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The document discusses spatial structure and geostatistical techniques for spatial interpolation, particularly kriging. It defines spatial structure as the relationship between values at different locations and discusses how describing spatial structure can indicate patterns and allow for interpolation. It then summarizes different forms of kriging including ordinary kriging, simple kriging, universal kriging, indicator kriging, and cokriging based on their assumptions about mean and autocorrelation structures. The document concludes with suggestions for variogram modeling.

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Thyago Oliveira
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50 views11 pages

Gbve

The document discusses spatial structure and geostatistical techniques for spatial interpolation, particularly kriging. It defines spatial structure as the relationship between values at different locations and discusses how describing spatial structure can indicate patterns and allow for interpolation. It then summarizes different forms of kriging including ordinary kriging, simple kriging, universal kriging, indicator kriging, and cokriging based on their assumptions about mean and autocorrelation structures. The document concludes with suggestions for variogram modeling.

Uploaded by

Thyago Oliveira
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Spatial Structure

The relationship between a value measured at a point in one place, versus a


value from another point measured a certain distance away.
Describing spatial structure is useful for:
Indicating intensity of pattern and the scale at which that pattern is exposed
Interpolating to predict values at unmeasured points across the domain (e.g. kriging)

Assessing independence of variables before applying parametric tests of significance

Spatial Structure
Deterministic
Solutions

Geostatistical
Solutions

Geostatistical Techniques
Kriging

Kriging has
Two tasks:

Quantify Spatial Structure, and


Predict an unknown value

Recall:

Spatial Data may be:


Continuous; any real number (-1.4593, 10298.59684)
Integer; interval (-2, -1 , 0 , 1 .)
Ordinal; an ordered categorical code ( worst, medium, best)
Categorical; unordered code (forest, urban)
Binary; nominal, (0 or 1)

IF:

Data are spatially continuous, AND continuous in value with a


normal distribution, AND you know the autocorrelation of the
distribution--

Then:

Kriging is an OPTIMAL predictor

However:

Different forms of Kriging can accommodate all types of data (see


above) and is an approximate method that works well in practice

Kriging Models

Most fundamentally; kriging depends upon


mathematical and statistical models, of which the
statistical model of probability distinguishes
kriging methods from the deterministic methods of
spatial interpolation.
Correlation (autocorrelation) as a function of
distance is a defining feature of geostatistics

Recall our earlier example:

z( s ) ( s )
z(s ) is the variable of interest at location (s)

is the mean, and

(s ) Is spatial dependent of an intrinsic


stationary process

Assumptions about (s ) :

Expected to be 0 on average and the autocorrelation between


Does not depend upon actual location of s
(s ) and

( s h )

All of the random errors are second-order stationarity zero mean


and the covariance between any two random errors depends only
on the distance and direction that separates them, not their exact
locations

Stationarity
Spatial structure of the variable is
consistent over the entire domain of the
dataset.

Anistotropy
spatial structure of the variable is
consistent in all directions.

Ordinary Kriging
Assumes that

is an unknown constants

unknown

z( s ) ( s )

One spatial dimension (x-Coordinate) representative of


perhaps elevation.
There is no way to decide , based upon the data alone,
whether the observed pattern is the result of
autocorrelation alone or a trend ( ( s ) changing with s)

Simple Kriging
Assumes that

us an known constants

Known

z( s ) ( s )

Because you assume to know ( s ) then you also know (s )


This assumption (knowing ( s ) )is often unrealistic,
unless working with physical based models.

Universal Kriging
Assumes that ( s ) is some deterministic function

Deterministic function

z( s ) ( s ) ( s )

The mean of all (s ) is 0


Universal kriging is basically a polynomial regression
with the spatial coordinates as the explanatory variables
which (instead of (s ) being modeled as independent),
they are modeled to be autocorrelated.

Indicator Kriging
Assumes that

Binary variable

is unknown constant

(s )

I(s) (s)

is assumed to be autocorrelated

Interpolations will be between 0 and 1, and can be


interpreted as probabilities of the variable being a 1 or of
being in the class indicated by a 1 --- if binary class is a
threshold imterpolation shows the probabilities of
exceeding the threshold.

cokriging
Assumes that 1 and 2 are unknown constants

z1( s ) 1 1( s )
z2( s ) 2 2( s )

The variable of interest is z1 , and both autocorrelation


for z1 and cross-correlations between z 2 are used.

Dissimilarity

Similarity

Anatomy of a typical semivariogram

Anatomy of a typical covariance function


Where:

var is the variance

Where:

C( si ,s j ) cov(Z( si ) , Z( sj ) )

( s ,s ) 1/ 2 var(Z( s ) Z( sj ) )
i

Then:

cov is the covariance

( s ,s ) sill C(si , s j )
i

Variogram Modeling Suggestions

Check for enough number of pairs at each lag distance (from 30 to 50).

Removal of outliers

Truncate at half the maximum lag distance to ensure enough pairs

Use a larger lag tolerance to get more pairs and a smoother variogram

Start with an omnidirectional variogram before trying directional variograms

Use other variogram measures to take into account lag means and variances
(e.g., inverted covariance, correlogram, or relative variograms)

Use transforms of the data for skewed distributions (e.g. logarithmic transforms).

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