokaryote

is any organism – usually single-
celled – whose DNA is suspended
freely in the cytoplasm. The word
means “before the nucleus.”
The capsule protects bacteria from
Prokaryotes can be divided into
viruses, or attack from a host
two groups:
organism’s immune system.
Bacteria
The capsule is usually composed
Archaea
of polysaccharides.
Prokaryotes have simpler structure
than eukaryotes, lacking
Flagella and Pili - Some A diverse group known as the
prokaryotic cells feature one or protists (or protoctists)
more flagella.

Many bacteria also feature pili.

These are hollow protein The cell is composed of four
structures used during bacterial parts:
conjugation. 1. Cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
Plasmids - Bacterial cells often 3. Nucleus
contain several plasmids. Plasmids 4. Organelles
are replicated independently
during bacterial conjugation. Comparing Plant and Animal
Cells

Eukaryotic Cells - A eukaryote is

any organism consisting of one or
more cells that contain DNA in a
membrane-bound nucleus,
separate from the cytoplasm. All
eukaryotic cells contain a large
number of specialized, membrane-
bound organelles.

Eukaryotes include:
Animals
Plants
Fungi
 TISSUES - Tissues are collection
of similar cells that perform
specific functions

Animals have 4 types of tissue:

Epithelial
Muscular
Connective
Nervous
Hierarchy of Biological
Organization Four types of tissue:
Unifying theme in Biology: Connective Tissue
“Structure dictates Function” Epithelial Tissue
Celluar Level Muscle Tissue
Atom Nervous Tissue
Molecule
Organelle 1. Epithelial tissue - covers the
Cell outside of the body and lines the
organs and cavities within the
Organism Level body. It contains cells that are
Tissue closely joined
Organ
Organ System Special Characteristics of
Organism Epithelial Tissue;
1. Cells have polarity.
Population Level apical (upper) surface
Population basal (lower) surface
Species Apical surfaces may bear special
Community functions.
Ecosystem Noncellular basal surface is made
Biosphere up of glycoprotein and collagen.
2. Are composed of closely packed
Anatomy is the study of structure. cells
Physiology is the study of
function. Classification of Epithelium
I. Classification based on the
Animal Tissues number of layers
A. Simple epithelium
1 layer
 Smooth muscle - involuntary
b. Stratified epithelium
- >1 layers 4. Nervous Tissue - Nervous
tissue senses stimuli and transmits
II. Classification based on cell signals throughout the animal
shape Nervous tissue contains:
A. Squamous (like floor tiles) Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
B. Cuboidal (like dice)
C. Columnar (like bricks on Plant Tissues
end) Types of Systems in Plants:
Dermal system
2 Connective Tissue - mainly Ground system
binds and supports other tissues Vascular system
Ex: Areolar, Dense irregular,
Hyalin cartillage, Bone, Adipose, Major Plant Organs:
Blood. Roots
Loose connective tissue - binds Stems
epithelia to underlying tissues and Leaves
holds organs in place
Cartilage is a strong and flexible Meristematic Tissues
support material. found in nose, Meristems – specific growing
ear, trachea regions in plants. (e.g. tip of the
Fibrous connective tissue - is branches, roots, joint where leaves
found in tendons, which attach attached to the stem)
muscles to bones, and ligaments,
which connect bones at joints Types of meristems:
Adipose tissue stores fat for Apical meristems - cause
insulation and fuel primary growth. responsible for
Blood - is composed of blood the increase in length (elongation)
cells and cell fragments in blood of the stems and roots.
plasma Lateral meristems - cause
Bone - is mineralized and forms secondary growth. In woody
the skeleton. plants allow stems and roots to
increase in diameter. Replaces the
3. Muscle Tissue - Muscle tissue epidermis, and add vascular tissue.
consists of long cells called
muscle fibers, which contract in Types of Lateral Meristems
response to nerve signals 1. Vascular Cambium - Located
Three types: between the xylem and the
Skeletal muscle - voluntary phloem, are responsible for the
Cardiac muscle - involuntary
production of additional vascular Two other sclerenchyma cells
tissues. A. Fibers are long, slender and
2. Cork Cambium - Located tapered, and usually occur in
outside the phloem, is responsible groups.
for the production of cork for the B. Sclereids, shorter than fibers
protection of the plant. and irregular in shape, impart the
hardness to nutshells and seed
II. Permanent Tissue System coats and the gritty texture to pear
Plant organs are composed of fruits.
three tissue systems: Sclerenchyma cells -
1. Dermal Tissue - Forms the Characteristics
outside covering of a plant. It Have secondary cell walls
covers all parts of the plant roots, strengthened by lignin
stems, and leaves Often are dead at functional
2. Vascular Tissue - fills the maturity
interior of the plant. It contains Two forms: fibers and sclereids
three basic cell types: Functions
Parenchyma cells - Rigid cells providing support and
Characteristics strength to tissues
Least specialized cell type
Only thin primary cell wall is 3. Vascular Tissue System -
present. Possess large central Specialized tissues among
vacuole. Generally alive at vascular plants which are
functional maturity responsible for carrying water and
Functions nutrients to the various parts of the
Make up most of the ground plant and helps support the plant.
tissues of the plants Types of Vascular Tissue
Storage Xyelm - transports water. The
Photosynthesis water conducting elements of
Can help repair and replace xylem are the tracheids and vessel
damaged organs by proliferation elements
and specialization into other cells. Phloem - transports food. Food
and minerals move through tubes
Collenchyma cells - formed by chains of cells, sieve-
Characteristics tube members. Sieve plates, and
Possess thicker primary cell walls Companion cell.
than that of parenchyma
No secondary cell wall CELL MODIFICATION - Are
Generally alive at functional specialized or modifications re-
maturity acquired by the cell after cell
Functions division that helps the cell in
Provide support without retraining different beneficial ways
growth
Apical Modification - Cell water and solutes between
modification found on the apical epithelial layers.
surface of the cell.
>Cilia and Flagella Gap Junction - Also known as
Cilia are usually short, hair- communicating junctions
like structures that move in waves
Flagella are long whip like LESSON 3:
structures THE CELL CYCLE :
-formed from microtubules Phases of the Cell Cycle and
>Villi and Microvilli
Villi are finger-like projections
their Control Points
that arise from the epithelial layer
in some organs. Genetics - is the study of heredity
Microvilli are smaller and variation.
projections that arise from the
cell's surface Heredity - is the sharing of
features where traits are passed on
Pseudopods - Temporary, from parents to offspring.
irregular lobes formed by amoebas
and some other eukaryotic cells. Variation - demonstrates
differences among individuals.
Extracellular Matrix (ECM) -
Group of macromolecules that CHROMOSOMES - DNA
provide structural support and molecules in a cell are packaged
biochemical support to into chromosomes
surrounding cells.
Cell wall for plant cells KARYOTYPING - Traditional
Glycoprotein in cell membrane of karyotyping uses Giemsa stain to
animal cells visualize chromosomes, and then
pairs and arranges homologous
Basal Modification - Cell chromosomes according to size
modification found on the basal and banding patterns.
surface of the cell.
Why must cells divide?
Desmosomes (hemidesmosomes) Growth and Development
- Rivet-like links between Cell Replacement
cytoskeleton and extracellular Asexual Reproduction
matrix components such as the
basal lamina. Binary Fission in Bacteria
Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea)
Tight Junction -Act as barriers reproduce by a type of cell
that regulate the movement of division called binary fission.
the chromosome replicates >Mitosis
(beginning at the origin of >Meiosis
replication), and the two daughter
chromosomes actively move apart Mitosis (Nuclear Division)- This
type of cell division produces two
The binary fission can occur in 4 identical cells with the same
ways: number of chromosomes
Irregular Organisms grow by the addition of
Transverse cells.
Longitudinal All body cells are diploid (2n).
Oblique
4 STAGES OF MITOSIS:
The Cell cycle Prophase - Chromosome
from the time a cell is first formed condensed. Microtubules form.
from a dividing parent cell . Until The nuclear envelope breaks
its own division. down. Formation of mitotic
spindle fiber. Separation of
What are the main stages in the centrosomes
Cell Cycle? Metaphase - Chromosomes are
Interphase is the phase of the cell pulled to center of cell.
cycle in which a typical cell Line up along “metaphase plate”
spends most of its life. Anaphase - Centromeres divide.
G1: recovering from mitosis; Spindle fibers pull one set of
begins to replicate its DNA; the chromosomes to each pole. Precise
cell makes a variety of RNA and alignment is critical to division
proteins. Telophase - Nuclear envelope
S: DNA replication form around chromosomes.
G2: preparation for mitosis. Chromosomes uncoil to become
chromatin
Two types of Cell Division:
Mitosis What will happen if the DNA of
Meiosis a cell is beyond repair?
APOPTOSIS - The orderly
programmed cell death or suicide.
LESSON 4:
Stages of cell cycle and Cancer: Growing Out of Control
Disorders Cancer refers to a group of
diseases characterized by
Types of Cell Division uncontrolled and abnormal cell
Prokaryotes division.
>Binary fission Cancer cells form tumor.
Eukaryotes
>Benign tumor – remain Spermatogenesis - is the
clustered together production of sperm by the
>Malignant tumor – tumor that process of meiosis.
can break away and metastasize.
Oogenesis - is the production of
Cancer Treatments egg cells by meiosis
1. Surgery – removal of cancerous
body part. Homologous Chromosomes and
2. Radiation therapy – exposure Sister Chromatids
to X-rays to kill cancer cells and
shrink to tumor size. Meiosis I
3. Chemotherapy – uses active Prophase I - Chromosomes
drugs to kill actively dividing condense. Homologous
cells. chromosomes pair w/ each other
Each pair contains four sister
Meiosis - type of cell division chromatids – tetrad. Homologous
reduces chromosome number by pairs linked by
half. All Sex Cells (Germ cells) chiasmata.
are haploid (n).
Parent with that of the other parent Metaphase I - Tetrads or
to produce a genetically distinct homologous chromosomes move
individual. The four daughter cells to center of cell
are not genetically identical.
A. Meiosis I Anaphase I - Homologous
B. Meiosis II chromosomes pulled to opposite
poles
What is the difference between
haploid and diploid? Telophase I - Daughter nuclei
A haploid cell contains only half formed
the number of chromosomes while
a diploid cell contains the Meiosis II
complete number of Prophase II - Spindle fibers form
chromosomes. In humans, the again
haploid chromosome number is 23
represented by n, while the diploid Metaphase II - Sister chromatids
is 46 represented by 2n move to the center

Gametes: Another name for sex Anaphase II - Centromeres split.

cells: egg & sperm Individual chromosomes are
pulled to poles.
Zygote: A fertilized cell.
Telophase II & Cytokinesis - Meiosis reduces the number of
Four haploid daughter cells results chromosomes sets from two
from one original diploid cell (diploid) to one (haploid),
producing cells that differ
The Stages of Meiosis genetically from each other and
After chromosomes duplicate, two from the parent cell
divisions follow
Meiosis I (reductional What will happen when
division): homologs pair up and something goes wrong during
separate, resulting in two haploid the stages of mitosis and
daughter cells with replicated meiosis?
chromosomes
Meiosis II (equational Down Syndrome - is caused by
division) sister chromatids and extra copy of chromosome 21
separate (trisomy 21). They have decreased
muscle tone, stockier build,
The result is four haploid daughter asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes,
cells with unreplicated mental retardation.
chromosomes
Edward Syndrome
Division in Meiosis I occurs in
four phases: Cleft Plate
Prophase I
Metaphase I Xeroderma pigmentosum
Anaphase I
Telophase I and cytokinesis Retinoblastomata

Division in Meiosis II also occurs Progeria - The disease is caused

in four phases by a mutation in the LMNA gene,
Prophase II a protein that provides support to
Metaphase II the cell nucleus.
Anaphase II
Telophase II and cytokinesis Uner Tan Syndrome

Meiosis II is very similar to Epidermodysplasia

mitosis
Verruciformis - These skin
Comparison of Mitosis and “eruptions” appear as wart-like
Meiosis lesions — and even wood-like and
Mitosis conserves the number of horn-like growths — with reddish-
chromosome sets, producing cells brown pigmented plaques.
that are genetically identical to the
parent cell
Severe Combined Passive transport
Immunodeficiency Disorder Active transport
(SCID) - Also known as the Boy Bulk transport
in the Bubble Disease, it’s a
disorder in which individuals are Cell (Plasma) Membrane
born without an effective immune Structure:
system. Fluid Mosaic Model
Phospholipid bilayer with proteins
Ectrodactyly - Caused by several partially or fully imbedded.
factors, including deletions,
translocations, and inversions in Functions:
chromosome 7. Acts as a boundary
Controls what enters and leaves
Trimethylaminuria - Individuals cell
with the condition, because they Maintains homeostasis
cannot break down the naturally
occurring — but pungent smelling Davson and Danielli gave the lipid
— trimethylamine, literally smell bilayer structure.
like rotting fish, rotting eggs, Singer and Nicolson proposed that
garbage, or urine. It’s for this membrane proteins are integrated
reason that it’s also called the Fish too.
Odor Syndrome.
The Plasma Membrane is
Hermaphroditism composed of two layers of lipids:
acts as a barrier to the passage of
Cri-du-chat - is caused by the molecules and allow selective
deletion of part of the short arm of passage of certain substances into
chromosome 5. it is a French word and out of cells to maintain
and the affected babies make high HOMEOSTASIS
pitched cries that sound like a cat.
They have wide set eyes, a small Homeostasis - Balanced internal
head and jaw, mentally retarded, condition of cells. Also called
and very short equilibrium. Maintained by plasma
membrane controlling what enters
LESSON 5: & leaves the cell.
TRANSPORT
MECHANISMS Gradient – the differences in
concentration of materials between
Transport of various substances one area and another.
across a plasma/ cell membrane
may occur by several Passive Transport - Requires no
mechanisms: extra energy, materials move
down the gradient.
 Types: concentration or water and other
>Simple Diffusion - - solutes.
molecules move from a point of b. Hypotonic solution: cell is
greater concentration to lesser placed in a solution with more
concentration to attain water outside the cell than the
equilibrium. Is the tendency for inside.
molecules to spread out evenly c. Hypertonic solution: cell is
into the available space (high placed in a solution with more
concentration low concentration) water inside the cell than the
At dynamic equilibrium, as outside.
many molecules cross the
membrane in one direction as in FACILITATED DIFFUSION -
the other. The movement of molecules
>Carrier-Facilitated across the cell membrane with the
Diffusion - help of membrane transport
>Osmosis proteins (Channel proteins and
Carrier proteins) to maintain
Balance of Intracellular and homeostasis.
Extracellular Solutes and - ex: carbohydrates, amino acids,
Solvents nucleosides, and ions
Solute – refers to that substance
which dissolved II. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
(ex: NaCl) Moves substances from a region of
Solvent – refers to the medium low concentration to a region of
into which the solute is dissolved. high concentration.
(ex: water) Movement of molecules against
the concentration gradient across
Isotonic, Hyptonic, & the cell membrane requires
Hypertonic energy.

I. PASSIVE TRANSPORT Active transport requires energy,

Osmosis: diffusion of water usually in the form of ATP
across the cell membrane from
higher concentration to lower Sodium-Potassium Pump - The
concentration. main function of the N+/K+
Water Potential: describe the ATPase pump is to maintain
movement of water molecules as resting potential so that the cells
they undergo osmosis. will be keeping in a state of a low
concentration of sodium ions and
3 types of solution in osmosis: high levels of potassium ions
a. Isotonic solution: a cell is within the cell (intracellular)
place in a solution with the same
III. BULK OR VESICULAR
TRANSPORT
Large molecules enter the cell
through Endocytosis and out of the
cell through Exocytosis.

Endocytosis - the cell takes in

macromolecules.
There are three types of
endocytosis
Phagocytosis (“cellular eating”)
Pinocytosis (“cellular drinking”)
Receptor-mediated endocytosis

A. Phagocytosis - “cell eating”

A process by which cells take in
large particles of solid through
infolding of the cell membrane to
form vesicles.

B. Pinocytosis - “cell drinking”. A

process by which cells take in
large particles of liquid through
infolding of the cell membrane to
form vesicles.
C. Receptor Mediated
Endocytosis - binding of ligands
to receptors triggers vesicle
formation

Exocytosis - Materials are

excreted out of the cell.

DIFFERENT WAYS OF
MOLECULES MOVEMENT
ACROSS THE CELL
MEMBRANE