GEOSTATISTICS

TAKE AWAY CAT 1

NAME: ALPHINE KIPKIRUI YEGON
REG NO: ENM231-0093/2020
1). Computer application techniques/methods are employed in
contemporary mineral prospecting and exploration programs. Discuss
the different types
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) - GIS integrates spatial data, allowing geologists to
analyze geological features in relation to geographic locations. Applied in mapping mineral
deposits, analyzing topography, and assessing environmental impacts.
Remote Sensing - Uses satellite or aerial imagery to gather data about the Earth’s surface. Can
be applied in identifying mineral-rich areas, monitoring land use changes, and assessing
vegetation health which can indicate mineralization.
Geophysical Modeling - Involves computational techniques to model the physical properties of
the Earth's subsurface. Applied in techniques like gravity surveys, magnetic surveys, and
electrical resistivity can help identify potential mineral deposits.
Statistical Analysis - Employs statistical methods to analyze sample data for mineral content.
Applied for quality control in exploration and evaluation of potential economic viability of
deposits.

2). What is the meaning of raw geostatistical data? Provide at least

two types of raw geostatistical data, which are normally collected in
the field.
Geostatistical data are observations and measurements collected during field or laboratory
investigations before analysis.
Two types or raw geostatistical data are normally collected:
• Non-numerical data such as colors or morphological properties of a mineral
• Numerical quantities such as lengths and weights
3). Explain briefly the frequency distribution and how histograms are
useful in raw geostatistical data analysis.
Frequency distribution is the first step of statistical analysis applied to raw geostatistical data. It
shows the frequency of occurrence of each listed value or quantity, or it shows the frequency of
all listed numbers which are in certain interval, also termed class or class interval.
Histogram: A histogram is a graphical plot used to condense or systematically arrange the data
as a frequency distribution where variability of the considered property or properties can be
seen more clearly at a glance.
Statistical parameters: These are a few numbers characterizing a frequency distribution and
which describes its properties as a whole. The most important examples are average values
such as mean and median and variability indicators such as variance and standard deviation

4). Discuss Kriging and its application/interpolations, along with its

advantages.
Kriging is one of several methods that use a limited set of sampled data
points to estimate the value of a variable over a continuous spatial field. An
example of a value that varies across a random spatial field might be
average monthly ozone concentrations over a city, or the availability of
healthy foods across neighborhoods. It differs from simpler methods, such
as Inverse Distance Weighted Interpolation, Linear Regression, or Gaussian
decays in that it uses the spatial correlation between sampled points to
interpolate the values in the spatial field: the interpolation is based on the
spatial arrangement of the empirical observations, rather than on a
presumed model of spatial distribution. Kriging also generates estimates of
the uncertainty surrounding each interpolated value.

In a general sense, the kriging weights are calculated such that points
nearby to the location of interest are given more weight than those farther
away. Clustering of points is also taken into account, so that clusters of
points are weighted less heavily (in effect, they contain less information
than single points). This helps to reduce bias in the predictions.

Advantages of Kriging

Less error and statistically significant; used to fill-in missing spatial values of
satellite-derived data; allows for estimating the unknown; no dependence on
the functional classification to estimate AADT effectively, minimal interactive
modeling; Standard errors of prediction are more accurate; Spatial and
nonspatial variability of random variables can be studied; the determination
of the weights is based on the unbiased and optimality conditions; the
unbiased condition shows the exactness of the kriging interpolator; works on
both stationary and non-stationary data; kriging is controlled by variance
estimation which locates the sector of significant error.

5). Write short notes on the following:

a) Regionalized Variable Theory (RVT)
Regionalized Variable Theory is a statistical framework used to analyze spatially correlated data.
It posits that spatial phenomena can be represented as random variables that vary across a
region, influenced by underlying continuous fields. Key concepts include:
Stationarity - The statistical properties are invariant over space.
Isotropy vs. Anisotropy - Homogeneity in all directions versus variability in specific directions.
Support - The size of the area or volume from which data is sampled, impacting the observed
variability.
b) Geostatistics and Mining Application
Geostatistics applies statistical methods to analyze and interpret spatial data, particularly useful
in mining for resource estimation. Key applications include:
Ore Grade Estimation - Using spatial correlation to predict ore grades at unsampled locations.
Resource Classification - Categorizing resources based on confidence levels (measured,
indicated, inferred).
Mine Planning - Optimizing extraction strategies and assessing economic feasibility using spatial
models.

c) Nugget Effect (Variogram and Variogram Parameters)

The nugget effect describes the phenomenon where there is variability at very small distances,
leading to discontinuities in the spatial correlation. In variograms, it is represented as the y-
intercept:
Variogram - A plot showing how data similarity decreases with distance.
Parameters:
- Nugget: The variance at zero distance, reflecting micro-scale variability or measurement error.
- Sill: The point where the variogram levels off, indicating the total variance.
 - Range: The distance over which data points are spatially correlated.
d) Covariance Function
The covariance function quantifies the degree to which two spatial variables co-vary based on
their distance. It is essential for understanding spatial relationships and is mathematically
defined as:
- C(h): Covariance at distance h, showing how values of the random field are related at different
locations.
- Properties:
- Symmetry: Covariance is equal for any two points regardless of order.
- Positive Semi-definiteness: Ensures that the covariance matrix of a set of points is non-
negative.

6). Why is geostatistics viewed as simply a method for interpolating

data on an irregular pattern, which is too simplistic?
Geostatistics is often viewed as merely a method for interpolating data on an irregular pattern,
but this perspective is overly simplistic for several reasons:

1. Spatial Structure Analysis

Geostatistics goes beyond interpolation by emphasizing the analysis of spatial structures and
patterns in data. It studies how variables are spatially correlated and helps identify underlying
processes that drive these correlations.

2. Uncertainty Quantification

Geostatistical methods provide a framework for quantifying uncertainty in predictions.

Techniques like kriging not only estimate values at unsampled locations but also offer measures
of uncertainty, allowing for better decision-making.

3. Modeling Complex Relationships

Geostatistics can model complex relationships between variables, including anisotropy and non-
stationarity. These considerations allow for more accurate representations of spatial phenomena
than simple interpolation methods.

4. Data Integration
Geostatistical techniques can integrate various data sources and types (e.g., geological,
geophysical, and geochemical data) to create comprehensive spatial models, enhancing the
understanding of the study area.

5. Scale Dependency

Geostatistics recognizes the importance of scale and support. It considers how data variability
changes with different scales, allowing for more nuanced interpretations of spatial patterns.

6. Application to Various Fields

Geostatistics is applicable in diverse fields such as hydrology, ecology, and environmental

science, where understanding spatial relationships and dependencies is crucial for effective
management and policy-making.