NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: AEM 302

COURSE TITLE: EXTENSION TEACHING, LEARNING PROCESS AND

METHODS
COURSE GUIDE

PROGRAMME: B.Sc. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND

MANAGEMENT

COURSE CODE AEM 302

COURSE TITLE EXTENSION TEACHING, LEARNING

PROCESS AND METHODS

CREDIT UNITS&LEVEL: 3 & 300

COURSE WRITER/DEVELOPER: DR. N. E. MUNDI

PROGRAMME LEADER: DR. N. E. MUNDI

COURSE EDITOR:

COURSE COORDINATOR: MR. SAMUEL AWOLUMATE

CONTTENTS

INTRODUCTION

The Course
Course Aims
Course Objectives

WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE

Course Material
Study Units
Presentation Schedule

ASSESSMENT
Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA)
End of Semester Examination
Course Marking Scheme
Tutors and Tutorials
CONTENTS

Course Guide

Module 1 INTRODUCTION

UNIT 1 The concept, procedure and principles of Extension

Teaching

UNIT 2 Basic Characteristics, Implications and steps in Extension

Teaching

UNIT 3 Learning Process in Agricultural Extension

UNIT 4 Motivation in Agricultural Extension

UNIT 5 Concept and an Overview of the use of Extension Methods

UNIT 6 Agricultural Extension Methods

Module 2 COMMUNICATION IN AGRICULTURAL

EXTENSION

UNIT 1 Meaning and Method of Communication in Agricultural

Extension

UNIT 2 Elements of Communication Process

UNIT 3 Steps and Levels of Communication in Extension

UNIT 4 Strategies to Create Effective Communication in

Extension

UNIT 5 Problems in Communication Process

Module 3 INSTRUCTIONAL /TEACHING MATERIALS IN

EXTENSION

UNIT 1 Concept and Significance of Instructional Materials in

Extension Teaching

UNIT 2 Classification of Instructional Materials

UNIT 3 Description of some Teaching Aids/Instructional Materials
and Guidelines for their effective utilization in Extension

UNIT 4 The Utilization of Instructional Materials in Agricultural

Extension

UNIT 5 Improvisation and Substitution of Instructional Materials

in Agricultural Extension

INTRODUCTION

Agricultural extension teaching, learning process and methods is a second

semester course. It is a year three, (3) credit units degree course available to all
students offering Bachelor of Science (BSc.) Agricultural Extension and
Management (AEM). Teaching is a process of arranging situations that
stimulate and guide learning activities towards goals that specify desired
changes in the behaviour of people. That is, extension teaching is the process
in which situations are so arranged as to stimulate and guide learning activities
towards achieving some specified desired behavioral changes in individuals.
This involves getting the attention of learners, developing their interests,
arousing their desires and promoting action. Teaching in some ways leads to
learning.

THE COURSE

The Course will consist of units, which consists of course guide. This course
guide tells you briefly what the course is all about. What course materials you
will be utilizing and how you can work your way through these materials. In
addition, it suggests some general guidelines for the amount of time you are
likely to spend on each unit of the course in order to complete it successfully.

It gives you guidance in respect of your Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA),

which will be made again like in the assignment file. There will be regular
tutorial classes that are related to the course. It is advisable for you to attend
these tutorial sessions. The course will prepare you for the challenges you will
meet in the field of extension teaching, learning process and methods.

COURSE AIMS

The aim of this course is simple. The course aims at providing an

understanding, appreciation and finding solutions to constraints in tertiary
institutions.
To achieve the aims set out, the course has a set of objectives. Each unit has
specific objectives which are usually included at the beginning of a unit. You
should read these objectives before you study the units. You may wish to refer
to them during your study of the units to check on your progress. You should
always look at the unit objectives after completing a unit. By doing so, you
would be sure that you have followed the instructions in the unit.

Below are the comprehensive objectives of the course as a whole. By meeting

these objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the course as a whole.
In addition to the aims above, this course set to achieve some objectives. After
going through the course, you should be able to:

Understand the concept, procedure and principles of extension teaching.

Know the basic characteristics and steps in extension teaching.

Understand learning process and motivation in agric extension

Explain the overview of the extension methods utilization, concept of
communication methods and elements of communication process.

Understand the steps, levels, problems and strategies to create effective
communication.

Comprehend the concept and significance of instructional materials in
extension.

Appreciate the classification of instructional aids.

Understand the description of some important instructional materials and
guidelines for their effective utilization.

Understand the utilization of instructional aids in extension.

Appreciate the improvisation and substitution of teaching materials in
extension.

WORK THROUGH THE COURSE

To complete this course, you are required to read each study unit, read the text
books and read other materials which may be provided by the National Open
University.

Each unit contains self – assessment exercises and at certain points in the
course, you would be required to submit assignments for assignment purposes.
At the end of the course, there is a final examination. Below you will find all
the components of the course listed, what you have to do and how you should
allocate your time to each unit in order to complete the course on time and
successfully.

This course involves that you would be required to spend a lot of time to read.
I would advice that you avail yourself the opportunity of attending the tutorial
sessions where you will have the opportunity of comparing knowledge with
peers.

THE COURSE MATERIALS

The main components of the course are:

1. The course guide

2. Study units
3. References
4. Assignments
5. Presentation schedule

STUDY UNITS

UNIT 1 The concept, procedure and principles of Extension

Teaching

UNIT 2 Basic Characteristics, Implications and steps in Extension

Teaching

UNIT 3 Learning Process in Agricultural Extension

UNIT 4 Motivation in Agricultural Extension

UNIT 5 Concept and an Overview of the use of Extension Methods

UNIT 6 Agricultural Extension Methods

UNIT 7 Meaning and Method of Communication in Agricultural

Extension

UNIT 8 Elements of Communication Process

UNIT 9 Steps and Levels of Communication in Extension

UNIT 10 Strategies to Create Effective Communication in

Extension

UNIT 11 Problems in Communication Process

UNIT 12 Concept and Significance of Instructional Materials in

Extension Teaching
UNIT 13 Classification of Instructional Materials

UNIT 14 Description of some Teaching Aids/Instructional Materials

and Guidelines for their effective utilization in Extension

UNIT 15 The Utilization of Instructional Materials in Agricultural

Extension

UNIT 16 Improvisation and Substitution of Instructional Materials

in Agricultural Extension.

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE

Your course materials have important dates for the early and timely completion
and submission of your TMAs and attending tutorials. You should remember
that you are required to submit all your assignments by the stipulated time and
date. You should work against falling behind in your work or studies.

ASSESSMENT

There are three aspects to the assessment of the course. First are self-
exercises; second are the tutor marked assignments and third is the written
examination/end of course examination.

You are advised to be sincere in attending the exercise. In tackling the

assignments, you are expected to apply information, knowledge and techniques
gathered during the course. The assignments must be submitted to your
tutor/facilitator for formal assessment in accordance with the deadlines stated
in the presentation schedule and the assignment file. The work you submit to
your tutor for assessment will count for 30% of your total course work. At the
end of the course you will need to sit for a final or end of course examination
of about three hours duration. This examination will count for 70% of your
total course mark.

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMAS)

The TMA is a continuous assessment component of your course. It accounts

for 30% of the total score. You will be given four (4) TMAs to answer. Three
of these must be answered before you are allowed to sit for the end of course
examination. The TMAs would be given to you by your facilitator and
returned after you have done the assignment as of before. Now TMA questions
are through electronic system known as E- TMA. These comprise of eighty
(80) questions. TMAs 1, 2, 3 and 4 comprise twenty (20) questions each
respective fully.

Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the
assignment file. You will be able to complete your assignment from the
information and material contained in your reading, references and study units.
However, it is desirable in all degree level of education to demonstrate that you
have read and researched more into your references, which will give you a
wider view point and may provide a deeper understanding of the subject.
Make sure that each assignment reaches your facilitator on or before the
deadline given in the presentation schedule and assignment file. If for any
reason you cannot complete your work on time, contact your facilitator before
the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extension will
not be granted after the due date unless there are exceptional circumstances.

END OF COURSE EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The end of course examination for extension teaching, learning process and
methods will be about three hours duration and has a value of 70% of the total
course guide. The examination will consist of questions, which will reflect the
type of self-testing, practice exercise and tutor-marked assignment problems
you have previously encountered. All areas of the course will be assessed.

Use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting for the examination to
revise the whole course. You might find it useful to review your self-test,
TMAs and comments on them before the examination from all parts of the
course.

Course Marking Scheme

ASSESSMENT MARKS
Assignments 1 – 4 Four assignments, best three marks of the four count
at 10% each – 30% of Course marks
End of course 70% of overall course marks
examination
Total 100% of course materials

TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

There are 16 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You will be
notified of the dates , time and location of these tutorials as well as the names
and phone number of your facilitator, as soon as you are located a tutorial
group.
Your tutor facilitator will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close
watch on your progress on any difficulties you might face and provide
assistance to you during the course. You mail your tutorial marked assignment
to your facilitator before the scheduled date (at least two working days are
required.). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as
possible. With e- examination, it is no more applicable.

Do not delay to contact your facilitator by telephone, e-mail and discuss

problems if you need assistance.

The following might be circumstances in which you would find assistance

necessary. Contact your facilitator if:

- You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned
readings.
- You have difficulty with the self-test or exercises.
- You have a question or problem with an assignment or with the grading
of an assignment.

You should Endeavour to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have
face to face contact with your course facilitator and to ask questions which are
answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course of
your study.

To gain much benefit from course tutorials, prepare a question list before
attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in active discussion.

I wish you success in the course and hope that you will find it both interesting
and useful.

Wishing you the best of lucks.

 AEM 302: EXTENSION TEACHING, LEARNING PROCESS AND
METHODS ( 3CREDIT UNITS)

CONTENTS

Module 1 INTRODUCTION

UNIT 1 The concept, procedure and principles of Extension

Teaching

UNIT 2 Basic Characteristics, Implications and steps in Extension

Teaching

UNIT 3 Learning Process in Agricultural Extension

UNIT 4 Motivation in Agricultural Extension

UNIT 5 Concept and an Overview of the use of Extension Methods

UNIT 6 Agricultural Extension Methods

Module 2 COMMUNICATION I N AGRICULTURAL

EXTENSION

UNIT 1 Meaning and Method of Communication in Agricultural

Extension

UNIT 2 Elements of Communication Process

UNIT 3 Steps and Levels of Communication in Extension

UNIT 4 Strategies to Create Effective Communication in

Extension

UNIT 5 Problems in Communication Process

Module 3 INSTRUCTIONAL /TEACHING MATERIALS IN
EXTENSION

UNIT 1 Concept and Significance of Instructional Materials in

Extension Teaching

UNIT 2 Classification of Instructional Materials

UNIT 3 Description of some Teaching Aids/Instructional Materials

and Guidelines for their effective utilization in Extension

UNIT 4 The Utilization of Instructional Materials in Agricultural

Extension

UNIT 5 Improvisation and Substitution of Instructional Materials

in Agricultural Extension

Module 1 INTRODUCTION

UNIT 1 The concept, procedure and principles of Extension

Teaching

UNIT 2 Basic Characteristics, Implications and steps in Extension

Teaching

UNIT 3 Learning Process in Agricultural Extension

UNIT 4 Motivation in Agricultural Extension

UNIT 5 Concept and an Overview of the use of Extension Methods

UNIT 6 Agricultural Extension Methods

UNIT 1 THE CONCEPT, PROCEDURE AND PRINCIPLES OF

EXTENSION TEACHING

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Concept of Extension Teaching
3.2 Procedure for Effective Teaching in Extension
3.3 Principles of Extension Teaching
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

I believe you have read the course guide? If so, it means you now have a
general understanding of what this unit is about and how it fits into the course
as a whole. This unit discusses the concept of extension teaching and
principles guiding the branch of knowledge of teaching or instructional
approaches. Let us look at what you should learn in this unit, as specified in
the unit objectives below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Understand the meaning/concept of extension teaching
 Understand the procedure for effective teaching in extension work
 Identify the principles of extension teaching

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Concept of Extension Teaching

Farmers are referred to as adult learners and extension workers as teachers.

Education has been defined as the production of changes in human behaviour.
Extension workers are continuously striving to bring about changes in the
behaviour of farmers and their families. They want farmers to discard ancient
methods of soil preparation and follow new techniques. They strive to show
farmers the advantages of better and improved seeds, of chemical fertilizers, of
effective pesticides and with the profits that will follow their use to provide
more and better food for their families, better clothing, better their housing and
happier living. This is teaching in its truest sense.
Teaching is a process of arranging situations that stimulate and guide learning
activities towards goal that specify desired changes in the behaviour of people.
That is, extension teaching is the process in which situations are so arranged as
to stimulate and guide learning activities towards achieving some specified
desired behavioral changes in individuals. This involves getting the attention
of learners, developing their interest, arousing their desires and promoting
action. Teaching in some ways lead to learning.

Good extension teaching is the successful creation of opportunities or situations

in which people gain abilities and stimulation necessary for successfully
meeting their needs and interests in such a way as to attain continuous
improvement and self actualization. Teaching is closely associated with
learning. According to Williams et al (1984) learning is the process; teaching is
closely associated with learning by which an individual through his own
activity becomes changed in his behaviour. It is essentially a response to a
teaching situation where the learner is an active participant in his own
education. Learning is not a “filling up” process but the learner has to be active
to require knowledge, skills and interest. Learning is a personal matter in terms
of learner’s needs. No one learns for others because learning takes place within
the individual. In general, we learn through five physical senses – sights,
sound, touch, taste and smell. When we say a learner changes his behaviour
through his own activities, what are those activities? Those activities involve
using one or more of these five senses for a specific purpose.

3.2 Procedure for Effective Teaching in Extension Work

For effective teaching in extension work, the following procedures should be

taken into consideration.

 Ensure visibility for all. Arrangement of exhibits and other materials

such as chairs should not obstruct participants’ view. Participants
should see clearly what is being taught (Yahaya, 2003).
 Speaker should speak clearly. Adults comprehend spoken words better
than written words. Speaker should be seen by all participants. Talk
with and to the people or even at the people
 Always start with the present needs and problems of the farmers.
 Presentation should be logical in sequence. One idea or one theme at a
time. Be it in written or spoken words, one sentence or one idea is ideal.
 Use practical devices to show relationship between ideas.
 Repeat ideas being presented
 Make physical environment conducive
 Summarize your presentation

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

 1. Define extension teaching.
2. Identify five physical senses through which farmers learn.

3.3 Principles of Extension Teaching

Principles is a kind of philosophy guiding the branch of knowledge (Learning)

of teaching or instructional approaches. Extension teaching has the following
principles:
1. Principle of activities. Active in the use of teaching methods or
approaches.
2. Principles of linking with life. Link teaching with used life situation.
3. Principle of interest. Interest should be developed in teaching because
without interest, specific objectives will not be achieved.
4. Define aim or purpose. That is, teaching should be purposive and
definite.
5. Principle of selection. Teacher or extension worker should be able to
select appropriate teaching methods.
6. Principle of vision. That is, vision into various teaching methods,
individuals and groups.
7. Principles of practice. In teaching, practice is emphasized. There is
what is called teaching practice. Practice makes perfection.
8. Principle of communication. Be able to communicate his teaching
methods.
9. Principle of teaching steps by steps. That is, doing one thing at a time.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has introduced you to the concept or meaning, procedure and
principles of extension teaching. From these discussions, you must have learnt
the meaning of “Extension teaching” as well as the procedure and principles of
extension teaching approaches.

5.0 SUMMARY

The main point in this unit are:

1. The term “Extension Teaching” consists of providing situations on

which important things to be learnt are called to the attention of the
learners, their interests developed, desires aroused and action promoted.
2. Several procedures for effective teaching in extension were highlighted.
3. Principles guiding extension teaching were also highlighted briefly.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Identify five procedures for effective extension teaching.

2. List and discuss five principles of extension teaching.

7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Williams, S. K. T, J. M. Fenley and C. E. Williams (1984). A manual for

Agricultural
Extension Workers in Nigeria, Ibadan, Les Syraden Press. 54p.

Yahaya, M. K (2003). Development Communication. Lesson from Change

and Social
Engineering Projects. Pp 197 – 198.
UNIT 2 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS, IMPLICATIONS AND
STEPS IN EXTENSION TEACHING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Basic characteristics of Extension Teaching
3.2 Implication of Teaching Process for Extension Work
3.3 Steps in Extension Teaching
3.4 Advantages and Limitations of Extension Teaching
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit 1, we looked at the concept, procedure and principles of extension

teaching. In this unit, we are going to look at some basic characteristics,
implications and steps in extension teaching. This unit will help you
understand the subsequent units. The objectives below specify what you are
expected to learn after going through the unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Identify some basic characteristics of extension teaching.

• Understand the implications of teaching process for extension work

 • Understand the steps in extension teaching

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Some basic characteristics of Extension Teaching

There are a number of characteristics of teaching which if understood by the

extension worker can help in assisting the clientele to gain an understanding of
the ideas he is trying to sell to them. These include:

1. Extension teaching requires specific clearly defined objectives. A

teaching objective is simply the term used to describe the end product
desired. All purposeful teaching should be seen as having specific
objectives.
2. Extension teaching usually requires that several methods of presentation
be used for the most effectiveness. No one extension method will reach
all the people nor will it influence all it does reach.
3. Extension teaching requires that learners have effective learning
experiences. A learning experience is the mental or physical reaction
one makes through seeing, learning or doing the things to be learnt
through which he gains an understanding and meaning of the content.
4. Extension teaching should provide learning situations that include the
following elements:
a. An effective learning situation include teacher who joins the learning
group to provide good stimulation and guidance of learning activity;
b. Learners who are properly motivated and recognized the needs for
learning;
c. Teaching aids should be properly used so that learning experience is
identified
5. Extension teaching requires careful evaluation of results which should
guide future efforts. Extension teacher should constantly evaluate
results in a precise and objective manner and base future effort on the
findings.
6. Extension teaching should link up new materials with what is already
known. The extension instructor has some responsibility for learning,
understanding level of his learning and adequately preparing them for
new understanding.
7. Extension teaching must accomplish certain kinds of educational
changes in relation to the subject matter (topic) to be learnt. Changes in
 knowledge such as varieties of seeds to plant, amount of fertilizer to use,
etc; changes in skills, ability such as mental skill e.g. working out
solutions to problems.

3.2 Implication of Teaching Process for Extension Work

The above characteristics of teaching process have some implications for

effective extension work, which can be summarized as follows:

a. Arrange and use equipment that will enable all the audience to see
clearly what is going on.
b. Adults comprehend spoken word better than written word at every speed
of presentation.
c. Start with the present interests and needs or problems of the group.
d. Present topic step by step in logical sequence. That is, teaching one
thing at a time.
e. Employ or use every possible practical device to show relationship of
ideas and materials.
f. Repeat frequently ideas to be sold to the group.
g. Make physical surroundings comfortable and attractive.
h. Always endeavour to have them leave in a spirit of accomplishment and
desire for more.
i. A good summary of the content, giving what was attempted, what was
accomplished, what is yet to be done is always essential.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Identify five characteristics of extension teaching
2. Explain the above five characteristics

3.3 Steps in Extension Teaching

The extension worker is a teacher. He is continually working to bring about

desirable changes in human behaviour. If he is to meet success in his efforts,
he must understand and follow the logical steps in teaching:

1. Getting the attention of the learners. Most farmers are quite unaware of
the great improvement in farming methods. That have been developed
by scientific research and how the employment of these methods can
make farming so much more profitable. The first duty of an extension
 worker as a teacher is to direct the attention of the farmer to the newer
methods of farming suggested by research source.
2. Stimulating the learners’ interests. When the farmer’s attention have
been directed to the newer methods, the next step is to appeal to the
interest by showing him how the new method may be of value to him,
how it may save labour or increase his yield and profit.
3. Arousing the Learner’s Desire for Information. When the attention of
the farmer has been directed to a new method and his interest aroused in
a way or possibility that his new method may be of direct value in
meeting his demand the farmers will want to get all possible information
on how the new method may be used to his advantage.
4. Convincing the Learner that he should act. An extension teacher has
directed the attention of a farmer to a new method, he has stimulated his
interest, supplied him with all information on the new method into
operation. When a farmer through the above steps has become
convinced that the new method will lead to profit and satisfaction for
himself, this is not difficult to do.
5. Getting action by the learner: Teaching is without value unless
converted into action. The extension teacher must do everything
possible to make action easy. If the improvement requires fertilization
or an insecticide or new equipment, the extension worker must take the
responsibility of arranging for its purchase by the farmer at a convenient
source and at a fair price. The farmer by himself cannot do this and he
will not act if there are obstacles in the way of action.
6. Making certain that the learner derives satisfaction from his action: The
extension worker has follow-up job. He must help the learner evaluate
the progress made, measure an increase yield and strengthen the
satisfaction obtained. A farmer that meets a want by the successful
application of a new method becomes a local learner in influencing his
neighbours to satisfy their wants by following the same practice and he
finds prestige and satisfaction in teaching and helping them (Laogun
2005). Also, when a farmer has used a new method and realized profit
and satisfaction from it, he gains confidence in his own ability to learn
and is ready to try other new methods.

SATISFACTION
ACTION
CONVICTION
DESIRE
 INTEREST
ATTENTION
Steps in Extension Teaching

3.4 Advantages and Limitations of Extension Teaching

Advantages of Extension Teaching

- It stimulates and guides learning activities towards goal.

- Specify desired changes in the behaviour of people
- Assist the clientele to gain an understanding of ideas the agent is trying
to impact or sell them.

Limitations

- Requires a lot of time for preparations

- Problem of individual differences, and
- Not all clientele (farmers) may be attentive to teaching

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has examined some basic characteristics of teaching implications of

teaching process and steps in extension teaching. I hope by now, you would be
able to understand some basic issues in extension teaching.

5.0 SUMMARY

The summary of the major points in this unit include:

1. Some basic characteristics of extension teaching viz: specific clearly

defined objectives, several methods of presentation, effective learning
experience; careful results evaluation, linking up new materials and
accomplishment of educational changes.
2. Some implications for effective extension work; clear visibility of use of
equipment by the audience, comprehension of spoken words by adults,
interest and needs of the group; use of every possible practical device;
present topic step by step; comfortable physical surrounding and good
summary of the content.
3. Steps in extension teaching include: Attention, interest, desire,
Conviction, action and satisfaction (AIDCAS).
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Identify and explain five implications of teaching process for extension

work
2. List five steps in extension teaching and explain them.

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Laogu, E. A. (2005). Extension Teaching/Learning Process and Methods. In: S.

F. Adedoyin
(ed). Agricultural Extension in Nigeria. Publication of Agricultural
Extension Society of Nigeria, pp – 202 -203

Williams, S. F. T., J. M. Fenley and C. E. Williams (1984). A manual for

Agricultural Extension
Workers in Nigeria, pp – 57-58
UNIT 3 LEARNING PROCESS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Learning
3.2 How to learn in Extension
3.3 Transfer of Learning
3.4 Characteristics of Learning in Extension
3.5 Factors Affecting Learning
3.6 Principles of Learning in Extension
3.7 Essentials in Adult Learning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit 2, we discussed characteristics, implications, steps, merits and demerits

of extension teaching. In this unit, we are going to treat concept of learning,
how to learn, transfer of learning, characteristics and essentials in adult
learning. After studying this unit, you are expected to have achieve the listed
objectives below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Understand the concept of learning

 • Understand how people learn in Extension

• Explain how transfer of learning takes place in extension

• Identify the characteristics of learning in extension.

• Identify factors affecting learning.

• Understand the principle of learning, and

• Understand the essentials in adult learning

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Learning

Learning is a process by which an individual through its own activities become

changes in his behaviour (knowledge, attitude) (Williams et al, 1984).
Learning is essentially a response to a teaching situation. The learner is no
longer regarded as a passive agent, but an active participant in his own
education.
Learning is not a “filling up” process. The learner has to be active to acquire
knowledge, skills, attitude which satisfied his or her needs and interest.
Learning is a personal matter in terms of learners needs. No individual can
learn for others because learning takes place within the person.

There are two types of learning namely incidental and deliberate learning’s.
Incidental learning occurs when learning takes place without efforts.
Deliberate learning results from a specific purposeful activity or experience,
i.e., it results from some motivated efforts. The learner directs his learning
along a definite planned manner.

Abdullai (2002) defined learning situation as one in which all elements

necessary to promote learning are present such as: (a) Instructor (agent), (b)
Learners, (c) subject matter, (d) Learning materials (e) physical factor.

Learning experience is a mental or physical reaction one makes through seeing,

learning or doing the things to be learnt through which one gains the meanings
and understandings of the materials to be learnt.

Learning is the process by which one becomes changed in behaviour, skills,

understanding, interest, and appreciation as a result of his experience. The
essence of learning is to systematically acquire knowledge and experience.
3.2 How do we Learn in Extension?

We learn through five physical senses – sight, sound, touch, taste and smell.
When we say a learner (farmer) changes his behaviour through his own
activities, what are those activities? Those activities involve using one or more
of these five senses for a specific purpose.

There are seven major ways by which learning takes place in individuals. That
is, the ways by which we learn.

1. Conditioning: This is when learning takes place through the

establishment of a connection between a stimulus and a response,
referred to as conditioning. Pavlov, in his experiment, conditioned dogs
to salivate when a bell is rung.
2. Trial and Error: When an individual is faced with a problem, he
discovers a solution by trial and error. This procedure takes a longtime
and it is not efficient. Considerable time is wasted in unsuccessful
efforts.
3. Problem solving: This procedure involves the use of the product of the
previous learning experiences when faced with a problem. It also
involves higher mental processes such as reasoning, concept formation
and testing a hypothesis.
4. Training: Training is similar to conditioning. It is especially useful in
skills, habits and attitudes development. There is considerable use of
rewards and punishment during training for success and failure
respectively.
5. Insight Learning: During insight learning, a solution is found as a flash.
There is the feeling of relief when a solution occurs in a flash. The
learner does not have complete understanding about how the solution
works.
6. Imitation: This implies copying and following a pattern of behaviour
without much reasoning. Opinions and beliefs expressed by leaders and
books are adopted quickly by many people.
7. Memorization: This is learning without understanding but attempt is
made to commit everything under focus to memory verbatim

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. What is learning?
2. Differentiate between learning situation and learning experience in
extension.

3.3 Transfer of Learning in Extension

Transfer of learning takes place when an idea in one situation is used in
another. An extension agent is concerned with the transfer of learning because
when the agent teaches an idea to a farmer the learning situation (e.g. a
demonstration or field trip) is not the same situation as that on the farm of the
farmer. Learning should not be the compartmentalization of learned matter.
The transfer may be knowledge, skill, ideas, and attitude from one situation to
another, (Yahaya 2003).

Transfer of learning depends upon on a number of similar components in the

two situations and the degree of generalization that can be achieved for
deriving principles that can be applied to various situations. The transfer of
learning also depends upon the mental capacity of the learner.

Transfer of learning can be achieved in the following ways:

a. Encourage the learner to look for similarities in various situations.

b. Encourage learner to apply the ideas in other similar situations.
c. Encourage learner to generate principles personally rather than being
told, allowing the learner discovers similarities and principles.
d. Discourage memorization of data or content of learning process by the
learner. Lay more emphasis on understanding and application of ideas.

3.4 Basic Characteristics of Learning in Extension

These characteristics of learning are being examined as a foundation for

planning and executing extension outreach programme.

a. Learning is meaningful. Learning should enable the learners to be able

to solve related problems. This is attained by relating new terms and
knowledge to that which the learners already known, i.e. there should be
a connection between familiar and unfamiliar concepts.
b. Learning is facilitated when two or more senses are used by the
learners/farmers. While in the process there should be a variety of
learning activities to use more of our senses.
c. Learning is more effective where the learner actively participates. The
learner is more active when he realizes that learning goals are not forced
on him.
d. Learning is affected by physical and social environments. The general
physical environment should be suitable to the kind of learning taking
place and to the activities selected for the learning situation. The
extension worker/teacher should recognize and use the effect of the
social environment on learning.
 e. Learning is growth-like and continuous. New knowledge should be
built on the old. In essence then, learning is cumulative in nature and is
a gradual process. Hence, learning is a lifelong activity.

3.5 Factors Affecting Learning

Some factors are related to the characteristics of the subject matter, or of the
external situation in which learning takes place. Others are characteristics of
the individual and what he brings to the learning situation.

i. Motivation Influences: Motivation has influence on learning in form of

reward or punishment intent to learn, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation –
(extrinsic includes hunger, thirst, etc., Intrinsic – interest in the learning
task, and is anxious to learn for its own sake), long-term goals, and
stress and group participation.
ii. Characteristics of materials to be learnt: This includes amount which
should be within the memory span e.g. four to six units can be
remembered at one time, familiarity of material and meaningfulness.
iii. Efficient conditions of practice: These include; knowledge of results,
distributed versus massed practice i.e. short well placed learning periods
and long concentrated ones, whole versus part learning, guidance as an
aid to learning, special aid learning such as films, visual aids, television,
etc. (Onwubuya 2005)
iv. Learning under special conditions: These include learning during sleep.
Studies have shown that there is no learning during sleep but these are
evidence that proved learning may be achieved under hypnotism use of
drugs, beverages and drinks bring down output in learning, poor
nutritional status of the individual.
v. Comfort while learning: Such as quality of chairs or furniture, aeration,
humidity, noise, etc. distracts learning.
vi. Emotional problems: Lower efficiency of learning.
vii. Fatigue: Due to tiredness brings in discomfort and reduces efficiency
especially where operations requires to be performed.
viii. Monotony of presentation: Also reduces level of attention,
interest and attitude in learning.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1a. How does transfer of learning take place in extension?

b. How can transfer of learning be achieved in extension?

2. Identify 5 characteristics of learning and discuss 3 of them.

3.6 Principles of Learning in Extension

There are guidelines or factors to be considered by extension workers or
teachers in instructional process.

a. Learning is growth like and continuous. Its growth depends on the past
experiences of the learner. So commence where the learner is. He / She
has got certain ideas and knowledge before e.g. Pests reduce yield or
production – what do they know about pest control on their farms /
fields and from here introduce the use of pesticides for large areas.
Relate new ideas to the old as this increases effectiveness. Ideas to be
learnt should be brought to the attention of the learners repeatedly.
b. Learning is purposeful: Learning is purposeful when it makes sense to
the learner i.e. meaningful from the learner’s viewpoint. Help farmers
to fix achievable goals through helpful activities e.g. field trips,
demonstrations, etc. to satisfy needs.
c. Learning is challenging: It is more effective if it is more appropriate
and timely and recognition is given to the learners’ achievements. It is
also challenging if the standard demands of the learner are suited to his
ability i.e. the extension worker/teacher helps the learner to build a
mental picture of himself in the new situation.
d. Learning is effective if it results in fundamental understanding:
Memorizing is useless unless there is practical application to it. Activity
that stimulates the actual situation is most effective and there must be
need for information.
e. Learning is influenced by the social or physical environment: the
instructor should see that the physical conditions are appropriated and
the learner has no fear.
f. Gradual process: Usually it requires several exposures before change is
observed. For effective learning, several exposures are to be made to
get over each point.
g. Learning is an active process: The learner is an active, behaving,
exploratory individual and learning results from the activities of the
individual and learning also results from the activities of the individual
learner. It is what he does when he learns: skills – the learner must
practice them, facts – the learner must relate them, attitudes – he must
change them.

3.7 Essentials in Adult Learning

There is a saying that “The teacher has not taught if the pupil has not learned”.
Since an extension worker is a teacher, he should understand very well the
principle factors in adult learning.
 i) Adults Learn most rapidly when they have a strong desire to learn.
A farmer has a crop that is being damages by insects. He knows that
his crop will soon be destroyed unless the insects are killed but he
does not know what spray to apply, how to mix it or how to use it.
He therefore, comes to an extension officer for advice. He is eager
to learn rapidly because there is a strong desire on his part to learn
how to protect his crops. The desire to learn must be stimulated in
many people by extension officer.
ii) Farmers learn best when they have clear goals. A farmer learns best
when he knows exactly what he wants to accomplished.
iii) Adults farmers learn best when they put forth an effort to learn.
Each individual must do his own learning, because learning is an
individual matter. No one else can do it for him. In teaching a new
knowledge or skill, the extension worker must follow through with
each farmer until the skill or knowledge has been put into practice.
Only repetition or continued practice will completely establish the
new learning as a habit.
iv) Adults learn best when they receive satisfaction from what they have
learned. Adults earn best when they receive some rewards from
learning. The reward may be inform of more profit from the sale of
a crop grown by improved methods. In every case, success and
reward from some new learning always disposes the individual
favourably towards more learning. Satisfaction from one learning
experience stimulate desire for learning in other field.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have been able to examine the concepts of learning, how
learning takes place, transfer and characteristics of learning, factors and
principles of learning in extension. The unit finally highlights the essentials in
adult learning.

5.0 SUMMARY

The main points in this unit are:

1. Learning is a process by which an individual through its own activities
become changed in his behaviour
2. Learning take place in individual through: conditioning, trial and error,
problem solving, training, insight learning, imitation and memorization.
3. Basic characteristics of learning includes: Learning is meaningful,
learner’s active participation, physical and social environments, growth
– like and continuous.
4. The following factors affect learning: motivation influences,
characteristics of materials to be leant, learning under special conditions,
 efficient conditions of practice, comfort, emotional problems, fatigue
and monotony of presentation.
5. Principles of learning: Learning is purposeful and challenging,
fundamental, understanding, social or physical environmental
influences, gradual and active processes.
6. Adult farmers learn best when they have clear goals, put forth an effort
to learn, strong desire to learn and satisfaction from what they have
learned.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. List and explain five major principles of learning in extension

2. Identify and discuss three essential factors in adult learning.

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Abdullai, A. (2002). Motivating farmers for Action. How a strategic Multi-

media campaign can help. Frankfurt: GTZ p125-126.

Onwubuya, E. A. (2005). Social and Educational Psychology in Extension. In:

S.F. Adedoyin (d). Agricultural Extesnion in Nigeria. Pbliscatio of
Agricultural extension Society of Nigeria, pp. 126-127.

Williams, S. F. T., J. M. Fenley and C. E. Williams (1984). A manual for

Agricultural Extension Workers in Nigeria. Less Shyraden, Ibadan,
Nigeria pp – 54-55

Yahaya, M. K (2003). Development Communication: Lessons from Change

and Social Engineering Projects. Pp 198 – 200.
UNIT 4 MOTIVATION IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Motivation
3.2 Types of motivation
3.3 Factors influencing motivation
3.4 Motivational Needs
3.5 How to motivate village people
3.6 Motivating Extension Workers
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit will introduce you to concept and types of motivation, motivational
factors and needs, and how to motivate village people and extension workers.
Therefore, after studying this unit, certain things will be required of you which
are listed in the objectives below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Understand the concept of motivation

 • Identify the major types of motivation

• Explain factors influencing motivation

• Identify motivational Needs

• Understand how to motivate village people

• Understand how to motivate extension workers.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Motivation

Motivation is a general term for factors that make one intent on a particular
behaviour. These factors include needs, drives, motives, incentives, urges and
goals. It underlines every phase of human behaviour and human relations.

Motivation is a process of initiating a conscious and purposeful action

(Onwubuya 2005). Motive means an urge or combination of urge to induce
conscious or purposeful action. Motives can be referred to as “sets” and needs
that involve incentives and goals. It is a compound of feelings, appetites,
inclinations and instinctive impulses. It becomes objectified as an interest and
unless prevented by internal or external obstacles, leads to action in pursuit of
that interest.

Motivation is also a goal directed and needs satisfying behaviour. Needs are
tensions within the individual, which tends to organize the field of the
individual in regard to certain incentives or goals and to excite activity directed
towards their attainment. A goal can be seen as any object or event that
terminates an on going activity of an individual.

According to Folajin and Tunde (1999) Motivation refers to all phenomena

which are involved in the stimulation of action toward particular objectives
where previously there was little or no movement toward those goals.
Motivation considers basic or internal drives as well as external incentives or
rewards.

Motivation is necessary in extension for mobilizing village people and the

extension workers if extension programmes are to succeed. In pre and post
independent Nigeria, most development programmes could not bring the
desired results because there was no proper motivation in the extension
workers. Because of this, the extension workers could not achieve results and
their efforts could not motivate most village people. In the administration,
there was absence of:

a) Zeal and enthusiasm for service to the nation;

b) Recognition and appreciation of their work;
c) Monetary rewards and advancement in cadre;
d) Stimulus and incentives;
e) Educative behaviour of the superiors;
f) Proper training and orientation of extension workers;
g) Recognition of the significance of extension work and extension
workers.

In the absence of these factors, the approach of the extension workers was like
a boss and not that of a missionary and servant of the nation (Onwubuya 2005).
Efforts are now being made to change the attitude. It is advantageous to be
concerned with conditions associated with various needs arouse and direct the
behaviour of individuals towards satisfaction of needs. Motives or stimulus
conditions, which direct our response fall into two groups:

1. Biological Drives: The term drive refers to internal stimulus conditions

of an individual which impels him to activity, thus biological drives are
those resulting from issue needs. They motivate the behaviour of
individual in directions that lead to satisfaction of those needs e.g.
hunger drives motivate individuals to seek and eat food, necessary to
maintain metabolism. The knowledge of drives (hunger, thirst, fatigue,
sleep, etc) will help extension works realize the problems of the people
to be able to handle them sympathetically.
2. Psychological and social Drives: These types of drive are necessary to
keep the individual in equilibrium to perform his normal behaviour.
They are tied up closely with his relationship with other people and his
happiness in life. The extension worker must have the knowledge of the
basic psychological and social drives of the people with whom he has to
work.

3.2 Types of Motivations

There are two major types of motivation:

Intrinsic Motivation: is that resulting from stimuli within an individual. For

example, ordinarily one is persuaded to perform a job and he is given an
incentive over several times. But if he is persuaded and made to know that he
needs to do the last and how beneficial it will be to him, he makes up his mind
to it through achievement of courage and cooperative attitude.
Extrinsic Motivation: Is that resulting from external stimuli. For example, to
achieve an objective, medals certificates are given, the standard of performance
to achieve will be influenced and will assist the person in his life later.

In extension, both types have value in learning and are used because the
farmers are responsible for taking care of their family, a means of income and
social status as their goals. Some of these goals have priority given to different
goals, the farmers need to be motivated as such.

Motivation is also involved in setting of goals and execution e.g. motivation to

get only money. Give the farmers improved knowledge and help them in the
application of the knowledge gained to develop certain skills. There is need to
motivate farmers before teaching them.

3.3 Factors Influencing Motivation

The following factors influence motivation:

i. Willingness: If an individual has a desire for something mentally,

motivation will be easier in most situations.
ii. Readiness: This includes physical and mental readiness. If an
individual desires something but during its presentation, he is either
ready or not ready mentally or physically, motivating him will be most
influenced by these.
iii. Aspiration: All normal individuals have aspirations. Aspiration is the
level of achievement or standard one is ready to work for in spite of
certain levels of difficulties. People then have high or low aspirations in
line with efforts they are prepared to make. It is very difficult to
motivate people with low aspirations.
iv. Attitude: This involves the mental position one has towards an idea,
either favourable or unfavourable. It is usually very difficult to motivate
people with unfavourable attitude.
v. Anxious: When a person is anxious, he is always worried about his
environment. If the level of his anxious is low, he is easily motivated
and vice versa. If one is of high level of anxiety, he may be in flexible
and rigid and cannot be motivated easily.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1a. Define motivation

b. Identify two major types of motivation
2. Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
3.4 Motivational Needs:

Organic Needs or Appetite: Man is constructed in such a way that he requires

certain things other than he may keep living. This is so complicated that these
needs make themselves felt in such a way as to initiate activity that will
eventually satisfy them. These needs include air to breath, food to eat, liquid to
drink, rest after activity, sleep, a changing environments, the elimination of
waste products and sexual expressions. These are all basic organic needs,
which demand continued satisfaction. These are motives or directing
influences because they initiate sustain activity and also direct the activity until
the need is satisfied. These may be called appetite and may be given as
follows:
a) Hunger: The organic sensation arising from an emptied stomach is the
basis of hunger. Habit or custom plays significant role here making
individual eat 3 or 4 meals daily rather than need.
b) Thirst: The need for this activity is stimulus for moisture, vindicated
most accurately by sensation from the throat part.
c) Sex appetite: Sex is not all of life or marital relationship. The thwarting
of the sex attitude by economic or social taboos has forced this appetite
to find other outlets in behaviour. The secrecy, shame and suggestions
of indecency connected with sex activity provide the ground for
pervasions of habits and thought. Better management of the attitude is
required such as in the enjoyment or production of art or in the
companionship of the opposite sex in reading.
d) Appetite for Change or variety: In modern organization or industry
where there is specialization changes to different areas are divided and
so brings discontent and boredom. The search for pleasure and
recreation is because of drudgery of understanding.
e) Wants: Each individual acquires his different set of personal needs on
the foundation of universal needs such as likes and dislikes for specific
foods, play, sex, etc. Since want has been acquired functions like a
need, a person cannot be happy unless he finds some way to satisfy.

3.5 How to motivate village People

Rewards in extension may be in form of money, material, symbolic and public

recognition. They are effective devices to motivate the village people as well
as extension workers. However, the following considerations must be made
while administering the award system in our areas (Onwubuya 2005):

i. Award should be designed to encourage wide participation and activity

by giving them adequate spread.
ii. The potential ability of competitors should be considered e.g. age
training, experience it so that awards are nearly as possible equally
attainable by all contestants.
iii. The “Learning experience” as a result of “award motivation” should be
the objective and should be geared towards improvement of definite
value to the contestants.
iv. The criteria for allotment of rewards should be planned, publicized and
understood by all contestants,
v. Awards should be made for “Personal” resources and should include
achievement, cooperation and leadership.
vi. Award should be planned to reward the work of the competitor himself
or his group and not that accomplished with outside help.
vii. The activities learned as a means of obtaining the award should be on
which is desirable as a ‘habit’.
viii. An award should be attainable within a reasonable period after it is
earned.
ix. Award should be of durable nature preferably of the intrinsic type which
will encourage further knowledge or skill in the field of interest of the
participants. Intrinsic awards when used should be well chosen to
perform a similar function i.e. books, scholarship, etc.
x. Award should where possible be made on a “Group” or “club” basis to
develop cooperation rather than egoism.
xi. Competent, impartial judges should determine winners and the basis for
awards should further encourage, motivate and prepare for future
competition.

3.6 Motivating Extension Workers

It is necessary that extension workers get motivated because they have feeling
of belonginess to the extension organization, love to the profession, are true to
their duties and have a missionary zeal. They have high morale and form that
are motivated towards the goal. This could probably be achieved if the
following factors are considered:

a. Selection and training of workers

b. Proper stimuli and incentives.
c. Development of an effective code of ethic for extension workers.
d. Orientation of new workers towards the goal of the extension
programme.
e. Supervision
f. sDevelopment of high morale.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit you have learnt the concept, types, needs, factors influencing
motivation and how to motivate village people and extension workers. From
these discussions, you now know that motivation is something we encounter
every day in our lives.

5.0 SUMMARY

The main points in this unit include the following:

1. Motivation is a process of initiating a conscious and purposeful action.

2. There are two major types of motivation namely: intrinsic and extrinsic

motivations.
3. Factors influencing motivation include: willingness, readiness,
aspiration, attitude and anxiety
4. Motivational needs include: hunger, thirst, sex appetite, appetite for
change and wants.
5. Rewards in extension may be inform of money, material, symbolic and
public recognition. Considerations must be made while administering
the award system in our society.
6. Selection and training of workers, proper stimuli and incentives,
supervision, high morale, development should be considered in
motivating extension workers.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Identify and explain 5 factors affecting motivation in extension

2. List and explain 5 organic needs or appetite in motivation
3. Identify 5 considerable factors in motivating extension workers.

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Folajin, L and Tunde A. (1999). Fundamentals of psychology. Ejon

Publishers, Bodija Ibadan,
Nigeria, pp 65 – 66.

Onwubuya, E. (2005). Social and Educational Psychology in Extension. In: S.

F. Adedoyin
(ed). Agricultual Extension in Nigeria. Publication of Agricultural
 Extension Society of Nigeria, pp. 117 – 172.

UNIT 5 CONCEPT AND OVERVIEW OF THE USE OF

EXTENSION METHODS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Extension Methods used in effective Agricultural
Transformation
3.2 Conditions necessary for effective use of teaching methods
3.3 An overview of the use of Extension Methods
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit will introduce you to the concept and overview of the utilization of
extension methods employed in agricultural extension. We are now going to
look at this concept in detail. The objectives below specify what you are
expected to have learnt after studying this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 • Understand the concept of extension methods utilized in effecting
agricultural transformation
• Identify the necessary conditions for effective use of teaching methods.

• Understand an overview of the use of Extension Methods

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Concept of Extension Methods

Extension teaching methods may be defined as devices used to create situations

in which new information can pass freely between the extension worker and the
farming communities. It is the function of the extension workers or teachers to
use the extension methods which provide opportunities for rural people to learn
and which stimulate mental and physical activities among the people. For
extension workers to be successful, they must be proficient in technical
knowledge and educational process and must also know the right attitude
towards rural people.

The extension methods employed by the extension workers during the

extension of development programme directly affect the effectiveness of their
efforts. An understanding of the strength and weakness of the various
extension methods available to an extension worker is important because the
results of the extension worker’s effort is dependent on the types and intensity
of the methods he uses to pass on information to farmers and to persuade them
to adopt new farm technologies.

Extension education assists farmers in effectively using the resources available

to them in solving their present farm and domestic problems. By giving
farmers educational and material services, utilizing effective extension
methods, the extension service stimulates them to make such changes in their
farm operations as will result in more efficient production and more profitable
marketing of their farm products.

The extension worker should be careful and selective about the methods he
uses. Extension work requires many methods and tools of teaching. People are
influenced to make changes in behaviour in proportion to the degree of their
contact with several different methods. A good extension worker must not only
have in his command a variety of teaching methods, but must know also where
to use them when to use them and how to use them to achieve best results. The
teaching methods used by the extension workers differ according to farmers’
circumstance and their stance in the various stages of the adoption process.

3.2 Conditions Necessary for Effective use of Teaching Methods

The following conditions are necessary for effective utilization of teaching

methods.

1. The Learning Situation. This comprises the extension worker who has clear
objectives, knows the subject matter to be taught and is able to
communicate freely with the farmers. The learning also includes the people
who are capable of and interested in learning and the subject matter which
must be pertinent to farmers’ needs and which is taught at people’s
intellectual level. In physical terms, the learning situation should be true
from outside distraction and should be comfortable. Teaching equipment
should be suitable to the subject matter presented and be available when
required.
2. The Learning Objectives. As a precondition, objectives for the use of
extension methods must be clearly stated. An objective is defined as an end
towards which teaching is directed. Any purposeful teaching has specific
objectives which must contain four basic elements namely; people to be
taught, behavioral changes to be made, subject matter to be taught and life
situation in which action is to take place.
3. Use of effective Learning Experiences. A learning experience is referred to
as the mental or physical reaction one makes in a learning situation through
seeing, hearing or performing activities during a learning process.
4. Use of a variety of teaching methods. This is the final condition. Provision
should be made for the opportunity to utilize a variety of extension
methods.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What do you understand by extension teaching methods?

3.3 An Overview of the Use of Extension Methods

Extension workers are often concerned about what constitutes the most
appropriate methods among all the array of approaches available. It should be
noted that there is no single rule-of-thumb that is applicable in all conditions.
The nature of the subject matter and the circumstances of the farmers such as
their level of education will help to determine the type of method to be utilized.

A number of studies have shown the relative importance which extension staff
attach to the use of extension methods. In one of the studies, Pandy (1998)
asked a group of 92 staff members of the Western Nigeria Ministry of
Agriculture how they distribute their time among the various methods. In
response, 52 of them said they often held extension meetings, 25 said they
often carried out demonstration of new farm practices, while 39 reported that
they conducted demonstrations occasionally and 28 of them never carried out
demonstration. Twenty one of the respondents often used posters to show new
practices, 59 said that farmers called to them to seek advice. 31 often took
farmers on tours, while 18 often gave out pamphlets and bulletins.

Similarly, Obibuaku and Hursh (1994) studied the effects of radio,

demonstrations, personal contact with extensions staff, films, lectures,
newsletters, pamphlets on farm practices, adoption in the East Central State of
Nigeria. The results showed that the radio and agricultural demonstrations
were the means most used in reaching the farmers. The significant of the two
methods may be related to the fact that the majority of the farmers were
illiterate and thus responded more to those methods which emphasized seeing
and hearing in contrast to those methods which emphasized reading.

Also Tenebe and Mundi (2008) carried out a research on comparative study of
direct extension teaching methods (DET) and Open and Distance Learning
(ODL) on technology adoption rate by cowpea farmers in Bauchi State of
Nigeria. The DET methods used included contact lectures/seminars, workshop,
field demonstration and on-farm trials while ODL methods included the use of
print materials (pamphlets, posters and bulletins), radio and television. The
study revealed that the use of radio as a method of ODL is more effective than
DET method and therefore recommended for successful technology adoption
by cowpea farmers in Bauchi State of Nigeria. The study also attempted to
determine the effects of the various methods in helping to bring about
improvements on the farm.

From the study, the researchers concluded, the results of this study indicate that
in teaching farmers with little or no education, extension workers should be
selective in the methods they use. Very little use can be made of pamphlets,
bulletins, circular letters and the like. However, where the farmers are literate,
extension written materials can make valuable contributions because of the
specific nature of their message and the fact that they are available for easy
reference.

The radio appears to be significant in making illiterate farmers aware of

extension programmes. But it is less significant in when deciding on changes
in farm practices.

From these and similar studies, it can be seen that extension workers in Nigeria
are not making adequate use of extension methods in their work. For example,
28 out of 92, or 30.43% of the extension staff in Western Nigeria never used
demonstrations in their teaching. It is therefore necessary for all extension staff
to understand the classification and usefulness of various extension methods.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit we have been able to explained the concept of extension methods,
conditions for effective utilization of extension methods and overview of the
use of extension methods form these discussions, you now know what
extension methods imply.

5.0 SUMMARY

The main points in this unit are as follows:

1. Extension methods refer to devices used to create situations in which

information can pass freely between the extension worker and the

farmer.

2. Conditions necessary for effective use of extension methods include:

Learning situation, learning objectives, learning experiences and variety

of teaching methods.
3. It is very important for all extension workers to understand the
classification and utilization of various extension methods.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Identify and explain four significant conditions for effective utilization

of instructional methods.

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Obibuaku, L. O. and G. D. Hursh (1994). “Farm Practice Adoption in the

Eastern
States of Nigeria”, Journal of Agricultural Administration (1): 18-20.

Pandy, R. S. (1998). Managing Rural Development. Lessons & Methods from

Eastern Africa Institute for Development Studies, University of Sussex.
 P. 29-30.

Tenebe, V. A and Mundi N. E. (2008). Comparative Study of Direct Extension

Teaching Methods (DET) and Open and Distance Learning (ODL) on
Technology Adoption Rate by Cowpea Farmers in Bauchi State of
Nigeria. Proceedings of 2nd ACDE Conference held in Lagos, 2008.

UNIT 6 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION METHODS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Classification of Extension Teaching Methods

3.1.1 The individual Methods
3.1.2 The Group Methods
3.1.3 The Mass Methods
4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit you are going to learn about the various agricultural extension
methods. Teaching involves imparting of information and extension
instructional guides to the learning process so that the farmers can learn better
and more effectively. The objectives below specify what you are expected to
have learnt after studying this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Classify extension teaching methods according to use,

• Explain individual contact methods,

• Discuss the group methods,

• Identify the various mass methods in extension

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Classification of Extension Methods

The extension worker is always a teacher; he must anticipate the varied

learning situations with which he will be facing. He must play the teaching
activities he will use and the teaching tools most appropriate. Success in
bringing about desired changes in behaviour with his learners frequently
depends on the teacher’s skill in arranging the best learning situation and in
utilizing the most effective methods of teaching in that situation.

In many teaching situations an extension worker will find that the use of two or
more methods will be much more effective than the employment of any single
method. Methods used in extension may be classified into (a) Individual
contact methods (b) group methods (c) Mass methods.

Individual Contacts Group Contacts Mass Contact Methods

Farm and home Visit General meetings Newspaper
Office calls Group discussion Radio
Telephone calls Exhibits Television
Personal letters Conducted tours Puplications
Result demonstration Method demonstration

3.1.1 Individual Methods

Individual methods are used in extension teaching in recognition of the fact that
learning is an individual process and that the personal influence of the
extension worker is an important factor in securing people’s participation in
extension activities. Individual contacts are many times concerned with a
request for information on some special problem of the farmers (Obibuaku,
1983).

Farm and Home Visit – are essential elements of extension education. They
provide a means of personal communication between the farm family and the
extension worker in an environment where they can discuss matters of common
interest in privacy and without the distractions and interruptions commonly
experienced in group extension activities.

Farm and home visits serve the following significant purposes:

1. In answer to a request for help by a farmer

2. To secure a cooperator in setting up a result demonstration
3. To get assistance in arranging a local meeting
4. To influence the individual on some specific improved, practice such as
trying a new variety
5. To gain firsthand knowledge of problems faced by the farmers or
villagers
6. To explain a recommended practice
7. To follow up and observe the results of recommended practices.
8. To recruit, train or encourage a local volunteer leader.

Advantages

1. A farm visit gives the extension worker firsthand knowledge of farm

and home conditions
2. It builds confidence on the part of the farmers in the extension worker.
3. It contributes to the selection of better local leaders and demonstration
4. It develops good public relation

Limitations

1. A farm visit requires a relative large amount of agent’s time

2. The number of such contacts that can be made is definitely limited
3. The time of visit is not always convenient for the farmer.
4. There is danger that the extension worker may visit progressive farmer
only and neglect those families where personal contact is most needed.

Office calls

Office calls are made by the farmer for the purpose of satisfying a felt need.
The extension worker’s office must be conveniently located. The office should
show sincere interest in visitor’s problem. The extension worker should keep
record of all calls. Some calls may need a follow up.
Advantages

1. The caller is likely to be highly receptive to learning

2. An office calls is economical – user of agents time
3. An office call shows interest and confidence by the farmer in extension
programme

Limitations

Office contacts are removed from the farm and may not reflect the real problem
for accurately reveal pertinent conditions.

Personal Letters

Personal letters are useful in answering request for information, as follow-up

after farm visits and office calls and in contacting local volunteer leaders. The
use of letters as instructional method is quite limited in countries lacking an
efficient postal service or where many rural residents are illiterate.

A good letter to farmers should be:

i. Complete – give all necessary information;

ii. Concise
iii. Clear
iv. Correct
v. Courteous, and
vi. Be written in sample language

Result Demonstration

A demonstration is a very effective method of teaching a skill, and a most

convincing method in showing the value of improved practices especially in
the early stages of extension training. It is probable that no other method
carries greater convection with farmers.

Result demonstration is a method by teaching designed to show by example the

practical application of an established fact or group of facts (Harb 1998). It
establishes through local proof, the desirability of adopting a new practice or
discarding an old one. It is an object lesson that speaks for itself and influence
people to change.

Result demonstration can also be called comparative demonstration. Result or

comparative demonstrations are those in which two practices or techniques are
compared for results. One of the two practices or techniques is the new
improved method, while the second is the local existing method (Ibitoye and
Mundi 2004).

Comparative demonstration is necessary to convince the farmers about the

relative advantage of the new method over the old one. Example of
comparative demonstrations are: Yields, early maturity, palatability, etc, the use
of fertilizers for cropping can be compared with the practice of no manure and
new farm tools.

For easy comparison, the two practices or techniques should be subjected to the
same conditions and located at the same place. All other conditions except for
the particular one to be compared should be similar. By doing this, the farmers
will be easily convinced about the practicability of the new improved method
under the local condition. The purpose of result demonstration is to develop
the confidence of the farmers in the extension worker and in the recommended
practice which the worker is promoting.

3.1.2 Group Methods

Group methods take into account the affection of individual to respond to the
pressures and opinions of groups in which he participates and to listen to the
views of others before arriving at a decision about making changes in his
farming operations.

Group methods have been found to help in moving people from awareness
stage through interest and even trial stages of the adoption process. When an
extension worker presents an idea to a group, the participants may ask
questions, exchange ideas with one another and may stimulate one another to
action. Some of the group methods are discussed below:

General Meetings – These include all kinds of meetings held by the extension
workers except demonstration meetings. The method of conducting the
meetings may be by lectures, discussions, showing of slides and motion
pictures of any combination of these. It may be that the meeting of all farmers
in the village to hear about a new crop or practice or to listen to a subject
matter specialist. The method of the meeting must be well thought out and the
agenda carefully prepared in order to achieve objectives envisaged. During the
meeting provision should be made for use of materials, charts, specimens,
pictures, etc., to illustrate points. Towards the end of the meeting allowance
should be made for questions and answers which would assist to clarify
specific ideas. To make the meeting successful, the extension worker should
enlist the help of local leaders to: (a) agree on the purpose of the meeting and
to draw tentative programme, (b) decide and secure speakers (c) arrange for
social and recreational aspects or the meeting; (d) agree on the place and time
of the meeting; (e) select the chairman and advertise the meeting.

Extension meeting are of various kinds and include meetings of youth clubs,
home-makers club, Board of Directors of Cooperative Societies, among others
(Kelsey and Hearne, 1985). The purpose of the meetings is to get business
done and to take action. Other types of meetings include community meetings,
special interest meeting, planning meetings, and training meetings.

Meetings of all kinds have merits and demerits. Meetings are useful in
reaching a large number of people. They serve as a participating stage for the
use of other methods. By means of meetings, use can be made of group
psychology to promote programmes. One of the disadvantages of meeting is
that they offer limited scope for discussion. Where the audience is large,
handling a topic may become very difficult especially where there are
disparities in age and educational attainment.

Group discussion – This follows from farm and home visits. After locating
several individuals from such visits, the extension worker may invite them for
informal discussions. The group can meet in school, a church or some other
convenient place. The extension worker should lead the discussion at the
beginning, but should allow the local leaders to take over later. Such
discussions should centre on agricultural matters and not to introduce political
issues.

Exhibits – These are systematic display of specimens, models, charts, posters,

etc. Their main purpose is to develop the interest of those who see them,
influence their attitude, increase their knowledge and stimulate them to action.
Exhibits are considered as some of the best methods of teaching illiterates. A
well planned educational exhibit can present information quickly and
convincingly. Exhibits have imaginative appeal, and can stimulate competitive
spirit among participants. This will be particularly so when prizes are awarded
to those who produce the best. Shows exhibits should be so convincing that
observers will be persuaded to adopt exhibited practices on their farms, in their
homes and communities. Exhibits can be of any size. However, for extension
purposes, they should be made simple, and should convey only one idea at a
time.

Conducted Tours – Represent a teaching method whereby a group of people

are taken on a study tour or trip to observe the result of improved practices in
actual situations. This means that the group will travel together for a day or
more. Tours are among the best methods of teaching farm people to gain
practical knowledge because people learn through seeing things in actual
operation. Tours are most suited for teaching groups such as members of
Young Farmers’ Clubs. A tour can be made to a research station, demonstration
farms and similar places of educational interest.

Method Demonstration – This is a method of teaching used to present an

improved practice in an interesting, convincing way so that people will
understand the need for it and its practical application to their situation. It is
used to show how to carry out a new practice. Method demonstration is also
called non-comparative demonstration. Method or non-comparative
demonstration is necessary to teach the farmers how a particular practice or
technique is to be carried out. Unlike comparative demonstration, no two
techniques are compared in this case. This method involves teaching the
farmers how to do it by themselves. Examples of method demonstration
include: How and when to apply fertilizer on crops, control of pests and
diseases, repair and maintenance of new farm tools, the production of new
improved variety of crops, etc.

It should however be stressed that a particular demonstration can be both a

result as well as method demonstration. For example, the use of fertilizer can
be a result demonstration if it is demonstrated against the use of local manure.
It could be, the same time be a method demonstration if farmers are taught on
how and when to apply the fertilizer.

Stages in Demonstration

In carrying our demonstration methods, the following steps should be followed:

i. Selecting the technique for demonstration
ii. Gathering of resources for the demonstration
iii. Selecting and training of the demonstrators
iv. Getting the farmers aware of the details
v. Location of the sites for the demonstrations
vi. Fixing of suitable time for the demonstration
vii. Carrying out of the demonstration
viii. Keeping records of all the demonstration activities
ix. Assessing the success of the demonstration
x. Announcing the results of the demonstration through the mass media
xi. Encouraging participating farmers to ado the method
xii. Evaluation of the overall programmes

It is important that extension workers should actively involved the farmers

especially the local leaders in all stages of the programme.

Merits of Methods demonstration

• It teaches needed skills to many people at one time

 • Seeing, hearing, discussing and participating stimulate action

• It builds confidence in extension worker if demonstration is performed

skillfully
• Local leaders easily learn simple demonstration and can repeat them
with other groups
• It promotes personal acquaintance between the demonstrators and the
farmers

Demerits/Disadvantage

• Requires a certain amount of showmanship not possessed by all

extension workers
• With certain demonstrations, considerable equipment must be
transported to the meeting places
• It is frequently difficult to ensure that all members of the group can see
clearly

Self Assessment Exercise

Differentiate between result and method demonstrations

3.1.3 Mass Media Methods

Mass media methods are useful in reaching a wide audience at a very fast rate.
They are generally useful as sources of initial information to farmers and
constitute methods of notifying farmers of new developments and emergencies.
They are useful in stimulating farmers’ interest in a new ideas and practices.
The various methods which come under mass media classification include the
followings:

Newspapers- These are valuable means of spreading agricultural and general

community development information to people who can read. An extension
worker should acquire the ability to prepare informative press material for the
education of farmers in his area. Such material should be functional,
intelligently planned and well written. An attempt should be made to
personalize a news story in a way that appeals to people’s desire for
improvement of their homes, income and communities.
Advantages of newspapers are:

1. Means of giving information to a large number of people and of

reaching people who might otherwise be left out.
2. They are in expensive and useful in giving timely information to people.

Limitations

1. Newspaper editing may mutilate or destroy the substance of a news

story
2. Some extension workers nay lack writing ability and therefore cannot
use the method effectively
3. Newspaper stories are no value where people are illiterates.

Radio – Is a powerful instrument and one of the fastest methods of

communicating with generality of farmers. It reaches people of all cultural
levels who understand the language of transmission.

Advantages of newspapers are:

1. It can reach people at relatively low cost

2. Suited for timely presentation of programmes and is used to alert
farmers at times of emergencies.
3. It keeps people aware of recommended practices. A radio broadcast
must be followed by other methods to bring people to adoption stage
4. It can reach large number of people more quickly than any other method
and it does not require reading ability on the part of the farmers to obtain
necessary information.

Limitations
1. Radio broadcasting time may not always be available to extension
workers and that some farm homes may lack radio sets.
2. Radio programme are not designed to give much details about extension
activities and events.

Television - Adds second dimension to radio broadcasting therefore increasing

the scope of methods available to extension worker. He can demonstrate as
well as talk. They offer opportunities to people to employ the two major
senses, seeing and hearing in the learning process thereby strengthening the
likelihoods of grasping and retaining the subject matter presented.

Advantages of newspapers are:

 1. The main advantages include the fact that this method comes very close
to face-to-face method of presentation and that it can reach many people
at once.
2. It is possible to give a clear view of key operations in low moving
pictures through a television

Limitations
1. Due to high cost, many farm homes do not own television sets.
2. The viewer is not in a position to ask question to clarify the points made
in a television presentation.
3. Competition between educational programmes and entertainment often
crowds out otherwise desired extension programmes.

Publications – These include bulletins, pamphlets, leaflets, folders, posters,

etc. Publications fit in and reinforce other methods of influencing farmers.
These can be prepared and given to participants at meetings, tours or by mail.
They can be used to supplement news stories when new information is
available.

The main advantages of publications are that they can be read at leisure times
and kept for future reference and that the information they contain is usually
definite and readily understood. They are cheaper to produce and use than
most other teaching materials. One of the demerits of publications is that they
are not suitable for teaching people with limited education. Furthermore,
information prepared for general circulation may not e useful to all individuals
or to all localities.

Bulletins, pamphlets, folders and leaflets can be used in many ways in

extension programmes. They may be singly for example to explain the
advantage of soil testing. They may be used as reminders of when to plant
crops or what chemicals to use to control different insects. Poster is a sheet of
paper or cardboard with an illustration and usually a few simple words. It is
designed to catch the attention of the passerby, impress on him a fact or an idea
and stimulate him to support an idea, get more information or take some kind
of action.

It can be seen from the forgoing discussion that extension methods are
procedures and devices adopted to assist increase in the chances of success of
extension programmes. Many agencies in Africa, employing the different
methods, have tried to influence the course of agricultural development with
different results.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have been introduced to the various classifications according
to utilization. In many teaching situations an extension worker would find that
the utilization of two or more methods would be more effective than the use of
single method.

5.0 SUMMARY

The main points in this unit could be summarized as:

a) Extension teaching methods may be defined as devices used to create

situations in which new information can pass freely between the
extension workers and the farming communities.
b) Extension methods may be classified into three groups on the basis of
the number of people they are designed to reach. These are:
i. Individual methods
ii. Group methods and
iii. Mass media methods
c) Individual methods are used in extension teaching in recognition of the
fact that learning is an individual process.
d) Group methods take into account the attachment of individual to
respond to the pressures and opinions of groups in which he participates
and to listen to the views of others before arriving at a decision about
making changes in his farming operations.
e) Mass media methods are employed to reach large number of people
faster. Individual and group methods cannot reach everyone who wants
and needs information.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Identify individual methods of teaching and explain two of them.

2. Write short notes on the followings:

a) General meetings
b) Methods demonstration
c) Publications

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Ibitoye, J. S. and N. E. Mundi (2004) Essentials of Agricultural Extension.

Rowis
Publishers Ankpa, pp. 39 – 40.
Kelsey, E. S. and Hearne, P. K. (1985). Agricultural Administration and
Extension
Communication, Asia Publishing House, London, p. 39-40.

Obibuaku, L. O. (1983). Agricultural Extension as a Strategy for Agricultural

Transformation, University of Nigeria Press, Nsukka, p. 97 – 103.

Module 2 COMMUNICATION IN AGRICULTURAL

EXTENSION

UNIT 1 Meaning and Method of Communication in Agricultural

Extension

UNIT 2 Elements of Communication Process

UNIT 3 Steps and Levels of Communication in Extension

UNIT 4 Strategies to Create Effective Communication in

Extension

UNIT 5 Problems in Communication Process

UNIT 1 MEANING AND METHOD OF COMMUNICATION IN

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The meaning of communication in Agricultural Extension
3.2 Methods of communication in Agricultural extension
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

All explanations of human behaviour directly stems from an examination of

how individuals obtain and modify ideas through communication with others.
Communication is an activity much taken for granted. Agricultural extension
education is essentially a process of communication. Ability to communicate
determines to a very large extent the success or failure of an extension worker.
In this unit, we are going to learn the concept and method of communication in
extension

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Understand the meaning of communication in agricultural extension.

• Understand the method of communication in extension.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The meaning of communication in agricultural extension

Communication in agricultural extension is the process by which information

on agriculture is transferred from the source to the receivers who are mainly the
farmers for the purpose of changing their behaviours towards effecting a
desired result.

Communication in agricultural extension work is essential to create awareness

in the rural people. Without proper communication, it may be difficult for the
farmers to find solution to their agricultural problems.

The word communication is abstract and possesses numerous meanings.

According to Clevenger (1991), it is inconceivable that any person cannot
communicate. The process of communication is fundamental to extension,
training and passing on information. Therefore, learning process, the
dissemination of social change or innovations cannot be explained without
reference to communication.
According to Akereololu and Ajayi (1995), extension services are
communicative. The ultimate aim of an extension system is to effectively
deliver information to end users in a comprehensive and usable manner.
Extension services bear great potentials for improving the productivity of
natural resources and promoting the right attitude among natural resource
managers (Adebayo and Adedoyin 2005). The service is recognized as
essential mechanism for delivering information and advice as input into
modern natural resource management.

Communication always occurs in context, that is, in a setting or situation. As

such, the context of communication can be divided theoretically in a variety of
useful ways. One such approach is; divide the field vocationally into
categories like health communication, business and professional
communication and instructional communication (Little John 1999).
Communication can be divided along the lines of the level of involvement of
technologies as unaided or aided communication. Often, intercultural
communication is distinguished from intra-cultural communication.

The most common division of communication is along the lines of the number
of actors involved in the communication scenario (Adebayo 1997); Bittner
1989; Little John 1999). In this case, communication can be intra personal
(involving only one person), group (relating to interaction of people in small
groups, sometimes in decision making settings), Organizational (Occurring in
large cooperative networks) and mass (dealing with publication, usually
mediated).

Communication process is very important in agricultural extension work. In

the absence of proper communication between extension workers and the
farmers, the information, attitudes, knowledge, understanding and skills
developed by extension unit will serve no useful purpose for the farmers. Little
(1980) defines communication as the process by which information is passed
between individuals or organizations by means of previously agreed symbols

Effective communication between extension workers and the farmers is

necessary in the adoption of agricultural innovations. Communication process
is also important to change the values and attitude of the farmers towards the
modern techniques of farming.

Through communication process, extension workers are able to pass

information to farmers and farmers on the other hand are able to channel their
problems to the extension workers. In this way, communication provides a
two-way process of passing information. All the teaching and learning
processes in agricultural extension is made possible through effective
communication between the extension workers and the farmers. Thus,
effectively communication process seems to be the most important factor in the
agricultural extension teaching process.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define communication in agricultural extension

3.2 Method of Communication in Agricultural Extension

The method of communication involves a communicator sending a message

through a channel to the receiver. In agricultural extension for exchange
scientists (Source) may discover a new variety of cowpea (message) and the
information on this new innovation will be sent through the extention workers
(channel) to the farmers who are the receivers. Similarly, information on
production problems may originate from the farmers which will be channeled
through the extension workers to the researchers for solution. In this way,
communication provides a two-way channel of passing information.

For proper communication to exist four essential elements must be present and
these are source, message, channel and the receiver. Communication gap exist
when the receiver do not receive the message from the communicator.
Ineffective communication result in wastage of resources and local efforts. It
may also render further work difficult. Effective communication therefore
requires that the communicator must have adequate skill for the job and the
message must be the one that will benefit the receiver. The message must also
be sent using appropriate channel and must reach the right hand at the right
time.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt the meaning of communication, method and
essential elements that comprise the communication process in extension.
From the foregoing discussion, you have now known that communication is
something that must exist between extension workers and the farmers and is
what we encounter every day in our lives.

5.0 SUMMARY

The key points in this unit are:

1. Communication in agricultural extension is a process by which

agricultural information is transferred from the source to the
receivers who are mainly the farmers.
2. The process of communication is fundamental to extension, training and
information diffusion.
 3. Four essential elements must be present for proper communication to
exist namely source, message, channel and the receiver.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.Discuss the importance of communication in Agricultural extension.

2.Identify four key elements of communication and explain two of them.

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Adebayo, K (1997). Perception of Environmental Issues by Cassava

Processors in Ogun State,Nigeria – Implications for environmental
extension education: Journal of Extension System 19:105-107.

Adebayo, K. and Adedoyin, S. (2005). Communication and Advocacy

Strategies in Extension. In S. F. Adedoyin (ed). Agricultural Extension
in Nigeria. Publication of Agric Extension Society of Nigeria. Pp 21-22

Akeredolu, M. O. and Ajayi, A. (1995). Communication Issues in Extension:

“Informedness and explanatory ability of village extension agents in
Lagos State” In Adedoyin, S. F. and Aihonsu, J. O. Y. (eds).
Proceedings of the 8th Annual Rural Sociological Society, pp. 295 – 296.

Bittner, J. R. (1989). Mass Communication: An Introduction Edition. Prentice

Hall, England Woods Cliffs, pp 442.

Clevenger, I. (1991). Can one not Communicate? A conflict of models?

Communication studies 42: 355

Little, S. P. (1980). Communication in Business, 2nd ed., Longman Group Ltd,

London, p.4

Littlejohn, S. W. (1999). Theories of Human Communication. Wadsworth

Publishing Company, Belmont, pp. 411.
UNIT 2 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Elements of Communication Process
3.2 Factors Affecting Communication Process
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit 1 of module 2, we looked at the meaning and method of communication

in agricultural extension. In this unit, we are going to look at elements of
communication that must be present for effective communication to occur.
This unit will assist you to understand the subsequent unit. The objectives
below specify what you are expected to learn after going through the unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Identify and understand the elements of communication process
 • Understand the factors affecting communication process

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Elements of Communication Process

Lass Well (1988) emphasized on essential components of elements of

communication. According to him, “the act of communication involves who
says what, through what channels of communication, to whom, with what
…results”.

The elements in the S-M-C-R-E-F model are the source, message, channel,
receiver and feedback. The communication process consist of six essential
elements (figure). These elements provide the building blocks from which all
models of communication are drawn (Adedoyin 1997; Littlejohn 1999;
Adebayo 1997). They are: 1. Source/ Sender, 2. Message, 3. Channel/medium,
4. Receiver, 5. Effect 6. Feedback.

Figure 1: A basic Model of the Communication Process

The Source/Sender – This is the origin of the communication process. It is an

individual or a group working together or an institution responsible for
initiating communication and ensuring that the objectives of the exercise are
clearly defined and achieved. In addition, the source must strive to update his
knowledge through training, subject matter wise, as well as in the
methodologies of communication itself. For the message from the source to be
of value to the receiver, the communicator (Source/sender) must possess the
following characteristics:

a) He must have a thorough knowledge of the message; his message must

also be reliable.
b) His message must be geared towards solving the problems of the
farmers who are the receivers.
c) He must be able to present his message in a simple clear terms that can
be easily understood by the farmers and extension workers.
 d) He should be able to make use of the various teaching methods in
agricultural extension
e) The communicator must also be friendly with the farmers who are the
audience.

Message – This is the second element of communication process. Message is

the stimuli or idea or information sent or transmitted from the communicator to
the farmers who are the receivers. In agricultural extension work, any message
sent to the farmers must possess the following characteristics:

i) The message must be valid and accurate. There should be no

significant difference between the expected and the observed results,
ii) It must also be according to the need of the people to whom the
message is sent,
iii) It must also be applicable to the local conditions,
iv) The message must not be in conflicts with the culture and belief of
the people
v) The message must be organized and presented to the farmers in a
simple and clear terms,
vi) The message must also be presented at the time it will be useful to
the farmers (Ibitoye and Mundi 2004).

According to (Adedoyin 1989, Adebayo et al, 2002) messages in extension

communication bear particular characteristics which may enhance or hinder
their acceptability by the target audience or the receivers. The characteristics
are:

a) The relative advantage. The degree to which a technological innovation

or an idea is perceived to be better than the one it seeks to replace;
b) Compatibility. The extent to which message or idea is in line with
prevailing or beliefs and past socio-cultural values;
c) Complexity. The degree to which an idea or message is perceived as
relatively difficult to use and understand;
d) Trial ability/divisibility. The extent to which an innovation can be
experimented with on limited scale;
e) Observability. The degree to which the results of an innovation or
message content are visible to others;
f) Risk Level. The extent to which an idea on message is perceived to
expose the receiver to vulnerability because of failure.

Channel/Medium. A channel or medium of communication is the means by

which the message is transmitted to the receiver. Some methods of
communication channels include: farm and home visits, meetings,
demonstrations, lectures, exhibitions, local leaders, field days, radio,
publications, office calls, television, etc.

It has been stressed that there is no single best channel of communication. The
effectiveness and applicability of these channels differ from people to people
and from area to area. The effectiveness of any channel used will depend on
the following factors:

i) Structural composition of the society or the community at large;

ii) The religious sentiments of the people;
iii) The purpose of the meeting;
iv) Availability of facilities;
v) Traditions and customs of the people;
vi) The extents of corporation among the individuals making up the
society in one hand and that of the extension workers on the other
hand;
vii) The level of development of the people in the area;
viii) The educational background of the people;
ix) Experience of the extension workers

Receiver - The receiver is the target or audience of communication. The

audiences are those whom the source / sender wish to receive, understand and
use the idea. In extension communication, it is significant that the receiver of
each message be clearly defined and separated into homogenous groups for
effective communication. If the audience is to make progress, the extension
teacher should assist them to change their knowledge, attitude or behaviour. If
no change takes place, it means there is no communication – no
communication. Good extension teaching requires a thorough study of
audience. This implies their backgrounds, attitudes, interest and previous
accomplishments. The more we know about the audience, the better we can do
teaching job.

Effect - The effect of communication is felt when the receiver decodes the
message (attaches meaning to the symbols) and develop an idea in his mind
which he/she may or may not apply.

Feedback - This is the response from the receiver to the source of the
message. It could also be referred to as receiver’s reaction to the message as it
affects him. Feedback is a control device and an important parameter or
indicator of the success of communication as well as areas requiring
modification and additional enquiry.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1) Define Communication

2) Explain 5 characteristics of a communicator

3.2 Factors Affecting Communication Process

The smooth flow of communication can be hindered by certain factors which

can result into ineffective communication. Some of these factors are discussed
briefly below:

1. External disturbance – During communication process, people should

be able to hear and see clearly. There should be no disturbance from

outside sources.

2. Lighting and ventilation – The provision of light and ventilation is

essential for effective communication. Without lights, some

communication channels will not function or work.

3. Location of the meeting point – The place where the message will be

delivered should not be too far from the village and must be acceptable

to all the community members.

4. Suitable Audio-Visual Aids – The utilization of suitable audio-visual aids

is essential to supplement the spoken words of extension workers. This

will also make the understanding of the message easier.

5. Provision of seats – If the receivers are not provided with seats when

receiving the message, they may easily get tired. It may also affect

their level of concentration.

 6. Religion, Tradition and Customs – These three factors have great

influence on communication process. Failure to observe these factors

may lead to total rejection of the message.

7. Age Distribution of the Society – The method of communication to be

used will depend on the age composition of the community. The ways

to communicate with young people will be different from those of

adults.

8. Education Level of the people – The degree and standard of literacy in

the community can affect communication process. Normally most of

the farmers are illiterates and therefore require more to be convinced.

9. Experience of the Extension Worker – Extension worker’s experience

can influence communication process. Experience is the best teacher,

thus young and inexperienced extension workers may find it more

difficult to deliver his message to the farmers than the adult and

experienced one.

10. The Level of Development – Communication process is normally more

efficient and easier in developed countries than in developing or

underdeveloped countries. The availability of communication facilities

depend on the level of development.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have been able to examine the elements of communication

process in agricultural extension. The unit finally highlights the factors
affecting communication process in extension. I hope by now, you would be
able to understand elements and factors affecting communication process in
extension.

5.0 SUMMARY

The main points in this unit are:

1. The Communication process consist of six significant elements namely:

f) Source/sender,( b)message, (c)channel/medium,( d)Receiver,

(e)Effect and ( f) Feed back.

2. Factors affecting communication process are: (a) External disturbance,

(b) Lighting and ventilation, (c) Meeting point location, (d) provision of

seats, (e) Suitable audio-visual aids, (f) Religion, tradition and custom,

(g) Society age distribution, (h) Education level of the people, (i)

Extension worker’s experience and ( j) Development level of

communication.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.Identify six elements of communication process in extension and discuss

two of them.
2.Explain 5 characteristics which a message should possess in agricultural
extension work.
3.List 5 characteristic of messages in extension communication which may
enhance or prevent their acceptability by the receivers and explain two of them.

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Adebayo, K (1997). Perception of Environmental Issues by Cassava
Processors in Ogun State, Nigeria – Implications for environmental
extension education: Journal of Extension System 19:105-106.

Adebayo, K. Anyanwu, A. C. and Asiyale, A. O. (2002). Agricultural

Extension. Rural Development Series. Volume 1, Basic Concepts and
Methods GIZ, pp. 279.

Adedoyin, S. F. (1989). Communcation in Training Women Extension

Workers. In: Jibowo, A. (ed): Strengthening agric Extension in Nigeria
(FAO Project NIR/87/014 Report). Pp. 90 – 91

Ibitoye, S. J. and N. E. Mundi (2004). Essentials of Agricultural Extension.

Rowis Publishers, Ankpa. Pp. 50-53

Littlejohn, S. W. (1999). Theories of Human Communication. Wadsworth

Publishing Company, Belmont, pp. 411.

Lasswell, H. P. (1988). “Communication and Development: A quantitative

Approxination”. Universided Central de Venezuela

UNIT 3 STEPS AND LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION IN

EXTENSION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Steps in the Communication Process in Extension
3.2 Levels of Communication in Extension
3.3 Functions of Mass Communication in Agricultural Extension
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit 2, we learnt about the elements of communication process and factors

affecting communication process in extension. In this unit, we are going to
learn steps in the communication process and levels of communication in
extension. The various functions of mass communication in extension will also
be looked at. The objectives below specify what you are expected to learn after
going through the unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, the students should be able to:

• Outline the steps in the communication process

• Understand the levels of communication in extension

• Understand the various functions of communication in extension.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Steps in the communication process

The following steps in the communication process is provided by Kelsey and

Hearne (1998):

1. Communicator – This is the person with a message to convey and a

purpose to accomplish.
 2. Objective – A clear cut specific purpose.

3. Audience – The person(s) to whom the communicator directs his

message.

4. Message – The substance or information that the communicator wishes

the audience to receive from his efforts.

5. Channel – The means of transmitting the idea to the audience or

farmers/receivers.

6. Treatment – The way in which the component parts are put together so

that the whole communication effort achieves the desired result.

It has been stated that among small sale farmers, the adoption of new
technology varies geographically from farmer to farmer, religion to religion
and among crops, and a number of factors, cultural and environmental
conditions must be considered (Rochin 1989). Rochin identified five general
types of factors affecting the adoption of new technology as:

i. Attributes of the adopter;

ii. Aspects of the technology;

iii. Characteristics of the economy;

iv. Features of the environment at the farm level (e.g. socio-cultural

factors, farm resource constraints)

v. Risk and uncertainty.

Thus, the main activities in the communication process involve:

i. The source generating an idea;

ii. The source encoding clear, suitable symbols (message);

 iii. Transmitting the selected message through an appropriate medium;

iv. The receiver obtaining the message through a transmitter;

v. The receiver reacting to the message as it affects him (feedback)

We communicate when we think, speak, observe, listen, act, read, write, frown,
laugh, smile, nod and nod off, stamp our feet on the ground, run, keep aloof,
mix freely with others, etc.

3.2 Levels of Communication

The following are levels of communication:

Intra-personal Communication –
This is the communication within one’s self. It is a transaction that takes place
within individual. The concept of intra-personal communication takes into
cognizance the human senses, nervous system and the brain. These all make
communication possible. Feedback is spontaneous, but observation is innate
and interpretation personalized.

Interpersonal Communication –
This is a face-to-face interaction between two or more people. Interpersonal
communication makes communication much easier and feedback is often rapid,
especially in a face-to-face situation. The farmer (listener) can ask questions,
make remarks and even display non-verbal communication moves by shaking
or nodding the head which the sender can pick up and deal with immediately.

Mass Communication
This is the principle and practice of communication with mass appeal. It
involves strategies that reach out to a diverse audience spontaneously in
extension. Mass Communication messages are directed at a group of people
through a mass medium. Books were the first mass media, followed by
newspapers, magazines, firms, radio, television and the advent of the World
Wide Web (www) is the latest addition. The Mass media channels have distinct
operational features such as hardware, professional managers and gate keepers.

The term gate keeper applies to an entire institution wherein both people and
technology interact to control the events that determine the transfer of
information from sender to receiver (farmer). Information passed by gate
keeper may be considered reliable because such message must have been
compiled and scrutinized by a team of experts, i.e. reporters, editors,
cameramen, reporting technicians, writers, etc. In this regard, gatekeepers are
shapers of opinion in communication and media industry (Yahaya 2003).

Mass media institutions are newspapers, magazine, books, motion pictures,

radio, TVs, internet, sound recordings, etc. In any media institution, there is
the production unit distribution or marketing units among others.

3.3 Functions of Mass Communication

i. Surveillance Functions - this is what makes the media society the

“watch dog”. It facilitates the spread of information on extension

tragedies and it shapes information about events happening around

the world.

ii. Interpretation Functions – the mass media tend to make sense of

information and thereby enable the target audience benefit.

iii. Cultural Transmission Functions – This gives further information and

clues about the society. It is also used to teach culture and as a

means of transmitting social education.

iv. Entertainment Functions – it is a means of creating joy and serves as

an outlet for excitement for the audience.

v. Propaganda Functions – it is used for brainwashing and

popularization of a specific issue of interest in extension. Radio, TV,

cinema van can be used to propagate or diffuse information on

agricultural shows.

vi. Commercial Functions – it is used for advertisement and income

generation in agricultural and non-agricultural activities for the

different media outfits.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
a) Identify the steps in communication process and discuss two of them.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has introduced you to the steps in communication process and levels
of communication in extension. Various functions of mass communication
were also highlighted. It is expected that after going through this unit, you will
understand the topics treated.

5.0 SUMMARY

The key points in this unit include the following:

1) Steps in communication process are: (a) communicator,( b) objective,

(c) Audience, (d) Message, (e) Channel, ( f)Treatment,

2) The following are levels of communication:

a) Intra-personal communication

b) Interpersonal communication

c) Mass communication

3) Mass Communication has the following functions:

a) Surveillance

b) Interpretation

c) Cultural transmission

d) Entertainment

e) Propaganda and

f) Commercial functions
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

a) (a) Identify five factors affecting adoption of new technology in

communication
(b) Differentiate between intrapersonal and interpersonal
communication in extension
b) List and explain five significance of mass communication in

extension

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Rochins, R. I. (2989). “Why small farmers do Not Adopt and utilize new
Technology”. Dept of Agric Economics, University of California, pp.20

Yahaya, M. K. (2003). Development Communication Lessons from change

social
engineering projects, pp. 24-25.

UNIT 4 STRATEGIES TO CREATE EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 How to create effective communication
3.2 Strategies to creating effective communication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we are going to learn about how to create effective communication
in extension. Also, the various strategies to create effective communication
will be dealt with. This knowledge will throw more light into the scope and
dynamics of communication in extension.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, the students should be able to:

• Understand how to create effective communication in extension

• Identify and explain the various strategies use to create effective

communication.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 How to create effective Communication

Achieving effective communication is based on an understanding of the

following principles.

1. Message Production Skills: These skills include all the processes of

catching the attention and interest of the receiver of thing, code and

symbols which are meaningful to him and of designing the message in

the form, it will help to process and understand the information.

2. Some generation of homophilly: Homophilly refers to the degree to

which individual interactions are similar in certain attributes.

Homophilly of course become better where communication has taken

place and when the source and receiver are homophilous.

a) Communication patterns are generally homophilous

b) More effective communication occurs when source and receiver are

homophilous.

c) Effective communication leads to greater homophilly in knowledge,

attitude and overt behaviour.

d) The most effective change agents are those who are most likely

their average client on all variables except for technical competence

about the innovation promoted.

e) The more credible the source and receiver, the more effective the

communication.

f) Generalization. Hetrophilous communication is relatively more

effective when the source has a higher degree of empathy with the

receiver.

g) Hetrophilous communication is relatively effective when the source

attends to feedback from the receivers. Complete homophily does

not exist between the source and the receiver in all aspects.

Therefore, some amount of homophily is required for effective

communication.
 3. Credibility. This is the degree to which a source is perceived as trust

worthy and competent by receiver. There are two dimensions of

creditability (Barlo 1998).

a) “Competence” credibility and

b) “Safety” credibility.

Change agent must be knowlegeable about the innovation he has introduced

more than the clientele or they will not see him as an expert. In this case, he
possesses “Competence” credibility.

A source is perceived as possessing “Safety” credibility when he sees his client

as their peer. At the knowledge stage in communication process, the
innovation, competent credibility (hetrophilous) sources are consulted, for
example, the research or extension expert.

But at the persuasive communication stage when the individual is forming a

positive attitude toward the innovation, safety credibility (homophilous)
sources and receivers are consulted.

4. Empathy. This is the ability of an individual to project himself into the

role of another person. If you can perceive how your receiver feels and

share these feelings, it is possible for you to design your message which

would meet his needs and situations.

5. Feedback. By attending to feedback from his receivers, source is able

to emphasize more fully with them, understand their needs, meanings

and may ultimately become more homophilous with them, leading to

more effectiveness in communication.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

 1. Explain message production skills and credibility in effective

communication.

3.2 Strategies to create Effective Communication

The following are strategies for creating effective communication

1. The Concept of Homophily and Hetrophily

The transfer of ideas most frequently occurs between a source and a

receiver who are alike, similar, homophilous. The more nearly equal in

social status persons are, the more frequently they will interact among

themselves.

In effect, most individuals would prefer interacting with persons who

are very similar in outlook. Interaction with persons who are very

different from us often involves greater effort to make communication

effective.

In other words, heterophillic interaction is likely to result in cognitive

dissonance, because the receiving unit is exposed to messages that are

likely inconsistent with his existing beliefs, an uncomfortable

psychological condition (Rogers and Shoemaker 1981).

Managers in organizations are, therefore expected to relate as much as

possible with their subordinates in order to ensure the attainment of

organizational goals through effective act of communication.

Heterophilous individuals who have high empathy are in a social

 psychological sense, really homophilous. Empathy is explained as the

ability of a person to project himself into the role of another.

2. Understanding the Audience.

Closely associated with the issues discussed, there is the need for the

source to understand the nature of the audience and the situation or

socio-cultural environment. The source should adapt his message to

the receiver’s interest and capacity for understanding to make him

willing to pay attention.

To be effective, communication should be audience – centered (Myers

and Myers 1995). A knowledge of frames of reference and reference

groups is necessary (the people’s values and attitudes constitute a

frame of reference). A relationship should be developed between the

message and the reference group.

An understanding of the personal characteristics of the audience is

equally important. An analysis of the receivers’’ personality traits will

be helpful when communicating with people whose group affiliations

are known and with whom the source can interact regularly, Myers and

Myers concluded.

In addition to understanding the human setting, the physical condition

of the meeting place – the communication environment should be

analyzed and modified or improved upon.

 The implication of this argument is that for a source to effect desired

changes, he must emphasize to see himself in the differing shoes of his

receiving unit.

3. Improved Human Relations

The goal of an extension organization can readily be achieved by

ensuring high moral of the receivers through:

a) Encouraging cohesive social relationship within receiving unit;

b) Providing farmers with “supportive Leadership” and

c) Creating effective channels of communication between source and

receivers.

4. Ensuring Regular Information Flow.

Regular flow of information to and from receivers will eliminate the

state of uncertainty in human communication as well as hopelessness

and rumour mongering. Rumours have been known to cause message

distortion and to create confusion among subjects.

4.0 CONCLUSION

You have learnt how to create effective communication and their strategies in
this unit. It is hoped that after going through the unit you are expected to have
good understanding of the topics treated.

5.0 SUMMARY
The unit can be summarized as follows:

1. Effective communication can be achieved based on:

i) Message production skills

ii) Homophilous generation

iii) Credibility

iv) Empathy and

v) feedback

2. Strategies used to create effective communication are:

i) Homophilous and Heterophilous concept

ii) Audience Standing

iii) Improved Human Relations and

iv) Ensuring regular information flow

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1) Identify the various strategies utilized to create effective

communication and explain three of them.

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Berlo, E. T. (1998). Farmers Assessment of Information and its Sources.

School of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Melbourne.

Myers, G. E. and M. T. Myers (1995). Communicating when we speak.

 McGraw – Hill Book Company, New York, pp. 55-56

Rogers, E. N. and F. F. Shoemakers (1981). Communication of Innovations,

2nd ed. The Free press, New York

UNIT 5 PROBLEMS IN COMMUNICATION PROCESS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Problems in communication process

3.2 Ways of improving the effectiveness of communication
 4. 0Conclusion
5. 0Summary
6. 0Tutor Marked Assignment
7. 0References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit four, we treated strategies to create effective communication in

extension process. In this unit, we are going to look at problems or barriers in
communication process and ways of improving communication.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, the students should be able to:

• Identify and understand the problems in communication process

• Understand ways of improving the effectiveness of communication

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Problems in communication process

The complexity of human behaviour often leads to many problems or barriers

in the communication process. Their simplicity therefore demands that this
unit identifies these problems as well as examine ways of improving
effectiveness of communication despite then in an agrarian or extension
background.

These problems include: feed-forward problems, the homophily/heterophily

constraints, noise, warning attentions, shortage of physical and material input,
cognitive dissonance, information selectivity, incorrect message content,
information overload or information fatigue and problems of feedback.

1. Feed forward problems- Feed forward means the information about

the receiver which the source has prior to initiating communication.

Such information must be used to predict the effectiveness of the

 message to be communicated. If the source has false information

about the receiver, his communication is likely to fail ever before he

commences.

2. Homophily Versus heterophily – Homophily is the degree to which a

source – receiver pair are similar in certain attributes such as

education, belief, socialization etc. Communication between

homophilous individuals are generally effective. Note that effective

communication often leads to greater homophily in knowledge and

attitude. The most effective extension or change agent are those who

are most like their average clients on all variables except for technical

competence about the technology/innovation promoted.

Heterophily is the degree to which a source and receiver pair are

different in their human attributes. Generally, heterophilous

communication is only effective when the source has a high degree of

empathy with the receiver. Empathy is the ability of an individual to

project himself into the role of another person. If for example a source

can perceive how the receiver feels and show this same feelings, it is

then possible for the message to be designed which will meet the

needs and situation of the receiver.

3. Noise – This is any disturbance or distortion which interferes with the

effectiveness of the communication process. Noise could be actual

 extraneous sound (or wrong spelling in written message or passage).

One way to reduce noise in the message is to increase redundancy.

That is, say or write the same message in different forms, but with

similar meanings. For example, “wash the carrot very well”. “Ensure

that all the dirts are removed from the carrot”. Both statements mean

a thorough cleaning of the carrot.

4. Waning Attention – A person’s attention may waver in a

communication scenario simply because some basic needs are

unsatisfied. For example, hunger, cold, thirst, worry, or finance may

reduce attentiveness of participants in the communication process.

Such distracted minds may find it difficult to understand the message

content or even decode the message appropriately.

5. Shortage of Physical and Material Inputs – A farmer may not have

enough capital or labour to practice an ideas being communicated.

Others problems such as lack of irrigation water, high rates of bank

interest may create barrier to effective communication. In most

developing countries, experience has shown that resource – rich

farmers tend to adopt new farming innovations much more quickly

than the resource – poor farmers. It has been shown however, that

most farmers will adopt new ideas, if they have the resources, and are

not hampered by physical, social or organizational constraints

(Adebayo 1995).
6. Cognitive Dissonance – This is knowledge attitude. It refers to

knowledge which is in consistent or incompatible with a person’s

interests, attitudes, and beliefs. Farmers may not want to put into

effect a particular activity, even if profitable, e.g. a proposed innovation

about keeping dairy cows may be reflected, if the farmers do not like

animal husbandry. Some innovations may also be socially, religiously

or culturally unacceptable in some parts of the country or amongst a

certain group of people. E .g. rearing pigs by Muslim communities.

Because cognitive dissonance is uncomfortable, it is necessary to

reduce it or avoid situations in which it occurs in the communication

process.

7. Selectivity of Information – This is the tendency to seek familiarity and

reinforcement for communication messages that tend to agree with

ones existing attitudes and belief, while avoiding situations which do

not agree with one’s previous attitude. Therefore, when a package of

production recommendation (say, improved seed, adequate spacing,

and fertilizer application) are passed to the farmers, they may choose

to ignore any part of the package, depending on what they want to

know.

8. Information Overload and Information Fatigue – It is often assumed

that communication challenges are due to insufficiency of information.

Consequently, increased information input is often suggested. This

 sometimes leads to information overload. Information overload means

an excess of information input above what the receiver is able to

process, that is, decode and use. This leads to confusion and

information fatigue, poor understanding, poor performance or

rejection of the entire information.

9. Incorrect message content – If the information from the source or

communicator is found to be false by the receiver, he/she will lose

credibility. The words with which communication is made is

significant, not just for clarity or precision, but because they give clear

picture and light to what is communicated. Style and meaning are also

important in communication. Thus, when a subject matter of

communication is correct, the words and style with which it is

presented may make its meaning thwarted and hence, distort

communication.

10. Feedback Constraints – Feedback is the response that an audience

gives, that is, a farmer or group of farmers or receiver give to the

sender. In an interpersonal communication process, the response,

both verbal and non-verbal enable each person to constantly control

and modify the message content. If there is no feedback,

misunderstanding may develop and communication will be distorted.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

 a) Explain how cognitive dissonance and incorrect message content can

create barrier in communication.

b) Explain information selectivity as a challenge in communication

process.

3.2 Ways of Improving the Effectiveness of Communication Process

The primary aim of every communicator is to achieve effective

communication. That is to ensure an information flow that engenders the
desired response (effect) from the communicatee.

However, the difficulty of human nature and the restrictions imposed by the
problems identified in the previous section make the attainment of effective
communication complex. The lack of trust and the existence of threat in any
interaction can have a distorting effect on communication. The establishment
of honest and meaningful communication can be achieved through two
precepts. They are:

i) Developing a sense of mutual trust and openness

ii) Correcting distortions in communication through constructive

feedback (Adebayo 1997).

To achieve a better understanding of these precepts, let us examine them more

critically.

Mutual Trust and Openness – We shall apply a device known as the Johari
Window to analyze the problem of mutual trust and openness. The window
(Figure 5.1) is utilized for increasing personal and interpersonal awareness. It
comprises four quadrants:

Quadrant 1 – The free and open area, refers to behaviour known to self and to
others

Quadrant 2 – The blind area, refers to things about us that others can see but of
which we are unaware.
Quadrant 3 – The avoided or hidden area shows things we prefer to keep to
ourselves (Hidden agenda or personal feeling).

Quadrant 4 – The area of unknown activity represents the sort of things that are
accessible neither to us nor to others, but which will eventually be revealed.
Such behaviours and motives could have affected our relationships, without our
knowing it all along.

Known to itself Not known to itself

Known to others The Open Area 1 The Blind Area 2

Not known to others The Hidden Area 3 Unknown Area 4

Figure 5.2: The Johari Window. Source: Jacques (1984).

A change in any one quadrant will affect all the other quadrants. By disclosing
some of our own feelings or private experiences, we expand quadrant 1 into
quadrant 3. This makes it possible for other people to let us know something
about ourselves that we were unaware of. E.g. “You always smile when you
are angry”. This in turn expands quadrant 1 into quadrant 2, therefore leading
to the more open form of communication.

Feedback – Feedback must always be handled with sensitivity and judgment.

It is more effective if:
1. It is descriptive rather than evaluative. Describing one’s own reaction

leaves the other individual free to use it as he sees fit. Avoiding

evaluative language reduces the need for the other individual to react

defensively.

2. It is specific rather than general. To be told that one is “confusing” will

probably not be as useful as to be told “when you ask us a question you

seem to rephrase it so many times that we get confused”.

3. It takes into account the needs of both the receiver and the giver of

feedback. Feedback can be destructive when it satisfies only our needs

and fails to consider the needs of the person on the receiving end.
4. It is directed toward behaviour that the receiver can control.

Frustration is increased when a person is reminded of some short

comings over which he/she has no control.

5. It is well times. In general, feedback is most useful at the earliest

opportunity after the given behaviour. This depends on the person’s

readiness to hear it, support available from others.

6. It is solicited rather than imposed. Feedback is most useful when the

receiver has requested for it.

7. It is checked to ensure clear communication. One way of doing this is

to have the receiver try to rephrase the feedback he has received to

see if it corresponds with what the sender has in mind.

8. When feedback is given in a group. Both the receiver and giver should

take the opportunity to check with others in the group on the accuracy

of the feedback. Is this one person’s impression or an impression

shared by others?

(Adapted from Kolb,Rubin and Mclntyre, 1979. In Jacques 1984)

Feedback is probably the best way of getting evidence on the

effectiveness of communication. It enables us to learn about how

others see us and how we affect them. It is thus a vital ingredient in

the process of evaluation and improving the effectiveness of

communication.
4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt about various constraints in communication

process namely feed-forward, homophily/heterophily problems, noise, warning
attention, cognitive dissonance, information selectivity among others.
The difficulty of human behaviour often results to many challenges or barriers
in communication process.

5.0 SUMMARY

In summary, communication between an heterophilous source-receiver pair is

less effective than between an homophilous pair. However, complete
homophily does not exist in any communication scenario, given that the source
and the receiver are usually dissimilar, at least in some aspects.

The establishment of honest and meaningful communication can be achieved

through two precepts:
a) Developing a sense of mutual trust and openness

b) Correcting distortion in communication through constructive feedback.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 (a) Identify eight challenges in communication process

(b) Explain five of the above constraints identified

8.0 Explain how feedback can be used to improve the effectiveness of

communication in extension

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Adebayo, K. (1995). “Adopter Categorisation and the Time-Lag. In the

Adoption of Innovations”. Forest Trees and People Newsletter. No. 32.
Pp. 11-12
Adebayo, K. (1997). Communication in Agricultural. Greenlinks
International, Onikolobo Abeakuta, Nigeria, pp. 38-42.

Jacques, D. (1984). Concepts in Communication, German Foundation for

International Development, pp. 108 – 112.

Module 3 INSTRUCTIONAL / TEACHING MATERIALS IN

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

UNIT 1 Concept and significance of Instructional Materials in

Agricultural Extension

UNIT 2 Classification of Instructional Materials

UNIT 3 Description of some Teaching Aids/ Instructionals and

Guidelines for their Effective utilization in Extension

UNIT 4 The Utilization of Instructional Materials in Agricultural

Extension

UNIT 5 How to Improvise Instructional Materials in Extension

UNIT 1 Concept and significance of Instructional Materials in
Agricultural Extension

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of instructional Materials in Agricultural extension
3.2 Significance of Instructional materials in Agricultural Extension
3.3 Characteristics of good Instructional Materials
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Instructional materials that will be used to facilitate teaching and learning in

Agricultural Extension should be suitable for the subject matter and physical
situation. They should also be considerate and ensure that all necessary
materials are available and in good working conditions and skillfully handled at
all times. In this unit we are going to learn the concept and importance of
instructional materials or teaching aids in agricultural extension.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Understand the concept / meaning of instructional materials in

extension.
• Understand the significance of instructional materials in Extension
teaching.
• Identify and understand the characteristics of good instructional
materials.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Concept of Instructional Materials

Instructional material refers to those materials or devices, which a teacher or an

extension agent employs in teaching so as to help pupils or farmers
understanding of the lesson. Educators often use “instructional materials,”
“teaching aids”, “Learning resources”, “educational resources materials” and
“Instructional aids” interchangeably. Olaitan and Onazi (1987) defined
teaching aids as materials or spoken words in the transmission of knowledge,
attitude and ideas and to emphasize, clarify or visualize instruction”.
Instructional materials help science teachers and extension agents to convey
their message to students or farmers in a simple, most convincing and practical
way. They enhance the teaching – learning process and bring effectiveness into
the teaching and extension of agriculture. Some common instructional
materials include: charts, diagrams, maps, motion pictures, specimens and
objects, chalkboard, radio and television.

In the use of teaching aids, effectiveness is not a function of the level of

sophistication of the materials but carefulness in selection and skillful handling
by teachers. It is equally important that teachers introduce instructional
materials at the right time within the period of instruction. Classroom – control
related problems might ensure when materials are introduced earlier than
necessary or kept for too long a time as to divert students’ attention from the
other parts of the lesson.

According to Kinder (2003), Instruction or teaching aid refers to “any device

which can be used to make the learning experience more concrete and more
dynamic”. Also, Barth (2005) said, “it is the systematic application of
hardware and software, equipment and materials to the teaching and learning.
Ogumilade (2005) defined teaching aids as devices which incorporates the
hardware (equipment) and the software (consumables) through which the
learning process may be encouraged and carried out.

3.2 Significance of Instructional Materials in Extension

The importance of instructional materials as a medium of effective

transmission of agricultural science or extension concepts cannot be over
emphasized. Among others, instructional materials do the following:

1. They help to bring the lesson home / nearer to the learners / farmers.

It makes teaching and learning more practical, realistic and easy.

2. They help to supplement the personality of the instructor (extension

teacher), though instructional aid cannot be a substituted for an

effective instructor, they nevertheless make him more effective and

increase his communicative skills.

3. They add zest, interest and vitality to any training and learning process.

4. They bring about better understanding of the subject matter and that

on the parts of the participants.

5. They provide worthwhile experiences for learners that teachers cannot

furnish, therefore making education more productive.

6. They provide greater acquisition and longer retention of factual

knowledge. That is, they assist in memory retention.

7. They provide the learners’ thought process and are capable of leading

him to other materials through discovery. Intellectual curiosity is

promoted.

8. The use of aids reduces classroom boredom by adding variety to the

teaching method / technique of the teacher.

9. Learning is sustained more easily when more than one senses are

employed. Aids afford students the opportunity of using the sense of

sight, touch, smell and taste in learning. They reduce excessive stretch

of students’ imagination. They concretize abstract learning.

 10. Instructional materials stimulate and sustain students’ interest. They

generate questions from students or farmers and this helps teachers to

evaluate the success of the lesson.

3.3 Characteristics of Good Instructional Materials

The importance of any instructional material lies in its ability to:

i) Appeal to the sense – sound and sight;

ii) Attract and hold attention;

iii) Focus attention on essential elements to be learnt at the proper

time.

Certain characteristics are common to all good instructional materials / aids.

1. Simplicity – The instructional materials must be simple and present

only a few ideas at a time. Pupils or farmers cannot comprehend

complex ideas presented to them for a short time. The extension

teacher needs to select simple illustrative teaching aids for instructing

his pupils especially at the primary stage, e.g. if pictures are used, they

should illustrate only a very few words or actions. If more detailed

pictures are used, pupils or even farmers will not know what they are

supposed to notice,

2. Colour – Since pupils are attracted by bright colours, these should be

used in the preparation of teaching aids. However, too mush

 brightness should be avoided since it may distract pupils’ attention

from the objective of the lesson and the instructional materials.

3. Portability – Instructional materials should be portable and not too

cumbersome to carry by the teacher. They should not be too much in

size but be portable.

4. Flexibility – The teacher has been taught different ways of teaching

while in college or university. In the classroom a good teacher will

attempt to teach his lessons using a variety of methods and materials.

He should therefore select or construct teaching aids that can be

instantly modified to suit changes in the approaches to instruction.

5. Visibility – Any instructional aid to be used by the teacher should be

such a size that the smallest detail the teacher wishes to emphasize is

large enough to be seen by conspicuously in front of the class to

present a clear view to every pupil.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt the concepts, significance or necessities of

instructional materials and characteristics of good teaching aids. From the
above discussions, you have now known the concepts and needs for
instructional materials in teaching – learning process.

5.0 SUMMARY

The main points in this unit are:

 1. Instructional materials are devices which an extension agent or teacher

utilizes in teaching so as to assist pupils or farmers to understand the

lesson.

2. The importance of instructional materials include:

i) Helps to supplement the personality of the extension instructor;
ii) Add zest, interest and vitality to training and learning process;
iii) Bring about better understanding of the subject matter;
iv) Provide worthwhile experiences for learners
v) Provide greater acquisition and longer retention of knowledge;
vi) Use of aids reduces classroom boredom;
vii) They stimulate and sustain students/learners interest.

3. Characteristics of good instructional materials include:

i) Simplicity

ii) Colourfulness

iii) Portability

iv) Flexibility and

v) Visibility

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What are instructional materials?

2. Explain five importance of instructional materials in extension

teaching.
7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Barth, J. L (2005). Media and Methods. Institute of Education, ABU, Zaria,

pp. 28 – 29.

Kinder, S. J. (2003). A video – Visual Materials and Techniques. American

book company. New York.

Ogumilade, M. (2005). Non-book materials: Agenda for teachers and libraries.

4th (ed) Melbourne Press.

Olaitan, S. O. and Onazi, O. C. (1987). Agricultural Education in the Tropic:

Methodology for Teaching Agriculture. London: Macmillan Publishers.

UNIT 2 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL

MATERIALS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Major classification of Instructional Materials
3.2 Classification of Instructional Materials based on the sense organ
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit one of module three, we treated the concept and importance of

instructional materials in agricultural extension. In this unit, we are going to
learn the classification and categories of instructional materials in extension.
The objectives below specify what you are expected to learn after going
through the unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Understand the major classification of instructional materials.

• Understand the classification of instructional materials based on the

sense organ they appeal to.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Classification of instructional Materials

The teaching aids come under two major categories namely: Projected and non-
projected instructional materials.

i. Projected instructional Materials – These are materials that require

the assistance of power supply like electricity to operate them.

Examples include: overhead projectors, films, strip projectors,

 television and radio. They are usually effective if care is taken to

select appropriate equipment and when they are skillfully handed.

ii. Non-projected instructional materials – These refer to instructional

materials that can be used without the aid of power supply. That is,

they include all aids which are seen or utilized without the help of

projectors. These include flip charts, graphs, flannel board, chalk

boards, pictures, models or real objects.

They are generally easy to produce improvised and used by teacher or

instructional technologists. Photographs and small objects may be projected
with an opaque projector, but this method is currently less commonly used.

3.2 Classification of Instructional Materials based on the Sense organ

Instructional materials may also be classified based on the sense organ they
appeal to. This classification model places all instructional materials under
three categories names: (i) Visual aids (ii) Audio aids (iii) Audio-visual aids.

i) Visual Aids – They are instructional materials which facilitate

learning by appealing to students’ sense of sight. They bring about

effectiveness in the teaching of agricultural extension or science

more especially as they enhance retention of facts by learners or

farmers. They exemplify the truth of one Chinese proverb that says:

What I hear, I forget,

What I see, I remember,

What I do, I understand.

Visual aids are of two categories namely: (a) Real Objects and (b)
Representational visual Aids (Olatunji 2005).
 a) Real Objects – These include specimen and real objects like cutlass,

hoe, animal feed, fertilizer, farm machinery, plant, animal and so on.

b) Representational Visual aids – These are instructional materials which

are of the symbolic of the real objects or specimens. They include

diagrams, photographs, bulletin, boards, chalkboards, pictures, charts,

graphs and flannels boards.

ii) Audio Aids – These are instructional materials, which facilitate

learning to appealing to learners’ sense of hearing. Examples of

these are radio and record players. Agric extension teachers may

play cassette tapes in which educational programmes have been

recorded or ask pupils to listen to radio broadcast on a variety of

topic in agricultural extension or agricultural science.

iii) Audio-Visual Aids – These are instructional materials which appeal

to students’ sense of learning and seeing at the same time.

Examples include video tapes, television and motion pictures. They

are better than audio and visual aids because they appeal to more

sense organs than either. They are especially useful and

recommended in agricultural extension work.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

 1. Differentiate between audio and visual aids in agricultural extension.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has examined the classification and categories of instructional

materials in agricultural extension. I hope by now, you would be able to
understand some basic concepts of teaching aids classification and categories.

5.0 SUMMARY

The summary of the major points in this unit include:

1) There are two major categories of instructional materials namely (i)

Projected and (ii) non-projected aids.

2) The classification mode puts all instructional materials under three

categories viz: (i) Visual aids (ii) Audio aids and (iii) Audio-Visual aids

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

a) What do you understand b projected and non-projected

instructional materials in extension?

b) Differentiate between real objects and representation visual aids in
extension work.

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Olatunji, S. O. (2005). Effective Teaching and Extension of Agriculture in the

tropics. Zero point International Publishers, Kaduna, pp. 125 – 126.
UNIT 3 DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND
GUIDELINES FOR THEIR EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION IN
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

Description of most commonly used instructional materials in the

teaching of agricultural extension / science and their guidelines for
effective utilization namely:

3.1 The chalkboard

3.2 Specimens and objects

3.3 Radio
3.4 Television or video
3.5 General guidelines for effective utilization of instructional materials
4. Conclusion
5. Summary
6. Tutor Marked Assignment
7. References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The most commonly utilized instructional materials in the teaching of

agricultural extension / science include: chalkboard, specimen or real object of
plants and animals, graphs, pictures, photographs, radio, tape recorders and so
on.
In this unit, four of these are going to be discussed with a view to highlighting
guidelines for their effective utilization.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Understand the description of the most commonly used instructional

materials in the teaching of agricultural extension and their guidelines
for effective use.
• Understand the general guidelines for effective utilization of
instructional materials

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Chalkboard

It is the most common instructional material readily available to every teacher.

Teachers used the chalk board to draw, write or emphasize important points in a
class. Chalkboard comes in different colours like black, green and blue. Very
often, teachers used white chalks or those whose colours are different from that
of the board. Coloured chalks are sometimes used to distinguish different parts
of a diagram or to show emphasis being laid on a point.

Guidelines for effective use of the chalkboard

i) Keep the chalkboard clean before and after use

ii) There should be a well-planned layout of the chalkboard. Keep the

board organized all the times.

iii) Provide the right type and adequate quantity of chalks for use at

every lesson. Use chalks that are clearly different from the colour of

the chalkboard.

iv) Make sure that duster or eraser is available and erase immediately

the information on the board that is no longer necessary. Do not

use hand to clean the chalkboard

 v) Do not talk while writing on the board and do not write

continuously on the board for long period of time, as this may

engender classroom disorder.

vi) Do not use fingers for pointer lines but a board ruler.

vii) Whatever is written on the board should be bold, clear and legible

so that all students will be able to read them without any difficulty.

3.2 Specimens and Objects

Learning is made rather easy, real concrete and meaningful with the use of
specimens and objects. The teacher may use specimens or objects of weeds,
propagation materials, farm tools and machinery, surveying equipment, and
agricultural products as instructional materials. Specimens and the real objects
will produce better results than diagrams, pictures, or charts since the later are
not devoid of ambiguity in terms of size, colour and other important features.

Guidelines for effective use of specimens and objects

a) Decide the specimens or objects to be utilized long before the lesson.

Gather the specimens by yourself or ask students to look for them.

b) Ensure correct labeling of specimens and objects

c) Make sure they are big enough for learners to see or else provide

microscope through which they can observe tiny specimens.

d) Ensure that specimens and objects that constitute change to the lives

of students are not used as instructional materials. It is unadvisable to

bring life snake into the class in the name of “teaching aids”.

Endeavour to consider the safety of the materials.

 e) Students’ population should be given consideration. Objects that

require being handled or manipulated by every student should be

provided in sufficient quantity.

3.3 Radio

The extension teacher may take the advantage of radio broadcast of agricultural
science related programmes as an effective aid in teaching. It has the capability
of enhancing the teaching – learning process when it is well planned and
skillfully handled.

Guidelines for effective use of Radio

i) Ensure that the radio broadcast is particularly relevant to the lesson

objectives and that the broadcast is made in the language students

will understand;

ii) Unnecessarily long radio broadcast should not be selected;

iii) Introduce the topic, content and objectives of the broadcast to

students prior to their listening to it.

iv) Ensure that the students listen attentively to the broadcast and take

down notes.

v) Ask the farmers (learners) to present, in a discussion, the summary

of the broadcast. Utilizing questioning as a technique, lead them to

understanding the main points in the broadcast.

3.4 Television or Video

Television and video are aids that are now becoming very prominent among
instructional materials that are being utilized in the teaching of extension or
science.

Guidelines for effective use of TV and Video Tapes

i) Relevant television programme or video tapes that will enhance the

realization of the lesson’s objectives should be selected.

ii) View the programme in advance so that notes will be taken of

significant points and parts of the programme.

iii) Inform the students about the topic, content and objectives of the

programme. Extension teacher should let them know what they are

to look for in the programme.

iv) Ensure that the students concentrate on the programme during the

period of viewing discussion during the period of viewing.

v) Organize a post television viewing discussion during which period

you ask and answer students’ questions and outline the major

lessons.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1) Identify the most commonly employed instructional aids in agric

extension instructional approache.

3.5 General Guidelines for Effective Utilization of Instructional Materials

A teacher who carefully selects appropriate instructional materials and

skillfully handles them will motivate his students to learn. Consideration
should be made of the following factors in the process of selection and use of
instructional aids in teaching of agricultural extension.
1. Relevance: Instructional aids to be selected must be relevant to the

subject matter and objectives of the lesson. A model of an engine

cannot be relevant to a lesson on “Rock formation”.

2. Population and other characteristics of students: Class size should be

considered. Is the aid large enough for all students to see? Is there

enough quantity of the specimen/aid that can go round to all students?

Extension teachers should consider the level of understanding of

students. Will the aid be above or below their comprehension ability?

3. Operational mastery: Ensure you have mastery of operations of any

instructional aids before use. For example, if you want to use

computer, previous knowledge and mastery of the operation of

computer is important.

4. Safety of the material: Consider the safety of the materials to be used.

Do not use materials such as life scorpion or snake that will frighten or

endanger students’ lives.

5. Up-to-date materials: Do not use instructional materials that are

obsolete or outdated. A 1978 map of Nigeria, which shows cash and

arable crops grown in each state, is obsolete today.

6. Anachronistic Materials: Avoid the use of adulterated materials in

teaching. For example a picture of maize plant with underground cobs,

cassava plant having tubers on the stem, and pictures of crops with
 black leaves are anachronistic materials that should not be used to

avoid students from being confused.

7. Portability: Select aids that are portable. A teacher should use a

portable model of cow, ploughs, drillers, harvesters, planters among

others rather than attempting to carry them to the classroom as aids.

8. Reliability: Use dependable materials, which will not spoil and

disappoint the teacher. Preview the material to ascertain the level of

its reliability.

9. Acceptability: Ensure that the material is acceptable to the farmers or

students. Do not use instructional aids that students view as taboos.

10. Choice of colour: Use bright colours on instructional materials. Do not

use wrong colours. Drawing of plants with red colour and rivers with

black are wrong colour choices. Do not allow the pictures to have too

much brightness as this tend to distract the attention of the

farmers/students from the lesson.

11. Time: use aids at the appropriate or right time in the lesson, and after

that, remove them.

12. Variety: Endeavour to vary your choice of instructional aids. Do not use

only one type always. A combination of aids is preferred to the use of

one type all the time.

 13. When original instructional aids are not available or if they are too

expensive, improvise, borrow or use community resources (Olatunji

2005).

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we examined the description of most commonly used teaching

materials utilized in agricultural extension instructional approaches and their
guidelines for effective utilization. The unit finally highlights the general
guidelines for effective use of instructional materials. I hope by now, you
would be able to understand description of mostly commonly employed
instructional aid and their effective guidelines for utilization.

5.0 SUMMARY

The main points in this unit are:

a) Four commonly employed instructional materials among others in the

teaching of agricultural extension / science are

i) Chalkboard

ii) Specimens and objects

iii) Radio and

iv) Television or video

b) Consideration should be given to the following factors in the process of

selection and use of instructional aids in teaching of agricultural

extension namely:

i) Relevance
 ii) Population and other characteristics of the students

iii) Operational mastery

iv) Material safety

v) Up-to-date materials

vi) Anachronistic materials

vii) Portability

viii) Reliability

ix) Acceptability

x) Colour choice

xi) Time

xii) Variety

xiii) Improvise instructional materials

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

9.0 Identify three guidelines each for effective utilization of radio and
specimens/ objects
10.0 Identify five factors to be considered in the selection process and
utilization or instructional materials in the teaching of agricultural
extension. Discuss briefly those five factors

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Olatunji, S. O. (2005). Effective Teaching and Extension of Agriculture in the

tropics. Zero point International Publishers, Kaduna, pp. 127 – 130..

UNIT 4 THE UTILIZATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

IN AGRICULTURAL EXTESNION
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 When to utilize Instructional material in Agricultural Extension
3.2 How to select the right Instructional Material in Extension
3.3 How to prepare for the utilization of Instructional Material in
Extension
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In order to utilize any instructional material at all, you should be able to

identify the appropriate one as well as the systematic planning to utilize it. In
doing this, the following three questions have to come to mind (Wittich and
Schuller 2007)
1. When do I use instructional materials?

2. How do I select the right instructional material?

3. How do I prepare for the utilization of this instructional aids? This

units help you to understand and provide answers to the below

specifying what you are expected to learn after going through it.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Understand how to utilize instructional materials in Extension

 • Understand how to select the right instructional materials in Agric
Extension
• Understand how to prepare for the utilization of instructional materials
in Extension

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 When to utilize the instructional materials in Agricultural Extension

Very simple, you utilize instructional materials in extension when it is

appropriate to the objective of your lesson. Therefore, you don’t use them just
because you want the audience to see you utilize them. For example, it is clear
that you have to utilize the globe when teaching the shape of the earth or use
herbicides sample when teaching weed control of crops on the farm to the
students. The globe or herbicides (weedicide) is very appropriate in this case.

In agricultural extension lesson, instructional materials can be utilized in three

areas. Firstly, is when you want to introduce or initiate the lesson. This helps
to motivate the learners thereby generating their interest in the lesson.

Secondly, is when you develop the body of the lesson.Here, instructional aids
will help to make the explanation and description clearer and will even make
communication easier.

Thirdly, is when you summaries or complete the lesson. This helps students or
farmers to recall what has been said and also it allows them ask questions on
areas they do not understand.

3.2 How to select the right instructional materials in Agricultural

Extension

There are two major steps in selecting the right instructional materials. First
you must determine your instructional goal(s) and second you must decide
which instructional material will do the best job of meeting those goals.

In dealing with the first aspect, the extensonist or extension instructor has to
determine the information, attitudes, skills or behaviour which the learners
have to acquire as a result of the lesson.
In deciding the instructional materials that will do the best job of meeting your
objectives, you have to consider the following questions:

(i) Will the instructional material be used for group or individual study?

The number of learners in the classroom is very important when

selecting instructional materials for utilization. This is because the

materials / aids we use for small class cannot be used for a large

class. This is particularly true of visual aids. For example, it will be

better not to utilize anything at all than showing pictures that are

not large enough to be seen from the back of the small class.

However, for a large class, it needs to be projected on an opaque

projector or if it is transparent.

(ii) What instructional material is available?

It is also important for us to be conversant with the instructional

aids that are available in the school.

(iii) Can the instructional material be substituted or improvised?

If we do not have a particular instructional material that can best do

the job of meeting our goals then we have to look for substitutes or

at least try to improvise. For example, we may not be able to lay

our hands on a map of Nigeria showing the major crops but we can

draw it on the cardboard and display it in the class.

(iv) Which one/combination is most economical and yet effective?

 This is an important question considering our financial positions in

our schools or institutions. Sometimes we make endless and futile

journey to places to collect instructional aids when we can actually

make use of other ones. E.g. there is no need borrowing or

purchasing film trips on running water when we can safely take our

learners to nearby stream. A lot of money and time would be saved

in doing this.

(v) Is time available to utilize the instructional materials?

Extension instructors should not allow the instructional aids to

dominate our lesson. This is why we must make sure we choose the

appropriate one. It is probably impossible to show a film in a forty

minute lesson, considering the length of some films. Some “time-

saving” aids like overhead and opaque projectors are important in

this regard.

3.3 How to prepare for the utilization of Instructional Materials in

Extension

Once you have selected the appropriate instructional material, careful

preparation is needed to ensure optimum effectiveness. In preparing to utilize,
there are four major steps to follow.

Firstly, is the preparation of the extensionist or extension instructor/teacher. It

is particularly important that there should be no separation of ideas between the
presentation by the extensionist and the instructional aid. One must
complement and assist the other. Together they should provide a clean and
concise presentation of the material. Coordination of the two depends entirely
upon the extension teacher. The most important point to be made is that the
instructor must be fully aware of the nature and purpose of the material or aid.
Only then can he integrate it into his presentation so that a smooth exposition
of information is achieved.

Secondly, is the preparation of the audience (receivers or students/farmers).

This is the area of preparation for the utilization of instructional media that is
most frequently overlooked. Too often students view films without knowing
why they are doing so. Sometimes we ring samples of rocks or soils into the
class without telling them what to expect. Students’ understanding of the
material is necessary if their attention is directed towards significant areas.
Careful preparation of the audience will result in increased effectiveness of
instructional materials.

Thirdly, is the preparation of the instructional materials. Make sure the

instructional aids are in order. If you are going to show a film, be sure the
physical setting of the classroom or film room receives careful attention. If you
are going to hang a map on the wall, be sure that there is a nail already in
position. Distractions of all kinds should be avoided so that full attention can
be directed to the material at hand.

Fourthly, is the preparation for follow-up activities. The extension instructor

must now determine how well the objectives of the lesson have been learnt. In
doing this, you prepare in advance, questions which relate directly to the
presentation.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Identify three area in which instructional materials can be utilized in

agricultural extension lesson.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt the utilization of instructional aids agricultural
extension. Other areas discussed here include when to use, how to select and
how to prepare for the utilization of instructional materials. From these
discussions, you now know that the utilization of instructional materials in
agricultural extension or science is inevitable.

5.0 SUMMARY

The main points in this unit are:

 1. In utilizing instructional materials at all, identification of appropriate

and systematic planning is necessary.

2. When utilizing instructional aids in the teaching of agricultural

extension or science, three important factors should be considered

for effective use. These include

a) When to utilize instructional materials;

b) How to select the right instructional materials and

c) How to prepare for the utilization of instructional materials

are very significant.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

a) Identify two major steps in selecting the right instructional aids and

discuss them.
b) In deciding the instructional aid that will do the best job of meeting
your objectives, list and explain four important questions to be put
into consideration.

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Wittich, E. T and Schuller, Z (2007). Fundamental of Teaching with Audio

Visual Technology. Macmillan, New York.
UNIT 5 IMPROVISATION AND SUBSTITUTION OF
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Improvisation and Substitution of instructional Materials in

Extension
3.2 How to improvise Instructional Materials in Extension

3.3 Some suggestions Concerning sources of Local Agric Extension

4. Conclusion
5. Summary
6. Tutor Marked Assignment
7. References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit four of module three, we treated the utilization of instructional materials

in Agricultural extension. In this unit, we are going to learn improvisation and
substitution of instructional materials in agricultural extension. The below
objectives will aide to specify what you are expected to learn after going
through this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Understand improvisation and substitution of instructional materials in

agricultural extension.
• Understand how to improvise instructional materials in extension
 • Comprehend some suggestions concerning sources of local instructional
materials in agricultural extension.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Improvisation and Substitution of Instructional Materials in

Agricultural Extension

Improvisation refers to the act of using local or alternative aids in place of the
scientific resources so as to make learning a bit more pleasurable and effective.
Moduabum, (1992) explained that improvisation is the use of local resources to
minimize cost of scientific equipment and materials, promote creativity and
self-reliance and the same time contribute meaningfully to extension agents to
improvise instructional resources emanate from high cost of science materials,
school’s dwindling resources and the wisdom of getting the most use of money
even where funds are not limited. Improvisation of resources give one way of
reducing costs without sacrificing the learning experiences of the students or
farmers. It promotes creativity and self-reliance among extension instructors.

Literature on where to improvise and substitute with local material is indeed

excessive. Agricultural extension teacher may improvise flask from burnt
electric bulbs, utilize strides in measurement of land, palm fronts to construct
battery cage, carton to construct television, radio and models of plants and
animal parts, etc. Effective improvisation and substitution of instructional
resources would depend largely on the teachers’ integrity, initiative, skill,
resourcefulness, available local materials and time at his disposal.

3.2 How to Improvise Instructional Materials in Extension

The reason often given by teachers for not using instructional materials in the
class is non-availability. Although instructional materials are lacking in our
institutions, the situation should not be accepted by us. In fact, this should not
be a source of discouragement, but rather an opportunity to utilize our
imagination to find relevant resources. We therefore have to improvise by
designing our own instructional aids using local resources in our environment.
This point was highlighted by Ajayi (2005) that teachers in Nigeria in particular
and in all developing countries in general, should become more innovative and
more creative. Nigerian should begin to take closer look at their environment
to identify local resources from which instructional materials can be obtained.

Many teachers are also in the habit of waiting for the school authority to
provide every instructional aid in the schools. This should not be considering
our present economic predicament. Instructional aids created by us are good
substitutes for as Barth (2005) puts it, “what we make ourselves, what we can
collect locally, what we can get some people to make for us, are probably more
important and relevant than what is commercially produced and especially
what is imported”.

For you to be able to use the various local resources in your environment, you
need to do the following as suggested by Ajayi in 2005.

1) Acquaint yourself with your environment. Take note of items in your

vicinity that can be used in teaching extension

2) Study your syllabus or scheme of work well. This will help you to know

the situations in which you can utilize instructional aids.

3) Get to know the interests of your students. This will help determine

the scope to which you can use instructional aids.

4) Be willing to discuss aspects of your lessons ready to assist you identify

some useful resources. You should try to locate resource persons.

5) Discuss your plans with your students. They may come up with some

bright ideas or may even be ready to provide the class with some local

items.

6) Give yourself some time to prepare local instructional materials.

7) Keep your eyes and ears open for programmes in the media that can be

adopted to the learning processes in your institutions.

To emphasize on the last point, you can listen to different programmes on radio
and television put out by the National Educational Technology Centre (NETC).
These programmes are geared to the school syllabus and if you cannot use
them direct with your students at the time of broadcasting, you can make a
recording to use in your class when you have time to do so.
Many instructional materials could be improvised in extension when ready-
made ones are not available or when there is a financial problem in purchasing
them. These could be created from our immediate environment which
undoubtedly is rich in material resources.

3.3 Some suggestions concerning sources of local instructional Materials

in Extension

The following suggestions are given which can be modified to fit into your
various needs.

1. There are occasions when you have made previous collections when on

a trip. Such collections could be preserved like rocks, samples of sand,

etc. Be sure to save these collections. They could be real source of

instructional materials.

2. When you know people who will be travelling, ask them to help you

collect useful materials for you on their trip.

3. Exchange materials such as photos, letters, essays, scrap books with

other schools, either in the same area or in other parts of the country.

4. Valuable resources are often discarded by families of your students.

These resources are in form of newspapers, weekly and monthly

magazines tend to have interesting pictures and informative short

articles. Keep a place in your classroom for these materials.

5. Invite foreign students or families who have travelled abroad or in

other parts of the country to be guests of your class, hopefully to bring

materials or make presentations.

 6. Community craftsmen will donate objects, models of all kinds of

products to your institutions if you approach them correct.

7. You can have access to free materials from multinational industries like

oil companies, car manufacturers, etc. Useful pamphlets and other

information could be collected free of charge upon request.

8. Consulates, embassies and high commissions in Nigeria give free

materials or loan films, etc. to institutions.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. How do you improvise and substitute instructional materials in

extension?

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit teaches how to improvise instructional materials in agricultural

extension. It also highlights some suggestions concerning sources of local
instructional materials in extension. I hope by now, you would be able to
explain the general concepts of improvisation of instructional materials.

5.0 SUMMARY

The key points in this unit could be summarized as follows:

a) Improvisation can be defined as an act of utilizing local or alternative

aids in place of the scientific resources in order to make learning a bit

more pleasurable and effective.

 b) Effective improvisation and substitution of instructional resources will

depend immensely on the integrity, initiatives, skills, resourcefulness,

availability of local materials and time factor disposal of the teachers.

c) Teachers would improvise by designing our own instructional materials

using local resources in our environment.

d) Some suggestions concerning sources of local instructional materials

could be modified to suite your various needs as mentioned in the unit.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

11.0 Explain improvisation in terms of instructional materials in extension

12.0 Suggest five ways how various local resources can be used in your
environment

7.0 REFERNECES/FURTHER READINGS

Ajayi, R (2005). Selection and Utilization of Audio-Visual Aids from local

resources. A paper presented to participants of the Annual Workshop of
A. A., Kaduna, pp. 7-8

Barth, E. S. (2005). Introduction to Instructional Technology. Institute of

Education, ABU, Zaria, pp. 8-11

Moduabum, F. E. (1992). “Programming by People: An Ecuadorian Radio

Experiment”. Education Broadcasting International Vol. 10 (ii)