COURSE

GUIDE
CRP 304

CRP 304
PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP

Course Team Mr J.A. Alfred (Course Developer/Writer)-NOUN

Dr. (Mrs) M.D. Katung (Course Editor)-ABU, Zaria
Prof. N.E. Mundi (Programme Leader)-NOUN
Dr.A.M.Petu Ibikunle (Course Coordinator)-NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
University Village
Plot 91, Cadastral Zone,
Nnamdi Azikiwe Express way
Jabi, Abuja

Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos

e-mail: centralinfo@noun.edu.ng
website: www.nou.edu.ng

Published by
National Open University of Nigeria

Printed 2017

ISBN: 978-058-592-0

All Rights Reserved

CONTENTS

Introduction
What You Will Learn in this Course
Course Aims
Course Objectives
Working through This Course
Course Materials
Study Units
Textbooks and References
Assignment File
Assessment
Tutor-Marked Assignment
Final Examination and Grading
Presentation Schedule
Course Marking Scheme
How to Get the Most from this Course
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials
Summary

INTRODUCTION
Principles of horticultural crop production: This is a two credit course for 300
Level students of Bachelor of Science (B Sc.) degree in Crop production
programme. The course consists of 13 units in three modules which deal with
introduction to horticulture, basic principles and practice of horticultural crop
production and nursery practices. This course guide tells you briefly what the
course is all about, and how you can work through these units. It suggests some
general guidelines for the amount of time you are likely to spend studying each
unit in order to complete it successfully. It also gives you some guidance on your
tutor marked assignments.

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

The main aim of this course “Principles of Horticultural Crop Production” is to
introduce the fundamental principles upon which horticultural crop production
practices are based upon. By studying the principles of horticultural crop
production you would be able to understand the interaction between the plant, the
environment and how and why plants grow and develop. So that you would be
able to manipulate the plants and their external conditions for better growth,
development and crop yield.
COURSE AIMS
The aim of the cause is to acquaint you with the basic principles and practices of
horticultural crop production.
This would be achieved through:
• Introducing you to the basic principles of crop production.
• Creating a better understanding of horticultural crops, their classification and
their response to various conditions.
• Developing a clear understanding of the role of the surrounding condition of the
plant in growth and development and distinguish the effect of these factors in
order to have precise control of growth process.
• Introduce you to the various cultural practices upon which is laid successful
horticultural crop production enterprise.
• Identification of competitive pests, weeds and diseases so that you can select
appropriate method of control.
• Identifying the best practices of harvesting, processing and storage of field crop.

COURSE OBJECTIVES
In order to achieve the course aims, specific objectives are set in each unit. These
are usually stated at the beginning of the unit. You should pay attention to the
objectives of each unit before starting to go through them. You can always refer
back to the unit’s objectives to check your progress. You should also look at them
after completing a unit. By so doing you can be sure that you have achieved what
the unit expects you to acquire. By meeting these objectives, the aims of the
course as a whole would have been achieved. These objectives include:
• state classification of horticultural crop based on usefulness, growth cycle,
and response to some climatic conditions
• define and state the importance of horticultural crop production
• explain the distribution of vegetables and fruits with reference to climate
and soil.
• state crops that are found in different climatic region of Nigeria.
• state and explain the requirement for sitting fruit orchards
• state and explain the requirement for sitting vegetables farm
• explain the practices of horticultural crop production
• differentiate the different practices for vegetables and fruits production
• discuss the similarity in production practices of vegetables and fruits.
• explain the post harvest operation of horticultural crops
• state and explain the methods of propagation of horticultural crops
• explain the specialised structures used in propagation of horticultural
crops
• explain the different horticultural cropping system
• define and classified pests according to feeding pattern and economic
threshold of destruction
• state the effects of pest and diseases on crop production
• analyse the symptoms of plant diseases and identify the kind of diseases
that may be affecting a particular crop based on the symptoms
• prescribe the methods of controlling plant diseases.
• state the advantages and disadvantages of nursery
• explain the types of nursery
• explain the preparation of nursery

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

To complete this course you are required to read the study units, read other
recommended materials. You will be required to answer some questions based on
what you have read in the content to reaffirm the key points. At the end of each
unit there are some tutor marked assignments (TMA) which you are expected to
submit for marking. The TMA forms part of continuous assignments. At the end
of the course is a final examination. The course should take you 12 to 13 weeks to
complete. You will find listed the component of the course, what you have to do
and how you should allocate your time to each unit in order to complete the
course successfully on time.

COURSE MATERIALS
The main components of the course are:
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Textbooks
4. Assignment
5. Tutorials

STUDY UNITS
There are twelve (12) study units in this course as follows:
MODULE 1
Unit 1 Definition and History of Horticulture
Unit 2 Classification and Importance of Vegetables and Fruits in
Nigeria
Unit 3 Scope and Distribution of Fruits and Vegetables Grown in
Nigeria with Reference to Climate and Soil
MODULE 2
Unit 1 Requirement for Sitting Fruit Orchard and Vegetables Farm
Unit 2 Practices used in the Production of Horticultural Crops
Unit 3 Post Harvest Technology
Unit 4 Diseases and Pest of Vegetables
Unit 5 Horticultural Tools and Machineries
MODULE 3
Unit 1 Methods Propagation (Sexual and Special Organs)
Unit 2 Methods of Propagation (A Sexual)
Unit 3 Horticultural Cropping Systems
MODULE 4
Unit 1 Nursery Preparation and Production

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMA)

There are tutor- marked assignments (TMA) and self- assessment in each unit.
You would have to do the TMA as a revision of each unit. And there are four
tutors -marked assignments you are required to do and submit as your assignment
for the course. This would help you to have broad view and better understanding
of the subject. Your tutorial facilitator would inform you about the particular
TMA you are to submit for marking and recording. Make sure your assignment
reaches your tutor before the deadline given in the presentation schedule and
assignment file. If, for any reason, you cannot complete your work on schedule,
contact your tutor before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an
extension. Extensions will not be granted after the due date unless there are
exceptional circumstances. You will be able to complete your assignment
questions from the contents contained in this course material. However, it is
desirable to search other references/further readings, which will give you a
broader view point and a deeper understanding of the subject.

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The final examination for the course will be 2hours duration and consist of six
theoretical questions and you are expected to answer four, questions. The total
marks for the final examination is 70 marks. The examination will consist of
questions, which reflect the tutor marked assignments that you might have
previously encountered and other questions within the course covered areas. All
areas of the course will be covered by the assignment. You are to use the time
between finishing the last unit and sitting the examination to revise the entire
course. You might find it useful to review your tutor- marked assignments before
the examination. The final examination covers information from all parts of the
course.
TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES
George, A. (2004). Horticulture- Principles and Practices. (2nd ed.). Eastern
Economy Limited. Pp 3-720.
Lawrence, K. O. (2005). Tropical Commodity Tree Crops. (2nd ed.). Spectrum
Books Limited.Pp 1-70.
Edmond, J. B., Senn, T. L., Andrews, F. S. and Halfacre, R. G. (1975).
Fundamentals of
Horticulture. (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill Book Company. Pp183-219.

Doohan, D.J., Carchia., J. & Kleinhenz, M.D. (2000). Cultural Practices in

Vegetables
Crop Weed Management Programs. Ohioline: Bulletin 888-00. ohioline.ag.ohio-
state.edu

Harper, F. (1983). Principles of Arable Crop Production. U.K: Blackwell Science

Ltd.

Akobundu, I.O. (1987). Weed Science in the Tropics. Principles and Practice.
John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.

My Agricultural Information Bank (2012). Cropping Systems in Horticultural

Crops.
www.agriinfo.in/cropping

Wyant, (1996). Agroforestry - An Ecological Perspective. Agroforestry Today

8:1
ASSIGNMENT FILE
The assignment file will be given to you in due course. In this file, you will
find all the details of the work you must submit to your tutor for marking.
The marks you obtain for these assignments will count towards the final
mark for the course. Altogether, there are 29 TMAs for this course.

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE

The presentation schedule included in this course guide provides you with
important dates for completion of each tutor-marked assignment. You
should therefore try to meet the deadlines.

ASSESSMENT

There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First, there are tutor-
marked assignments; and second, the written examination.

You are thus expected to apply knowledge, comprehension, information

and problem solving gathered during the course. The TMAs must be
submitted to your tutor for formal assessment, in accordance to the deadline
given. The work submitted will count for 30% of your total course mark.

At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written
examination. This examination will account for 70% of your total score.

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

The following table gives the course marking scheme

Assessment Marks
Four TMA (comprising Total = 10% X 3 = 30%
of 20 questions) carries (the best 3, out of 4 TMAs are taken)
10marks
Final Examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of Course Marks

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecturer. This is
one of the huge advantages of distance learning mode; you can read and
work through specially designed study materials at your own pace and at a
time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading from the teacher,
the study guide tells you what to read, when to read and the relevant texts to
consult. You are provided exercises at appropriate points, just as a lecturer
might give you an in-class exercise.

Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next to this is a
set of learning objectives. These learning objectives are meant to guide
your studies. The moment a unit is finished, you must go back and check
whether you have achieved the objectives. If this is made a habit, then you
will significantly improve your chances of passing the course. The main
body of the units also guides you through the required readings from other
sources. This will usually be either from a set book or from other sources.

Self-Assessment Exercises are provided throughout the unit, to aid personal

studies. Working through these self-tests will help you to achieve the
objectives of the unit and also prepare you for Tutor-Marked Assignments
and examinations. You should attempt each self-test as you encounter them
in the units.

The following are practical strategies for working through this course.

1. Read the course guide thoroughly

2. Organise a study schedule. Refer to the course overview for more

details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the
assignment relates to the units. Important details, e.g. details of your
tutorials and the date of the first day of the semester are available. You need
to gather together all these information in one place such as a diary, a wall
chart calendar or an organiser. Whatever method you choose, you should
decide on and write in your own dates for working on each unit.

3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you
can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that they get behind
with their course works. If you get into difficulties with your schedule,
please let your tutor know before it is too late for help.

4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.

5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a
unit is given in the table of content at the beginning of each unit. You will
almost always need both the study unit you are working on and one of the
materials recommended for further readings, on your desk at the same time.

6. Work through the unit, the content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work through the
unit, you will be encouraged to read from your set books.
7. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing all your assignments
carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the objectives of the
course and will help you pass the examination.

8. Review the objectives of each study unit to confirm that you have
achieved them. If you are not certain about any of the objectives, review the
study material and consult your tutor.

9. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives,
you can start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and
try to pace your study so that you can keep yourself on schedule.

10. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking,
do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your
schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay particular attention to your
tutor’s comments, both on the Tutor-Marked Assignment form and also
written on the assignment. Consult you tutor as soon as possible if you have
any questions or problems.

11. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit
objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course objectives
(listed in this course guide).

FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

There are 8 hours of tutorial provided in support of this course. You will be
notified of the dates, time and location together with the name and phone
number of your tutor as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close
watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and
provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your TMA to
your tutor well before the due date. At least two working days are required
for this purpose. They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as
soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail or discussion
board if you need help. The following might be circumstances in which you
would find help necessary: contact your tutor if you:

• do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned

readings
• have difficulty with the self test or exercise
• have questions or problems with an assignment, with your tutor’s
comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.

SUMMARY

You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to
have face to face contact with your tutor and ask questions which are
answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course of
your study. To gain the maximum benefit from the course tutorials, prepare
a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating
in discussion actively. GOODLUCK!

MODULE 1
Unit 1 Definition and History of Horticulture
Unit 2 Classification and Importance of Vegetables and Fruits in Nigeria
Unit 3 Scope and Distribution of Fruits and Vegetables Grown in Nigeria
with Reference to Climate and Soil
MODULE 2
Unit 1 Requirement for Sitting Fruit Orchard and Vegetables Farm
Unit 2 Practices used in the Production of Horticultural Crops
Unit 3 Post Harvest Technology
Unit 4 Diseases and Pest of Vegetables
Unit 5 Horticultural Tools and Machineries

MODULE 3
Unit 1 Method of Propagation (Sexual and Specialised Organs)
Unit 2 Method of Propagation (Asexual)
Unit 3 Horticultural Cropping Systems

MODULE 4
Unit 1 Nursery Preparation and Production
CRP 304 MODULE 1

MODULE 1

Unit 1 Definition and History of Horticulture

Unit 2 Classification and importance of Vegetables and fruits in
Nigeria
Unit 3 Scope and distribution of fruits and Vegetables grown in
Nigeria with reference to climate and soil

UNIT 1 DEFINITION AND HISTORY OF

HORTICULTURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Horticulture
3.2 History of Horticulture
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is generally regarded as cultivation of crops and rearing of

animals for man and industrial uses. Agriculture has many branches
which interplay in achieving agricultural aims and these branches
include, agronomy, animal Science, crop science, horticulture, agric
economics, agric extension, plant breeding, crop protection etc. one of
these branches, horticulture, forms the basis of this course and we shall
discuss it in details as we progress in the course.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define horticulture
• give examples of horticulture
• give a brief history of horticulture.

1
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Horticulture

The word horticulture is derived from two latin words “Hortus” meaning
garden and “Culture” meaning the cultivate. Horticulture is therefore
concerned with the cultivation of garden plants such as fruits,
Vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants. Horticulture may be defined
as the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation
crops and ornamental crops for man, industrial and aesthetic uses. When
horticulture is considered from both the science and business
perspectives, horticulture can be broadly defined as the science and art
of cultivating, processing and marketing of fruits, vegetables, flowers
and ornamental plants. Horticulture is a branch of agriculture.
Horticulture is subdivided into five; namely pomology, olericulture,
floriculture, arboriculture and landscaping.

a. Pomology: - The science and practice of fruit production.

b. Oleiriculture: - The science and practice of growing vegetables.
c. Floriculture: - The science and practice of production of flowers
and ornamentals.
d. Arboriculture: - The science and practice of growing and caring
for ornamental trees.
e. Landscaping: - The science and practice of using plants outdoor
for aesthetic and functional purposes.

3.2 History of Horticulture

Horticulture is as old as mankind since man cannot survive without

food. The concepts of garden culture can be traced as far as 3, 000 BC or
beyond in Egypt. Historical evidence shows that by this time crops such
as grapes, dates, olives and onions have been brought under cultivation
by Egyptians and the technology such as land preparation, pruning,
irrigation drying etc had also been used. The hanging garden of Babylon
which was of flowers and fruits was hailed as one of the seven wonders
of the ancient world. During the Middle Ages (500 – 1500 CA),
horticultural plants were grown in protected areas surrounded by high
walls or similar structures in temperate Europe. As society evolved,
deliberate cultivation and domestication of edible plants replaced the
less efficient food gathering habits of primitive societies. Agriculture,
particularly horticulture, is therefore not a modern day invention but one
that continues to be transformed as society advances technologically.
The idea of intensive management of horticultural crops still holds today
even though some of the vegetables like tomato are grown in the field
like other filed crops. At present, the fields of horticultural crops are not
only grown within the home gardens but also in large quantities as

2
CRP 304 MODULE 1

commercial enterprises. Many researches have been conducted aimed at

solving the problems of growing horticultural crops and a comparatively
large volume of scientific information on behavior of horticultural plants
and products have been made available.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Horticulture is a branch of agriculture which compliments crops science

or agronomy in production of crops such as fruits, vegetables and nuts
and it apply agronomic practices in its production, processing and
marketing.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that Horticulture is derived from two latin
words “Hortus” meaning garden and “Culture” meaning cultivation
Horticulture is defined as the science and art of cultivating, processing,
marketing of fruits, nuts, vegetables and ornamental plants. You have
also learnt that history of horticulture dates back to about 3, 000 BC
onions, olives, grapes, etc. were brought under cultivation in Egypt and
these ideas of cultivation of horticultural crop still holds today.

6.0 TUTOR -MARK ASSIGNMENT

i. Define horticulture
ii. Give a brief history of horticulture
iii. List 3 horticultural crops

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

George, A. (2004). Horticulture- Principles and Practices. (2nd ed.).

Eastern Economy Limited. Pp 3-720.

Lawrence, K. O. (2005). Tropical Commodity Tree Crops. (2nd ed.).

Spectrum Books Limited. Pp 1-70.

Edmond, J. B., Senn, T. L., Andrews, F. S. & Halfacre, R. G. (1975).

Fundamentals of Horticulture.(1st ed.). McGraw-Hill Book
Company. Pp183-219.

3
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

UNIT 2 CLASSIFICATION AND IMPORTANCE

OF VEGETABLES AND FRUITS IN
NIGERIA
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Classification of Vegetables and Fruits
3.1.2 Classification Based on Growth Habit
3.1.3 Classification Based on Life Cycle of the Crops
3.1.4 Classification Based on Climatic Requirement
3.2 Importance of Vegetables and Fruits in Nigeria
3.3 Importance of Vegetables in Human Diet
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Mark Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Horticulture is the science and art of production, processing and

marketing of Vegetables, fruits nuts and ornamental plants. All crops or
plant that constitutes horticultural crops are classified or grouped
according to their uses, production or their type of product they
produced. The unit you are about to study deals with the classification of
horticultural groups.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

• classify horticultural crops based on their life cycle

• classify horticultural crops based on their climate requirement
• classify horticultural crops based on their growth habits
• state the importance of vegetables and fruits in Nigeria.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Classification of Horticultural Crops

From time to time, horticultural crops have been classified into various
groups depending on their growth habits, cultivation requirements,
climate needs and uses. Horticultural crops are popularly classified into
3 broad groups of fruits and nuts, vegetables and flowers or ornamentals.

4
CRP 304 MODULE 1

3.1.1 Classification Base on Use of Horticultural Plants

A) Vegetables
i. Vegetables grown for the aerial edible parts (above the soil),
include
a) Cole crops – Vegetables that have curled leaves e.g.
Cabbage, cauliflower
b) Pulse crops – Vegetables that produce pods e.g. pea, bean
or green bean.
c) Solanaceous fruits – Vegetables that produce fruits and
tuber e.g. tomato, pepper, garden eggs, potato
d) Green of leafy Vegetables – Vegetables, that produce leafs
e.g. Amaranth, bitter leaf, water leaf, spinach.
e) Salad crops – Vegetables that produce their product in
vine e.g. melon, cucumber, pumpkin.
f) Corn vegetables e.g. popcorn, sweet corn.
ii. Vegetables or plants grown for the underground edible portion or
parts.
a) Root crops e.g. carrot, potatoes, Irish, Cassava.
b) Tuber crops e.g. yam, cocoyam.
c) Bulbs crops e.g. onion, garlic.
B) Fruits
i. Temperate fruits – fruits from cooler regions of the world
a) Tree fruits e.g. apple, peach.
b) Small fruits e.g. grapes vine, straw berry.
c) Nut fruits e.g. peach, walnut.
ii. Tropical and subtropical fruits (Hot regions) of the world
a) Tree fruits e.g. citrus, mango, guava, cashew
b) Herbaceous perennial fruits e.g. banana, plantain,
pineapple.
c) Nut fruits e.g. cashewnut, datenut, aracanut.
C) Flowers and Ornamentals
i. Flowers e.g rose flower, marigold, sun flower
ii. Lawns e.g. carpet grass, bahama grass
iii. Hedges e.g. gambogi, croton yellow
iv. Trees e.g. Christmas tree, umbrella tree, neem tree

Other classifications of horticultural crops are given below base on

certain important criteria.

3.1.2 Classification Based on Growth Habit

This is according to the growth nature of the crops and this include.

a) Herbs e.g. Ageratum

b) Shrubs e.g. Hibiscus

5
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

c) Trees e.g. Mango, citrus

d) Climbers e.g. Bougainvillea
e) Creepers e.g. Bignonia, gracillis

3.1.3 Classification Base on Life Circle of the Crop

a) Annual or seasonal crops – Those that complete their life cycle

within a year e.g. marigold, Amaranth, tomato, Irish.
b) Biennial crops – Those that requires two years or at least two
growing season to complete their life cycle e.g. Cassava, yam.
c) Perennial crops – Any plant that lives for more than two years to
35 years e.g. mango, citrus, grape vine, guava.

3.1.4 Classification Base on Climatic Requirement

This is based on the temperature need of the crop and this are grouped
into
a) Temperate crops – These are horticultural crops found in cold
regions of the world e.g. apple, almond etc.
b) Tropical crops – These are horticultural crops that do not tolerate
severe cold but can tolerate warm temperature e.g. banana,
papaya, pineapple.
c) Sub-Tropical crops – They need warmth and humidity and can
tolerate mild winter e.g. fig, mango, cashew nut.

SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. Classify horticultural crops based on their edible aerial portion

and give 2 examples each.
ii. Classify horticultural crops based on climatic requirements.

3.2 Importances of Vegetables and Fruits in Nigeria

The importance of vegetables and fruits in Nigerian economy cannot be

overemphasised. Just as crops and animals play a vital role in the
economy of Nigeria, so do vegetables and fruits play vital roles in
individuals, community and the country at large. Vegetables and fruits
provide the following;

1. Provision of Food – Vegetables and fruits are sources of food

which provide carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and water to
humans and animals. Plant source of food are usually regarded as
good and natural source of food for human and animals.
2. Provision of Income – Provision of income per unit area yield of
horticultural crops is very high as compared to field crops. This
high yield per unit area invariable leads to high returns per unit
6
CRP 304 MODULE 1

area which means that the income of the farmer is significantly

increased. This therefore, helps reduce poverty.
3. Source of Raw Material – Vegetables and fruits provide raw
materials for industries such as fruit juice industries,
pharmaceutical industries as well as oil mills. This helps to
reduce importation of the raw materials and hence reduce cost of
production.
4. Provision of Employment – Those that are involved in the
production, processing and marketing of vegetables and fruits are
usually self employed or employed by industries that use these
products as raw materials. This reduces idleness and level of
unemployment in the country.
5. Uses Waste and Undulating Lands – Fruits and Vegetables can be
grown in land where the gradient is uneven or where the land is
undulating. Mango, cashew, Vegetables can be grown on large
scale on hilly area.
6. Source of Foreign Exchange – When Vegetables and fruits are
exported to other countries this serves as foreign exchange for the
country and this increases the country’s economy.

3.3 Importance of Vegetables in Human Diet

1. Vegetables supply most of the nutrients that are deficient in other

food materials. This includes supply of minerals, especially
calcium and iron.
2. Vegetables are acid neutralisers e.g. Okra, Corchorus Spp
neutralises the acid produced from the some fruits.
3. Vegetables prevent constipation and promote digestion as a result
of fibres/roughages obtained from Okra, Cucumber, Amaranthus,
Lettuce and Cabbage.
4. Vegetables are rich sources of vitamins A, B, and C which helps
to lower susceptibility to infection. e.g.: Carrots, Sweet Corn,
Amaranthus And Celosia provide Vitamin A; Bitter leaf, Water
leaf, Solanum and Celosia provide Vitamin B; Tomatoes, Carrots,
Lettuce, Cabbage and Amaranthus provide Vitamin C.
5. Some vegetables are rich sources of carbohydrate e.g. Potatoes,
Sweet Corn, Carrot etc.
6. Green beans and peas are cheap sources of protein. Vernonia
(Bitter leaf), Amaranthus and Telfeira provide some amount of
protein in human diet.
7. Vegetables are generally needed to have balanced diets and
overcome nutritional deficiencies.
8. Vegetables make our staple food more palatable and enhance
their intake.

7
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt that horticultural crops are as important as
other field crops and that their production should be encouraged at all
level of production. This would help in reducing poverty and create
employment for the unemployed.

5.0 SUMMARY

You have learnt that horticultural crops can be classified based on their
uses, climatic requirement or growth habit. According to their uses,
horticultural crops are classified as vegetables, fruits and flower and
ornamentals. Based on climatic requirements, they are classified as
temperate, tropical and subtropical while base on life cycle they are
classified as animal, biennial and perennial.

You have also learnt that horticultural crops (vegetables and fruits) have
the following importance;

- Provision of income
- Provision of food
- Provision of employment
- Provision of foreign exchange
- Provision of raw materials

6.0 TUTOR- MARK ASSIGNMENT

i. Explain briefly the importance of fruits and vegetables.

ii. Give the classification of horticultural crops based on their life
cycle and cite examples.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

George, A. (2004). Horticulture- Principles and Practices. (2nd ed.).

Eastern Economy Limited. Pp 3-720.

Lawrence, K. O. (2005). Tropical Commodity Tree Crops. (2nd

ed.).Spectrum Books Limited. Pp 1-70.

Edmond, J. B., Senn, T. L., Andrews, F. S. & Halfacre, R. G. (1975).

Fundamentals of
Horticulture.(1st ed.). McGraw-Hill Book Company. Pp 183-219.

My Agriculture Information Bank (2012). Horticultural crops

classification. www.agriinfo.in/horticultural crop classification

8
CRP 304 MODULE 1

UNIT 3 SCOPE AND DISTRIBUTION OF

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS GROWN IN
NIGERIA WITH REFERENCE TO CLIMATE
AND SOIL
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Scope of Horticulture
3.2 Environmental, Soil and Biotic Factors Affecting
Horticultural Crop Production
3.2.1 Climatic Factors
3.2.2 Soil
3.2.3 Biotic Factors
3.3 Distribution of Vegetables and Fruits Grown in Nigeria
with Reference Climate and Soil
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment.
7.0 References/Further Reading.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Horticultural crops are classified based on climatic requirements into

temperate, tropical and sub tropical crop and this is based on
temperature requirement of the crop. Some crops require low
temperature and they are grown in temperature climate. Based on
climate and soil, horticultural crops are dispersed and found in different
part of the country. The unit you are about to study deals with the
distribution of horticultural crops in Nigeria based on climate and soil.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• give the scope of horticultural crops in Nigeria

• explain the distribution of vegetables and fruits with reference to
climate and soil
• state crops that are found in different climatic regions of Nigeria.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Scope of Horticulture

Horticultural crops constitute a significant component of total

agricultural production of any country. Environmental, soil and biotic

9
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

factors such as diseases, pest and to a lesser extend of demand of

horticultural crops determines the level of production. In Nigeria,
horticultural crops are grown all over the country. Horticultural crops
are found in an area depends on the suitability of the climate, culture and
demand of the commodity. Fruits and nuts are scattered in the country
with their concentration in the southern part of the country.

3.2 Environmental, Soil and Biotic Factors affecting

Horticultural Crop Production

The successful production of any crop depends on the suitability of the

environment. Climatic (a biotic), edaphic (soil) and biotic factors
determine the distribution of horticultural crops in Nigeria and the world
in general.

3.2.1 Climatic factors

a) Rainfall – This is basically a natural means of water supply to

plants. Water is very important because 70 – 80% of the fresh
weight of herbaceous plant is water. For woody plants, water
constitutes about 50% of their fresh weight. Water acts as a
medium for uptake of nutrients and also for transportation of
substances within the plant body. It is a primary raw material in
the process of photosynthesis and it’s also required for the
maintenance of turgor pressure in plant stomata which controls its
opening to permit exchange of gases between plants and the
environment. Water is needed by the plants to replace the one lost
by transpiration.

The plant losses about 98% of the water absorb through

transpiration. The water requirement of plants varies with species
and age of the plant. Irrespective of the species, the water needs
increases as the plant increases in size. Lack of moisture makes
the air less humid, thereby increasing its drying power. The rate
of plant processes such as transpiration, diffusion and evaporation
are affected directly by lack of moisture. Excessive moisture
exposes plants to diseases and causes lodging (falling of plants).
Horticultural plants grown indoors are sometimes given a misty
spray of water (irrigation) to increase the humidity of the plant
environment, especially in winter when the heaters are turned on
to warm the building.

b) Temperature – The response of plants to temperature varies

among species. For every plant species there is an ultimate
temperature range within which it can grow and reproduce. In
general, most horticultural crops grow and produce between

10
CRP 304 MODULE 1

15oC. Horticultural crops can be classified according to their

response to temperature as follows.

i. Hardy Plants – Plants that withstand low temperature but

cannot grow under high temperature. These are basically
temperate crops such as Carbage, Cole flower and apple.
ii. Tender or Tropical Crops – Plants that withstand high
temperature but cannot tolerate low temperature. That is,
they grow under warm to high temperature. E.g. Banana,
Mango, Okra. Response of plants to temperature varies
with the stage of growth of the plant. For example, the
seedling of crops is more easily damage due to high
temperature. Different parts of plant also response
differently to temperature. For example the flowers are
more susceptible to high temperature than the vegetative
parts. Roots are more susceptible to low temperature than
the aerial part. The response to temperature also depends
on the duration and the degree of temperature extremes.
High temperature especially night temperature has an
adverse effect on plants because it increases respiration
and hence, decreases food reserves. High temperature also
prevents tuber initiation in crop such as potatoes and root
formation e.g. in carrot.

There is also indirect effect of high temperature on plants.

High temperature increases the activities of pest and
disease organisms. It also has adverse effect on flowering
and fruit formation e.g. in tomatoes, high temperature
reduces the number of flowers and fruits formed. It has
been shown that maximum fruit formation will require a
night temperature of 21oC. Low temperature is undesirable
since it reduces germination, slows growth and result in
fruit damage.
c. Light – Light for plant growth comes primarily from the sun. The
role of light in the growth and development of horticultural plants
depends on its quality, quantity and daily duration. When plants
are grown indoors, artificial lightening is required. The most
readily recognised role of light is in photosynthesis, but it also
has other important functions such as seed germination in some
horticultural species. The responses to light also vary among
plants species. The light factors have three aspects. These are
quality, intensity and duration.
i. Quantity – This refers to the wavelength of light. This
aspect is affected by cloud cover. When there is
continuous cloud cover, the quality of light reduces and
this result in poor fruit colour. The visible light ranges

11
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

between about 390 – 735 nanometer wavelengths and

most of the radiation reaching the earth from the sun falls
within this range.
ii. Intensity – This refers to the quality of light or quanta.
Some plants grow under full sunlight e.g. maize, and
tomato and they are called the sun plants while some
plants like asparagus and chrysanthemum do not do well
under bright light and are called shade loving plants. Some
other plants need shade at certain stages e.g. seedling of
cocoa. Sunlight intensity at midday is about 10,000 foot
candles of this quantity, many plants can effectively utilize
only about 50% of the light for photosynthesis.
iii. Duration – This refers to the number of hours of light
received on the basis of light requirement for flowering.
Plants can be classified into three groups on the basis of
light duration.
a) Longday Plants – These plants flower only under day length
longer than 14 hours e.g. onion, peas, lettuce.
b) Short Day Plants – They flower at day length less than 10 hours
e.g. citrus.
c) Day Neutral Plants – Many tropical crops are day neutral plants
and they flower at day length of 12 hours e.g. tomato, maize.
d) Humidity – The water content of air is called humidity and is
measured in units of relative humidity (RH) by using an
instrument called a psychrometer. Humidity depends on vapour
pressure (concentration of water vapour in the air) and
temperature. Relative humidity decreases when temperature
increases and water vapour remains constant. The amount of
water needed by a plant for normal growth is directly related to
the humidity or water content of the air. Relative humidity is a
very important factor affecting the growth and development of
horticultural plants as it is a products of rainfall and temperature.
Some crops requires high humidity e.g. banana. Other plants
require high humidity at one time and low humidity at another
time e.g. mango requires high humidity for growth but for
flowering, low humidity is necessary. Low humidity is required
for drying crops like maize. High humidity has the disadvantage
of encouraging attack by pests and diseases.

3.2.2 Soil

The soil is the primary medium for crop growth. The climate plays a
significant role in determining the types of soils in which crop may be
grown. This role comes from the fact that climate is a primary factor in
the dynamic process of soil formation called weathering, which is the
process by which parent materials (the rocks from which soils are

12
CRP 304 MODULE 1

formed) are broken down into small particles. The type of soil formed
affects the kind of vegetation it can support, which in turn further
impacts on the process of soil formation by influencing the organic
matter and nutrient content of the soil. Soil formation is a continuous
process.

The role of soil in horticultural crop production is to provide physical

support and a source of nutrients and moisture for growing plants. In
terms of nutrition, soils may be described as fertile, marginal or infertile.
Soil nutrients are depleted with years of use and need to be replenished
periodically. The soil may not be rich in native nutrients, but for it to be
useful for crop production, it should at least be capable of holding water
and nutrients for some time. If this condition does not exist, the grower
or farmer should make provision to supply supplementary nutrition to
prevent deficiency problems. To be of any use for crop production, the
soil should be able to permit root development for good anchorage while
supplying adequate nutrition.

3.2.3 Biotic Factors

Biotic stand for living organisms that causes either diseases or damage
crops. Climate influences plant diseases and insect pests. For a disease
condition to occur there must be a susceptible host, pathogen and
favourable environment called the disease triangle. Disease will not
occur unless all three factors are present. However, disease can occur to
varying degrees. Local weather conditions may favour the development
of certain pathogens or expose plants to diseases by lowering their
resistance. Many insects have a short life span therefore; changes in the
climate can adversely affect their population and effectiveness at any
stage of their life cycle. Certain insects proliferate (increase in
population) in specific seasons and occur in low populations in others.
The soil surface contains organisms that are microscopic and largely
pathogenic to plants. Other large bodied organisms that occur in the
environment can help or harm plants. For example birds help in seed
dispersal and bees and butterfly in flower pollination. On the other hand,
rodents e.g. rats harm plants in the field in a variety of ways. Seeds may
be eaten before they have a chance to germinate. Mature fruits may be
eaten before harvest; plant stems and foliage may be eaten by herbivores
such as deer, rabbits, monkeys etc.

SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. List the climatic factors that affect horticultural crop production

ii. Briefly explain light intensity as it affects horticultural crop
production.
iii. List 3 biotic factors affecting horticultural crop production.

13
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

3.3 Distribution of Vegetable and Fruits Grown in Nigeria

with Reference to Climate and Soil

In Nigeria, the rainfall is highest in the southern region, with a mean of

about 3, 000mm per annum. As you move inland, the amount and
duration of rainfall decrease. The northern part of the country records
less than 400mm of rainfall per annum. The variation of temperature
increases as you get inland, for example, in the southern part of the
country, the mean maximum annual temperature is about 30oC while the
mean minimum annual temperature is 22 oC. In the northern parts of the
country, the mean maximum annual temperature is 19 oC. Generally,
temperatures are higher in the south throughout the year than in the
north. The cooler period of the year which corresponds with dry season
of the north is between the month of November and February. During
this cool season, temperatures are lower in the north and this is the best
season for vegetables production. With regards to humidity, the southern
part has relatively high humidity throughout the year while in the
northern part; relative humidity could go below 10% especially during
the dry season.

From the above discussion we can understand that the country is divided
into two distinct parts southern or forest zone where rainfall is about
1500 – 3000 mm, the temperatures are high. The zone favours the
production of tropical fruits such as banana, pineapple and vegetables
like cassava and yams. Temperatures tend to be too high for certain
crops even though the high rainfall is suitable. Cloud cover limits the
intensity and duration of sunlight which limit the growth of certain
vegetables that require bright sunlight. The major disadvantages of the
forest zone to horticultural crop production are high rain fall, high
temperature and high relative humidity which encourage disease
conditions. The savanna zone is more adaptable to horticultural plants
such as citrus and many tropical crops but for many of temperate crops
the temperature tends to be a limiting factor. These crops such as carrot,
lettuce and cabbage can only be grown successfully during the cool,
harmattan period. However, there is a general scarcity of water the
during the dry or harmattan period as such the favourable condition
established for vegetables during this season is not fully utilised except
where irrigation facilities can be provided.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Horticultural crops are grown everywhere in Nigeria but the

horticultural crop found in crop production depends on the climatic, soil
and biotic factors which determine the growth and development of the
crop. Before cultivation of any horticultural crop, the grower has to take

14
CRP 304 MODULE 1

these factors into consideration so as to choose the crop that will grow
best in his environment.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that the success of horticultural crop
production depends on climatic, soil and biotic factors. Environmental
factors include rainfall, light, temperature humidity and wind while the
biotic factors include all organisms that can cause disease or damage
crops such as pathogen, pests, predators, bird etc. You have also learnt
that the distribution of vegetables and fruits in Nigeria is characterised
also by the above factors. While most tropical tree crops are found in the
southern part of the country because of their high water requirement,
most vegetables are found in the northern part of the country due to
moderate rainfall in the area.

6.0 TUTOR- MARK ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss the distribution of vegetables and fruits as affected by

climate
2. Briefly explain biotic and soil factors of affecting horticultural
crop production.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

George, A. (2004). Horticulture- Principles and Practices. (2nd ed.).

Eastern Economy Limited. Pp 3-720.

Edmond, J. B., Senn, T. L., Andrews, F. S. & Halfacre, R. G. (1975).

Fundamentals of Horticulture.(1st ed.). McGraw-Hill Book
Company. Pp 183-219.

15
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

MODULE 2

Unit 1 Requirement for sitting fruit orchard and vegetables farms

Unit 2 Practices used in the production of horticultural crops
Unit 3 Post harvest technology
Unit 4 Diseases and pest of vegetables
Unit 5 Horticultural tools and machineries

UNIT 1 REQUIREMENT FOR SITTING FRUIT

ORCHARDS AND VEGETABLES FARMS
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Requirement for Sitting Fruit Orchards and Vegetables
Farms
3.1.1Environmental Factors
3.1 .2 Land
3.1 .3 Labour
3.1. 4 Inputs
3.1 .5 Market
3.1.6 Finance
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Mark Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The science and art of producing and marketing fruits and nuts is called
pomology while the science and art of producing and marketing
vegetables is called olericulture. Before any production, there are some
certain requirements that you will meet to ensure successful production
and marketing fruits and vegetables so as to reduce cost of production
and increase profit. This unit deals with the requirement for setting fruit
orchard and vegetables farm.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• to explain the requirement for sitting fruit orchards

• to explain the requirement for sitting vegetables farm
• define orchard.
16
CRP 304 MODULE 2

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Requirement for Sitting Orchards and Vegetables Farms

Fruits and vegetables are of great importance in nutrition since they are
sources of food. An orchard can be defined as a parcel of land devoted
to the cultivation of fruits. Even though fruits and Vegetables may be
different in their nature, life cycle and mode of production, what they
require for a successful production of the enterprise are the same since
they use the same resources (land, labour, environmental factors, market
etc). The following are basic requirements for the sitting of fruits and
Vegetables farms.

3.1.1 Environmental Factors

These include all the climate factors (rainfall, temperature, light,

humidity) affecting crop production. The grower must have knowledge
of the crop he want to produce and the climatic requirement of the crop
so that he can produce maximally.

a) Rainfall – This is basically a natural means of water supply to

plants. Water is very important because 70 – 80% of the fresh
weight of herbaceous plant is water. For woody plants, water
constitutes about 50% of their fresh weight. Water acts as a
medium for uptake of nutrients and also for transportation of
substances within the plant body. It is a primary raw material in
the process of photosynthesis and it’s also required for the
maintenance of turgor pressure in plant stomata which controls its
opening to permit exchange of gases between plants and the
environment. Water is needed by the plants to replace the one lost
by transpiration.

The plant losses about 98% of the water absorb through

transpiration. The water requirement of plants varies with species
and age of the plant. Irrespective of the species, the water needs
increases as the plants increase in size. Lack of moisture makes
the air less humid, thereby increasing its drying power. The rate
of plant processes such as transpiration, diffusion and evaporation
are affected directly by lack of moisture. Excessive moisture
exposes plants to diseases and causes lodging (falling of plants).
Horticultural plants grown indoors are sometimes given a misty
spray of water (irrigation) to increase the humidity of the plant
environment, especially in winter when the heaters are turned on
to warm the building.
b) Temperature – The response of plants to temperature varies
among species. For every plant species there is an ultimate

17
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

temperature range within which it will grow and reproduce. In

general, most horticultural crops grow and produce between
15oC. Horticultural crops can be classified according to their
response to temperature as follows.
i. Hardy Plants – Plants that withstand low temperature but
cannot grow under high temperature. These are basically
temperate crops such as carbage, cole flower and apple.
ii. Tender or Tropical Crops – Plants that withstand high
temperature but cannot tolerate low temperature. That is,
they grow under warm to high temperature. E.g. Banana,
Mango, Okra. Response of plants to temperature varies
with the stage of growth of the plant. For example, the
seedling of crops is more easily damage due to high
temperature. Different parts of plant also response
differently to temperature. For example the flowers are
more susceptible to high temperature than the vegetative
parts. Roots are more susceptible to low temperature than
the aerial part. The response to temperature also depends
on the duration and the degree of temperature extremes.
High temperature especially night temperature has an
adverse effect on plants because it increases respiration
and hence, decreases food reserves. High temperature also
prevents tuber initiation in crop such as potatoes and root
formation e.g. in carrot.

There is also indirect effect of high temperature on plants. High

temperature increases the activities of pest and disease organisms.
It also has adverse effect on flowering and fruit formation e.g. in
tomatoes, high temperature reduces the number of flowers and
fruits formed. It has been shown that maximum fruit formation
will require a night temperature of 21oC. Low temperature is
undesirable since it reduces germination, slows growth and result
in fruit damage.
c. Light – Light for plant growth comes primarily from the sun. The
role of light in the growth and development of horticultural plants
depends on its quality, quantity and daily duration. When plants
are grown indoors, artificial lightening is required. The most
readily recognised role of light is in photosynthesis, but it also
has other important functions such as seed germination in some
horticultural species. The responses to light also vary among
plants species. The light factors have three aspects. These are
quality, intensity and duration.
i. Quantity – This refers to the wavelength of light. This
aspect is affected by cloud cover. When there is
continuous cloud cover, the quality of light reduces and
this result in poor fruit colour. The visible light range

18
CRP 304 MODULE 2

between about 390 – 735 nanometer wavelengths and

most of the radiation reaching the earth from the sun falls
within this range.
ii. Intensity – This refers to the quality of light or quanta.
Some plants grow under full sunlight e.g. maize, and
tomato and they are called the sun plants while some
plants like asparagus and chrysanthemum do not do well
under bright light and are called shade loving plants. Some
other plants need shade at certain stages e.g. seedling of
cocoa. Sunlight intensity at midday is about 10,000 foot
candles of this quantity, many plants can effectively utilize
only about 50% of the light for photosynthesis.
iii. Duration – This refers to the number of hours of light
received on the basis of light requirement for flowering.
Plants can be classified into three groups on the basis of
light duration.
a) Longday Plants – These plants flower only under day length
longer than 14 hours e.g. onion, peas, lettuce.
b) Short Day Plants – They flower at day length less than 10 hours
e.g. citrus.
c) Day Neutral Plants – Many tropical crops are day neutral plants
and they flower at day length of 12 hours e.g. tomato, maize.
d) Humidity – The water content of air is called humidity and is
measured in units of relative humidity (RH) by using an
instrument called a psychrometer. Humidity depends on vapour
pressure (concentration of water vapour in the air) and
temperature. Relative humidity decreases when temperature
increases and water vapour remains constant. The amount of
water needed by a plant for normal growth is directly related to
the humidity or water content of the air. Relative humidity is a
very important factor affecting the growth and development of
horticultural plants as it is a products of rainfall and temperature.
Some crops requires high humidity e.g. banana. Other plants
require high humidity at one time and low humidity at another
time e.g. mango requires high humidity for growth but for
flowering, low humidity is necessary. Low humidity is required
for drying crops like maize. High humidity has the disadvantage
of encouraging attach by pests and diseases.

3.1.2 Land

Land is a gift of nature and found in it are the soil, water, minerals etc.
To the Grower, soil is an important requirement without which
production cannot take place. The soil should have a good texture and
deep enough that it poses minimal resistance to root penetration and is
easy to till. Sandy loam is ideal for fruit tree and vegetables production

19
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

since they retain moisture, nutrient and are easy to till and drain freely.
Soil pH of 5.5-6.5 is best for fruits and vegetables.
Elevation (this is the degree of the slope of land) should encourage both
air and water drainage to avoid erosion. Land with gentle slope is best
for fruits and vegetables production.

3.1.3 Labour

This is the physical or mental energy required in any production. For a

small garden, labour is not a problem. However, for a large operation,
labour is needed for fruit harvest and also for various pruning
operations. A commercial orchard should be located where seasonal
labour is readily available and affordable for vegetables farm operations
from weeding to processing require labour which should be readily
available to avoid lost of yield or spoilage of the produce.

3.1.4 Inputs

These are materials that are required for a successful production apart
from those mentioned above. These include the seed or seedling,
fertilisers, herbicide, machines, insecticide etc are used for fruit and
vegetables production. Inputs must be readily available at affordable
cost for a meaningful fruit orchard and vegetables farm to be achieved.
These inputs increase production when properly managed thereby,
reducing cost of production while maximising profit of the grower.

3.1.5 Market

Home gardens are designed primarily for home consumption. However,

plans should be made to handle surplus produce. The surplus can be
preserved by processing it in a variety of ways and offering it to
consumer for income. If larger scale farmer wish to serve the general
public, then markets and marketing strategies should be carefully
considered. Dry fruits can be stored for a long period of time. However,
fresh produce is highly perishable and thus markets must be known
before production.

3.1.6 Finance

Finance is a critical factor in any production as such it is required to buy

inputs and pay for labour and also rent of land. Family labour sometimes
is not enough when large production is involved and hired labour has to
be engaged. In commercial enterprise, lived labour is the source of
labour hence finance is needed to pay for it.

20
 CRP 304 MODULE 2

4.0 CONCLUSION
The success of any enterprise depends on not only the inputs required
but the managerial ability of the operator. Good management of
resources leads to maximization of profit while reducing production
cost. A bad management even, with abundant resources at his disposal,
leads to lost in the business.
5.0 SUMMARY
Fruits orchard and Vegetables farm have same requirement for sitting
since they use the same resources and the requirement include;
- Climatic factors
- Land
- Labour
- Market
- Finance
- Management
6.0 TUTOR- MARK ASSIGNMENT
i. Explain the requirement for siting a fruit orchard.
ii. List the requirement for siting a Vegetables farm.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
George, A. (2004). Horticulture- Principles and Practices. (2nd
ed.). Eastern Economy Limited. Pp 3-720.

Lawrence, K. O. (2005). Tropical Commodity Tree Crops. (2nd ed.).

Spectrum Books Limited.
Pp 1-70.

Edmond, J. B., Senn, T. L., Andrews, F. S. & Halfacre, R. G. (1975).

Fundamentals of
Horticulture. (1st ed.).McGraw-Hill Book
Company. Pp 183-219.

UNIT 2 PRACTICES USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF

HORTICULTURAL CROPS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Practices Used in the Production of Horticultural Crops.
3. 1.1 Land Preparation

21
 CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

3.1. 2 Watering
3.1 .3 Fertiliser application
3.1 .4 Mulching
3.1. 5 Weeding or Weed Management
3.1.6 Pest and Disease Control
3.1.7 Prunning
3.1.8 Staking
3.1.9 Harvesting
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1. 0 INTRODUCTION
Horticultural crops are usually specialised crops because of the way they
are produced and as such they require some specific production
practices such as pruning, staking coupled with the conventional
practices such as land preparation, watering fertiliser application e.t.c.
This unit deals with the conventional and specialised practices carried
out on horticultural crop production.

2. 0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to :-
• explain the practices of horticultural crop production
• differentiate the various practices for vegetable and fruit production
• explain the similarity in production practices of vegetables and fruits
• state the advantages and disadvantages of different production practices.
3 . 0 MAIN CONTENT
3. 1 Practices Used in the Production of Horticultural Crops.
The practices used in the production of horticultural crops vary with the
crops under cultivation. However, the conventional practices of
production such as land preparation, weeding, fertiliser are practiced.
Horticultural crops have specialised practices such prunning, staking,
budding, grafting, and mulching which are carried out on some specific
crops.
The general practices of horticultural crops production from
establishment to post harvest processing include the following:-
3. 1.1 Land Preparation
Land preparation for sowing involves land clearing and tillage. Land
clearing may be done manually (using machete, hoe), mechanically
(using bulldozers!, stumper) or chemically (using non-selective
herbicides in zero or no-tillage system). Bush burning (uncontrolled,
controlled) helps to get rid of fallow or excess debris. Except in
mechanical land clearing, farmers retain the heavier, bigger and more
economically-useful trees such as palms, fruits, exportable timber,

22
 CRP 304 MODULE 2

nitrogen-fixing trees, some of which also help to preserve the soil

environment.

a. Tillage involves the turning of the topsoil either manually (traditionally,

minimum tillage) mechanically (conventional tillage), essentially
targeted at creating a favourable environment for crop establishment.
Primary tillage loosens the soil and mixes in fertiliser and/or plant
material, resulting in soil with a rough Contenture. Secondary tillage
produces finer soil and sometimes shapes the rows. It is done by using
various combinations of equipment such as mouldboard plough, disc
plough, harrow, dibble, hoe, shovel, rotary tillers, subsoiler, ridge- or
bed –forming tillers, and rollers. No-till farming involves the growing of
crops without tillage through the use of herbicides, genetically-modified
(GMO) crops that tolerate packed soil and equipment that can plant
seeds or fumigate the soil without really digging it up. Tillage uses
hoofed animals, animal–drawn wooden plough, steel plough and
tractorised ploughing.

b. Planting/Transplanting
Seeds of many crops can be planted by direct sowing in well-prepared
field plots. Direct seed-sowing is achieved by broadcasting (especially
for small seeds), drilling and planting in holes. In manual planting, seeds
are sown using planting stick or cutlass. Mechanical planters are
available and some of them perform combined operations such as seed
sowing, fertiliser and pesticide application simultaneously. Vegetative
parts are usually manually planted in holes dug in soil with a cutlass and
at reasonable depth, or mechanically. For some crops, seeds require pre-
nursery (e.g. oil palm) or nursery (e.g. tomato) where seeds and
seedlings are hardened for subsequent field establishment. Growth
chambers, nursery bags and seedbeds are also required for germinating
some crops. Transplanting involves carefully moving seedlings (potted,
unpotted ‘nursery transplants’) at appropriate times from the nursery to
the field, during the rainy season or under copious irrigation. Field
planting of crop propagules requires adequate spacing to obtain
optimum yields.

3.1.2 Watering
In transplanted crops, copious watering is required immediately after
transplanting for initial seedling establishment on the field. Irrigation,
through controlled application of water over a crop field, is required for
dry season planting and production of crops. Proper irrigation leads to
increased yields from more plants and higher yields from healthier
plants. Over irrigation should be avoided. Poor drainage usually which
causes water logging resulting in poor crop establishment, growth and
salting of farmland should be avoided. The type of irrigation to be
adopted depends on the water source, method of water removal and

23
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

transportation of water. Techniques of watering include manual system

using buckets (bucket irrigation), sub-irrigation (seepage irrigation),
lateral move (side roll, wheel line) irrigation, centre-point irrigation,
sprinkler (overhead) irrigation, drip/trickle irrigation, localised
irrigation, surface irrigation and in ground irrigation.

3. 1. 3 Fertiliser Application
Fertilisers are chemical (inorganic) or organic materials containing plant
nutrients, which are added to the soil to supplement its natural fertility or
replenish lost fertility. There are many types of fertilisers, namely
nitrogen fertilisers (primarily supply nitrogen; ammonium sulphate
(AMS), calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN), urea), phosphorus fertilisers
(primarily supply phosphorus; single superphosphate (SSP), triple
superphosphate (TSP), basic slag, natural rock phosphate), potassium
fertilisers (primarily supply potassium, potassium chloride (KCl),
potassium sulphate, (K2SO4)potassium-magnesium phosphate, (K2SO4-
MgSO4), and mixed fertilisers (e.g. NPK 15-15-15, NPK 20-10-10, NPK
23-13-13, mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP), di-ammonium
phosphate (DAP), potassium nitrate (KNO3). Fertilisers may be applied
by broadcasting, row placement by banding and ringing, or topdressing
by either method. Micronutrients are also applied as foliar sprays to
target crops. Organic fertilisation involves manuring (especially the
ageing farm), green manuring (through ploughing of non woody fresh
plants) and composting (use of compost consisting of crop residues,
straw, manure, kitchen wastes, etc.). Also liming is done which involves
the application of lime, steel slag or other materials to the soil to
increase its pH level and subsequently, improve conditions for the
growth of both crops and micro-organisms. Natural sources of lime are
coral, marl, wood ash and steel slag. Artificial sources are lime, (CaCO3)
and CaO (unslaked lime). In a closed irrigation system, artificial
fertilisers and pesticides are applied through “fertigation” (application of
water and fertiliser at the same time).

3 .1 .4 Mulching
This involves the covering of the ground in a crop field with organic
(dead, living) or inorganic materials (stones), especially to protect the
soil from degradation and ensure sustainable agriculture. Organic mulch
materials include crop residues, straw, leaf-litter, prunings’, weed free
compost and black soil. Inorganic mulch materials such as paper,
biodegradables, stones and plastic films are particularly desirable for
physical weed control in high premium Vegetables and greenhouse
crops.

3 .1. 5 Weeding or Weed Management

24
 CRP 304 MODULE 2

This involves all aspects of weed control, including prevention of spread

and land use practices and modification in the crop’s habitat that
interfere with the ability of the weeds to adapt to the crop’s
environment. The three methods of weed management approaches are:

i. Preventive Approach- This involves preventing the incidence of weed

infestation through plant quarantine, animal quarantine, fallow
management, farm sanitation, rogging isolated stands, preventing weed
seeding, re-seeding and propagule regrowth and weed contamination of
crop prop gules. Other measures are choice of variety and field, planting
rather than sowing, crop sequence, accurate sowing and planting, using
certified weed-free plants, seeds, growth media and soil amendments.

ii. Eradication Approach- This involves the complete removal of a weed

species from infested land. It is achievable in non agronomic situation
but undesirable in agro-ecosystems. The reasons for this are that it is too
costly, it disturbs natural ecosystem functioning and the activity of
bioagents may lead to crop failure.

iii. Control Approach- This involves the suppression of weeds populations

to a tolerable level that renders the cropping situation economically safe
for agricultural production. It is the most important and environment-
friendly approach to weed management in agro-ecosystems. The
different methods of control approach are cultural, mechanical, chemical
and biological control.
a. Cultural weed control involves any practice adopted by the farmer in
his crop production effort not directly aimed at weed control. The
practices help to minimise the number of weeds in the crop, suppress
competition by surviving weeds and reduce weed seed production,
thereby making the crop more competitive with weeds. The practices
includes shifting cultivation, land preparation (stale seedbed), clean crop
propagules, crop rotation, mixed cropping and mulching or soil cover
with plant residues or plastic mulch. It is very efficient in controlling
weeds in subsistence (peasant) agriculture.
b. Mechanical weed control involves any procedure governing direct
physical removal or suppression of weeds on agricultural lands. These
include hand weeding, hand hoeing, slashing, mowing,
cultivation/tillage, flooding, burning (flaming) and smothering with non-
living (in situ) mulch.
c. Chemical weed control involves the use of chemicals (herbicides) at
toxic concentrations to kill or suppress (interrupt normal growth and
development) of weed growth.
Herbicides may be inorganic (early types) or organic (most herbicides)
compounds, which may be primarily selective (benzoic acids,
carbamates) or non-selective (bipyridylium salts, glyphosate). They can
also be applied pre-plant, pre-emergence, post-emergence or

25
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

postmaturity to the crop. Herbicides are of diverse formulations,

including solutions, emulsifiable concentrates, wettable powders,
flowables, granules, liquids, pellets suspensions, dust, paste, micro-
encapsulation and micro-granules. A major limitation of chemical weed
control is the insufficient specification of chemicals under the mixed
farming systems of the humid tropics. The National Advisory
Committee on Weed Control (NACWC) has published “Weed Control
Recommendations for Nigeria”, Series 3, under the sponsorship of the
Department of Agriculture, Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Nigeria.
d. Biological weed control is the use of natural enemies (bioagents) of
weeds in weed control. The organisms may be predators (fish, insects,
snails), parasites (nematodes, plants) and pathogens (fungi, bacteria,
viruses). Other methods are live mulching, preferential grasing, cover
cropping of food and non-food species, allelopathy, crop manipulation
and myco-herbicides (plant pathogens). However, biocontrol enhances
shifts in weed species composition and possible allelopathic interaction.

iv. Integrated Weed Management- This is a weed management method

that economically combines two or more weed management systems at
low inputs to obtain a level of weed suppression superior to that
ordinarily achieved with one weed management system. It ensures that
weed interference is kept below threshold economic levels, thus
preventing economic loss to the farmer. It is aimed at efficient and
economic use of resources with minimum hazard to the environment and
ultimately, sustained crop production.

3 .1.6 Pest and Disease Control

Pests and pathogens are among the most serious factors limiting
economically-efficient crop production and utilization of natural
resources in both tropical and temperate agriculture. Pests, which cause
damage to crops, consist of both arthropods (winged and wingless
insects, mites, millipedes) and non-arthropods (slugs, snails, nematodes/
eelworms, birds, mammals). Micro-organisms such as viruses, bacteria,
fungi and mycoplasma cause crop diseases, such as anthracnose, leaf
spots, mosaic virus disease, bacteria wilt, blast and stem and root rot.
Approaches to pest and disease control are many and varied, but they are
broadly based on the principles of prevention, control/curative and
eradication in special situations. The methods include physical, cultural,
biological, chemical and legislative measures. These include the use of
resistant crop varieties (less effective than in disease control), cultural
methods (crop rotation, burning, soil cultivations, soil drainage, crop
sowing time, removal of alternative weed hosts and crop residues and
plant quarantine), chemical methods (pesticides) and prophylactic
measures for pest control.

26
CRP 304 MODULE 2

In disease control, resistant cultivars of crops have been successfully

bred for multiple resistances to diseases, crop rotation (most common),
weed control, soil drainage, type of soil cultivation, low nitrogen
fertilisation, choice of sowing date and destruction of inoculums
sources. Legislative measures include seed certification schemes and
preventing the movement of diseased plants within a country.
In pest control, a large number of pesticides is available for the control
of soil-borne diseases by the use of sterilants, protectant fungicides,
systemic fungicides and air-borne diseases by use of foliar protectant
fungicides e.g. maneb; foliar eradicants; foliar systemic fungicides,
benomyl. Generally, insecticides and fungicides are most commonly
applied to crops during the post-planting period.

3. 1. 7 Prunning
This is the practice of cutting or removing unwanted or diseased branch
of shrubs, hedges, trees to maintain regular shape for the plant and/or
prevent disease from spreading to other parts of the plant. Pruning is
sometimes done with a view to regenerate old trees. Unskillful pruning
may lead to unnecessary injuries to trees with consequent reduction in
yield. Light pruning is recommended although; the frequency of
pruning depends on the rate of growth of trees. Unwanted vegetative
parts (lateral suckers, chupons, branches) should be removed as close as
possible to the stem from which they emerge preferably at an early
stage, to save the trees from wasting their phosynthates on unwanted
growth. A light weight cutlass or pruning saw is the most suitable tool
for most pruning operations. A sharp knife or secateur should be used
for removing chupons, lateral suckers, young flushes and branches. A
heavy bow saw is recommended for removing big branches and stems.
Pruned surface should be painted with ordinary paints or any sealing
compound.
3 .1. 8 Staking
This is the process of providing support for plant stems or vines. It is
commonly practiced in tomato and yam production. In yam, staking
enhances crop leaf exposure to full sunlight for optimum growth and
yield. In tomato, staking prevents lodging and fruit rot by infection by
soil pathogens.

3. 1 .9 Harvesting
This is the practice of removing crop produce e.g fruits, seeds, flowers
etc when they are ripe for marketing or processing. Harvesting is one of
the important operations that decide the quality as well as the storage
life of produce and helps in preventing huge losses of fruits and
Vegetables. The difficulty or ease of harvesting operation and how it is
done depends on factors such as the, the part of economic importance,
the growth habit (annual or perennial), the market needs or uses, the
maturity pattern and others. Peppers are harvested differently from

27
 CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

apples. Potatoes are dug up while oranges are picked. The same crops
may be harvested in two different ways for two different target markets
e.g mangoes for near market are harvested when fully ripe while for
distant market, they are harvested when they are ripe but still green.
Some cultivars of crops are determinate in growth habit and therefore
exhibit even maturity and ripening. In other cultivars and certain
species, the product (indeterminate) matures at different times and hence
requires multiple rounds of harvesting.
3.1.9 Methods of Harvesting
Different kinds of fruits and Vegetables require different methods for
harvesting their produces. The methods of harvesting are;
a. Manual or hand harvesting
This is the use of hand to uproot, cut and pick or pluck crop produce.
This is done when the produce can be reached with the hand and it is
more economical and easy.
b. Mechanical harvesting
This is the use of machines and tools to harvest crop produce. This is
done when crop produce cannot be reached with the hand and it is more
economical for the crop. Usually, mechanical harvesting is done in
commercial farms. Combine harvester machine is the common machine
used for this purpose. Mechanized harvesting is generally
indiscriminate (good and bad fruits are picked) and it is capital
intensive. However, it saves time and large area can be covered within a
short time. Mechanized harvesting is adapted to crops that mature
uniformly.

3.1.10 Post – Harvest Cultural Practices

These are activities carried out after harvesting till disposal. Major
activities include: Preservation, Processing; Storage and Marketing.
Affiliated activities include: Transportation and Handling.
Processing:
This is the process of value addition of farm produce to the form that is
most acceptable to the consumer. It can be partial or total. Most leafy
vegetables are only partially processed for preservation. They can be
trimmed, washed, sliced and then dehydrated for preservation.
e.g.Amaranthus, Celosia. Some fruit vegetables can also be sliced and
dried for preservation. e g. Pepper, Onion. Some leafy vegetables can be
blanched in hot water. Fruits may be totally processed into paste or
slurry in the factories for canning. Vegetable seeds can be threshed,
winnowed and dried for preservation.
Storage:
Vegetables, in the fresh state are not usually stored for a long period.
Storage/Preservation is usually done to keep vegetables for only a short
period. Vegetables are usually highly perishable in nature, and so, do not
store for a long time. Short-term storage can be done, using clay pots or
padded materials. Storage should be done under cool, humid conditions.

28
CRP 304 MODULE 2

Refridgeration can be used for some vegetables. Freeze – storage is

usually not appropriate.
Marketing:
This is the movement of the vegetable from the farm gate to an
accessible area for the consumers. The vegetables should still retain their
good nature. The means of transportation to achieve the goal should be
considered. The time of arrival at the market should also be considered.
The quantity and the quality demanded by the consumers should be
considered. Appropriate packaging material and method should be used.

4 .0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt that crops have similar cultural practices
used in their production. However, horticultural crops require some
specialised cultural practices that make them special crop. All a farmer
needs is to adopt and adhere strictly to the cultural practices that are
peculiar to a specific crop to obtain maximum yield from the crop.
5 . 0 SUMMARY
You have learnt that cultural practices are all the preparations and cure
given to plants before, during growth and harvesting of the plant. This
starts from land preparation which includes clearing, tillage and
planting/transplanting; watering; fertiliser application; mulching;
weeding; pest and disease control to harvesting of the crop. These
practices should be carried out carefully and at recommended number of
times or at appropriate time to achieve a meaningful crop yield.
6. 0 TUTOR -MARKED ASSIGNMENT(TMA)
i-List five (5) practices that are carried out on horticultural crops
ii-Discuss five (5) conventional practices that are both carried out
on horticultural crops
iii-Explain the two (2) methods of harvesting crops
7 . 0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Doohan, D.J., Carchia, J. & Kleinhenz, M.D. (2000). Cultural Practices
in Vegetables
Crop Weed Management Programs. Bulletin 888-00.
online.ag.ohio-State.Edu

Harper, F. (1983). Principles of Arable Crop Production. U.K:

Blackwell Science Ltd.

Akobundu, I.O. (1987). Weed Science in the Tropics. Principles and

Practice. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

NACWC (1994). Weed Control Recommendations for Nigeria.

Ibadan: Series No. 3. Department of Agriculture, Federal Ministry of
Agriculture, Nigeria. Ibadan, Nigeria
Africa-Link Books.

29
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

UNIT 3 POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY AND HANDLING

OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Post Harvest Technology
3.2 Handling
3.2.1 Washing
3.2.2 Sorting and Grading
3.3 Storing Unprocessed Products
3.3.1 Low Temperature Method
3.3.2 Low Moisture Method
3.4 Fumigation
3.5 Preservation of Horticultural Produce
3.5.1 Freezing
3.5.2 Canning
3.5.3 Fermentation
3.5.4 Processing with Sugar
3.6 Marketing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment(Tma)
7.0 References/Further Reading

1 . 0 INTRODUCTION
Horticultural crops are cultivated for their produces which are harvested
at the end of a production period. The produce harvested are either
marketed for immediate and industrial utilization or stored for future
used. What happens to harvested produce of any crop before they are
taken by consumer is known as post harvest technology or operation. In
this unit, you shall be studying post harvest technology and handling of
horticultural crops to marketing of their produce.
2. 0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:-
explain the post harvest operation of horticultural crops

30
 CRP 304 MODULE 2

list the post harvest operation of horticultural crops

state the importance of post harvest operation
explain the storage of unprocessed horticultural produce
explain the methods of preservation of horticultural crops
list the processes of handling horticultural crops.
3 . 0 MAIN TEXT
3. 1 Post Harvest Technology
Postharvest technology involves all treatments or processes that occur
from time of harvesting until the crop produce finally reaches the
consumer. Efficient techniques for harvesting, transportation, handling,
storage, processing, packaging, marketing are components of
postharvest chain and all this activities are aimed at adding value to the
produce and reduce losses. Harvesting is normally included as
components of postharvest because the way produces are harvested have
a large bearing on the postharvest life of the crop produce. Postharvest
treatment largely determines quality, whether a crop is sold for fresh
consumption or used as an ingredient in a processed food product. The
most important goals of postharvest technology are keeping the product
cool, to avoid moisture loss and slow down undesirable chemical
changes, and avoid physical damage such as bruising and to delay
spoilage.
3.2 Handling
This is the practice that is carried out on immediately harvested crop
produce before they get to the consumer. Before horticultural crop
produce reaches the table or consumer, it undergoes a number of
postharvest handling processes which depend on the crop type and the
form it will be presented. Handling includes the following.
i. Washing
This is the cleaning/washing of crop produce from soil and dirt particles
before packaging or marketing it to consumers. Vegetables are
generally not washed before packaging or marketing. They are usually
managed such a way that they are clean while growing through close
spacing or mulching in the field. However light shaking and sticking
with hand is done to remove the particles that stick on the Vegetables.
Fruits such as apples may be washed before packaging or marketing.
Root Vegetables such as carrot are generally washed to remove the soil
before marketing. Onions and other bulbs are not washed but are cured
(dried) under the sun to increase their shelf life. Because horticultural
products from above-ground plant part are not washed before packaging,
the consumer should routinely wash the produce before use.
ii. Sorting and Grading
After harvesting, the produce are hand sorted or separated into different
categories (ripe, unripe and discards). Sorting and grading are two
postharvest operations designed to group products into quality classes
for pricing and use. Hand harvesting allows only a certain quality of
products to be picked, and hence sorting and grading may be done in

31
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

one operation in the field for certain crops. Some products are sorted
and graded and are packed as they are picked and transported directly
from the field to the intended market or consumers. During the process
of sorting, defective and immature products are eliminated and so also
diseased products. However, cracked or broken products and those with
blemishes are removed but not always discarded. They are placed in a
lower quality category or grade and sold at a lower price. The good
product or premium quality grade are solid with higher price. Each crop
has its own quality standards that are used for sorting and grading.
Fruits are frequently graded on the basis of size.
3.3 Storing Unprocessed Produce
This is the act of preserving harvested products to extend their shelf life
for future use. Horticultural crops are mostly perishable and they have
to be stored properly to avoid postharvest losses. The storage conditions
(especially temperature, humidity and light) and the kind of crop affect
the duration of storage the crop can withstand before deteriorating. The
general goals for storage are to slow the rate of respiration occurring in
living tissues and to conserve moisture in the tissue to prevent
dehydration. These goals are accomplished by providing the appropriate
temperature (usually cold or cool), maintaining good levels of oxygen
and carbon dioxide and controlling humidity. As a general rule, cool
season crops are stored at low temperature ranging between 0-10oC
while warm season crops are stored at warmer temperature (10 -12oC).
Fruits and Vegetables should be stored at higher relative humidity to
retain their succulence and general quality. Lettuce and spinach require
90-95% relative humidity while garlic and dry onion require 70-75%
relative humidity. Light may cause produce such as potato tuber to be
green and as such require darkness or aim light in the storage areas.
There are generally two methods of storing unprocessed products. They
are low temperature method and low moisture method.
3.3.1 Low Temperature Method
Temperature is known to affect the rate of respiration which may
produce heat and cause rotting in products. Low temperature slows
down all biological and enzymatic reactions of stored produce.
Temperate or cool-season crops generally tolerate lower temperature
than tropical crops, which are readily injured by cold. The mechanism
for cooling is by refrigerating using the refrigerator. Refrigerated trucks
and containers are used to transport fresh horticultural produce over long
distances without spoilage. The temperature required for this type of
storage range between 0 -10oC.
3.3.2 Low-Moisture Method
Many crops including grape, date, apples may be preserved for long
periods by drying. Solar dehydration (use of sun for drying) is a
relatively inexpensive method for drying in areas where the sun shines
for a long period. The products are spread in appropriate container and
exposed to dry and warm air. For more rapid dehydration of large

32
CRP 304 MODULE 2

quantities of produce, the forced hot air method, which involves air
heated to 60-70oC is used. The moisture content of produce to be stored
using this method should be as low as 8-12% depending on the type of
crop and its nature.
3.4 Fumigation
Storage of dry grains and fruits, such as grapes and citrus, require
fumigation to rid the environment of rodents, insect pests, and decay-
causing organisms. One of the widely used fumigants is methyl
bromide, which are effects in storage houses. Sulfur dioxide is used to
protect grapes from decay.
3.5 Preservation of Horticultural Produce
3.5.1 Freezing
One of the quickest and most commonly used methods of crop produce
preservation is quick freezing, whereby a fresh produce is kept in a
freezer. The main disadvantage of this method is the damage it causes to
the physical or structural integrity of some products. For example,
frozen tomato does not remain firm after thawing but assumes a soft
Contexture; consequently, use of the product may be limited by
freezing. For best results, freezing should be done rapidly. Slow freezing
causes’ larger ice crystals to form in the cells of the tissue and ruptures
them. These large reservoirs of water in fractured cells give frozen
produce a soft Contexture upon thawing. Rapid freezing results in tiny
crystals that do not rupture cell. Quick freezing temperatures are around
29-40oC. Stored produce may lose some colour, flavour, and nutrients.
To protect against dehydration, produce to be frozen must be packaged
(e.g. in plastic wrap). Failure to do so will lead to freezer burn, resulting
from sublimation of water to ice, with adverse consequences such as
deterioration of flavour, colour, and Contexture.
3.5.2 Canning
Canning is another method used in preservation after placing the
produce in air-tight or hermetically sealed containers; they are sterilised
in a pressure cooker. Instead of using water, brine (a salt solution) may
be used to preserve vegetables such as onion, beet, and pepper. The
intense heat used in sterilisation changes some quality traits such as
colour, Contenture, and flavour, as well as nutritional value. Low acid
produce (pH 4.5 to 7:0) such as Vegetables requires very high
temperatures for sterilisation to kill the bacteria that cause food
poisoning (Clostridium botulinum). Canned products can stay in good
condition for several years. However, because heat treatment does not
kill all bacteria, spoilage sets in after some time in storage. The salt in
canning corrodes the can and reduces the shelf life. Also, humidity and
high temperatures accelerate spoilage.
3.5.3 Fermentation
Fermentation involves bacteria that decompose carbohydrates anaerobic
ally. Some of the producers of fermentation prevent the growth of
bacteria. The produce differs according to the organism, conditions and

33
 CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

duration of the process. Fermentation may produce alcohol and lactic

acid, products that affect the flavour of fermented foods. Alcohol may
further ferment to produce vinegar. Certain fruit juices are deliberately
fermented to produce alcoholic beverages (e.g. grape juice becomes
wine). A special fermentation process involving the use of salt is called
pickling. Vegetables that are pickled include cucumber, onion,
cauliflower and tomato; pickled cabbage is called sauerkraut. Instead of
using bacteria in packing, pickles may be produced by placing product
directly in citric acid or vinegar.
3.5.4 Processing with Sugar
High concentration of sugar may be used to preserve certain fruits
products. The sugar increases the osmotic pressure to a degree that
prohibits microbial activity and thereby reduces spoilage opportunities.
Different fruit products may be preserved in this way. When fruit juice
is used, the products are called jelly. Jam involves concentrated fruit
while marmalade is sugar processed citrus fruit and rind. When whole
fruits are used, the product is called a preserve.

3.6 Marketing
Marketing in the simplest form entails the supply of satisfactory
products by a producer to a consumer at a price acceptable to both. In
more advanced market economies (and even in less advanced ones)
where division of labour occurs, a host of service providers (called
middlemen) operate between the producer and the consumer. The
service provider include packaging, storage, transportation, financing,
and distribution sometimes the fresh product changes in nature between
the farm gate and the consumer’s door, as is the case when middlemen
add value to the product by processing it into other secondary products.
In spite of the activities of middlemen some growers deal directly with
consumers.
The characteristics of a horticultural enterprise are:
1. Horticultural products are highly perishable; they lose quality rapidly.
2. Many horticultural products are bulky to transport.
3. Prices for horticultural products are not stable.
4. Some storage may be required in a production enterprise.
5. It is important to identify a market before producing horticultural
products.
6. Seasonality of the products.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the explanations in this unit, you have learnt that for consumer to
get value for their money and producer to get income they deserve, it is
the duty of the farmer to present his product in a form the consumer will
appreciate and buy and so he needs knowledge of post harvest
technology. The farmer or any other processor involved in the marketing

34
CRP 304 MODULE 2

chain carry out the task of one or many post harvest technology to add
value to the crop before they are finally consumed by the consumer.
5.0 SUMMARY
You will note that postharvest technology involves all treatments or
processes that occur from time of harvesting until the crop produce
finally reaches the consumer. Post harvest technology start with the
harvesting of the crop which determines the success of the post harvest
technology practices and add value to the crop or product before it
reaches the final consumer. The aim of post harvest technology is to
present crop products at a form that the consumer will appreciate at all
times. Post harvest technology involves handling after harvest, storage,
processing, preservation and finally marketing of the produce or
product.

6.0 TUTOR -MARKED ASSIGNMENT(TMA)

i-Explain the storage techniques of horticultural crops
ii-List the different forms of preservation of horticultural crops
iii-State the characteristics of horticultural crops
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
George, A. (2004). Horticulture- Principles and Practices. (2nd
ed.). Eastern
Economy Limited. Pp 3-720.

35
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

UNIT 4 PESTS AND DISEASES OF VEGETABLES AND

FRUITS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions and Classification of Pests
3.1.1 Classification of Pests on the Basis of Economic
Threshold
3.2 Description of the Important Pest of Crops
3.3 Effects of Pests on Crop Plants
3.4 Insect Pest Control
3.5 Plant Diseases
3.5.1 Symptoms of Plant Diseases
3.5.2 Causes of Plant Diseases
3.5.3 Measures of Controlling Plant Diseases
3.5.4 Principles of Plant Disease Control
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

It is estimated that world crop losses due to pests are of the order of
about 35 per cent of potential yield, but in most tropical countries of
Africa and Asia, the field and store losses are of a higher magnitude and
may be as high as 50 per cent in some cases. Fao estimates showed, for
example, that nearly 100 million metric tons of cereals grains are
destroyed by pests each year. Diseases are estimated to caused about 10
per cent loss of the annual agricultural production in the U.S.A and
about 20- 30 per cent in the developing countries. Therefore, it is now
widely recognised that the reduction of losses due to pests and diseases
is an important element in increasing the efficiency of crop production.
Definition of pest and diseases, description of disease causing
organisms, symptoms of plant diseases and control and preventive
measures are extensively discussed in this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define and classify pests according to feeding pattern and economic
threshold of destruction
• state the effects of pest on crop production
• analyse and prescribe the best practices of pest control
• analyse the symptoms of plant diseases and identify the kind of
diseases that may be affecting a particular crop based on the symptoms

36
CRP 304 MODULE 2

• prescribe the methods of controlling plant diseases.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition and Classification of Pests

Pest is any animal or plant which harms or causes damage to man, his
animals, crops, or possessions. On agricultural basis, a pest is that which
causes a loss in yield or quality of the crops resulting in loss of profits
by the farmer. When a loss in yield reaches certain proportions, then, the
pest can be defined as an economic pest. Economic threshold is defined
as the population density at which control measures should be started to
prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the economic injury
level.

3.1.1 Classification of Pests on the Basis of Economic Threshold

i. The Regular Pests
These are pests which perennially damage crops and whose population
levels rarely fall below the economic threshold. Examples of these are
Maruca testulalis on cowpea, Dysdercus spp. and red boll-worm on
cotton, sorghum midge and Quelea birds in most parts of the grain
producing Guinea and Sudan savanna of tropical Africa.
ii. The occasional pests
These are pests whose populations levels are normally below the
economic threshold but occasionally rise above it. Examples of these
include locusts that periodically ravage cereal crops and grasses in Sub-
Saharan Africa, the stem borers and armyworms of cereals in western
and eastern Africa, the variegated grasshopper, Zonocerus variegates, in
West Africa, and many species of snails and lepidopterous larvae
attacking deciduous forest trees, and arable and plantation crops.

iii. The potential pests

Those pest whose population levels are usually considered to be far
below the economic threshold but which can become highly injurious
under changed cultural conditions or as introduced pest. Examples of
these include many species of grasshoppers and caterpillars in western
and central Africa

3.2 Description of the Important Pests of Crops

The arthropods which comprise the insects, mites, millipedes and
woodlice constitute the most dominant group, other organisms include:
nematodes, rodents, birds and mollusks.
1. Insects

37
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

Insects belong to a group of organism known as arthropods. Insect pests

are grouped into three basic classes according to feeding patterns,
namely:
- Biting and chewing.
- Sucking.
- Boring insects.

i. Biting and Chewing Insects

These are insects which have biting mouth parts consisting of a pair of
toothed horny jaws (mandibles) and a pair of accessory jaws. They tear
and bite plant parts in their larval or adult stages. As a result, most of the
leaves on the plant are eaten up. The grasshopper or locus, chewing
beetle, the larvae of many butterflies and moths, the caterpillars are all
examples of chewing insects.

Variegated grasshopper, Zonocerus variegates

Ii. Sucking Insects

These insects are made up of a long, powerful, piercing proboscis with
which they suck the liquid cell contents from leaves, stems or fruits.
Sucking of the liquid cell content has weakening effect on plants but the
ability to transmit plant diseases such as viruses is the most serious
effect which sucking insects have on crops.
The commonest types of sucking insects are those which have proboscis
both at the immature and mature stages of growth. These insects feed on
the stems and young fruits of many crops and may also introduce
poisonous toxins into the crop tissues. Capsids and aphids are typical
example of this group of insects that attack both young and old shoots
and pods of cocoa. The cotton stainer is a troublesome sucking insect
pest of cotton. It feeds on the young pods, and reduces the commercial
value of cotton by staining the lint.
Other types of sucking insects include; scale insects, mealy bugs and
aphid. Scale insects have shell that protects them during adverse weather
condition and from predators. Fruit piecing moths are sucking insects
which feed mainly on citrus fruits.

38
CRP 304 MODULE 2

Citrus mealy bug

Iii. Boring Insects
These have mouth parts which are adapted to digging holes through
plant and material. The cowpea weevil which infests cowpea is a good
example of boring insect.

Bean or cowpea weevil

2. Nematodes
These are small organisms which are normally referred to as eelworms.
Nematodes can cause a considerable damage to crops such as yams,
cowpea and many Vegetables. A disease known as root-knot disease of
cowpea, for example, causes the formation of irregular nodules on the
roots and dwarfing of the mature plant.
3. Rodents
These are mammals with teeth which are well adapted to gnaw or grind
hard substances. They include mice, squirrels, porcupines, rats and grass
cutters. These animals may damage fruits and vegetables and are
particularly very injurious to young seedlings of oil palm, rice, sugar
cane, and the tubers of root crops such as cassava. The larger rodents
such as squirrels and grass cutters can be trapped, and wire netting
fences may be erected to protect crops from damage. Small rodents can

39
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

be prevented from destroying young seedling of palm trees by placing

collars of small-mesh wire netting around the base of the trunk.

Rodent (rat)
4. Birds
Birds of various types may do considerable damage to grain crop farms
by eating both developing and dry grains. Quelea quelea birds are by far
the most populous and destructive birds in Africa. They invade crops
like locust and cause heavy damage. Attacking the birds at their nesting
and resting sites provides the most effective method of control. Toxic
chemicals sprayed at dusk, has been found to be cheap and effective.
5. Mollusks
Garden snails and slugs may damage leaves of many kinds of
Vegetables.

3.3 Effects of Pests on Crop Plants

A. Direct Effect of Insect Feeding
i. Leaves eaten, with subsequent reduction in assimilative tissue and
hindrance of growth. Examples are grasshoppers, caterpillars, sawfly
larvae, leaf-cutting ants, leaf beetle and some weevil.
ii. Leaves rolled and webbed, and eaten. Examples are larvae of
skippers, and all Lepidoptera.

iii. Leaves mined with either tunnel or blotch mines, e.g. spinach
leaf miner

iv. Buds eaten, destroying either the growing point of young flowers and
fruit, e.g Budworms (caterpillars) of rose and Grape Flea Beetle

v. Flowers and young fruit eaten, as by pollen beetle, blister

beetles.

vi. Fruits and seeds eaten or bored and destroyed, as by sorghum midge
larvae, pea pod borers, maize weevil, coffee berry borer and various
fruit flies.

40
CRP 304 MODULE 2

vii. Fruits bored and caused to fall prematurely for example mango fruit
fly, and coffee fruit fly.

viii. Stems of both woody and herbaceous plants bored, with subsequent
death of the distal part of the stem, for example Earias spp in cotton
stem.

ix. Stems of seedlings bored, producing a dead-heart, for example

Athergona spp. larvae in cereal seedlings, and Chilo spp. larvae in
cereals.

x. Stem of woody plants ring-barked, as done by Anthores spp.

on coffee.

xi. Roots eaten, causing a loss of water and nutrient absorbing tissue, for
example chafer grubs and some weevil larvae.

xii. Tubers and corms bored, leading to a reduction of stored food

material, and impairing both storage properties and next season’s
growth; examples are Cylas spp. weevils in sweet potato tubers, yam
beetles and potato tuber moth larvae.

b. Damage by insects with piercing and chewing mouthparts and

mites
i. Loss of plant vigour due to removal of excessive amounts of sap,
resulting in extreme cases in wilting, followed by stunting of growth; for
example most aphid species, and whiteflies on a range of crop plants.

ii. Cause leaf-curling and deformation, as shown by aphids, thrips,

mealybugs, white/black flies and jassids.

iii. Cause premature leaf-fall, as do many diaspidid scales.

iv. Cause leaf and fruit scarification by rupturing epidermal cells and
removing sap; as by spider mites and many thrips.

v. Toxic saliva injected by feeding bugs causes premature fruit-fall in

coconut and abortion of young cotton bolls etc.

vi. Provides physical entry points for pathogenic fungi and

bacteria.

C. Indirect Effect of Insects on Crops

i. Insects can make the crop more difficult to cultivate/ harvest.

ii. They may distort the plant as do Earias spp. larvae on cotton.

41
 CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

iii. They may delay crop maturity, as do the bollworms in cotton, which
makes the plant to develop a spreading habit thus making weeding and
spraying difficult.

iv. Grain in cereal crops may become dwarfed or distorted.

v. Insect infestation results in contamination and loss of quality in the

crop. The loss of quality may be in nutritional value or in marketability.
d. Transmission of Disease Organisms
i. Cassava mosaic, tobacco mosaic and banana bunchy top are typical
examples of crop diseases that are transmitted by insect vector.

ii Mechanical or passive transmission takes place through lesions in the

cuticle caused by feeding. The pathogen, usually a fungus or bacterium,
may be carried on the proboscis of the bug or on the body of a tunneling
insect.
SELF -ASSIGNMENT EXERCISE
i. Define pest
ii. State 5 direct effects of pest
iii. State 3 important pest of Vegetables crops

3.4 Insect Pest Control

The control of the various insect pests affecting crop plants is a major
problem for crop production. Insect pests may be controlled by means of
various cultural practices, the use of chemicals known as insecticides
and, biological methods of insect control.
1. Cultural methods of insect control
i. Hand Picking: For example, fully grown adult grasshoppers and
caterpillars of some insects may be partially controlled by hand picking.
ii. Crop Rotation: Since insects are generally selective in the choice of
crops they attack a rotation of crops which can result in a reduction of
insect number when new crops are planted.
iii. Tillage Practices: Ploughing and harrowing normally reduce the
population of soil pest by exposing them to sunlight and desiccation, and
to predators and parasites.
iv. Weed Control: some weeds act as host to insect pest, timely control
of weeds would deprive them of their host.
v. Adjusting Time of Planting to Avoid Period when Insect’s Population
is at its Peak. For example sorghum midges can be effectively controlled
by planting early so that flowering is complete before the adult midge
population reaches damaging levels.
vi. Resistant Varieties: Pest may also be controlled by planting pests
resistant varieties. New varieties, resistant to an increasing number of
insect pests have been produced in recent years by the research institute.

42
CRP 304 MODULE 2

vii. Timely Harvesting: Prompt harvesting is known to help protect

maize and beans from damage by maize weevil and bean bruchid.
viii. Observance of a Closed Season: Some pest cannot survive in the
absence of a specific host plant. Observing a closed season for the
cultivation of this plant provides effective control. A good example is
the pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), provided no cotton is
grown during the closed season, this pest is deprived of a carry-over site
for the next season, with the result that its population is kept below the
level at which it causes serious economic loss.
ix. Trap Cropping: A trap crop is used to divert the pest from the main
crop. The pest usually prefers it to the main crop for feeding or egg
laying. The trap crops are grown in strips at appropriate intervals within
the field. The pest population concentrates on the trap crop, while the
main crop suffers little damage.

x. Optimum Plant Density: The biology of both pest and their natural
enemies can be affected by plant density. For example, bean fly
infestation in kidney bean is less severe in densely planted crops than in
thinly planted ones. Similarly, populations of aphid (Aphid craccivora)
are lower and the spread of rosette virus, of which this insect is a vector,
is less rapid on more densely sown fields of groundnut.
xi. Crop Sanitation: Clearing crop fields after harvest and burning crop
residues to destroy over wintering pest populations are important
cultural practices.
xii. Cropping patterns: for example, intercropping controls the spread of
pest.

2. Chemical Method of Insect Pest Control

The most effective method of controlling insect pest is by spraying or
dusting crops with insecticides. The choice of insecticide will depend on
the feeding habits of any particular insect. Biting and chewing insects
are usually controlled by the use of stomach poisons. Example of
stomach poisons are lead arsenate and Paris green while contact poisons
are sprayed to kill the insect upon contact. Examples of contact poison
include Gammexane, Lindane, nicotine sulphate, Gammalin 20,
Didimac 25, etc. Insect pest of stored products are generally controlled
by fumigants (insecticides which kill by poisonous vapours or fumes).
Fumigants may either be gaseous, liquid, or powder forms. Examples
are carbon disulphide, hydrogen cyanide (gas) sulphur and methyl
bromide.

3. Biological Method of Pest Control

Biological control refers to the use of living organisms for the control of
pests. The use of predators which feed on harmful insects and reduce
their number to a minimum is recommended if there will be no adverse
effect. Broadly speaking, biological control also includes the use of

43
 CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoan, and nematodes.

Biological control using parasites and predators has been effectively
utilised in the control of Kenya mealbug (Planococus kenyae) by
Anagyrus spp.

3.5 Plant Diseases

Plant diseases can be defined in the broadest sense as conditions of the
plant involving abnormalities of growth or structure. It is this departure
from the normal healthy condition, resulting in the appearance of disease
symptoms, which enables diseases to be recognised. The most important
effect of plant diseases for the farmer is the reduction in crop yield or
quality which usually occurs as a result as disease infestation.
3.5.1 Symptoms of Plant Diseases
Many diseases can be recognised immediately by the characteristic
symptoms which they produce. Symptoms are usually described
according to their appearance. Symptoms of plant diseases include the
following:
i. Death of the Tissues or Necrosis: Various terms are used to describe the
extent and shape of necrotic lesions, particularly on leaves, stripe for
narrow, elongated lesions, scorch, scald, fire and blotch for indefinite
areas which often become blanched and then brittle.
ii. An Abnormal Increase in the Tissues: This can result from both
an increase in size (hypertrophy) and an increase in number
(hyperplasia) of cells. The more common symptoms of this type are
witches brooms, galls, canker and scab.
iii. A Failure to Attain Normal Size or Development (hypoplasia): An
overall dwarfing or stunting of the plant is common in many diseases.
iv. Change in Colour: Yellowing or chlorosis is a common symptom of
disease and is often associated with tissues surrounding a necrotic area.
v. Wilting: Caused by an interference with the normal movement of
water within the plant resulting in the drying up of the plant.
vi. Unusual Development or Transformation of Organs: for example
maize infected with Ustilago Maydis; The staminate inflorescences may
bear pistillate flowers.
vii. Disintegration of Tissues: This is termed as rot. It may be
accompanied by a release of cell fluids (wet rot), so much so that there is
an exudate from partially disintegrated tissue. Alternatively, the cells
may crumble to a powdery mass (dry rot).
viii. Excessive Gum Formation: This is particularly associated with
diseases of trees and is known as gummosis or gumming.

3.5.2 Causes of Plant Diseases

Disease can be caused by various agents either acting singly or in
combination with another, and the study of these agents is known as

44
CRP 304 MODULE 2

etiology of the disease. The agents themselves fall into the following
categories:
I - There are the bacteria, fungi and viruses which together probably
account for the greatest number of diseases.
ii - Nematodes.
Iii - Some insects (excluding those that only serve as vectors for
disease agents).
Iv - A few flowering plants such as broomrape (Orobanche), dodder
(Cuscuta) and witch weed (Striga).
V - Heterogeneous group which includes mineral deficiencies
and excesses.
Vi - Unfavourable environmental conditions.

Disease-inciting agents that are themselves living organisms are called

pathogens. The term parasite and host describes a nutritional
relationship between two organisms, but the growth of a parasite in its
host usually result in changes which are detrimental to the plant and
considered on its ability to induce disease. A parasite can also be a
pathogen.
Parasites causing plant disease can be classified according to their
dependence upon the host plant as:
- Obligate
- Facultative
i. Obligate Parasites
These organisms can only grow directly on the host plant and cannot
generally grow saprophytically on non- living organic matter. Their
survival in the absence of a suitable host depends upon dormant resting
stages in the life cycle, such as spores. An obligate parasite depends
critically upon the existence of the host. They cause only fairly mild
symptoms such as growth malformation, stunting and discoloration.
They would not kill the host.
ii. Facultative Parasites
These are usually well adapted to a saprophytic existence and can
survive long periods in an active stage in the absence of a suitable host.
The destruction of the host is of less consequence to the facultative
parasites which therefore cause more immediate and drastic damage,
such as necrosis and wilting.
1. Causal Agents of Crop Diseases
i. Fungi
The majority of plant diseases are caused by various parasitic fungi.
Most parasitic fungi are facultative although some are specialised
obligate parasites, such as powdery mildews (erysiphaceae) and rusts
(uredinales). Fungal pathogens, although differ in form are characterised
by the production of spores which enable them to spread between plants.
Many parasitic fungi disperse their spores through water, in rain
splashes or are carried in air. Some fungi attack crops at or below the

45
 CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

soil level while others are dispersed by insects or through seeds. The
dispersal of spores is aided by the fact that most fungal spores are very
small and are also produced in large number. When the spores of these
fungi fall on a suitable host plant they grow into its tissue, absorb food
and develop reproductive sporangia.
a. Some common diseases caused by the genus phytophthora
include:
- Phytophthora palmivora which causes black pod disease of
cocoa.
- Phytophthora infestans which causes potato and tomato blights.
- Phytophthora parasitica which causes stem rot of tomato.

Stem rot of tomato

c. Some common diseases caused by the genus Pythium include a number

of soil inhibiting fungi which usually enter the host plant through
wounds and subsequently cause rotting. Seedlings infected by Pythium
spp. turn black and rapidly die; this is often referred to as damping off
diseases.

Damping off disease causing dead of seedling

-Many crops are attacked at the seedling stage by Pythium debaryanum

which rapidly causes death of the seedlings.
- Watery wounds rot of potato tubers is often caused by Pythium
ultimum.

46
 CRP 304 MODULE 2

The genus Peronospora includes species which are widely referred to as

downy mildew diseases. Examples are:
- Peronospora destructor; which infests crops such as onion.
- Sclerospora graminicola which attack guinea corn.

c. The genus Puccinia, include many different types of rust and smut
diseases. They form rust coloured spore patches which develop on the
epidermis of the infected host plant. These fungi infect graminaceous
crops such as maize, guinea corn and rice, making the grains worthless
for both food and planting materials.
ii. Bacteria
These microscopic organisms are generally capable of survival where
other living organism cannot exist, such as water, the tissue of plants,
dust particles and damp soils. Bacteria usually enter into the tissue of
crops through wounds, stomata, flowers or fruits. The symptoms of
bacterial infection are varied, but the most common ones are decay,
accompanied by an unpleasant odour. Examples of bacterial diseases
are: blight diseases of guinea corn and bacterial wilt of tomatoes,
tobacco, garden eggs and peppers. Affected plants rapidly wilt, collapse
and die. Citrus and mango fruits are liable to infection due to bacteria
entering the wounds made by sucking insects or birds.

Bacterial wilt of tomatoes

iii. Viruses
Viruses are a group of extremely minute organisms which are visible
only through a powerful electron microscope. They are very highly
specialised obligate parasites and can only exist within living plant cells.
Most often they cause obscure symptoms easily confused with mineral
deficiencies of other environmental effects. Plants infected with diseases
due to viruses show varying symptoms such as change in leaf colour,
malformation such as swollen shoots, mosaic leaf patterns and
distortion. Others are reduced leaf formation, leaf spot, rings and streak
on leaves and stunted growth.
Most viruses spread between plants by means of living vector, usually
insects or nematodes, which themselves become infected with the virus,
after feeding on a diseased plant. Many viruses can be carried by insects,
particularly sucking insects such as aphids, mealy bugs and leaf-
hoppers. The knives used in budding and grafting may also transmit

47
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

viruses if used on infected plants. Viruses are rarely disseminated

through seeds. Examples of common viruses which affect crops are:
- Cassava mosaic virus (CMV).
- Capsicum leaf curl virus (CLCV).
- Cocoa swollen shoot virus.
- Tristeza virus which affects citrus.

Capsicum or pepper leaf curl virus

Control measures against virus diseases are usually aimed at the vector,
but use of resistant crop varieties and clean planting material are also
important in the control against virus diseases.

3.5.3 Measures of Controlling Plant Diseases

Plant disease control is concerned with preventing or at least restricting
the development of plant disease epidemics. Most control measures for
plant diseases are designed to prevent rather than cure the disease. They
aim to operate on the pathogen before it has established a parasitic
relationship with the host.
3.5.4 Principles of Plant Disease Control
Two of these methods of plant disease control are mainly
concerned with the pathogen:
- If the pathogen is not already present in an area then methods are
devised to exclude it (exclusion);
- If the pathogen does get in then attempts are made to eradicate it
(eradication).
The other two methods of plant disease control concern the host:
- By applying a chemical to the plant surface or by modifying the
condition under which the plant is growing it is often possible to protect
it from attack (protection).
- By breeding, it is sometimes possible to obtain varieties of the
particular plant which resist attack by the pathogen (breeding for disease
resistance)

48
CRP 304 MODULE 2

Control measures can be classified into various categories; these include

cultural practices, the destruction of insects by chemicals and the
development of disease resistant varieties.
A. Cultural Practices
I. Crop Rotation
Important pest and diseases such as cyst nematode and club root, attack
specific crops. By the simple method of planting a given crop in a
different plot each season, such pests or diseases are excluded from their
preferred host for several seasons.

ii. Destruction of Infected Material

An important cultural practiced is the eradication of suspected sources
of plant diseases. This includes the uprooting of weed hosts and
alternate hosts and the removal, burning or burying of diseased plants,
particularly those infected by bacterial or virus diseases. Diseased tree
crops should be treated by pruning away diseased portions of individual
plants, after which all cut surfaces, should be treated with white lead
paint.
iii. Ploughing
This brings about physical improvement of the soil structure as a
preparation for growing of crops. Ploughing improves drainage and tilt
of the soil. The improved drainage and tilt may reduce damping-off
diseases, expose soil pest to the birds.
iv. Soil Fertility
While the correct and balance of major nutrients in the soil are
recognised as vitally important for maximum yield and quality,
excessive nitrogen levels may encourage the increase of insects such as
peach potato aphid, fungi e.g. grey mould. Adequate levels of potassium
help control fungal diseases e.g. Fusarium wilt on carnation, and tomato
mosaic virus. Club root disease of brassica is less damaging in soil pH
greater than 6 and lime may be incorporated before planting these crops
to achieve this aim. Dressing with suitable fertilisers may stimulate
growth of the host plant so that it will recover from damage caused by
disease.
v. General Farm Sanitation
Reasonable sanitary precaution on the farm helps to prevent the
introduction of diseases from other fields. Some virus diseases are
spread by contact. Therefore, clothing, machinery, and equipment that
have been in use on such infested fields should be disinfected before
being used on other fields.
vi. Seed Treatment
To avoid seed borne diseases being carried over from one season to the
next, seed to be planted is often treated with a fungicide, e.g. Arasan.
vii. Avoidance

49
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

Sometimes, a pest or disease is most prevalent at a certain time of the

year. The planting may be so timed that the crop grows during the time
when the disease or pest incidence is least. For example the deliberate
planting of early potato cultivars enables harvesting before the
maturation of potato cyst nematode, so that damage to crop and the
release of the nematode eggs is avoided.
b. Chemical Method of destruction of Insect Vectors
i. Use Chemicals (Insecticides)
The control of insect vectors which carry disease has been effective in
reducing the spread of some diseases such as swollen shoot disease of
cocoa and mosaic disease of cassava. Aphids and leaf-hoppers which
transmit these diseases can be controlled by the use of insecticides e.g
Aldrin dust.
ii. Fungal diseases are controlled by chemicals referred to as fungicides.
These chemicals may be sprayed or dusted on to the seeds, young
leaves, shoots or flower buds before the arrival of the fungal spores.
iii. Seed treatments are normally effective when the disease is
transmitted via seed. Diseases such as smuts or rust may be controlled
by soaking the seeds in fungicides before sowing. Certain chemicals
(soil fumigants) are effective in controlling nematodes, soil-borne
insects and soil borne diseases.
iv. Repellents; Repellents are chemicals which do not actually kill the
pests, but they repel them from coming near the plants.
c. Biological Control
A more recent approach to the control of plant pests and diseases is
biological control, which emphasises the control of diseases and pest
through manipulation of natural and ecological factors.
i. Planting Disease-Resistant Varieties; the use of disease resistant
varieties of some crops has proved to be very successful in the control of
plant diseases.
ii. Biological control also refers to control of diseases by the use of other
organisms to reduce inoculum density or the disease producing activities
of the causative agents of diseases.
d. Physical Method
i. Treating seeds of cereals in hot water to kill the loose smut pathogen
(Ustilago nuda), and floating of cereal seeds to separate healthy grains
from those infected by ergot (Claviceps purpurea) are two examples of
physical method of disease control.

ii. Grain smut of sorghum may be controlled by soaking seed in water

for 4 hours to initiate germination of the fungal spores. The seed is then
spread out to dry, first in the shade and later in the sun, causing the
germinating of spores to be killed without harming the seed. Physical
methods of this kind may be widely applicable in Africa for certain
diseases, and represent one of the more feasible control options available
to smallholders.

50
CRP 304 MODULE 2

4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit concentrated on pest and diseases affecting crops. It explained
the nature and characteristics of pest, effects of pests, the control and
preventive measures. Diseases, symptoms of plant diseases, causative
organisms, control and preventive measures were also treated. It stressed
that the effective control of pests and diseases should be based on a
sound knowledge and understanding of pests and diseases of a particular
crop in a given locality.

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit discussed pest and diseases of crop plants. The characteristics
of pests and how they destroy crop produce and how to tackle them were
also treated. Diseases, definitions, symptoms and causes of plant
diseases were highlighted. The different methods of disease prevention
and control were enumerated and discussed.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

1a. Define the term pests.
b. Categorise pests based on pattern of feeding.
c. Enumerate the direct effects of pests.
2a. State the principles of pest control.
b. Describe the cultural methods of pest control.
3a. Distinguish between localised and systemic symptoms of
plant diseases.
b. Give the generalised symptoms of plant disease.
4a. Explain the chemical method of disease control.
b. Briefly describe the physical method of disease control.
c. List the cultural practices of diseases control.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adams, C. R. Bamford, K. M. & Early, M. P. (1984). Principles of

Horticulture.
Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers Pp 91- 122.
Akinyosoye, V. O. (1976). Senior Tropical Agriculture. Macmillan
Publishers Pp 138- 145.
Akobundu, I. O (1987). Weed Science in the Tropics. John Wiley and
Sons Inc. Pp. 24-105.
Hill, D. S. & Waller, J. M. (1989). Pest and Diseases of Tropical
Crops.UK: Volume 2. Field Handbook. Longman Group UK Limited,
Harlow, UK Pp 3- 29.
Onwueme, I. C. (1979). Crop Science. London: Cassell London
publisher pp 37-44.
Taylor, T. A. (1977). Crop Pest and Diseases. Ibadan: Oxford
University Press. Pp 1- 63.

51
 CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

Wheeler, B. E. J (1969). An Introduction to Plant Diseases. New York:

John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Pp 1-7.

UNIT 5 HORTICULTURAL TOOLS AND

MACHINERIES
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Horticultural tools and their uses
3.2 Horticultural machines and implement
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA)
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Contribution of horticultural and floricultural crops to the total
agricultural production in the country is quite significant due to highly
favourable and varied agro-ecological diversities. Major field operations
for horticultural crops include nursery/seedling preparation, post hole
digging for planting, ear thing, irrigation, plant protection, harvesting,
handling, packaging transport. The cultivation of horticultural crops is
predominantly dependent upon human labour, since commercial
cultivation is only on a limited scale. Animal/power tiller or tractor-
drawn mould board ploughs, disc ploughs, harrows, cultivators and
rotavators, are available and used for land preparation.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• list the different types of horticultural tools
• state the uses of the different types of horticultural tools
• explain the type of machineries used in horticultural fields

3.0 MAIN TEXT

3.1 Horticultural Tools and their Uses:
Some important tools used in horticultural farms include the following:
Pick Axe
The pick axe is made up of a long wooden handle with a double headed
thick metal blade that is attached to the handle through a loop. The head
of the pick axe is made up of two edges, one part of the end of the blade
is pointed, while the other end is flat and sharp edged. They are mainly

52
CRP 304 MODULE 2

used for breaking up of hard soil, and digging up of roots and tree
stumps.
Axe
The axe is a simple hand tool, which consists of cutting edge and an eye
for fixing of a
handle. It is multipurpose cutting tool used for felling and delimbing of
trees, splitting of logs for firewood and dressing of logs for timber
conversion. Small axes are also used for clearing of bushes.

Axe
Cutlass

The cutlass is one of the commonest used farm tools in Nigeria. They
come in various shapes and sizes. It is a flat long metal blade with a
short wooden or plastic handle with one edge sharp while the other is
blunt. They perform many functions. It is used for the clearing of bushes
around your homes, for the felling of big trees. It is used in harvesting
crops like sugar cane, maize, cassava, yam and palm nut fruits. It is also
used in the planting of melon during the planting season, cutlass can
also be used for the transplanting of seedlings, weeding of crops, both in
the digging of shallow holes and used in the trimming and pruning of
flowers.

Cutlass
Hand Fork
When it is viewed, the hand fork, looks like the kitchen fork we eat with,
just that it is a little bit bigger; it has a short wooden or metal handle
with four prongs. It is used in mixing manure into the soil, for breaking
the surface of the soil, so that air and water, can pass easily and it is also
used for the removal of weeds on the seed bed.

53
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

Hand fork
Hand Trowel
It is boat shaped or it is either curved sloop metal blade that is attached
to a short wooden or metal handle. When using it, you hold it with one
hand. It helps in the transplanting of seedlings, for the application of
fertiliser and also for the application of manure to the soil, it helps in
loosening vegetable beds, it can also be used for light weeding, sampling
or mixing up of soil and digging holes for the planting of seeds.

Hand trowel
Sickle
The sickle has a curved metal blade that is fitted into a short wooden
handle. The inner part of the curved metal blade is very sharp while the
other part, has a blunt edge.
To recognise a sickle when been viewed, it has a structure like that of a
question mark (?). It used in the plucking of fruits. This can only be
possible, when it is tied to a long handle, it can also be used to harvest
cereals like rice, wheat barley because they possess thin stems. It can
also be used in the harvest of grasses.
Hammer
It is made up of a thick heavy metal head that is fitted into a straight
wooden or metal handle. At the end of the thick heavy metal there is a
prong which is used for the removal of nails. The hammer can be used
for driving nails into wooden structures whether in the farm or at home,
it can also be used to straighten damaged or bent components of either
farm implements or our home furniture. It can also be used in the
removal of nails from wood.
Mallet
It is made up of a large head with a wooden handle that is similar to that
of a hammer. The entire body is made up of wood. It is solely used for

54
CRP 304 MODULE 2

the hitting of woods like pegs, so that they would not be damaged in the
process, when they are been hit into the ground.
Hoe
Hoe comes in different types, which are used in Nigeria today. There is
the West African hoe and the Indian hoe. They both have metal blades
with wooden or metal blades. The West African hoe is made of short
curve handle while the Indian hoe has a long handle. Hoes are used in
tilling the soil, harvesting of crops like cassava, sweet potato and
cocoyam, weeding between the rows of crops, digging of drains, making
trenches and foundation of farm houses, and the making of ridges and
mounds.

Hoe
Spade
The spade is made up of a long rectangular flat blade which is attached
to a fairly long cylindrical handle that widens at the posterior end to
form a triangular block with a D-shaped whole for hand when used.
Spade is used for different proposes. It can be used for digging of holes
and trenches around us, for leveling the ground, for making seedbeds,
ridges, mounds and heaps, transplanting of seedlings like palm oil
seedlings, turning the soil and the mixing of manures, light weeding in
the farm and at home, mixing of cement and concrete for farm and home
structures and the digging of foundations when constructing farm and
home buildings

Spade
Watering Can
It is made up of galvanised iron which prevents it from rusting. Some
are also made of very synthetic rubber. The water watering can is made
up of a tank, a handle and a spout. This spout is long with a perforated
metal sheet over its mouth which is referred to as the ROSE, but in case

55
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

of the rubber made watering can the mouth is covered by a rubber. It is

used to apply water to crops like seedlings in a nursery and vegetables.
Sometimes it is used in applying liquid fertilisers to crops as well as the
watering of cement blocks used for the constructions of structures and
buildings.

Watering cans

Garden Fork
It is used for turning manure during compost making and for spreading
manure in the open field. It is also used for loosening the soil before
transplanting.

Digging mattock: It is used for digging and uprooting small stumps

Rake
A rake is used for levelling soil surface and breaking large soil crumbs
into small ones. It is also used for removing stones and weeds from
seedbeds and for covering vegetable seeds when they are broadcast.

Rake

Garden Line
It is used for lining up beds and for making straight line when planting.

Wheel Barrow
It is used for conveying materials (tools, seedlings, manure etc) to and
fro the farm

56
CRP 304 MODULE 2

Wheel barrow

Tape
A tape is used for taking short or detailed measurement on the field.

Ranging Pole
It is used for marking surveyed stations or intermediate stations. It is
also useful in marking straight lines

Budding and Grafting Knife

The budding knife is an important hand tool of a gardener, which
consists of a folding blade and a handle. The blade has two edges. One
of the edges is sharpened all along its length; whereas the blunt or the
other edge is sharpened on the tip and is slightly curved. It is use for
budding and grafting in vegetables, nurseries and fruit gardens. The
knife is also used for cutting of thin unwanted twigs, defoliation of
leaves and general cutting works in nurseries and orchards.

Budding knife

Secateurs
The secateurs are made up of two metal blades of which one has a
concave curve while the other has a convex curve that are joined
together at a point. It has two short metal handles with a spring in
between them when handling it; you handle with one hand, while the
plant branch to be cut is held with the other free hand. To recognise the
secateurs it looks like a pair of scissors. It is used for trimming flowers
and the pruning of the branches of shrubs and trees. They are also used
for pruning vines.

57
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

Secateurs

Chain Saw
It is also called power saw and is a light and portable machine. Cutting
is done by an endless chain fitted with cutters, which runs around a flat
piece called the bar. The chain saw is used to trim dead or diseased
wood from trees, to remove inconveniently placed branches or fell trees.

Chain saw

Shears
It is seen as a pair of an enlarged pair of scissors with two long blades,
connected at a point by a bolt and a nut of which the blades are
sharpened at one edge not the two sides in other not to injure someone.
The handle of the shears may be made of wood, metal, plastic or rubber.
It is usually handled with both hands. Shears are used to prune down
trees or branches of shrubs, trimming of hedges and trimming of
ornamental plants used in house decoration. It is also used for cutting of
shrubs and removing of haphazard growth in gardens and lawns.

Shears

Lopping Shear

58
CRP 304 MODULE 2

The lopping shear is used for pruning and cutting of branches and twigs
of the orchard trees in standing position, which are beyond the reach,
and capacity of pruning secateur.

Lopping shear

Grass Shear
The grass shear is simple hand tool used in maintenance of lawns The
grass shear is used for trimming of the grass in the lawn. It is also used
for side dressing of the lawn and cutting of the soft vegetative material.
The shear with 'U' spring steel handle having sharp edges can also be
used for shearing of sheep wool.

Grass shear

Crowbar
The crow bar is made either from the structural steel or from medium
carbon steel. It is used for digging holes or pits for planting and fencing

Crowbar

59
CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

3.2 Horticultural Machinery and Implement

The machines are elements that are used to direct the action of forces
based energy work, for his part in the agricultural, motor mechanisms
used in this work lighten the production and improve farming
techniques. Most widely used horticultural machines include:

Tractor: Is a very useful agricultural machine, with wheels or designed

to move easily on the ground and pulling power enabling successful
agricultural work, even in flooded fields. It has two brake pedals and is
preparing to pull sledges. There are two types of tractors: the track of
stability and strength, and wheels, able to travel to by road, has a higher
speed than the track.

tractor

Walking Tractor: Agricultural machine is a single axle and is operated

by handles, have median motor power and strength led to horticultural
and ornamental work, can work in strong fields, but is preferably used in
construction of gardens.

60
CRP 304 MODULE 2

Walking Tractor
Sprayer: It is a farm equipment designed to spray, is composed of a
liquid tank, pressure pump, cap, mouth, tank and pressure valve, belts,
hose, faucet and nozzle where the liquid to spray out, is insecticide,
fungicide or herbicide. The hand sprayer is placed in the back of the
sprayer and this has placed in the mouth and nose a special mask to
prevent strong odours dismissed by the substance that expels the sprayer
will harm.

Sprayer
Knapsack Sprayer
This is equipment that is used for spraying chemical on the farm.

Knapsack sprayer
Mower
Mower is a machine that is used for cutting lawn and grasses in the field,
farm and homes.

61
 CRP 304 PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

Mower
Farm equipment is a group of devices designed to open furrows in the
ground, shredding, spraying and fertilising the soil.

Plough
Agricultural equipment is designed to open furrows in the earth consists
of a blade, fence, plough, bead, bed, wheel and handlebar, which serve
to cut and level the land, hold parts of the plough, set shot and to serve
as handle. There are various types of ploughs but the best known are:
• mould board plough, formed by the grating blade and mould board
• disc plough, disc concave formed by deep grooves to open
• shallow ploughing to remove the topsoil
• Subsoil plough to remove the soil depth.

Plough attached to tractor

4.0 CONCLUSION
For ease of farm operation in horticultural fields, there is need for the
farmer to use farm tools and machineries. This help to make his work
easier, faster and enable the farmer cover a larger area within a short

62
 CRP 304 MODULE 2

time. Commercial farmers used machineries in most of their farm

operation while subsistence farmers used local farm tools.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about farm tools that can be used in
horticultural farms such as hoe, rake, spade, cutlass, hand trowel,
watering can, budding and grafting knife etc and there uses on the farm.
You also learnt about farm machineries that can be used in horticultural
field for ease of farm operation. These machineries include:
i. Tractor
ii. Mower
iii. Sprayer
iv. Walking tractor
6.0 TUTOR -MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
1. List ten (10) farm tools and state there uses
2. Attempt the drawing of a knapsack sprayer
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Ogiever, E. (2003). Comprehensive Agricultural Science for Senior
Secondary Schools.
A. Johnson Publisher Limited.
www.aspariegos.com Retrieved on 15th February, 2016
http://nigerianobservernews.com/22092014/features/features4.html#.Vt
XswuY4

63
MODULE 3
Unit 1 - Method of propagation (sexual and specialised organs)
Unit 2 - Method of propagation (asexual)
Unit 3 - Horticultural cropping systems

UNIT 1 - METHOD OF PROPAGATION OF HORTICULTURAL

CROPS (SEXUAL AND SPECIALISED
Organs)
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Propagation
3.2 Methods of Propagation of Horticultural Crops
3.2.1 Sexual Propagation
3.2.2 Vegetative Propagation (Asexual)
3.2.2.1 Use of Specialised Vegetables Structure
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Mark Assignment / Further Readings.
7.0 References/Further Reading.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In crop production, different parts of crop can be used to replicate the crop. These
different parts could be seeds, leaves, stems, roots etc. The success of crop establishment
depends on the cultural practices used for the production. In this unit, you will be
studying methods of propagation of horticultural crops. Some crops have one method of
propagation while others may have more than one method.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson you should be able to
• define propagation
• state the methods of propagation of horticultural crops
• explain the specialised structures used in propagation of horticultural crops
• explain cutting as vegetative propagation
• explain different types of layering
• explain different types of grafting.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Propagation of Crop
Plant propagation is defined as the controlled process of creating new plants from a
variety of sources such as seeds and other plant parts. The objectives of plant propagation
are to:
i. Increase in number of plants
 ii. Preserve the essential characteristics of plant
Propagation of crop involves the formation and development of new individuals using
specialised part of the plant. These new individuals are used in the establishment of new
plantings.
3.2 Methods of Propagation of Horticultural Crops
In general, two methods are employed in propagation of horticultural crop
1. The use of seed (sexual)
2. The use of vegetative part of plants (asexual).
3.2.1 Sexual Propagation (seed)
This is a method of increasing the number of plants through seeds formed from the union
of gametes during pollination. Essentially, a seed consist of an embryo with nourishing
and protecting tissue. The embryo is considered a minute plant. Principal parts of the
embryo are plumule (which is the first growing point of the stem), the radical (the first
growing point of the root) and the hypocotyls and epicotyls (together constitute the first,
or original, stem of the plant). The nourishing tissues are endosperm and cotyledons. In
well developed mature seed, these tissues are packed with stored food such as starch,
hemicelluloses, reserved proteins, or fats depending on the kind of plant. The protecting
tissue is the seed coat. In general, the seed coat retards the rate of transpiration; in some
kinds of plants, it retards the rate of respiration while the seeds are in storage and protects
the delicate embryo from mechanical injury to some extent. When the seed is exposed to
environmental condition favourable for its growth (soil, water, temperature, light etc), the
seed germinates and produces a plant. Therefore, a seed may be defined as a minute plant
with nourishing and protecting tissues that can be used to produce a similar plant. Sexual
mode of propagation is the principal means by which biological variation is generated.
Advantages of sexual propagation
1. Easy and natural phenomenon – once the seed is given the right environmental
condition it will germinate and produce the plants.
2. They are sources of genetic variability – They provide means of recombination of genetic
material to produce improved varieties.
3. It helps in selecting different traits – The desirable traits can be retained while
undesirable traits removed.
Disadvantages of sexual propagation
1. Not all plants produce viable seeds e.g. banana pineapple.
2. It is not possible to maintain a true – to - type genotype
3. sexual method of propagation takes longer period of time from seed to harvest. This is
especially true with respect to tree crops.
3.2.2 Asexual Propagation (Vegetative Propagation)
Vegetative propagation is the method that uses any part of plant rather ‘true’ seed to
produce new plants. Plants have a number of vegetative mechanisms. Some of these have
been taken advantage of by horticultural and gardeners to multiply or clone plants
rapidly. Plants produced using vegetative parts have no exchange of genetic material,
therefore, the plants are identical to the parent. Vegetative propagation uses plant parts
such as roots, stem and leaves. In some plants, seeds can be produced without fertilisation
 and the seeds contain only the genetic material of the parent plant. This is called
apomixes. Apomixes is asexual reproduction but not vegetative propagation. Vegetative
propagation is essential for the raising of many economic crops eg fruit crops, nut crops,
many flowering and ornamental crops and certain Vegetables crops.
Advantages of Vegetative Propagation
1. Maintenance of true – to – type clones over a time. A clone is a group of plants with the
same genetic makeup.
2. It maintains uniformity of plants genotype.
3. It is the only means of propagating certain plants e.g. banana and plantain which do not
produce viable seeds.
4. Earliness of production is achieved.
5. It may be more economical to propagate asexually in some crops as in sweet potatoes.
6. Some seeds germinate with difficulty and as such vegetative propagation is best for them.
7. Seed borne diseases are avoided when plants are propagated asexually.
Disadvantages of Vegetative Propagation
1. Planting materials are usually bulky.
2. Storage of asexual material is cumbersome and usually short term.
3. It does not provide source of genetic variability for recombination of gene.
4. Mechanized propagation in most cases is not practicable.
5. Need specialised personnel to handle the procedures.
6. It is expensive than seed.
7. Systemic viral diseases can spread to all plants through plant materials and tools used.
The methods of vegetative propagation include the following;
a. Use of specialised vegetative structure eg. Root, corms, bulb, rhizomes etc.
b. Cutting
c. Layering
d. Grafting
e. Budding.

SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. Define propagation and seed.
ii. State 2 advantage and 2 disadvantages of sexual propagation.
iii. List 5 specialised vegetative structures of vegetative propagation.

3.2.2.1Use of Specialised Vegetative Structure

Vegetative propagation can be achieved through the use of specialised vegetative
structures other than seeds. These specialised structures include bulbs, corms, rhizomes,
tubers, runners, off shoots.
a. Bulbs – These are shooting stems with thick fleshy leaves. Stem buds develop at the exile
of leaf scale to form miniatures or small buds (bulblet) which are known as offsets when
grown to full size e.g. onion.
 Onion bulb

b. Corms – These resemble bulbs but have no fleshy leaves. They are solid stems structure
with node and internode e.g. cocoyam.

Cocoyam corm

c. Rhizomes- These are horizontal cylindrical stems growing underground with node and
inter node and readily produce adventitious roots. They may be slender and elongated or
thick and fleshy. Growth proceeds from the terminal bud or through lateral shoot.
Propagation is by cutting the rhizomes into several pieces, each containing a vegetative
bud e.g ginger.
 A Rhizome

d. Tubers – These are thick portions of underground stem e.g. Irish potatoes. Nodes and
internodes are present and nodes are arranged spirally.

Tubers

e. Runners – Aerial stems develop from the leaf axil at the base or crown of plants. Runners
grow horizontally along the ground and form new plants at one of the nodes along the
ground eg. Strawberry.
f. Off Shorts – In many plants literal shoots develop from the stem which when rooted
serve to reduplicate the plant. This has been referred in horticultural terminology as
offsets, crown, division or slips e.g. banana, pineapple.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Plants or crops are usually reproduced through sexual or asexual means depending on the
mode that is suitable for the crop to produce at maximum productivity. While some crops
reproduce through one means others reproduce through both means. Those crops that
reproduce through sexual means have the advantage of providing genetical variability for
modification while those that reproduce through asexual means have the advantage of
producing true-to-type plants
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that plant propagation is defined as the control process of
creating new plants from a variety of sources such as seeds and other plant parts. The
methods used for plant propagation are sexual (seeds), asexual (vegetatively such as
budding, grafting, layering, cutting) and use of specialised vegetative structures such as
suckers, corms, bulbs, rhizomes, bulblets, tubers and runners.
6.0 TUTOR- MARK ASSIGNMENTS (TMA)
i-Define propagation
ii-List 4 vegetative propagation methods you know
iii-Explain 5 specialised structures that are used for vegetative propagation
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
George A. (2004). Horticulture- Principles and Practices. 2nd edition. Eastern
Economy Limited. Pp 3-720.
Lawrence, K. Opeke. (2005). Tropical Commodity Tree Crops. Spectrum Books
Limited.
Pp 1-70. 2nd Edition;
Edmond, J. B., Senn, T. L., Andrews, F. S. and Halfacre, R. G. (1975).
Fundamentals of
Horticulture. McGraw-Hill Book Company. Pp183-219, 1st edition.
UNIT 2 METHOD OF ASEXUAL PROPAGATION (VEGETATIVE OR
PROPAGULES)
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Asexual Propagation (Vegetative)
3.2 Types of Propagating Materials (Propagules)
3.2.1 Seed
3.2.2 Budding/Bud Grafting
3.2.3 Grafting
3.2.4 Layering
3.2.5 Cuttings
3.2.5.1 Stem Cuttings
3.2.5.2 Leaf Cuttings
3.2.6 Root Cuttings
3.2.13 Micro Propagation or Tissue Culture
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Plant species are naturally endowed with the ability to regenerate themselves through
self- or cross-pollination of their flowers to produce seeds. When physiologically mature,
seed germinate under optimum environments and generate new individual plants to
 perpetuate the parent plant. Similarly, plant species whose seeds are not adequately viable
to produce new plants and/or sterile (e.g. plantains) and depend primarily on the
induction of vegetative sections (leaf, stem, root, flower stalks) containing viable buds
are particularly more vigorous in asexual propagation of these plant species. Seed
propagation of crops is more ancient than asexual propagation, and evolved with the
origin of agricultural crop production in pre-historic times. Historically, human use of
seeds marks the transition from nomadic food gathering to sedentary civilizations based
on agriculture, in different parts of the world. In recent times, technological advances
have led to the development of micro-propagation, which involves the culturing of
individual cells or groups of cells (tissues) under highly aseptic conditions to produce
whole new disease- and insect-free plants. In this unit you shall be studying the types of
propagation through propagules and the use of micro cells.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to explain:
• the distinction between sexual and asexual plant propagation
• the various methods of propagating different crop types
• the advantages and limitations of the propagation techniques
• the practical application of the techniques for self-sustenance.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Asexual Propagation Methods (Vegetative)

This method involves the induction of a vegetative section or part of a living plant to
form roots and subsequently, developing it into a whole new plant. Plant multiplication
does not involve the seed cycle (exchange of genetic materials) and therefore, it is the
best way to maintain some species as clones; individuals identical to the parent.

3.2 Types of Propagating Materials (Propagules)

3.2.1 Seed
‘Seed’ is the generative part of the plant used for propagation. A seed is a small immature
plant (embryo) protected by a seed coat or testa, which is formed from the outer layers of
the ovule after fertilisation. The seed is the basic unit of propagating many tropical crops,
including yam and fruits (pawpaw, passion fruit). Even in crop species whose primary
mode of propagation is by vegetative means (e.g. mango, avocado pear), seed sowing
constitutes an important method of regenerating new plants. Seeds are sown in three
different ways namely: by broadcasting, drilling/row-seeding, and pocket drilling/
sowing in holes.
Advantages of sexual propagation are:
i. Ease of transportation of propagating materials,
ii. Less cost, skill and work to raise seedlings,
iii. Ease of vegetative propagation in mature plants, hybrid vigour and associated benefits of
development of new varieties and
iv. Wider adaptation to varying environments.
The disadvantages of sexual propagation include:
i. Slow seedling growth,
ii. Non-prototype off springs,
iii. Problem of ensuring uniform produce quality since most seeds originate from cross-
pollination (by wind, insects),
iv. Weaker seedlings and
v. Longer period to plant maturity than vegetatively-propagated crop species.

3.2.2 Budding/Bud Grafting

It is a process consisting of the engrafting of the bud (scion) of a plant into the stem
(stock) of another plant of the same genus. Generally, it is very suitable for propagating
deciduous fruit (Citrus spp.) and shade trees. Budding of improved materials on
regenerated chupons is one of the new methods of rehabilitating cacao in Nigeria. In the
most common T-budding pattern, the desired scion from a young, actively-growing shoot
of a chosen crop variety is immediately slid into a T-shaped slit on the rootstock. The
joined bud and rootstock are held by a winding of rubber band/ special tape/wrap which
holds it until sealed, which prevents drying or contamination of grafted materials. Chip
budding is used for budding species whose barks do not “slip” (when cut, the bark easily
lifts in one uniform layer from the underlying wood) easily without tearing.
Advantages of bud grafting
1. Bud grafting is faster, easier and less messy than other forms of grafting discussed below.
2. Bud grafting allows the production of plants identical to a parent plant.
3. It may give increased productivity of crops through the hardness, superior rooting
capacity, drought tolerance and insect or disease resistance of the rootstock.
Disadvantages of bud grafting
1. The method is labour-intensive,
2. Requires great skill of nursery operations (and therefore, expensive) and
3. Can only be efficient when performed at very specific times when weather conditions and
crop physiological growth status are optimum.
4. The vascular cambium of the both the bud scion and rootstock must be aligned to
stimulate tissue growth on the basal ends before rooting.
Steps of T-budding and patch grafting

3.2.3 Grafting
 This is similar to budding in theory, but different in the sense that grafting involves the
joining of the upper part (scion wood, 0.63-1.27cm diameter and only with leaf buds) of
one plant to the under stock (rootstock) of another plant of the same species (clones,
varieties). Grafting is an old art and science of plant propagation in pears, citrus,
mangoes, grapes and other fruit trees, traceable back to 4000 years to ancient China and
Mesopotamia. Some plants graft naturally, where two branches are in close contact over
several years (e.g. ivy).
Advantages of grafting
1. Grafting allows gardeners to produce plants identical to a parent plant,
2. Allows growers to control size and shape of a tree or shrub (e.g. apples)
3. Gives more vigorous and earlier-fruiting plants.
4. Two varieties can be grown on the same tree to facilitate pollination (e.g. in apples).
Disadvantages of grafting
1. Grafting is labour-intensive, expensive, inefficient in poor weather and plant growth
conditions,
2. Where cambiums of both scion wood and rootstock are not precisely aligned.
3. Graft incompatibility, sucker production in grafted plants and death of rootstock due to
rooting of the scion arising from planting the graft union below the ground. There is a
need to protect the grafted area from dislodging the scion out of alignment, especially by
bracing.
4. There is a great risk of the top growth being very brittle thus, failing to harden off before
cold weather.

Top cleft grafting method

Reasons for budding and grafting

i. Opportunity to change varieties or cultivars for crop improvement;
 ii. Optimising cross-pollination, especially in fruit trees that are not self-
pollinating;
iii. Advantage of particular (desired) rootstocks, especially in respect of superior growth
habits, disease and insect resistance, and drought tolerance;
iv. Benefit from interstocks, valuable in a situation of graft incompatibility;
v. To perpetuate clones by grafting onto seedling rootstocks when clones of plant species
(e.g. conifers) cannot be economically reproduced from vegetative cuttings due to low
rooting percentage of cuttings
vi. To produce certain plant forms e.g. weeping or cascading forms as in weeping
hemlock (Tsuga canadensi Carr var. pendula);
vii. To repair damaged plants, arising from maintenance equipment, disease, rodents or
winter storms, through in arching, approach grafting, or bridge grafting;
viii. To increase growth rate of seedlings, especially in seedling progeny of many trees
requiring 8-12 years to fruit with natural development; and
ix. To facilitate virus indexing, through confirmation of presence or absence of the virus
by grafting scions from the plant onto another plant that is highly susceptible and would
quickly show symptoms of infection.
There are some rules, which must be taken consideration for any grafting method to be
successful:
- Two incompatible plants cannot be grafted
- The cambium layers of the rootstock and the scion must touch
- The scion must be the right way up when you graft it
- You can grafting in any time of the year, but the best time for deciduous plants is, when
the plant drops its leaves and is dormant
- Cool, cloudy day without wind prevents the graft from drying out, therefore this type of
weather is the best for grafting
- The care activities are very important until the rootstock and scion are properly joined

3.2.4 Layering
This involves bending a branch/part of the stem of a growing plant and anchoring (with a
rock or peg) and burying a portion of it, with a view to establishing a new root system at
the point of contact between the bent part and the earth (i.e. on the shoots that are still
attached to the parent plant). A light soil increases rooting success as will wounding or
girdling of the buried portion. Treatment with a rooting hormone (e.g. Rootone,
HormondinR, HormonexR) is most desirable, particularly one containing a fungicide.
Plants with flexible branches are particularly suited to this method. As soon as the new
plant is established, the connection with the parent plant is severed and the new plant
becomes independent. Layering is a good propagation choice when only a few plants are
needed. A heavy soil will reduce rooting success while covering the tip of the parent
plant (bent shoot) kills it. Other types of layering are serpentine/compound layering,
continuous/trench layering and mound/stool layering.
 Layering of plants
Types of Layering
Banking Up
This is the most common method to propagate pear, quince and apple rootstock (M type
clones). This technique needs some preparative work. For about 2-3 years, we cut back
the mother plant up to the surface level (or close to it), which will then result in a thicker
root neck. This thick root neck will grow custard of stems. We then have to bank up the
plant to 10-15 cm high (when the stems have an average 20-25 cm length). We can
subsequently harvest the rooted stems at the end of the growing season.

Simple Layering
This technique is commonly used for hazel-nut propagation. During the dormant season,
stems are bent down into a 20-25 cm deep trench and covered with soil. The top parts of
the stems, which usually have 2-3 buds on them, remain above the surface.

Radial or Chinese Layering

In this case, the whole stem is bent down into a 10 cm deep trench and covered with soil.
We then have to bank up the suckers to 2/3 of their height on regular bases. This occurs
when the sucker grows 10cm above the surface leaving only the top 1/3 of the plant free.
This method is used mostly to propagate Gooseberry, Currant and Hazel-nut.

Air Layering
This method is used on the tip of the branch, when stems are usually younger then one
year old. A strip of bark is cut approximately 2 cm wide on the stem about 20 cm from
the tip (just below a leaf stalk, or join). Once cut, a rooting hormone is applied and
rooting material is placed under the strip. Finally, the cut is covered with a thin plastic
bag, which is opened at both ends. Rooting material must be placed in the bag before it is
sealed. This process must be completed during rainy conditions, when the air humidity is
highest. Litchi, guava, macadamia and mango are propagated with this method.

Air layering

3.2.5 Cuttings
A cutting is a vegetative plant part which is severed from the parent plant in order to
regenerate the parent plant (by regaining loss tissues), thereby forming a new plant. A
cutting is therefore refers to as any cut portion of a plant which when place in a suitable
environment can regenerate into an independent plant. Both woody and herbaceous plants
are asexually propagated by cuttings of stems, leaves and roots. Cuttings regenerate new
plants through change of mature cells into meristematic cells that are found at rapid
growth sites like buds. As in layering, the use of rooting hormone such as auxins,
cytokinins as a dip, preferably one containing a fungicide, helps to hasten rooting,
increase number of roots, or gives uniform rooting, except on soft fleshy stems. Rooting
medium may be coarse sand, vermiculite, soil, water or a mixture of peat and perlite. A
major advantage of cuttings is the practical regeneration of whole plants from actively-
growing plant parts/organs. Cutting technique also, typically as with other asexual
methods of plant propagation, produces several whole new plants, and which are
genetically identical clones of the parent plant. Important disadvantages are that cuttings
should be made as soon as possible after collection of plant material; not all species of
plants can be propagated from cuttings (e.g. Acacia spp.); cuttings must be shielded from
direct sunlight, especially if they are under glass or plastic; stock plants (plants used for
asexual propagation) should be healthy and well-branched as should the tools and
conditions for preparing cuttings to ensure healthy new clones; choice of correct rooting
medium to achieve optimum rooting within the shortest possible time. There are many
types of cuttings based on the vegetative part of the plant providing the cutting material.
There are:

3.2.5.1 Stem Cuttings

This technique is the most commonly used method of propagating many woody
ornamental plants and house plants e.g sweet potato, sugar-cane and cassava are food
 crops propagated from stem cuttings. Stem cuttings of many favourite shrubs are quite
easy to root whereas those of a tree species are more difficult to root. A glasshouse is not
necessary for successful propagation by stem cuttings but it is critical to maintain high
humidity around the cutting. Facilities for rooting cuttings include flower pots, trays,
small hoop frame and/or an intermittent mist system. Materials for making stem cuttings
should be vigorous, new growth with no flower buds and free of diseases and insects.
Cuttings should be 5.08-10.16 cm long, cut from older stems and have 2-3 leaves (2-3
nodes) attached. Dipping the base of the stem, including the node area, into a rooting
powder stimulates rooting. The stem should however, be dry when dipped. Four main
types of stem cuttings are identifiable based on the growth stage of the stock plant, which
is very critical in the rooting of cuttings, namely:

i. Herbaceous Cuttings- Cuttings taken from non-woody plants, such as perennials and
house plants e.g. Chrysanthemums, rose. Cuttings are 5.08-15.24 cm stem pieces, with a
terminal bud.

ii. Softwood Cuttings- Cuttings taken from soft, succulent, new growth from non-woody
stock plants, before the new growth starts to harden (mature). The cuttings are used to
propagate flowering shrubs. They must be taken after rain or water is required to keep
them cool in the morning. The larger diagonal cut gives more area to develop roots.
Cuttings should be kept in water before rooting.

Iii. Semi-Hardwood Cuttings- Cuttings prepared from partially mature (firm) wood of the
current season’s growth, just after a flush of growth. The method is used for propagating
many broadleaf evergreen shrubs, some conifers, holly, rose and cacao (using the tips of
shoots).

iii. Hardwood Cuttings- Cuttings taken from tissue that has become woody (firm) and the
plant is mature and dormant with no signs of active growth. Several cuttings can be made
from the same branch of some shrubs. Basal cuts should be just below a node, while the
upper cut should be slightly above a bud. Cuttings should be kept moist until rooting. The
system is most often used for deciduous shrubs and many evergreen species e.g. grape,
fig and rose. The three types of hardwood cuttings are straight, mallet and heel cuttings.
3.2.5.2 Leaf Cuttings
Leaf cuttings are used almost exclusively for propagating a few indoor plants. Leaf
cuttings do not include an auxiliary bud, and thus, can only be used for propagating
plants that are capable of forming adventitious buds. The method involves the use of a
healthy leaf blade or leaf without petiole in propagating new plants, following the same
procedures as for stem cuttings, particularly treating leaf cuttings with growth hormones
to stimulate rooting and quick bud development. There are several types of leaf cuttings,
and for all of them, the old leaf is not part of the new plant and is thus, usually discarded.
In most cases, the old leaf provides the energy food source for nurturing the newly-
generated plant e.g. Bryophyllum pinnatum.

i. Whole Leaf with Petiole- This involves a whole leaf with about 3.81 cm of the petiole.
The lower end of the petiole is dipped into a rooting medium (rooting medium may be
coarse sand, vermiculite, soil water or a mixture of peat and perlite) after which one or
more new plants form at the base of the petiole. The old petiole may be reused after the
new plants have formed their own roots. African violets and pepperoni are propagated in
this way.

ii. Whole Leaf without Petiole- This method is used for propagated plants with sessile
(petiole-less) thick, fleshy leaves. The leaf is inserted vertically into the rooting medium
after which one or more new plants will form from the auxiliary bud. The leaf may be
removed after the plant forms its own roots.
iii. Split-Vein- The veins on the lower surface of a leaf from the stock plant (e.g. Begonia
and snake plant) are slit before the leaf cutting is laid on the medium. The rooting
medium is used to hold down the margins of a curling leaf. A variation of this method
involves inserting leaf wedges cut with at least one main vein into the medium with the
main vein partially covered. In both cases, new plants are formed from the base of the
split vein and leaf wedge.

iv. Leaf-Bud Cuttings- These are used for many trailing vines and when space or cutting
material is limited. Each node on a stem can be treated as a cutting. A leaf-bud cutting
consists of a leafblade, petiole, and a short piece of stem with an attached axillary bud.
The cuttings are placed in the rooting medium with the bud covered (1.27-2.54 cm) and
the leaf exposed. Rubber plant, Camellia, Rhododendron and blackberry are propagated
using this method.

v. Flower Stalks- This follows the same technique as leaf cuttings. It involves plant
propagation from a flower stalk, usually with large leaf ears devoid of flower buds. This
method enhances chimera production in African violet.

3.2.6 Root Cuttings

This involves the propagation of plants from a section of a root. In some species, the root
cuttings produce new shoots which subsequently form their own root system whereas in
others, root cuttings develop root system before producing new shoots. Plants propagated
from root cuttings include blackberry and rose. In most cases, root cuttings of woody
plants are usually taken during the dormant (inactive growing period) season when roots
have large carbohydrate levels. Root cuttings can also be taken from actively-growing
plants i.e. throughout the growing season. In plants with large roots that are normally
propagated outdoors in a hotbed, the root cuttings should be 5.08-15.24 cm in length,
with a straight cut at the proximal end and slanted cut at the distal end of the root cutting.
In plants with small roots, the root cuttings are 2.54-5.08 cm in length and are laid
horizontally about 1.27 cm below the soil or sand in a flat. The flat is then placed under
shade, which is removed after new shoots appear.

3.2.7 Micropropagation or Tissue Culture

Tissue culture is a method used for vegetative propagation based on the phenomenon that
any part of a plant from a single cell to a whole apical meristem can grow into a whole
plant. The explant, the piece of the plant taken, is grown in a sterile artificial medium that
supplies all vitamins, mineral and organic nutrients. The medium and explant are
enclosed in a sterile jar or tube and subjected to precisely control environmental
conditions. In this method, individual or small group of plant cells (tiny pieces of bud leaf
and stem) are manipulated in a way to enable them produce a new plant. Mass
propagation of sugarcane, sweet potato tubers is achieved by in vitro culture of nodal
segments in medium containing 9% sucrose under continuous darkness using Jar
 Fermentor Technique. Begonia and roses are also propagated by tissue culture using the
meristem-tip.

Tissue Culture
The advantages of this method are:
i. speed and efficiency of plant propagation and
ii. Production of disease-free (aseptic) plants.
Disadvantages include:
i. Spontaneous natural mutations and
ii. Very exacting conditions for growing tissue culture materials, such as absolute sterile
conditions, strict control of temperature, light, humidity and atmosphere with costly
electronic sensors and computer equipment.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Plant or crops are usually reproduced through sexual or asexual means depending on the
mode that is suitable for the crop to produce at maximum productivity. While some crops
reproduce through one means others reproduce through both means. Those crops that
reproduce through sexual means have the advantage of providing genetical variability for
modification while those that reproduce through asexual means have the advantage of
producing true-to-type plants.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have understood the concept of asexual propagation is a method that
involves the induction of a vegetative section or part of a living plant to form roots and
subsequently, developing it into a whole new plant. You have also learnt the different
methods that can be used to achieve this and they include cutting, layering, grafting,
budding and a modern method called micro propagation or tissue culture.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

 1. What is micro propagation?
2. Enumerate three advantages and two disadvantages of sexual propagation of plants
using the seeds.
3. Define the following terms:
(a) Softwood cuttings (b) grafting (c) budding (d) divisions.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ngeze, P.B. (1994). Bananas and their Management. Bukoba Tanzania:
Kagera Writers & Publishers Cooperative Society Ltd. PP 85-93

Ngeze, P.B. &Gathumbi, M. (2004). Learn How to Grow and Market

Bananas. Acacia Publishers/CTA. www.cta.int

Adams, C.R., Bamford, K.M. & Early, M.P. (1999). Principles of

Horticulture.(3rd ed.)._ Butterworth-Heinemann, U.K. 213 p.

Simone, Van Ee (1999). Fruit Growing in the Tropics. The Netherlands:

AGRODOK 5, CTA, 88 p.

Akita, M. & Takayama, S. (1988). Mass Propagation of Potato Tubers using Jar

Fermentor. Techniques. http://www.actahort.org/Asexual Propagation.

http://plantanswers.tamu.edu/misc/asexualpropagation.html
AsexualPropagation.http://glossary.gardenweb.com/glossary/asexual_propagation.html

Methods of Plant Propagation.

http://mastergardenproducts.com/gardenerscorner/new_page_4.htm

Cassells , A.C. & Graham , P.B. ( 2006 ). Dictionary of Plant Tissue Culture . Haworth
Press.

UNIT 3 HORTICULTURAL CROPPING SYSTEMS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
 3.1 Horticultural Cropping System
3.1.1 Continuous Cropping
3.1.2 Crop Rotation
3.1.3 Sequential Cropping
3.1.4 Sole Cropping
3.1.5 Intercropping
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment (TMA)
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In horticultural crop production, general agronomic practices are applied and in addition
some specialised practice such as prunning, staking, mulching are carried out on some
specific crops. These additional agronomic practices are usually done in a carful manner
not to harm the crop. Apart from agronomic practices, there are cropping systems that are
employed or used on horticultural crops as well as field crops. In this unit, you shall be
studying horticultural cropping systems.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit you should be able to
• define cropping system.
• list the different horticultural cropping systems
• explain the different horticultural cropping system.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Horticultural Cropping System
Cropping system is pattern or sequence in which the crops are cultivated on a piece of
land over a fixed period and their interaction with farm resources and other enterprises. In
horticultural crop production the following cropping systems are used.
3.1.1 Continuous Cropping
This is the growing of the same crop for two or more years on the same piece of land.
Continuous cropping is typically practiced when there are economic incentives for
growing that single crop or there is a limited market for the alternative crop. Continuous
cropping also allows greater specialization in terms of management equipment and
marketing. However, it can lead to exhaustion of nutrients which are constantly
replenished through organic means.
3.1.2 Crop Rotation
This is a planned sequence of different crops grown on the same land over years. The
rotation is planned in such a way as to restore nutrients removed of over years and
diversity of crop species. The principles used in crop rotation include.

i. Deep rooted crop should be followed by shallow rooted crop.

ii. Crop likely to be affected by the same insect pest and diseases should not follow each
other.
iii. Nitrogen taking crops should be followed by nitrogen fixing crops.
iv. A short period of fallow must be introduced into the rotation.
3.1.3 Sequential cropping
This is the growing of crops continuously on the same land throughout the year. In
sequential cropping, when one crop is harvested another crop is grown immediately
either under rain fed or through irrigation. The land is put on cultivation all year round
with same or different types of crop. This type of cropping system requires continuous
replenishing of removed nutrients through application of fertilisers. This is usually done
on crops that are in high demand throughout the year e.g. Vegetables. Sequential
cropping consists of the following;
i. Double Sequential Cropping: It is the practice of growing two crops in sequence in a
year.
ii. Triple Sequential Cropping: It is the practice of growing three crops in sequence in a
year.
iii. Quadruple Sequential Cropping: It is the practice of growing four crops in sequence in
a year.
iv. Ratoon Cropping: It is the practice of cultivating crop regrowth after the first harvest
for subsequent production
3.1.4 Sole Cropping
This is the growing of one crop on a piece of land within farming or cropping season.
This system of cropping is common among large commercial farms particularly, in
developed countries. Sole cropping is usually practiced on crops that are in high demand
and have high net return to the farmer. In Nigeria, the farm size for horticultural crops
especially Vegetables is small compared with other crops. Monoculture and mono
cropping are examples of sole cropping.
3.1.5 Intercropping
This is the growing of two or more crops on the same piece of land either on row
arrangement or alternate arrangement. In intercropping, there is competition during all or
part of the crop growth and as such, intercropping should be in such a manner that the
competition would be minimised. To accomplish these, the following must be considered.
1. Spatial crop arrangement: - Planting pattern on the field.
2. Plant density- number of plants per area.
3. Maturity dates.
4. Plant architecture – canopy cover of the plant.
There are four types of intercropping that can be practiced based on spatial arrangement.
i. Row Intercropping- Row intercropping involves growing of two or more crops at the
same time with at least one crop planted in rows and alternated with other crop.
ii. Mixed Intercropping:- This is the growing of two or more crops simultaneously with no
distinct row arrangement.
iii. Strip Cropping:-This is the growing of two or more crops together in strips wide enough
to permit separate crop production. The strips are alternate, running perpendicular to the
slope of the or to the direction of prevailing winds for the purpose of reducing erosion.
iv. Relay Intercropping:-This is planting of two or more succeeding crops when the standing
crop is at its reproductive stage but before harvesting.
3.1.6 Agro-Forestry: It is the practice of integrating the raising of trees into horticultural fruit
tree plantation and arable farming by mixed cropping. It can simply be referred to as
growing crops under tree canopy. Agro-forestry sustains green cover on the land
throughout the year and also involves the integration of appropriate fertiliser trees into
crop production. The system bolsters nutrient supply through N-fixation and nutrient
recycling, and increases direct production of food crops, fodder, food, fibre and income
from products produced by the tree.

3.1.7 Alley Cropping

It is the practice of growing two or more crops in alleys of hedgerows of young tree crops
or multipurpose trees and shrubs, preferably N-fixing leguminous species. It is a modified
form of agro-forestry.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Cropping systems are usually a guide for the farmer on how he can plant his crop so as
they efficiently utilize the environmental factors to his advantages while sustaining the
ecosystem. It is imperative for farmers to choose and adopt cropping systems that would
be of tremendous benefit to all stake holders in agriculture.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that Cropping system is a pattern of cultivating crop on a
piece of land over a fixed period and their interaction with farm resources. The cropping
systems that are used for horticultural crops include the following;
- Sole cropping
- Inter cropping
- Sequential cropping
- Continuous cropping
- Strip cropping
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT
List five(5) cropping systems used for horticultural crops
i- Briefly explain the types of inter cropping you know
ii- Differentiate between sole cropping and inter cropping
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
My Agricultural Information Bank (2012). Cropping Systems in Horticultural Crops.
www.agriinfo.in/cropping

Wyant, (1996). Agroforestry - An Ecological Perspective. Agroforestry Today 8:1

 MODULE 4 - NURSERY PLANT PRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Nursery
3.2 Factors that Determine the Choice Of Location for Field Nursery
3.3 Types of Nursery and their Preparation.
3.5 Nursery Tools and their Uses
3.4 Transplanting
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor -Mark Assignment (TMA)
7.0 References/Further Reading.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In horticultural crop production some crops are planted directly while some are not
planted directly. Those that are not planted directly have to be placed under intensive care
for a period of time before they are taken to the field. This unit explains the procedures of
nursery practices and why it is necessary for some crops to be raised in nursery before
they are taken to the field.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to;
• define nursery
• state the advantages and disadvantages of nursery
• explain the factors that determine the choice of location for field nursery.
• explain the types of nursery
• explain the preparation of nursery.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Nursery
Nursery refers to very special prepared seed beds where young seedlings can be raised in
a more protected environment before they are transplanted in the field or nursery can be
defined as a place where young crop plants are raised under intensive management for
later transplanting to the field. Although many of the important tree crops and Vegetables
can be sown directly in the field, experience has shown that raising seedlings in the
nursery has a number of advantages. Some of these advantages are;
i. Economy of seeds – fewer seed are required for raising seedling in the nursery than for
sowing directly in the field.
ii. Seedlings receive more intensive care (protection against animals, diseases and pest;
regular maintenance practices, watering, irrigation, manuring, etc) in the nursery.
iii. Raising seedlings in the nursery affords the planter an opportunity for selecting well
grown, vigorous and disease free- seedlings.
iv. Where vegetative propagules (vegetative parts) are used, it is often essential to cultivate
them in special nurseries until they have stock roots before planting out as in ornamental
plants.
v. Shade management – most nursed plants because of their tender nature need to be
protected against scorching sun for quite a period of time and they are transplanted when
they are hardened.
vi. Cultural practice such as mulching, chemical spraying and others are easily carried out in
a nursery.
They rising of seedlings in the nursery has some disadvantages and this include
i. High cost as a result of nursery practices is introduced into the total cost of crop after
production.
ii. Nursery labour is specialised and therefore expensive.
iii. It is more expensive to transplant seedlings than to plant seeds at stake.
Despite these disadvantages, most tree crops, some Vegetables and ornamental should be
established in a nursery, particularly when either the varietal or genetic nature of the
materials can be guaranteed only for nursery grown / selected materials, or when special
techniques (e.g budding) demand nursery technique.
3.2 Factors that Determine the Choice of Location of Field Nursery
The following factors determine the location of a field nursery.
i. Choice of Soil: - Since nursery practice aims to provide a high standard of husbandry to
the young developing plants, it is usual to select a good soil both for the location of the
nursery and the filing of containers it is desirable to choose a free draining fertile soil and
if necessary fertilisers may be used to maintain good nutrient balance. In choosing such a
soil, two factors have to be considered.
a) The ease of lifting plants
b) Water retention.
The recommended soil based on the above factors is sandy loam soil.
ii. Choice of Site: - The site for a nursery should be as level as possible. Slopy site should be
avoided. Nursery should be sited away from strong wind. The problems of strong winds
can be controlled by planting wind break using 2 or 3 lines of tall trees.

iii. Near to Source of Water: - Since frequent watering is required, nearness to water source
is important. A nursery should have permanent and a continuous source of water. Water
may be provided by a bore-hole or a small reservoir or a well. A nursery should not
depend on any external water supply.

iv. Proximity to Planting Sites: - To reduce transportation problem, cost and handling
problems, nursery should be sited near the final field.
v. Accessibility: The nursery should be easily accessible to the field, to the road or market.
i. Slope or Land Gradient. Level land is ideal for establishment and maintenance of a
nursery. It reduces the risk of soil erosion. It also enhances application of irrigation water.
However, appropriate conservation methods should be undertaken if a nursery is sited on
a sloppy land.
 3.3 Types of Nursery
There are many types of nursery or seed beds but basically we can classify nursery
into 2;
i. Ground nursery
ii. Portable nursery.

3.3.1 Ground Nursery and their Preparation.

Ground nursery is used for raising Vegetables like tomatoes, pepper, cabbage and others.
There are various stages in the preparation of ground nursery. Here we are going to
discuss bed preparation for a tomato nursery.
a) Bed Preparation: - A bed 90 – 120 cm wide and as long as possible should be made. The
bed may be raise up to 15 cm high or sunken by the same dimension as the case may be.
The soil is compacted and raked to make a level surface. If there are any clods these
should be broken into a fine till.

b) Application of Chemical: - This should be applied 2 weeks before the seeds are sown and
should be done uniformly. Chemical to be applied include nematocide, arcaricide for
control of mites and ticks. Examples of nematocide are nemagon, and examples of
arcaricide are parathion and Malathion. During the application of the chemicals, the soil
should be moist (not to wet or too dry) and the chemical can be applied either single or
mixed at the rate of 8.5 g/m2 and should be in corporate into the soil at depth of 15-20
cm. During application, all precautions should be adhered to.

c) Fertiliser Application: - The compound fertiliser (N.P.K. of grade 20:10:10 or 15:15:15)

may be applied uniformly at the rate of 30 g/m2 and properly raked.

d) Sowing: - After fertiliser application, the seeds beds should be consolidated again and
level led. With a blunt stick you draw your spacing and the spacing should be 10-15 cm
apart and a depth of 6 mm. The seeds are then sown lightly and thinly in the drill or
furrow and covered with soil lightly.

e) Mulching: - After sowing, the seed bed is mulched with dry grass. This is to protect the
seed from being washed away by heavy rain. The mulch also helps to conserved soil
moisture needed for seed germination. The mulching should be removed as soon as the
seed germinate.

f) Watering: - Watering should be done at interval of 2 – 4 days depending on how dry the
climatic condition is. The seed bed should be watered with a fine spray from a watering
can.
g) Thinning: - As soon as the first two leaves start to develop, it is necessary to thin the
seedlings in order to promote steady growth. Seedling must be allowed a spacing of 5 cm
apart. When the seedlings grow to the required height of 8-10 cm or 4-5 weeks, they are
transplanted in the field.

Ground nursery
3.3.2 Portable Nursery
Portable nursery is a movable nursery and can be categorized into 3;
- Box or tray nursery
- Pot nursery
- Polythene bag nursery

Polythene bag nursery

Box tray nursery

In a portable nursery (box or tray, pot and polythene bag portable nursery), the soil
should be sandy loam well manure and preferably sterilised when using boxes, it should
be of convenient size about 45 by 30 cm and the depth of the soil should be about 10 cm.
 The bottom of the container should be perforated to drain out excess water. Draining hole
should be about 5 mm in diameter and spaced 15 cm apart.

3.3.3 Preparation of Portable Nursery

a. Cover the drainage hole with small stones or gravels to prevent soil particles from
blocking the drainage hole.
b. Place a thin layer of dry grass to serve as an aid to good drainage.
c. Fill the box within 1 cm of the top with a mixture of sandy loam soil and farm yard
manure in the ratio of 3:1 by volume.
d. The surface of the soil is then level led and firmed. It is important to have a good level
surface to avoid light seeds being washed to one side during watering.
e. Make grooves or drills not more than 1cm deep and 10 cm apart with a blunt stick. Sow
the seeds in these grooves not too close together.
f. Scatter fine soil over the seed and lightly firm it.
g. Water the soil lightly by sprinkling. The seed box should be watered enough so that the
soil appears moist but not too wet to avoid over watering.
h. Placed boxes on a firm support off the ground to protect them from pest e.g. insect, sheep
and other animals.
i. After the seeds have started to grow, it may be necessary to thin out the seedlings to
ensure healthy steady growth.
SELF -ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
- Define nursery
- State the different types of nursery
- State 3 reasons for establishing a nursery.
3.4 Transplanting
Transplanting is the planting or movement of seedlings from the nursery to the main
field. This is usually done when the seedlings have reached a certain period in the nursery
and they can with stand the environmental conditions in the field. For tree crops usually
the field is cleared and holes dug at a spacing of 3x3 m for trees such as pawpaw guava.
8x10 m for mango and manure placed at the bottom of the hole about 3-5cm before
transplanting is done while for Vegetables, beds are raised about 15-20cm before
transplanting.
Beds meant for transplanting Vegetable crops should be raised during the rainy season to
encourage good drainage and better aeration of the soil. During the dry season or areas
with light rainfall, beds should be sunken to conserve water. The success of transplanting
is reflected by.
a. The fact that seedlings have recovered very rapidly.
b. The degree of establishment.
The success indicated by the fact that seedlings have recovered very rapidly and also the
degree of establishment depends on 4 factors;
i. The Plant Type or Species: - Some species establish easily e.g. sweet potato while others
do not take up easily and should not be transplanted e.g. okra and carrot.
ii. The Age of the Seedlings: - The larger the seedling, the more difficult it is to recover.
When the seedling is large, many roots are damaged and this could lead to high
transpiration in relation to water absorption. This results in wilting and lack of recovery.
The optimum time for transplanting Vegetable crops are; Amaranth 2-3weeks, tomato 3-
4weeks, onions -5-6weeks pepper 4-5weeks.
iii. The Weather at Transplanting: - Favorable weather for transplanting is that which favours
less transpiration (morning and evening period when the sun is not hot). The weather
should be cool and humid and not sunny.

iv. Methods of Transplanting: - The procedure followed during transplanting determines the
success or failure of the whole operation. It is essential that before uprooting seedlings,
the nursery bed should be wet.
For quick recovery and good establishment the following points should be considered.
1. Healthy looking seedlings should be selected for transplanting. Discard wilted and over
grown seedlings.
2. Transplant seedlings in the evening or during cloudy weather.
3. Uproot the plants carefully and use the hand trowel to lift the seedling with soil on the
root.
4. Do not let seedling wilt. Keep them in the shade or in bucket of water after uprooting.
5. Make transplanting hole large enough and deep enough to receive the roots without
damaging or bending them.
6. After setting, apply 100ml of a starter dose of fertiliser around each plant. This is
preferred by dissolving about 10 g of N.P.K. (15 – 15 – 15) in a litre of water.
7. Firm the soil around the root to be sure there are no air pockets.
8. Water the seedlings very frequently to ensure good establishment. Water before 7:00 am
and after 4:00pm.
9. Dust plant and the ground around them with a contact insecticide e.g Aldrin dust to
prevent cutworms and cricket from cutting off the seedlings.
3:5 Nursery Tools and their Uses
Some important tools used in nursery are as follows:
1. Cutlass or Machete: Cutlass is used for clearing the nursery site. It may also be used
for transplanting seedlings and digging holes.
2. Hoe: It is mainly used for making heaps, ridges and nursery beds. It is also very
effective for turning up the soil, loosening the soil surface and to destroy weeds.
3. Hand Trowel: It is used for transplanting seedlings from the nursery to the field and for
spreading manure and also for digging shallow holes on the beds.
4. Garden Fork: It is used for turning manure during compost making and for spreading
manure in the open field. It is also used for loosening the soil before transplanting.
5. Digging Mattock: It is used for digging and uprooting small stumps
6. Rake: A rake is used for leveling soil surface and breaking large soil crumbs into small
ones. It is also used for removing stones and weeds from seedbeds and for covering
vegetable seeds when they are broadcast.
 7. Garden Line: It is used for lining up beds and for making straight line when
planting.
8. Watering Can: It is used for sprinkling water over young seedlings and for irrigation
during dry season farming.
9. Tape: A tape is used for taking short or detailed measurement on the field.
10. Ranging Pole: It is used for marking surveyed stations or intermediate stations. It is
also useful in marking straight lines

4.0 CONCLUSION
The success of crop production depends on the quality of seeds and seedlings used and
the cultural practices employed in the production. Raising of seedlings in the nursery
should be done in a careful manner and all necessary requirement should be met so as to
produce healthy seedlings.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that a nursery is a place where young crop plants are raise
under intensive management for later transplanting to the field. The reasons for nursery
practices are economy of seeds, protection of seedlings against pest and diseases, shade
management etc. however, it has the disadvantages of high cost of establishment, high
cost of labour and transplanting them direct seeding.
6.0 TUTOR -MARK ASSIGNMENTS (TMA)
i. Define transplanting
ii. List the points to be considered for quick seedling recovery and
establishment.
iii. State the different types of portable nursery
iv. State 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of a nursery.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
George, A. (2004). Horticulture- Principles and Practices. (2nd ed.). Eastern
Economy Limited. Pp 3-720.

Lawrence, K. O. (2005). Tropical Commodity Tree Crops. (2nd ed.). Spectrum

Books
Limited. Pp 1-70.

Edmond, J. B., Senn, T. L., Andrews, F. S. & Halfacre, R. G. (1975).

Fundamentals of
Horticulture. (1 st ed.). McGraw-Hill Book Company. Pp183-219.