© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

ii

This Study Material has been prepared by the faculty of the Board of Studies
(Academic). The objective of the Study Material is to provide teaching material to the
students to enable them to obtain
4. knowledge in the subject. In case students need
any clarification or have any suggestion
ii for further improvement of the material
contained herein, they may write to the Director of Studies.
All care has been taken to provide interpretations and discussions in a manner useful
for the students. However, the Study Material has not been specifically discussed by
the Council of the Institute or any of its committees and the views expressed herein
may not be taken to necessarily represent the views of the Council or any of its
Committees.
Permission of the Institute is essential for reproduction of any portion of this
material.

© THE INSTITUTE OF CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS OF INDIA

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior permission, in writing, from the
publisher.

Basic draft of this publication was prepared by CA. Vandana D Nagpal

Edition : April, 2023

Committee/Department : Board of Studies (Academic)

E-mail : bosnoida@icai.in

Website : www.icai.org

Price : ` /- (For All Modules)

ISBN No. : 978-81-19472-04-8

Published by : The Publication & CDS Directorate on behalf of

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India,
ICAI Bhawan, Post Box No. 7100,
Indraprastha Marg, New Delhi 110 002 (India)

Printed by :

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BEFORE WE BEGIN….

In contemporary business environment, existence of an entity depends on the

way it faces the challenges posed by the competitive market conditions and deals
with the same. Cost leadership being one of the competitive strategies, gives an
added advantage to the entity. Cost being an important aspect for survival and
growth in business, requires a mandatory awareness about the cost control and
cost reduction methods. Fourth industrial revolution, also known as Industry 4.0,
lays more emphasis on the digitization of information for effective decision-
making, which enables an entity in keeping ahead in competition. Cost and
Management accounting, a discipline of accounting, enables an entity in taking
timely decisions by provisions of cost, profitability and other relevant information.
Chartered Accountants, as a global business solution provider, play an important
role in business, have an onus by helping an entity to achieve its long-term
objectives. In this direction, Cost and Management Accounting helps Chartered
Accountants in taking timely and informed business decisions. In view of nobility
of the objective to provide quality academic inputs to the students of CA course,
the Board of Studies (BoS) of ICAI has decided to bring forth Study Material of
Cost and Management Accounting. This Study Material contains all relevant and
contemporary topics like Digital Costing, Government e-Marketplace (GeM)
Process of tender and quotation, Direct Expenses, Various Short-term decisions,
Budgets and motivation, Feedback and Feedforward controlling in budgeting as
detailed out in the syllabus.
Under the Revised Scheme of Education and Training, at the Intermediate Level,
students are expected not only to acquire professional knowledge but also to
develop the ability to apply the knowledge in real life business situations. The
process of learning should also help the students in imbibing professional skills,
i.e., the intellectual skills and communication skills, necessary for achieving the
desired professional competence.
The entire syllabus has been divided into fifteen chapters. The chapters have been
grouped into two modules:
Module-1 Consisting of seven chapters namely:
Chapter-1: Introduction to Cost and Management Accounting
Chapter-2: Material Cost

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Chapter-3: Employee Cost and Direct Expenses

Chapter-4: Overheads-Absorption Costing Method
4.
Chapter-5: Activity Based Costing
iv
Chapter-6: Cost Sheet
Chapter-7: Cost Accounting Systems
Module-2 Consisting of eight chapters namely:

Chapter-8: Unit & Batch Costing

Chapter-9: Job Costing
Chapter-10: Process & Operation Costing
Chapter-11: Joint Products & By Products
Chapter-12: Service Costing
Chapter-13: Standard Costing
Chapter-14: Marginal Costing
Chapter-15: Budget and Budgetary Control
The content for each chapter at the Intermediate level has been structured in the
following manner –
1. Comprehensive Learning Outcomes: Learning outcomes which you need to
demonstrate after learning each topic have been detailed in the first page of each
chapter. Demonstration of these learning outcomes would help you to achieve
the desired level of technical competence.
2. Chapter Overview: As the name suggests, this chart/table would give a
broad framework of the contents covered in the chapter.
3. Introduction: A brief introduction is given at the beginning of each chapter,
which would help you get a feel of the topic.
4. Content: In each chapter, the topics have been covered following ‘step by
step’ approach. The concepts are explained in student-friendly manner with the
aid of Examples/illustrations/diagrams/flow charts/Pictorials as per requirement.
These value additions would help you develop conceptual clarity and to get a
good and quick grasp of the topic. Diagrams, Pictorials and Flow charts would
help you understand the concepts in a better manner. Illustrations would help
you understand the application of concepts/ provisions. More illustrations/

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Practical questions in Test Your Knowledge section have been added to enable a
thorough practice of variety of questions. The flow of content in chapter have
been reviewed and changed to make it more student friendly.
5. Illustration with Answers: Illustrations and examples has been included in
the Study Material systematically, after discussion on each topic, so that
application of the concept can be understood very clearly. This would also enable
you to learn and sharpen your application skills and test your understanding.
6. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ): In the New Scheme of education and
training, assessment for 30 marks in each paper at the intermediate and final level
would be by way of case scenario based MCQs. Questions in this segment would
comprise of a case scenario followed by a few MCQs based on the case scenario.
All case scenario based MCQs would be application oriented. There would be 4
options in each MCQ, out of which the student has to choose the correct
option. In the subject of Cost and Management Accounting, a student has to
apply the Cost and Management Accounting concepts learnt in solving the MCQs
based on the case scenario. In order to hone the application and analytical skills
of students, independent MCQs have been included in every chapter of this Study
Material. Solving these MCQs will enhance your conceptual clarity and sharpen
your analytical skills.
7. Summary: A summary of the chapter is given at the end to help you revise
what you have learnt. It would especially help you to revise the chapter(s) quickly
the day before the examination.
8. Test Your Knowledge: This comprises of Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs),
Theoretical Questions and Practical Problems with solutions which test the
breadth and depth of your understanding of the topic.
9. Skill Specification Assessment: An indicative skill specification Assessment
Grid has been incorporated in the study material for better understanding of the
students. An effort has been made to arrange the questions/illustrations/exercise
accordingly.
In this Study Material, formats of Financial Statements (i.e. Balance Sheet, Income
Statements etc) and financial terms used are for illustrative purpose only. For
appropriate format and applicability of various Standards, students are advised to
refer the study material of appropriate subject (s).

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Further the solutions/answers contained in the study material are based on

certain assumptions and other logical alternative assumption/ approach/
presentation may be possible. 4.
vi
We have made every effort to make the Study Material student-friendly and to
enable the students to have conceptual clarity on various topics of this subject.
Every effort has been made to remove typing errors (if any)/ clerical errors (if
any)/ missing content (if any)/ formatting errors (if any), or any other error, so as
to make Study Material error free, however if inadvertently any error is present
and found by readers, they may send it to us immediately, so that it can be
rectified at our end.
In case you need any further clarification/ guidance, you may send your queries
through ICAI BoS App.

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SKILL SPECIFICATION ASSESSMENT GRID

Skill Level Manner of Assessment Illustrative verbs used
of Skills to construct learning
outcomes

Level-I: Understanding or List – Preparing a list of

grasping ability (Defining,
Knowledge and State – Mentioning clearly
stating, enlisting,
Comprehension or fully the details of.
identifying, and
explaining concepts / Define – Explaining the
provisions / theories / exact meaning of.
principles relating to the
Describe – Giving detailed
relevant subject area.)
narration of something or
key features.

Distinguish – Mentioning or
highlighting the difference
between.

Explain – Making the

meaning of.

Identify – Recognizing
something.

Illustrate – Explaining
something with the help of
an example.

and similar verbs

Combination of verbs:
Comprehend and Explain;
Identify and explain and
similar verbs.

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Level-II: Applying and analyzing Application:

the concepts learned
Application and 4. Apply – Putting theoretical
during the grasping level.
Analysis viii knowledge for practical
(Application: Applying purpose.
concepts / provisions /
Calculate – Arriving at some
theories / principles in value by following
problem solving in non- numerical/ analytical
complex scenarios.) procedures.

Compute - Arriving at some

value by following
numerical/ analytical
procedures.

Determine- Ascertain or
establish exactly by
calculation or workings.

Find/ Find out- Ascertain or

establish exactly by
calculation or workings.

Demonstrate – Proving
something with certainty
using practical means.

Prepare – Making
something ready for any
use.

Reconcile – Making or
proving consistency/
compatibility.

Solve – Find an answer or

solution to something

Tabulate – Exhibiting the

required information in a
tabular form.

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Combination of verbs:
Compare and contrast and
similar verbs.

(Analysis: Applying, Analysis:

comparing and analysing
Analyze - Examining
concepts / provisions /
something in detail.
theories / principles in
problem solving in Categorize - Arranging
moderately complex something in a predefined
scenarios.) group or class or division.

Compare - Examining the

differences or similarities
between.

Construct - Building or
compiling.

Discuss - Writing about or

examining in detail.

Interpret - Translating in
intelligible or familiar or
understandable terms.

Combination of verbs:

Analyse and apply and

similar verbs.

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SYLLABUS
4.
x

PAPER – 4: COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(One Paper- Three hours- 100 Marks)

Objectives:
(a) To develop an understanding of the basic concepts and applications to
establish the cost associated with the production of products and provision
of services and apply the same to determine prices.
(b) To develop an understanding of cost accounting statements.
(c) To acquire the ability to apply information for cost ascertainment, planning,
control and decision making.
(d) To apply costing methods to determine the costs for different purposes.

(e) To apply appropriate techniques to support short term decisions.

Contents:
1. Overview of Cost and Management Accounting
(i) Introduction to Cost and Management Accounting
(a) Objectives and Scope of Cost and Management Accounting,
(b) The users of Cost and Management accounting information,
Functions of management accounting.
(c) Role of cost accounting department in an organisation and its
relation with other departments.
(d) Installation of Costing System
(e) Relationship of Cost Accounting, Financial Accounting,
Management Accounting and Financial Management.
(f) Cost terms and Concepts
(g) Cost Reduction and Cost Control

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(h) Elements of Costs
(i) Cost behavior pattern, Separating the components of fixed,
variable, semi-variable and step costs.
(j) Methods of Costing, Techniques of Costing.
(k) Digital Costing.
(ii) Elements of Cost and Preparation of Cost Sheets
(a) Functional classification and ascertainment of cost
(b) Preparation of Cost Sheets for Manufacturing sector and for
Service sector
2. Ascertainment of Cost and Cost Accounting System
(i) Material Cost
(a) Introduction to procurement procedures. Valuation of receipts,
issue and closing stock of Material, Stock verification.
(b) Material requirement analysis through digital costing including
Government e-Marketplace (GeM). Introduction to Costing
through Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP). Process of tender
and quotation.
(c) Inventory control-
- Techniques of fixing level of stocks- minimum, maximum,
re-order point, safety stock, determination of optimum stock
level,
- Determination of Optimum Order quantity- Economic Order
Quantity (EOQ),
- Techniques of Inventory control- ABC Analysis, Fast, Slow
moving and Non moving (FSN), High, Medium, Low (HML),
Vital, Essential, Desirable (VED), Just-in-Time (JIT)- Stock
taking and perpetual inventory system, use of inventory
control ratios, Digital Inventory control
(d) Treatment of Normal/Abnormal Losses w.r.t. waste, scrap,
spoilage, defective, obsolescence.

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(ii) Employee Cost

(a) Introduction to Attendance and Payroll procedures
4.
(b) Elements of wages- Basic pay, Dearness Allowance, Overtime,
xii
Bonus, Holiday and leave wages, Allowances and perquisites.
(c) Employee Cost Control
(d) Employee Turnover- Methods of calculating employee turnover,
causes of employee turnover, effects of employee turnover.
(e) Remuneration systems and incentive schemes- Premium Bonus
Method (Halsey Plan and Rowan Plan)

(iii) Direct Expenses

Identification of direct expenses with the main product or service and
its treatment.
(iv) Overheads
(a) Functional analysis- Factory, Administration, Selling, Distribution,
Research and Development.
(b) Behavioral analysis- Fixed, Variable and Semi- Variable.
(c) Allocation and Apportionment of overheads using Absorption
Costing Method.
(d) Factory Overheads- Primary and secondary distribution,
(e) Administration Overheads- Method of allocation to cost centres
or products,
(f) Selling & Distribution Overheads- Analysis and absorption of the
expenses in products/ customers, impact of marketing
strategies, cost effectiveness of various methods of sales
promotion.
(g) Treatment of Research and development cost in cost accounting.
(v) Concepts of Activity Based Costing (ABC)

(vi) Integration of cost and financial data

(a) Recording of financial data and its segregation.
(b) Introduction to Non- integrated and Integrated Accounting
system.

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(c) Items included in cost accounts only but financial accounts and
vice versa.
(d) Reconciliation of profit as per Cost and Financial Accounts
(under Non-Integrated Accounting System).
3. Methods of Costing
(i) Single Output/ Unit Costing
(ii) Job Costing: Job cost cards and databases, collecting direct costs of
each job, attributing overheads to jobs, Application of job costing.
(iii) Batch Costing: Determination of optimum batch quantity,
Ascertainment of cost for a batch, Preparation of batch cost sheet,
Treatment of spoiled and defective work.
(iv) Process/ Operation Costing
(a) Process cost recording, Process loss, Abnormal gains and losses,
Equivalent units of production, Inter-process profit, Valuation of
work in process.
(b) Joint Products- Apportionment of joint costs, Methods of
apportioning joint cost over joint products,
(c) By-Products- Methods of apportioning joint costs over by-
products, treatment of By-product cost.
(v) Costing of Service Sectors
Determination of Costs and Prices of services.
4. Cost Control and Analysis
(i) Standard Costing
(a) Setting up of Standards, Types of Standards, Standard Costing as
method of performance measurement.
(b) Calculation and Reconciliation of Material Cost, Labour cost,
Variable Overhead, Fixed Overhead
(ii) Marginal Costing
(a) Basic concepts of marginal costing, Contribution margin, Break-
even analysis, Break –even and profit volume charts,
Contribution to sales ratio, Margin of Safety, Angle of Incidence,
Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis (CVP),

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(b) Determination of Cost of a product/ service under marginal

costing method, determination of cost of finished goods, work-
in-progress, 4.
xiv
(c) Comparison of Marginal costing with absorption costing
method- Reconciliation of profit under both the methods,
(d) Short term decision making -
• Make or buy decision
• Discontinuation decision
• Multiproduct break-even analysis
• Limiting factor (key factor)
(iii) Budget and Budgetary Control

(a) Meaning of Budget, Essentials of Budget, Budget Manual,

Budget setting process, Preparation of Budget and monitoring
procedures.
(b) The use of budget in planning and control
(c) Flexible budget, Preparation of Functional budget for operating
and non- operating functions, Cash budget, Master budget,

(d) Introduction to Principal/ Key budget factor, Zero Based

Budgeting (ZBB), Performance budget, Control ratios and Budget
variances.
(e) Budgets and motivation
(f) Feedback and Feedforward controlling in budgeting.

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CONTENTS

MODULE – 1
Chapter-1: Introduction to Cost and Management Accounting
Chapter-2: Material Cost
Chapter-3: Employee Cost and Direct Expenses
Chapter-4: Overheads-Absorption Costing Method
Chapter-5: Activity Based Costing
Chapter-6: Cost Sheet
Chapter-7: Cost Accounting Systems

MODULE – 2
Chapter-8: Unit & Batch Costing
Chapter-9: Job Costing
Chapter-10: Process & Operation Costing
Chapter-11: Joint Products & By Products
Chapter-12: Service Costing
Chapter-13: Standard Costing
Chapter-14: Marginal Costing
Chapter-15: Budget and Budgetary Control

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DETAILED CONTENTS: MODULE-1

4.
xvi

CHAPTER-1 : INTRODUCTION TO COST AND MANAGEMENT

ACCOUNTING .............................................................................1.1-1.46

Learning Outcomes .............................................................................................................................. 1.1

Chapter Overview.................................................................................................................................. 1.2

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1.2

1.1 Meaning and Definition ...................................................................................... . 1.2
2. Objectives of Cost Accounting ........................................................................................ 1.4

2.1 Difference between Cost Control and Cost Reduction ............................ .1.6
3. Scope of Cost Accounting .................................................................................. 1.7
4. Relationship of Cost and Management Accounting with
other related disciplines ...................................................................................................... 1.8
4.1 Cost Accounting with Management Accounting ........................................ 1.8
4.2 Cost Accounting with Financial Accounting ................................................. 1.9
4.3 Cost and Management Accounting with Financial Management ......1.10
5. Role & Functions of Cost and Management Accounting ................................... 1.11
6. Users of Cost and Management Accounting ...........................................................1.12

7. Essentials of a Good Cost Accounting System..........................................................1.14

8. Installation of Costing System .......................................................................................1.15
9. Cost Accounting with the use of Information Technology (IT) .........................1.17

9.1 Digital Costing System ........................................................................................1.18

10. Cost Objects ..........................................................................................................................1.19
10.1 Cost Units .................................................................................................................1.20
10.2 Cost Driver ...............................................................................................................1.21
11. Responsibility Centres .......................................................................................................1.22

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12. Limitations of Cost Accounting .....................................................................................1.23
13. Classification of Costs .......................................................................................................1.24
13.1 By Nature or Element ..........................................................................................1.24
13.2 By Functions ............................................................................................................1.26
13.3 By Variability or Behaviour ................................................................................1.27
13.3.1 Methods of segregating Semi-variable Costs into Fixed
and Variable Costs .................................................................................1.29
13.4 By Controllability ...................................................................................................1.33
13.5 By Normality ...........................................................................................................1.33

13.6 By Costs used in Managerial Decision Making ..........................................1.34

14. Methods of Costing ...........................................................................................................1.36
15. Techniques of Costing ......................................................................................................1.38
Summary ................................................................................................................................................1.40
Test Your Knowledge .......................................................................................................................1.43
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) .............................................................................................1.43

Theoretical Questions ......................................................................................................................1.45

Answers to the MCQs ........................................................................................................................1.46
Answers to the Theoretical Questions .......................................................................................1.46

CHAPTER-2 : MATERIAL COST .......................................................................2.1-2.96

Learning Outcomes .............................................................................................................................. 2.1

Chapter Overview ................................................................................................................................ 2.2
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 2.2

2. Material Control .................................................................................................................... 2.3

2.1 Objectives of System of Material Control ..................................................... 2.4
2.2 Requirements of Material Control ................................................................... 2.4
2.3 Elements of Material Control ............................................................................. 2.5

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3. Materials Procurement Procedure .................................................................................. 2.6

3.1 Bill of Materials ....................................................................................................... 2.7
4.
3.2 Material Requisition
xviiiNote ................................................................................... 2.7

Difference between Bill of Materials and Material

Requisition Note .................................................................................................... 2.8
3.3 Purchase Requisition ............................................................................................ 2.8
3.4 Inviting Quotation/Request for Proposal (RFP)/ Notification
Inviting Tender (NIT) .............................................................................................. 2.9
3.5 Selection of Quotation / Proposal .................................................................2.11
3.6 Preparation and Execution of Purchase Orders .......................................2.11
3.7 Receipt and Inspection of Materials ..............................................................2.12
3.7.1 Goods Received Note ........................................................................2.12
3.7.2 Material Returned Note .................................................................... 2.12
3.8 Checking and Passing of Bills for Payment .............................................. 2.13
4. Valuation of Material Receipts .......................................................................................2.13

5. Material Storage & Records ..................................................................................... …. 2.18

5.1 Duties of Store Keeper ........................................................................................2.18
5.2 Store Records ........................................................................................................2.19
5.3 Difference between Bin Card & Stores Ledger .......................................2.21
6. Inventory Control ......................................................................................................... ……2.21
6.1 Inventory Control- By Setting Quantitative Levels ................................ 2.22
6.2 Inventory Stock-Out........................................................................................... 2.31
6.3 Just In Time (JIT) Inventory Management .................................................. 2.35
6.4 Inventory Control- On the basis of Relative Classification ....................2.35
1. ABC Analysis ...........................................................................................2.35
2. Fast Moving, Slow Moving and Non-
Moving (FSN) Inventory .......................................................................2.40

3. Vital, Essential and Desirable (VED).................................................2.41

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4. High Cost, Medium Cost, Low Cost (HML) Inventory ...............2.42
6.5 Using Ratio Analysis ............................................................................................2.42
6.6 Physical Control .....................................................................................................2.45
7. Material Issue Procedure ...................................................................................................2.47
8. Valuation of Material Issues .............................................................................................2.49
8.1 Cost Price Methods .............................................................................................2.50
1. Specific Price Method ...........................................................................2.50
2. First-in First-out (FIFO) Method ........................................................2.50
3. Last-in First-out (LIFO) Method ........................................................2.52

4. Base Stock Method................................................................................2.59

8.2 Average Price Methods .....................................................................................2.59
1. Simple Average Price Method...........................................................2.59
2. Weighted Average Price Method.....................................................2.60
8.3 Market Price Methods .........................................................................................2.61
1. Replacement Price Method ................................................................2.61

2. Inflataed Price Method.........................................................................2.61

8.4 Notional Price Methods ......................................................................................2.62
1. Standard Price Method ........................................................................2.62
2. Inflated Price Method ...........................................................................2.62
3. Re-use Price Method ............................................................................2.62
9. Valuation of Returns & Shortages .................................................................................2.63
9.1 Valuation of Materials Returned to the Vendor ........................................2.63
9.2 Valuation of Materials Returned to Stores ..................................................2.63
9.3 Valuation of Shortages during Physical Verification................................2.63
10. Treatment of Normal and Abnormal Loss of Materials ........................................2.64
Difference between Waste and Scrap ..........................................................................2.66
Difference between Scrap and Defectives ..................................................................2.67

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11. Consumption of Materials ................................................................................................2.70

11.1 Identification of Materials ..................................................................................2.70
4.
11.2 Monitoring Consumption
xx of Materials .........................................................2.71
11.3 Basis for Consumption Entries in Financial Accounts ..............................2.72
Summary ................................................................................................................................................2.73
Test Your Knowledge .......................................................................................................................2.76
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) .............................................................................................2.76
Theoretical Questions ......................................................................................................................2.78
Practical Problems .............................................................................................................................2.79

Answers to the MCQs ........................................................................................................................2.83

Answers to the Theoretical Questions .......................................................................................2.83
Answers to the Practical Problems ..............................................................................................2.84

CHAPTER-3 : EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES ..............................3.1-3.66

Learning Outcomes .............................................................................................................................. 3.1

Chapter Overview.................................................................................................................................. 3.2
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 3.2
2. Employee (Labour Cost) ..................................................................................................... 3.3
Distinction between Direct and Indirect Employee Cost ........................................ 3.3
3. Employee (Labour) Cost Control .................................................................................... 3.4
3.1 Important Factors for the Control of Employee Cost .............................. 3.5
3.2 Collection of Employee Costs .......................................................................... 3.6
4. Attendance & Payroll Procedures.................................................................................... 3.6

4.1 Attendance Procedure / Time-keeping .......................................................... 3.6

4.2 Time-Booking ........................................................................................................... 3.9
4.3 Payroll Procedure ..................................................................................................3.11

5. Idle Time .................................................................................................................................3.13

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6. Overtime ................................................................................................................................ 3.17
7. Labour Utilisation ................................................................................................................3.26
7.1 Identification of Utilisation of labours with Cost Centres .....................3.26
7.2 Identification of labour hours with work order or batches or
capital job.................................................................................................................3.26
8. Systems of Wage Payment and Incentives ..............................................................3.27
8.1 Time Based (Time Rate System) .....................................................................3.27
8.2 Output Based (Piece Rate System) ................................................................3.28
8.3 Premium Bonus Method ....................................................................................3.28

1. Halsey Premium Plan ...........................................................................3.28

2. Rowan Premium Plan ..........................................................................3.29
9. Absorption of Wages ........................................................................................................3.38
9.1 Elements of Wages ...............................................................................................3.38
9.2 Component of Wages Cost or Wages for Costing Purposes ...............3.39
9.3 Holiday and Leave Wages..................................................................................3.41

9.4 Night Shift Allowance ..........................................................................................3.42

9.5 Absorption Rates of Employee Cost ..............................................................3.42
10. Efficiency Rating Procedures ..........................................................................................3.43
10.1 Need for Efficiency Rating .................................................................................3.43
11. Employee (Labour) Turnover ......................................................................................... 3.45
11.1 Employee (Labour) Turnover .......................................................................... 3.45
11.2 Causes of Employee (Labour) Turnover...................................................... 3.48
11.3 Effects of Employee (Labour) Turnover....................................................... 3.50
12. Direct Expenses .................................................................................................................. 3.52
12.1 Direct Expenses ................................................................................................... 3.52
12.2 Measurement of Direct Expenses ................................................................ 3.53

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12.3 Treatment of Direct Expenses ....................................................................... 3.53

Summary ................................................................................................................................................3.54
4.
Test Your Knowledge .......................................................................................................................
xxii 3.57
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) .............................................................................................3.57
Theoretical Questions ......................................................................................................................3.59
Practical Problems ..............................................................................................................................3.60
Answers to the MCQs ........................................................................................................................3.61
Answers to the Theoretical Questions ........................................................................................3.61
Answers to the Practical Problems ..............................................................................................3.62

CHAPTER-4 : OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD ....................4.1-4.98

Learning Outcomes .............................................................................................................................. 4.1

Chapter Overview ................................................................................................................................ 4.2
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 4.2
2. Classification of Overheads ............................................................................................... 4.3
2.1 Advantages of Classification of Overheads into Fixed and Variable .. 4.6
3. Accounting and Control of Manufacturing Overheads ......................................... 4.7
4. Steps for the Distribution of Overheads ................................................................... 4.11
4.1 Estimation and Collection of Overheads ................................................... 4.11
4.2 Allocation of Overheads over Various Departments or
Departmentalisation of Overheads ............................................................. 4.12
4.3 Apportioning Overhead Expenses Over Various Departments ........ 4.13
Difference between Allocation and Apportionment ........................... 4.16

4.4 Re-apportionment of Service Department Overheads over

Production Departments ................................................................................. 4.16
4.5 Absorbing Overheads over Cost Units, Products, etc. ......................... 4.27

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5. Methods of Absorbing Overheads to various Products or Jobs ......................4.29
5.1 Percentage of Direct Material Cost ..............................................................4.30
5.2 Percentage of Prime Cost Method ................................................................4.30
5.3 Percentage of Direct Labour Cost .................................................................4.32
5.4 Labour Hour Rate Method ...............................................................................4.32
5.5 Machine Hour Rate Method ............................................................................4.33
5.6 Rate Per Unit of Output Method ...................................................................4.35
6. Types of Overhead Rates ................................................................................................ 4.36
7. Treatment of Under-Absorbed and Over-Absorbed Overheads in Cost
Accounting ............................................................................................................................4.41
8. Accounting and Control of Administrative Overheads .......................................4.46
8.1 Accounting of Administrative Overheads ...................................................4.47
8.2 Control of Administrative Overheads ...........................................................4.48
9. Accounting and Control of Selling and Distribution Overheads .......................4.53
9.1 Accounting of Selling and Distribution Overheads ................................4.53

9.2 Control of Selling and Distribution Overheads ........................................4.55

10. Concepts related to Capacity. .........................................................................................4.58
11. Treatment of Certain Items in Costing ......................................................................4.59
Summary ................................................................................................................................................4.63
Test Your Knowledge .......................................................................................................................4.64
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) .............................................................................................4.64
Theoretical Questions ......................................................................................................................4.66
Practical Problems .............................................................................................................................4.67
Answers to the MCQs ........................................................................................................................4.78
Answers to the Theoretical Questions .......................................................................................4.78
Answers to the Practical Problems ...............................................................................................4.78

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CHAPTER-5 : ACTIVITY BASED COSTING ......................................................5.1-5.57

Learning Outcomes ..............................................................................................................................

4. 5.1
xxiv
Chapter Overview.................................................................................................................................. 5.1
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 5.2
1.1 Factors prompting the development of ABC .............................................. 5.2
1.2 Usefulness/Suitability of ABC ............................................................................ 5.3
2. Meaning and Definition ..................................................................................................... 5.3

3. Meaning of terms used in ABC ......................................................................................... 5.4

4. Cost Allocation under ABC ................................................................................................. 5.5
5. Traditional Absorption Costing vs ABC ......................................................................... 5.6
Difference between Activity Based Costing and Traditional Absorption
Costing ....................................................................................................................................... 5.7
6. Level of Activities under ABC Methodology/ Cost Hierarchy................................ 5.8

7. Stages in Activity Based Costing (ABC) ......................................................................... 5.9

8. Advantages of Activity Based Costing ........................................................................5.17
9. Limitations of Activity Based Costing ......................................................................... 5.18
10. Requirements in ABC Implementation....................................................................... 5.18
11. Practical Applications of Activity Based Costing ....................................................5.19
11.1 As a Decision-Making Tool ..............................................................................5.19
11.2 As Activity Based Management ......................................................................5.19
11.3 Facilitate Activity Based Budgeting ...............................................................5.21
Summary ...............................................................................................................................................5.30

Test Your Knowledge .......................................................................................................................5.31

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) .............................................................................................5.31
Theoretical Questions ......................................................................................................................5.33
Practical Problems .............................................................................................................................5.34
Answers to the MCQs ........................................................................................................................5.41

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Answers to the Theoretical Questions .......................................................................................5.41
Answers to the Practical Problems ..............................................................................................5.42

CHAPTER-6 : COST SHEET ..............................................................................6.1-6.33

Learning Outcomes .............................................................................................................................. 6.1

Chapter Overview.................................................................................................................................. 6.1
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 6.1
2. Functional Classification of Elements of Cost ............................................................ 6.2

3. Cost Heads in a Cost Sheet ................................................................................................ 6.2

3.1 Prime Cost.................................................................................................................. 6.3
3.2 Cost of Production.................................................................................................. 6.4
3.3 Cost of Goods Sold ............................................................................................... 6.6
3.4 Cost of Sales ............................................................................................................ 6.6
4. Cost Sheet/Statement ......................................................................................................... 6.8
4.1 Presentation of Cost Information .................................................................... 6.8
4.2 Treatment of various items of Cost in Cost Sheet/Statement .............. 6.9
4.3 Advantages of Cost Sheet or Cost Statements ........................................6.10
Summary ................................................................................................................................................6.19
Test Your Knowledge .........................................................................................................................6.20
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) ..............................................................................................6.20
Theoretical Questions........................................................................................................................6.22
Practical Problems ..............................................................................................................................6.23
Answers to the MCQs ........................................................................................................................6.27

Answers to the Theoretical Questions ........................................................................................6.27

Answers to the Practical Problems ..............................................................................................6.28

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CHAPTER 7- COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS ..................................................7.1-7.61

Learning Outcomes ..............................................................................................................................

4. 7.1
xxvi
Chapter Overview.................................................................................................................................. 7.2
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 7.2
2. Non-Integrated Accounting System .............................................................................. 7.2
2.1 Principal Accounts ................................................................................................. 7.3
2.2 Scheme of Accounting Entries .......................................................................... 7.5

3. Integrated (or Integral) Accounting System .............................................................7.19

3.1 Advantages .............................................................................................................7.20
3.2 Essential pre-requisites for Integrated Accounts .....................................7.20
3.3 Features of Integrated Accounting System ................................................7.21
4. Reconciliation of Cost and Financial Accounts .........................................................7.31
4.1 Causes of differences in Financial and Cost Accounts ...........................7.31
4.2 Procedure forReconciliation..............................................................................7.33
Summary ...............................................................................................................................................7.43
Test Your Knowledge .........................................................................................................................7.43
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) ..............................................................................................7.43
Theoretical Questions........................................................................................................................7.45
Practical Problems ..............................................................................................................................7.46
Answers to the MCQs ........................................................................................................................7.50
Answers to the Theoretical Questions ........................................................................................7.50
Answers to the Practical Problems ..............................................................................................7.51

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1

INTRODUCTION TO
COST AND
MANAGEMENT
ACCOUNTING
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you would be able to-
♦ State the meaning, objective and importance of Cost and
Management Accounting.
♦ Discuss the functions and role of Cost Accounting Department in an
organization.
♦ Discuss the installation of a Cost Accounting System in an
organization.
♦ Differentiate between Cost Accounting, Financial Accounting and
Management Accounting.
♦ List the various elements and classifications of cost.
♦ Explain the methods of segregating semi-variable costs into fixed and
variable cost.
♦ Discuss the concept of cost reduction and cost control.
♦ Discuss the methods and techniques of costing.
♦ A brief discussion on Digital Costing System.

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Objectives of Cost
and Management Use of IT in
Accounting Cost Objects
Costing

Scope of Cost
Users of Cost and
Accounting Responsibility
Management
Centres
Accounting

Relationship of Cost
and Management Role & Functions of
Cost
Accounting with other Cost and Management
Classification
related desciplines Accounting

1. INTRODUCTION
Michael E. Porter in his theory of Generic Competitive Strategies has described
‘Cost Leadership’ as one of the three strategic dimensions (others are ‘Product
differentiation’ and ‘Focus or Niche’) to achieve competitive advantage in
industry. Cost Leadership implies producing goods or provision of services at
lowest cost while maintaining quality to have better competitive price. In a
business environment where each entity is thriving to achieve apex position not
only in domestic but global competitive market, it is essential for the entity to fit
into any of the three competitive strategic dimensions. Cost Leadership, also in
line with the subject Cost and Management Accounting, can be achieved if an
entity has a robust Cost and Management Accounting system in place. In this
chapter, we will learn various aspects of Cost and Management Accounting and
its application in manufacturing and service environment.

1.1 Meaning and Definition

(i) Cost- Cost is the amount of resource given up in exchange of some goods
or services. It can be expressed as a noun as well as a verb. As a noun, it

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can be defined as the amount of expenditure (actual or notional) incurred
on or attributable to a specified article, product or activity.
As a verb, it can be as an action to ascertain the cost of a specified thing or
activity.
(ii) Costing- Costing is defined as “the technique and process of ascertaining
costs”.
According to CIMA “an organisation’s costing system is the foundation of
the internal financial information system for managers. It provides the
information that management needs to plan and control the organisation’s
activities and to make decisions about the future.”
(iii) Cost Accounting- Cost Accounting is defined as "the process of
accounting for cost which begins with the recording of income and
expenditure or the bases on which they are calculated and ends with the
preparation of periodical statements and reports for ascertaining and con-
trolling costs."
(iv) Cost Accountancy- Cost Accountancy has been defined as “the
application of costing and cost accounting principles, methods and
techniques to the science, art and practice of cost control and the
ascertainment of profitability. It includes the presentation of information
derived there from for the purpose of managerial decision making.”
(v) Management Accounting- As per CIMA Official Terminology “Management
Accounting is the application of the principles of accounting and
financial management to create, protect, preserve and increase value for
the stakeholders of for-profit and not-for-profit enterprises in the public
and private sectors.”
Management Accounting is an integral part of management function. It
assists management by provision of relevant information for planning,
organising, controlling, decision making etc.
(vi) Cost Management- It is an application of management accounting
concepts, methods of collections, analysis and presentation of data to
provide the information needed to plan, monitor and control costs.

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2. OBJECTIVES OF COST ACCOUNTING

Objectives of Cost Accounting

Determination Assisting
Ascertainment of Cost
of Selling Price Cost Control Management in
Cost Reduction
and Profitability Decision Making

Determination of pre-determined standard

Measurement of actual performance

Comparison

Analysis of variance and action

The main objectives of Cost and Management Accounting are explained as below:
(i) Ascertainment of Cost: The main objective of Cost Accounting is
accumulation and ascertainment of cost. Costs are accumulated, assigned
and ascertained for each cost object. This cost object may be a unit, job,
operation, process, department or service.
(ii) Determination of Selling Price and Profitability: The Cost Accounting
System helps in determination of selling price and thus profitability of a cost
object. Though in a competitive business environment selling prices are
determined by external factors but cost accounting system provides a basis
for price fixation and rate negotiation.
(iii) Cost Control: Maintaining discipline in expenditure is one of the main
objectives of a good cost accounting system. It ensures that expenditures
are in consonance with predetermined set standard and any variation
from these set standards is noted and reported on continuous basis. To
exercise control over cost, following steps are followed:
(a) Determination of pre-determined standard or results: Standard cost or
performance targets for a cost object or a cost centre are set before

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initiation of production or service activity. These are desired cost or result
that need to be achieved.
(b) Measurement of actual performance: Actual cost or result of the cost
object or cost centre is measured. Performance should be measured in
the same manner in which the targets are set i.e., if the targets are set up
operation-wise, and then the actual costs should also be collected and
measured operation-wise to have a common basis for comparison.
(c) Comparison of actual performance with set standard or target: The actual
performance so measured is compared against the set standard and
desired target. Any deviation (variance) between the two is noted and
reported to the appropriate person or authority.
(d) Analysis of variance and action: The variance in results so noted is further
analysed to know the reasons for variance and appropriate action is
taken to ensure compliance in future. If necessary, the standards are
further amended to take developments into account.
(iv) Cost Reduction: It may be defined "as the achievement of real and
permanent reduction in the unit cost of goods manufactured or services
rendered without impairing their suitability for the use intended or
diminution in the quality of the product."
Cost Reduction is an approach of management where cost of an object is
believed to have a scope of further reduction. No cost is termed as lowest
and every possibility of cost reduction is explored. To do cost reduction, the
following action is taken:
(a) Each activity within an entity is segmented to analyse and identify value
added and non- value added activities. All non-value added activities are
eliminated without affecting the essential characteristics of the product
or process. Value Chain Analysis, a strategic tool, developed by Michael
Porter, is one of the method to do value analysis.
(b) Conducting continuous research and study to know the most optimal
way to manufacture a product or render a service.
The three-fold assumptions involved in the definition of cost reduction may
be summarised as under:
(a) There is a saving in unit cost.

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 1.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(b) Such saving is of permanent nature.

(c) The utility and quality of the goods and services remain unaffected, if not
improved.
(v) Assisting Management in Decision Making: Cost and Management
Accounting by providing relevant information, assist management in
planning, implementing, measuring, controlling and evaluating of various
activities. A robust cost and management accounting system provides
internal and external information to the industry which will be relevant for
decision making.

2.1 Difference between Cost Control and Cost Reduction

Cost Control Cost Reduction

1. Cost control aims at maintaining 1. Cost reduction is concerned with

the costs in accordance with the reducing costs. It challenges all standards
established standards. and endeavours to improvise them
continuously

2. Cost control seeks to attain 2. Cost reduction recognises no condition as

lowest possible cost under permanent, since a change will result in
existing conditions. lower cost.

3. In case of cost control, emphasis 3. In case of cost reduction, it is on present

is on past and present and future.

4. Cost control is a preventive 4. Cost reduction is a corrective function. It

function operates even when an efficient cost
control system exists.

5. Cost control ends when targets 5. Cost reduction has no visible end and is a
are achieved. continuous process.

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3. SCOPE OF COST ACCOUNTING

Costing

Cost Accounting

Cost Analysis
Scope of
Cost Cost Comparisons
Accounting
Cost Control

Cost Reports

Statutory Compliances

Scope of Cost Accounting consists of the following functions:

(i) Costing: Costing is the technique and process of ascertaining costs of
products or services. The cost ascertainment procedure is governed by
some cost accounting principles and rules. Generally, cost is ascertained
using historical costs, standard costs, process cost, operation cost etc.
(ii) Cost Accounting: This is a process of accounting for cost which begins
with the recording of expenditure and ends with the preparation of
periodical statement and reports for ascertaining and controlling cost. Cost
Accounting is a formal mechanism of cost ascertainment.
(iii) Cost Analysis: It involves the process of finding out the factors
responsible for variance in actual costs from the budgeted costs and
accordingly fixation of responsibility for cost differences. This also helps in
taking better cost management and strategic decisions.
(iv) Cost Comparisons: Cost accounting also includes comparisons of cost
involved in alternative courses of action such as use of different
technology for production, cost of making different products and activities,
and cost of same product/ service over a period of time.
(v) Cost Control: It involves a detailed examination of each cost in the light
of advantage received from the incurrence of the cost. Thus, we can state

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 1.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

that cost is analyzed to know whether cost is not exceeding its budgeted cost
and whether further cost reduction is possible or not.
(vi) Cost Reports: This is the ultimate function of cost accounting. These
reports are primarily prepared for use by the management at different
levels. Cost Reports helps in planning and control, performance appraisal and
managerial decision making.

(vii) Statutory Compliances: Maintaining cost accounting records as per the

rules prescribed by the statute to maintain cost records relating to
utilization of materials, labour and other items of cost as applicable to the
production of goods or provision of services as provided in the Act and
these rules.

4. RELATIONSHIP OF COST AND

MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING WITH OTHER
RELATED DISCIPLINES
Cost and Management Accounting as a discipline is interrelated and dependent
on other disciplines of accounting.

4.1 Cost Accounting with Management Accounting

As we have already studied that though Cost Accounting and Management
Accounting is used synonymously but there are a few differences. Management
Accounting is an open-ended discipline which enables managers to take informed
decisions. Management Accounting takes inputs from cost accounts, financial
accounts, statistical and operation management tools etc.
Difference between Cost Accounting and Management Accounting

Basis Cost Accounting Management Accounting

(i) Nature It records the quantitative It records both qualitative and
aspect only. quantitative aspect.
(ii) Objective It records the cost of It provides information to
producing a product and management for planning
providing a service. and co-ordination.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COST AND MANAGEMENT 1.9
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(iii) Area It only deals with cost It is wider in scope as it includes
Ascertainment. financial accounting, budgeting,
taxation, planning etc.
(iv) Recording of It uses both past and It is focused with the
data present figures. projection of figures for
future.

(v) Development Its development is related Its development is related to

to industrial revolution. the need of modern business
world.
(vi) Rules and It follows certain It does not follow any specific
Regulation principles and procedures rules and regulations.
for recording costs of
different products.

4.2 Cost Accounting with Financial Accounting

Cost accounting accumulates and ascertains costs for goods sold and inventories.
It provides inputs to record costs in financial accounting system.
Difference between Financial Accounting and Cost Accounting

Basis Financial Accounting Cost Accounting

(i) Objective It provides information about Ascertainment of cost for

the financial performance of the purpose of cost control
an entity. and decision making.

(ii) Nature It classifies records, present It classifies, costs records,

and interprets transactions in present, and interprets it in a
monetary terms. significant manner.

(iii) Recording It records Historical data. It makes use of both

of data historical and pre-
determined costs.

(iv) Users of The users of financial The cost accounting

information accounting statements are information is generally

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 1.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

shareholders, creditors, used by internal

financial analysts and management. But
government and its agencies, sometimes regulatory
etc. authorities also.

(v) Analysis of It shows profit or loss of the It provides the cost details
cost and organization either segment for each cost object i.e.
profit wise or as a whole. product, process, job,
operation, contracts etc.

(vi) Time period Financial Statements are Reports and statements are
prepared usually for a year. prepared as and when
required.

(vii) Presentation A set format is used for In general, no set formats for
of presenting financial presenting cost information
information information. is followed.

4.3 Cost and Management Accounting with Financial

Management
Cost and Management Accounting is an application of Financial Management
for decision making purposes.
The relationship among Cost Accounting, Management Accounting, Financial
Accounting and Financial Management can be understood with the help of the
following diagram.

Financial Management
Accounting Accounting

Cost
Accounting

Financial Management

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 INTRODUCTION TO COST AND MANAGEMENT 1.11
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5. ROLE & FUNCTIONS OF COST AND

MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
The role of a cost and management accounting system is to:

• Provide relevant information to management for decision making,

• Assist management for planning, measurement, evaluation and controlling of
business activities,

• Help in allocation of cost to products and inventories for both external and
internal users.
Though the term Cost Accounting and Management Accounting is used by
various authors synonymously but in actual practice, Cost Accounting is
concerned with accumulation and allocation of costs to different cost
objects, whereas, Management Accounting concerned with provision of
information to internal users for decision making.
The functions of Cost and Management Accounting include:
(i) Collection and accumulation of cost for each element of cost.

(ii) Assigning costs to cost objects to ascertain cost.

(iii) Cost and Management Accounting Department (whatever nomenclature
may be used to denote the department) sets budget and standards for a
particular period or activity beforehand and these are compared with the
assigned and ascertained cost. Any deviation with the set standards are
analysed and reported. All this exercise is done to control costs.

(iv) The main function of Cost and Management Accounting is provision of

relevant information to the management for decision making. An
Information system environment is set up which is popularly known as
Management Information System (MIS). The MIS provides relevant and
timely information related to both internal and external to the organisation
to enable management at all levels to take decisions. Decisions include cost
optimisation, price fixation, implementation of any plan related with
product, process, marketing etc.

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 1.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(v) The performance of a responsibility centre is measured and evaluated

against the set standards. The function of Cost and Management
Accounting is to gather data like time taken, wastages, process idleness etc.,
analyse the data, prepare reports and take necessary actions.

6. USERS OF COST AND MANAGEMENT

ACCOUNTING
Cost and Management Accounting information which is generated or collected is
used by different stakeholders. The users of the information can be broadly
categorised into internal and external to the entity.

Internal users External users

Policy makers Regulatory Authorities

Managers Auditors

Operational level staffs Shareholders

Employees Creditors and Lenders

Internal Users
Internal users, who use the Cost and Management Accounting information may
include the followings:
(a) Policy Makers- The policy makers are those who formulate strategies
(i) to achieve the goals (short & long term both) to fulfil the objectives of
the organisation.
(ii) to position the organisation into the competitive market environment.
(iii) to design the organisational structure to get the policy and strategies
implemented. Etc.
(b) Managers- The managers use the information
(i) to know the cost of a cost object and cost centre
(ii) to know the price for the product or service

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(iii) to measure and evaluate performance of responsibility centres
(iv) to the know the profitability-product-wise, department-wise,
customer-wise etc.
(v) to evaluate the strategic options and to make decisions
(c) Operational level staff- The operational level staff like supervisors,
foreman, team leaders require information
(i) to know the objectives and performance goals for them
(ii) to know product and service specifications like volume, quality and
process etc.
(iii) to know the performance parameters against which their performance
is measured and evaluated.
(iv) to know divisional (responsibility centre) profitability etc.
(d) Employees- Employees are concerned with the information related with
time and attendance, incentives for work, performance standards etc.

External Users
External users, who use the Cost and Management Accounting information may
include the followings:
(a) Regulatory Authorities- Regulatory Authorities are concerned with cost
accounting data and information for different purpose which includes tariff
determination, providing subsidies, rate fixation etc. To do this the regulatory
bodies require information on the basis of some standards and format in
this regard.
(b) Auditors- The auditors while conducting audit of financial accounts or for
some other special purpose audit like cost audit etc. require information
related with costing and reports reviewed by management etc.
(c) Shareholders- Shareholders are concerned with information that effect
their investment in the entity. Management communicates to the
shareholders through periodic communique, annual reports etc. regarding
new orders received, product expansion, market share for products etc.

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(d) Creditors and Lenders- Creditors and lenders are concerned with data and
information which affects an entity’s ability to serve lenders or creditors. For
example, any financial institutions which provides loan to an entity against
book debts and inventories are more concerned with regular reporting on
net debt position and stock balances.

7. ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD COST ACCOUNTING

SYSTEM

Trust on Informative
the system and simple

Accurate
Flexible and
and
adaptive
authentic

Integrated Uniformity
and and
inclusive consistency

Essential features of a good Cost Accounting System

The essential features, which a good Cost Accounting System should possess, are
as follows:
(a) Informative and simple: Cost accounting system should be tailor-made,
practical, simple and capable of meeting the requirements of a business
concern. The system of costing should not sacrifice the utility by introducing
inaccurate and unnecessary details.

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(b) Accurate and authentic: The data to be used by the cost accounting
system should be accurate and authenticated; otherwise it may distort the
output of the system and a wrong decision may be taken.
(c) Uniformity and consistency: There should be uniformity and consistency
in classification, treatment and reporting of cost data and related
information. This is required for benchmarking and comparability of the
results of the system for both horizontal and vertical analysis.
(d) Integrated and inclusive: The cost accounting system should be integrated
with other systems like financial accounting, taxation, statistics and
operational research etc. to have a complete overview and clarity in results.
(e) Flexible and adaptive: The cost accounting system should be flexible enough
to make necessary amendment and modifications in the system to incorporate
changes in technological, reporting, regulatory and other requirements.
(f) Trust on the system: Management should have trust on the system and its
output. For this, an active role of management is required for the
development of such a system that reflects a strong conviction in using
information for decision making.

8. INSTALLATION OF COSTING SYSTEM

As in the case of every other form of activity, it should be considered whether it
would be profitable to have a Cost Accounting System. Management of an
organisation needs complete and accurate information to make decisions. A well-
established costing system should provide all relevant information as and when
required by management as well as various stakeholders.
Before setting up a system of cost accounting the factors mentioned below should be
studied:
(a) Objective: The objective of setting up the costing system, for example
whether it is being introduced for fixing prices or for establishing a system
of cost control.
(b) Nature of Business or Industry: The industry in which the business is
operating. Every business or industry has its own uniqueness and objectives.
According to its cost information requirement, cost accounting methods are

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followed. For example, an oil refinery maintains process wise cost accounts
to find out the cost incurred on a particular process, say in crude refinement
process etc.
(c) Organisational Hierarchy: Costing system should fulfil the information
requirements of different levels of management. Top management is
concerned with the corporate strategy, strategic level management is
concerned with marketing strategy, product diversification, product pricing
etc. Operational level management needs the information on standard
quantity to be consumed, report on idle time etc.
(d) Knowing the product: Nature of the product determines the type of
costing system to be implemented. The product which has by-products
requires costing system which accounts for by-products as well. In case of
perishable or short self- life products, marginal costing is appropriate to
know the contribution and minimum price at which products could be sold.
(e) Knowing the production process: A good costing system can never be
established without the complete knowledge of the production process.
Cost apportionment can be done on the most appropriate and scientific
basis if a cost accountant can identify degree of effort or resources
consumed in a particular process. This also includes some basic technical
know-how and process peculiarity.
(f) Information synchronisation: Establishment of a department or a system
requires substantial amount of organisational resources. While drafting a
costing system, information needs of various other departments should be
taken into account. For example, in a typical business organisation accounts
department needs to submit monthly stock statement to its lender bank,
quantity wise stock details at the time of filing returns to tax authorities etc.
(g) Method of maintenance of cost records: The organization must
determine beforehand the manner in which Cost and Financial Accounts
could be inter-locked into a single integral accounting system and how the
results of separate sets of accounts i.e. cost and financial, could be
reconciled by means of control accounts.
(h) Statutory compliances and audit: Records are to be maintained to comply
with statutory requirements and applicable cost accounting standards
should be followed.

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(i) Information Attributes: Information generated from the Costing system
should possess all the attributes of useful information i.e. it should be
complete, accurate, timely, relevant. to have an effective management
information system (MIS).

9. COST ACCOUNTING WITH THE USE OF

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT)
With the expansion of e-commerce and increasing competitive business
environment, information technology is becoming an integral part of each activity
in an organisation including Cost and Management Accounting. Information
technology has changed the Cost and Management Accounting functions
dramatically with the introduction of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
system. Cost Accounting and Management Information System has become
automated and improved. The new industrial revolution in the form of digital
innovation which is popularly known as Industry 4.0, has more emphasis on
digitisation and automation of business process to have a better control over cost to
maintain market competitiveness. Cost Accounting System has seen lots of savings
in terms of time, money and efforts. The impact of IT in Cost Accounting may
include the following:
(i) After the introduction of ERPs, different functional activities get
integrated and as a consequence, a single entry into the accounting system
provides custom made reports for every purpose and saves an organisation
from preparing different sets of documents. Reconciliation process of
results of both cost and financial accounting systems becomes simpler and
less cumbersome.
(ii) A move towards paperless environment can be seen where documents like
Bill of Material, Material Requisition Note, Goods Received Note, labour
utilisation report etc. are no longer required to be prepared in multiple
copies, the related department can get e-copy from the system.

(iii) Information Technology with the help of internet (including intranet and
extranet) are helping in resource procurement and mobilisation. For
example, production department can get materials from the stores without
issuing material requisition note physically. Similarly, purchase orders can

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be initiated to the suppliers with the help of extranet. This enables an entity
to shift towards Just-in-Time (JIT) approach of inventory management and
production.
(iv) Cost information for a cost centre or cost object is ascertained with accuracy
in timely manner. Each cost centre a cost object is codified and all related
costs are assigned to the cost objects or cost centres using assigned codes.
This automates the cost accumulation and ascertainment process. The cost
information can be customised as per the requirement. For example, when an
entity manufactures or provides services, managers are able to receive
information job-wise, batch-wise, process-wise, cost centre wise etc.
(v) Uniformity in preparation of report, budgets and standards can be achieved
with the help of IT. ERP software plays an important role in bringing
uniformity irrespective of location, currency, language and regulations.
(vi) Cost and revenue variance reports are generated in real time basis which
enables the management to take control measures immediately.
(vii) IT enables an entity to monitor and analyse each process of manufacturing
or service activity closely to eliminate non value-added activities.
The above are examples of few areas where Cost Accounting is done with the
help of IT.

9.1 Digital Costing System

Like the conventional cost accounting system, Digital costing system too collects
data, classify the data, account the data to get and process information to make
decisions, but the difference is the method of collection, medium of storage, forms
of analysis and reporting. Digital costing system links different business functions
such as production, procurement, inventory management with the digital costing
system of its suppliers, customers and the market through data sharing and
network interaction.
Digital Costing System provides data to get the following information:

(i) Cost incurred on a cost object.

(ii) Data on time spent.
(iii) Data on resource consumption.
(iv) Data on current market price of final product and raw materials.

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(v) Data on lead time and availability of materials.
(vi) Data on product demand and trend.

Benefits of Digital Costing System

With the help of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine learnings (ML) which helps
in analysis of the Big data and apprehend the consumption and demand pattern,
the following benefits can be achieved:
(i) Ascertainment of cost with certainty on a cost object (the cost object is
discussed in later paragraph). This helps to analyse the activities for cost
allocation and apportionment.
(ii) Analysis of data on time spent on each activity to study and formulate
incentive plans.
(iii) Helps in material requirement planning and scheduling the material
procurement. Data on resource consumption can be analysed for resource
optimisation and finding the possibilities for zero wastage and Just-in Time
(JIT).
(iv) Helps to identify and eliminate the non-value-added activities.

(v) Data on resource consumption is helpful in setting the standards and

measurement of variances on real time basis.
(vi) Data on current market prices of material and consumables helps to
estimate cost and setting standards on Marked to Market (M2M) basis.
(vii) Extrapolation of data on customer behaviour towards the products to
predict the market demand. It is helpful is preparation of budgets and
planning of production.
(viii) A better analysis of cost behaviour improves the cost benefit analysis and
equipping the management in informed decision making.

10. COST OBJECTS

Cost object is anything for which a separate measurement of cost is required.
Cost object may be a product, a service, a project, a customer, a brand category,
an activity, a department or a programme etc.

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Examples of cost objects are:

Product Smart phone, Tablet computer, SUV Car, Book etc.

Service An airline flight from Delhi to Mumbai, Concurrent audit

assignment, Utility bill payment facility etc.

Project Metro Rail project, Road projects etc.

Activity Quality inspection of materials, Placing of orders etc.

Process Refinement of crudes in oil refineries, melting of billets or ingots

in rolling mills etc.

Department Production department, Finance & Accounts, Safety etc.

Cost object remains in nucleus of cost classification and analysis of the cost
behaviour. Classification of a cost element as direct, indirect, fixed or variable, all
depends on cost object.

10.1 Cost Units

It is a unit of product, service or time (or combination of these) in relation to
which costs may be ascertained or expressed.
We may for instance determine the cost per ton of steel, per ton-kilometre of a
transport service or cost per machine hour. Sometime, a single order or a contract
constitutes a cost unit. A batch which consists of a group of identical items and
maintains its identity through one or more stages of production may also be
considered as a cost unit.
Cost units are usually the units of physical measurement like number, weight, area,
volume, length, time and value.
A few typical examples of cost units are as follows:

Industry or Product Cost Unit Basis

Automobile Number

Cement Ton/ per bag etc.

Chemicals Litre, gallon, kilogram, ton etc.

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Power Kilo-watt hour (kWh)

Steel Ton

Transport Passenger- kilometer

Gas Cubic feet

Some examples from the CIMA terminology are as follows:

Industry Sector Cost unit

Brewing Barrel
Brick-making 1,000 bricks
Coal mining Tonne/ton
Electricity Kilowatt-hour (kWh)
Engineering Contract, job
Oil Barrel, tonne, litre
Hotel/Catering Room/meal
Professional services Chargeable hour, job, contract
Education Course, enrolled student, successful student
Hospitals Patient day
Activity Cost unit
Credit control Accounts maintained
Selling Customer call, value of sales, orders taken
Materials storage/handling Requisition unit issued/received, material
movement, value issued/received
Personnel administration Personnel record

10.2 Cost Driver

A Cost driver is a factor or variable which effect level of cost. Generally, it is an
activity which is responsible for cost incurrence. Level of activity or volume of
production is the example of a cost driver. An activity may be an event, task, or
unit of work etc.

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CIMA Official terminology defines cost driver as “Factor influencing the level of
cost” Often used in the context of Activity Based Costing to denote the factor which
links activity resource consumption to product outputs, for example the number of
purchase orders would be a cost driver for procurement cost.”
Examples of cost drivers are number of machine set ups, number of purchase
orders, hours spent on product inspection, number of tests performed etc.

11. RESPONSIBILITY CENTRES

As the organization grows, its functions, organisational structure and other related
functions also grow in terms of volume and complexity. To have a better control over
the organisation, management delegates its responsibility and authority to various
departments or persons. These departments or persons are known as responsibility
centres and are held responsible for performance in terms of expenditure, revenue,
profitability and return on investment. Performance of these responsibility centres
are measured against some set standards (input-output ratio, budgets etc.) and
evaluated against organisational goal and performance targets.

Types of Responsibility Centres

Revenue Investment
Cost Centres Profit Centres
Centres Centres

(i) Cost Centres: The responsibility centre which is held accountable for
incurrence of costs which are under its control. The performance of this
responsibility centre is measured against pre-determined standards or
budgets. The cost centres are of two types:
(a) Standard Cost Centre and (b) Discretionary Cost Centre
(a) Standard Cost Centre: Cost Centre where output is measurable and
input required for the output can be specified. Based on a well-established
study, an estimate of standard units of input to produce a unit of output
is set. The actual cost for inputs is compared with the standard cost. Any
deviation (variance) in cost is measured and analysed into controllable

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and uncontrollable cost. The manager of the cost centre is expected to
comply with the standard and held responsible for adverse cost
variances. The input-output ratio for a standard cost centre is clearly
identifiable.
(b) Discretionary Cost Centre: The cost centre whose output cannot be
measured in financial terms, thus input-output ratio cannot be defined.
The cost of input is compared with allocated budget for the activity.
Examples of discretionary cost centres are Research & Development
department, Advertisement department where output of these
department cannot be measured with certainty and co-related with cost
incurred on inputs.
(ii) Revenue Centres: The responsibility centres which are accountable for
generation of revenue for the entity. Sales Department for example, is
responsible for achievement of sales target and revenue generation.
Though, revenue centres do not have control on expenditures it incurs but
sometimes expenditures related with selling activities like commission to
sales person etc. are incurred by revenue centres.
(iii) Profit Centres: These are the responsibility centres which have both
responsibility of generation of revenue and incurrence of expenditures. Since,
managers of profit centres are accountable for both costs as well as
revenue, profitability is the basis for measurement of performance of these
responsibility centres. Examples of profit centres are decentralised branches
of an organisation.
(iv) Investment Centres: These are the responsibility centres which are not only
responsible for profitability but also have the authority to make capital
investment decisions. The performance of these responsibility centres are
measured on the basis of Return on Investment (ROI) besides profit.
Examples of investment centres are Maharatna, Navratna and Miniratna
companies of Public Sector Undertakings of Central Government.

12. LIMITATIONS OF COST ACCOUNTING

Like other branches of accounting, cost accounting also has certain limitations.
The limitations of cost accounting are as follows:

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1. Expensive: It is expensive because analysis, allocation and absorption of

overheads requires considerable amount of additional work, and hence
additional money.
2. Requirement of reconciliation: The results shown by cost accounts differ
from those shown by financial accounts. Thus preparation of reconciliation
statements is necessary to verify their accuracy.

3. Duplication of work: It involves duplication of work as organization has to

maintain two sets of accounts i.e. Financial Accounts and Cost Accounts.

13. CLASSIFICATION OF COSTS

It means the grouping of costs according to their common characteristics. The
important ways of classification of costs are:
(i) By Nature or Element
(ii) By Functions
(iii) By Variability or Behaviour
(iv) By Controllability
(v) By Normality
(vi) By Costs for Managerial Decision Making

13.1 By Nature or Element

Under this type of classification of cost, total cost of a cost object is classified on
the basis of element of cost i.e., material, labour, other expenses and overheads.
A diagram as given below shows the elements of cost described as under:

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ELEMENTS OF COST

Material Cost Employee (Labour) Cost Other Expenses

Direct Material Indirect Material Direct Direct Indirect

Indirect
Cost Cost Employee Expenses Expenses
Employee
(Labour) Cost (Labour) Cost

Overheads

Production Administration Selling and

Overheads Overheads Distribution Overheads

(i) Material: Material cost means cost of raw material required to make a
product into finished goods. The materials can be directly attributable to a
cost object or allocable on some reasonable basis where direct attribution is
not possible. Materials which are present in the finished product (cost
object) or can be economically identified in the product are termed as direct
materials. For example, cloth in dress making; materials purchased for a
specific job etc. However, in some cases a material may be direct but it is
treated as indirect; because it is used in small quantities, it is not
economically feasible to identify that quantity. Those materials which are
used for purposes ancillary to the business are also treated as Indirect
Materials.

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(ii) Labour: Wages paid to workers for converting the raw materials into
finished goods, is called labour cost/ labour which can be economically
identified or attributed wholly to a cost object is termed as direct labour. For
example, employee engaged on the actual production of the product or in
carrying out the necessary operations for converting the raw materials into
finished product.
(iii) Other Expenses: All expenses other than material or labour which are
incurred for a particular cost object are termed as other Expenses. For
example, hire charges for some special machinery, cost of defective work
etc.
(iv) Overheads: The aggregate of indirect material costs, indirect labour costs
and indirect expenses is termed as Overheads. The main groups into which
overheads may be subdivided are as follows:
• Production or Works Overheads: Indirect expenses which are
incurred in the factory and for the running of the factory. E.g.: rent,
power etc.
• Administration Overheads: Indirect expenses related to management
and administration of business. E.g.: office rent, lighting, telephone
etc.
• Selling Overheads: Indirect expenses incurred for marketing of a
commodity. E.g.: Advertisement expenses, commission to sales
persons etc.
• Distribution Overheads: Indirect expenses incurred for dispatch of
the goods E.g.: warehouse charges, packing(secondary) and loading
charges.

13.2 By Functions
Under this classification, costs are divided according to the function for which
they have been incurred. It includes the following:
(i) Production/ Manufacturing Cost
(ii) Administration Cost
(iii) Selling Cost

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(iv) Distribution Cost
(v) Research and Development cost etc.
The below chart shows the flow of costs in a cost sheet under functional
classification:

Direct Materials

Direct Employees Prime Cost

(Labours)

Direct Expenses

Factory Overheads
Indirect Material
Factory Cost or
Works Cost
Indirect Labour
Administration Overheads

Indirect Expenses Cost of Goods Sold

Selling and Distribution Overheads

Cost of Sales

13.3 By Variability or Behaviour

Based on this classification, costs are classified into three groups viz., fixed,
variable and semi-variable.
(a) Fixed costs– These are the costs which are incurred for a period, and
which, within certain output and turnover limits, tend to be unaffected
by fluctuations in the levels of activity (output or turnover). They do not
tend to increase or decrease with the changes in output. For example,
rent, insurance of factory building etc., remain the same for different
levels of production.

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Fixed Cost
40000
35000
30000
25000
Cost (`)

20000
15000
Fixed Cost
10000
5000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Output (in units)

(b) Variable Costs– These costs tend to vary with the volume of activity. Any
increase in the activity results in an increase in the variable cost and vice-
versa. For example, cost of direct material, cost of direct labour, etc.

Variable Cost
60000
50000
40000
Cost (`)

30000
20000
10000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Output (in units)

(c) Semi-variable costs– These costs contain both fixed and variable
components and are thus partly affected by fluctuations in the level of
activity. Examples of semi variable costs are telephone bills, gas and
electricity etc. Such costs are depicted graphically as follows:

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13.3.1 Methods of segregating Semi-variable costs into fixed and
variable costs

Semi- Variable Cost

100000
80000
60000
Cost (`)

40000
20000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Output (in units)

The segregation of semi-variable costs into fixed and variable costs can be carried
out by using the following methods:
(a) Graphical method

(b) High-Low method

(c) Analytical method
(d) Comparison by period or level of activity method
(e) Least squares method
(a) Graphical Method: Under this method, the following steps are followed:
(i) A large number of observations regarding the total costs at different
levels of output are plotted on a graph.
(ii) The output is plotted on the X-axis and the total cost is plotted on the Y-
axis.
(iii) Then, by judgment, a line of “best-fit”, which passes through all or most
of the points, is drawn.
(iv) The point at which this line cuts the Y-axis indicates the total fixed cost
component in the total cost.
(v) If a line is drawn at this point parallel to the X-axis, this indicates the fixed
cost.

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(vi) The variable cost, at any level of output, is derived by deducting this fixed
cost element from the total cost.
The following graph illustrates this:

Fixed Overheads Line

(b) High- Low Method: Under this method, difference between the total cost
at highest and lowest volume is divided by the difference between the sales
value at the highest and lowest volume. The quotient thus obtained gives us
the rate of variable cost in relation to sales value.
ILLUSTRATION 1: (Segregation of fixed cost and variable cost)

Sales value Total cost

(`) (`)
At the Highest volume 1,40,000 72,000
At the Lowest volume 80,000 60,000
60,000 12,000
Thus, Variable Cost (` 12,000/` 60,000)
= 1/5 or 20% of sales value = ` 28,000 (at highest volume)
Fixed Cost ` 72,000 – ` 28,000 i.e., (20% of ` 1,40,000) = ` 44,000.
Alternatively, ` 60,000 – ` 16,000 (20% of ` 80,000) = ` 44,000.
(c) Analytical Method: Under this method an experienced cost accountant
tries to judge empirically what proportion of the semi-variable cost would
be variable and what would be fixed. The degree of variability is ascertained

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for each item of semi-variable expenses. For example, some semi-variable
expenses may vary to the extent of 20% while others may vary to the extent
of 80%. Although it is very difficult to estimate the extent of variability of an
expense, the method is easy to apply. (Go through the following illustration
for clarity).
ILLUSTRATION 2: (Segregation of fixed cost and variable cost)
Suppose last month the total semi-variable expenses amounted to ` 3,000.
If the degree of variability is assumed to be 70%, then variable cost = 70%
of ` 3,000 = ` 2,100.

Fixed cost = ` 3,000 – ` 2,100 = ` 900.

Now in the future months, the fixed cost will remain constant, but the
variable cost will vary according to the change in production volume.
Thus, if in the next month production increases by 50%, the total semi-
variable expenses will be:
Fixed cost of ` 900, plus variable cost viz., ` 3,150 i.e., (` 2,100 (V.C.) plus
50% increase of V.C. i.e., ` 1,050) =, ` 4,050.
(d) Comparison by period or level of activity method: Under this method,
the variable overhead may be determined by comparing two levels of
output with the amount of expenses at those levels. Since the fixed element
does not change, the variable element may be ascertained with the help of
the following formula.
Change in the amount of expense
Change in the quantity of output

Suppose the following information is available:

Production Units Semi-variable expenses

(`)
January 100 260
February 140 300
Difference 40 40

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The variable cost:

Change in Semi-variable expenses ` 40
= = ` 1/unit
Change in production volume 40 units
Thus, in January, the variable cost will be 100 × ` 1 = ` 100

The fixed cost element will be (` 260 – ` 100) or ` 160.

In February, the variable cost will be 140 × ` 1 = ` 140
whereas the fixed cost element will remain the same, i.e., ` 160.

(e) Least Square Method: This is the best method to segregate semi-variable
costs into its fixed and variable components. This is a statistical method and is
based on finding out a line of best fit for a number of observations.
The method uses the linear equation y = mx + c, where
‘m’ represents the variable element of cost per unit,
‘c’ represents the total fixed cost,
‘y’ represents the total cost,
‘x’ represents the volume of output.
The total cost is thus split into its fixed and variable elements by solving this
equation.
ILLUSTRATION 3: (Segregation of fixed cost and variable cost)

Level of activity
Capacity % 60% 80%
Volume (Labour hours) or ‘x’ 150 200
Semi-variable expenses (maintenance of plant) or ‘y’ ` 1,200 ` 1,275

Substituting the values of ‘x’ and ‘y’ in the equation, y = mx + c, at both the
levels of activity, we get
1,200 = 150 m + c
1,275 = 200 m + c
On solving the above equations, we get the value of ‘c’
Fixed cost or ‘c’ = ` 975 and Variable cost or ‘m’ = ` 1.50 per labour hour.

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13.4 By Controllability
Costs here may be classified into controllable and uncontrollable costs.

(a) Controllable Costs: - Cost that can be controlled, typically by a cost, profit
or investment centre manager is called controllable cost. Controllable costs
incurred in a particular responsibility centre can be influenced by the action
of the manager heading that responsibility centre. For example, direct costs
comprising direct labour, direct material, direct expenses and some of the
overheads are generally controllable by the shop floor supervisor or the
factory manager.
(b) Uncontrollable Costs - Costs which cannot be influenced by the action of a
specified member of an undertaking are known as uncontrollable costs. For
example, expenditure incurred by say, the tool room is controllable by the
foreman in-charge of that section but the share of the tool-room
expenditure which is apportioned to a machine shop is not controlled by
the machine shop foreman.
Distinction between Controllable Cost and Uncontrollable Cost: The
distinction between controllable and uncontrollable costs is not very prominent
and is sometimes left to individual judgement. In fact, no cost is uncontrollable; it
is only in relation to a particular individual that we may specify a particular cost to
be either controllable or uncontrollable.

13.5 By Normality
According to this basis, cost may be categorised as follows:
(a) Normal Cost - It is the cost which is normally incurred at a given level of
output under the conditions in which that level of output is normally
attained.
(b) Abnormal Cost - It is the cost which is not normally incurred at a given
level of output in the conditions in which that level of output is normally
attained. It is charged to Costing Profit and loss Account.

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13.6 By Costs used in Managerial Decision Making

According to this basis, cost may be categorised as follows:
(a) Pre-determined Cost - A cost which is computed in advance before produc-
tion or operations start, on the basis of specification of all the factors
affecting cost, is known as a pre-determined cost.

(b) Standard Cost - A pre-determined cost, which is calculated from

managements ‘expected standard of efficient operation’ and the relevant
necessary expenditure. It may be used as a basis for price fixation and for
cost control through variance analysis.
(c) Marginal Cost - The amount at any given volume of output by which
aggregate costs increases if the volume of output is increased or decreased
by one unit.
(d) Estimated Cost - Kohler defines estimated cost as “the expected cost of
manufacture, or acquisition, often in terms of a unit of product computed
on the basis of information available in advance of actual production or
purchase”. Estimated costs are prospective costs since they refer to
prediction of costs.
(e) Differential Cost - (Incremental and decremental costs). It represents the
change (increase or decrease) in total cost (variable as well as fixed) due to
change in activity level, technology, process or method of production, etc.
For example, if any change is proposed in the existing level or in the
existing method of production, the increase or decrease in total cost or in
specific elements of cost as a result of this decision will be known as
incremental cost or decremental cost.
(f) Imputed Costs - These costs are notional costs which do not involve any
cash outlay. Interest on capital, the payment for which is not actually made,
is an example of imputed cost. These costs are similar to opportunity costs.
(g) Capitalized Costs -These are costs which are initially recorded as assets and
subsequently treated as expenses. Example, installation expenses on the
erection of a machine are added to the cost of a machine.

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(h) Product Costs - These are the costs which are associated with the purchase
and sale of goods (in the case of merchandise inventory). In the production
scenario, such costs are associated with the acquisition and conversion of
materials and all other manufacturing inputs into finished product for sale.
Hence, under marginal costing, variable manufacturing costs and under
absorption costing, total manufacturing costs (variable and fixed) constitute
inventoriable or product costs.
(i) Opportunity Cost - This cost refers to the value of sacrifice made or benefit
of opportunity foregone in accepting an alternative course of action. For
example, a firm financing its expansion plan by withdrawing money from its
bank deposits. In such a case the loss of interest on the bank deposit is the
opportunity cost for carrying out the expansion plan.
(j) Out-of-pocket Cost - It is that portion of total cost, which involves cash
outflow. This cost concept is a short-run concept and is used in decisions
relating to fixation of selling price in recession, make or buy, etc. Out–of–
pocket costs can be avoided or saved if a particular proposal under
consideration is not accepted.
(k) Shut down Costs - Those costs, which continue to be, incurred even when a
plant is temporarily shut-down e.g. rent, rates, depreciation, etc. These costs
cannot be eliminated with the closure of the plant. In other words, all fixed
costs, which cannot be avoided during the temporary closure of a plant, will be
known as shut down costs.
(l) Sunk Costs - Historical costs incurred in the past are known as sunk costs.
They play no role in decision making in the current period. For example, in
the case of a decision relating to the replacement of a machine, the written
down value of the existing machine is a sunk cost and therefore, not
considered.
(m) Absolute Cost - These costs refer to the cost of any product, process or unit in
its totality. When costs are presented in a statement form, various cost
components may be shown in absolute amount or as a percentage of total
cost or as per unit cost or all together. Here the costs depicted in absolute
amount may be called absolute costs and are base costs on which further
analysis and decisions are made.

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(n) Discretionary Costs – Such costs are not tied to a clear cause and effect
relationship between inputs and outputs. They usually arise from periodic
decisions regarding the maximum outlay to be incurred. Examples include
advertising, public relations, executive training etc.
(o) Period Costs - These are the costs, which are not assigned to the products
but are charged as expenses against the revenue of the period in which they
are incurred. All non-manufacturing costs such as general & administrative
expenses, selling and distribution expenses are recognised as period costs.
(p) Engineered Costs - These are costs that result specifically from a clear
cause and effect relationship between inputs and outputs. The relationship is
usually personally observable. Examples of inputs are direct material costs,
direct labour costs etc. Examples of output are cars, computers etc.
(q) Explicit Costs - These costs are also known as out-of-pocket costs and refer
to costs involving immediate payment of cash. salaries, wages, postage and
telegram, printing and stationery, interest on loan etc. are some examples of
explicit costs involving immediate cash payment.
(r) Implicit Costs - These costs do not involve any immediate cash payment. They
are not recorded in the books of account. They are also known as economic
costs.

14. METHODS OF COSTING

Different industries follow different methods of costing because of the differences
in the nature of their work. The various methods of costing are as follows:

Methods Description

Single or Output Under this method, the cost of a product is ascertained, the
Costing product being the only one produced like bricks, coals, etc.

Batch Costing This method is the extension of job costing. A batch may
represent a number of small orders passed through the
factory in batch. Each batch here is treated as a unit of cost
and thus separately costed. Here cost per unit is
determined by dividing the cost of the batch by the number
of units produced in the batch.

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Job Costing Under this method of costing, cost of each job is

ascertained separately. It is suitable in all cases where work
is undertaken on receiving a customer’s order like a
printing press, motor workshop, etc.

Contract Costing Under this method, the cost of each contract is ascertained
separately. It is suitable for firms engaged in the
construction of bridges, roads, buildings etc.

Process Costing Under this method, the cost of completing each stage of
work is ascertained, like cost of making pulp and cost of
making paper from pulp. In mechanical operations, the cost
of each operation may be ascertained separately; the name
given is operation costing.

Operating Costing It is used in the case of concerns rendering services like

transport, supply of water, retail trade etc.

Multiple Costing It is a combination of two or more methods of costing

outlined above. Suppose a firm manufactures bicycles
including its components; the parts will be costed by the
system of job or batch costing but the cost of assembling
the bicycle will be computed by the single or output
costing method. The whole system of costing is known as
multiple costing.

The following table summarises the various methods of costing applied in

different industries:

Nature of Output Method Cost Examples of

Industries
A Series of Processes Process costing For each Sugar
or Operation process
Costing
Construction of building Contract For each Real estate
Costing contract

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 1.38 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Similar units of a Single Unit or output For the entire Cold Drinks
Product, produced by or Single activity, but
Single Process Costing averaged for
the output

Rendering of Services Operating For all services Hospitals

Costing

Customer Specifications: Job Costing For each order/ Advertising

single Unit assignment/job

Consisting of multiple Multiple Combination of Car

varieties of activities and Costing any method Assembly
processes

15. TECHNIQUES OF COSTING

For ascertaining cost, following types of costing are usually used.

Techniques Description

Uniform When a number of firms in an industry agree among

Costing themselves to follow the same system of costing in details,
adopting common terminology for various items and proc-
esses they are said to follow a system of uniform costing.
Advantages of such a system are:
(i) A comparison of the performance of each of the firms
can be made with that of another, or with the average
performance in the industry.
(ii) Under such a system, it is also possible to determine
the cost of production of goods which is true for the
industry as a whole. It is found useful when tax-relief or
protection is sought from the Government.

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Marginal It is defined as the ascertainment of marginal cost by

Costing differentiating between fixed and variable costs. It is used to
ascertain effect of changes in volume or type of output on profit.

Standard It is the name given to the technique whereby standard

Costing and costs are pre-determined and subsequently compared with
Variance the recorded actual costs. It is thus a technique of cost
Analysis ascertainment and cost control. This technique may be used
in conjunction with any method of costing. However, it is
especially suitable where the manufacturing method
involves production of standardised goods of repetitive
nature.

Historical It is the ascertainment of costs after they have been

Costing incurred. This type of costing has limited utility.
• Post Costing : It means ascertainment of cost after
production is completed.
• Continuous costing : Cost is ascertained as soon as the
job is completed or even when the job is in progress.

Absorption It is the practice of charging all costs, both variable and

Costing fixed to operations, processes or products. This differs from
marginal costing where fixed costs are excluded.

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 1.40 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SUMMARY
♦ Cost:
 The amount of expenditure (actual or notional) incurred on or
attributable to a specified article, product or activity. (as a noun)
 To ascertain the cost of a specified thing or activity. (as a verb)
♦ Costing: It is the technique and process of ascertaining costs.
♦ Cost Accounting: It is the process of accounting for cost which begins with
the recording of income and expenditure or the bases on which they are
calculated and ends with the preparation of periodical statements and
reports for ascertaining and controlling costs.
♦ Cost Accountancy: It has been defined as “the application of costing and
cost accounting principles, methods and techniques to the science, art and
practice of cost control and the ascertainment of profitability. It includes the
presentation of information derived there from for the purpose of
managerial decision making.”
♦ Management Accounting: As per CIMA Official Terminology “Management
Accounting is the application of the principles of accounting and financial
management to create, protect, preserve and increase value for the
stakeholders of for-profit and not-for-profit enterprises in the public and
private sectors.”
♦ Cost Management: It is an application of management accounting
concepts, methods of collections, analysis and presentation of data to
provide the information needed to plan, monitor and control costs.
♦ Cost Control: Maintaining discipline in expenditure is one of the main
objective of a good cost and management accounting system. It ensures
that expenditures are in consonance with predetermined set standard and
any variation from these set standards is noted and reported on continuous
basis.
♦ Cost Reduction: It may be defined "as the achievement of real and
permanent reduction in the unit cost of goods manufactured or services
rendered without impairing their suitability for the use intended or
diminution in the quality of the product."

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ACCOUNTING
♦ Cost Objects: Cost object is anything for which a separate measurement of
cost is required. Cost object may be a product, a service, a project, a
customer, a brand category, an activity, a department or a programme etc.
♦ Cost Units: It is a unit of product, service or time (or combination of these)
in relation to which costs may be ascertained or expressed.
♦ Cost Drivers: A Cost driver is a factor or variable which effect level of cost.
Generally, it is an activity which is responsible for cost incurrence. Level of
activity or volume of production is the example of a cost driver. An activity
may be an event, task, or unit of work etc.
♦ Responsibility Centres: To have a better control over the organisation,
management delegates its responsibility and authority to various
departments or persons. These departments or persons are known as
responsibility centres and are held responsible for performance in terms of
expenditure, revenue, profitability and return on investment.
♦ Cost Centres: The responsibility centre which is held accountable for
incurrence of costs which are under its control. The performance of this
responsibility centre is measured against pre-determined standards or
budgets.

♦ Revenue Centres: The responsibility centres which are accountable for

generation of revenue for the entity.
♦ Profit Centres: These are the responsibility centres which have both
responsibility of generating revenue and incurrence of expenditures. Since,
managers of profit centres are accountable for both costs as well as
revenue, profitability is the basis for measurement of performance of these
responsibility centres.
♦ Investment Centres: These are the responsibility centres which are not only
responsible for profitability but also has the authority to make capital
investment decisions. The performance of these responsibility centres are
measured on the basis of Return on Investment (ROI) besides profit.

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 1.42 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

♦ Classification of Costs:

Classification of Costs

By Nature or By Costs for

By Functions By Variability By By Normality
Element Managerial
or Behaviour Controllability Decision Making*
Direct Material
Materials
Cost
Fixed Cost Controllable
Normal Cost
Direct Employee Cost
Labour
(Labour) Cost
Variable Uncontrollable Abnormal
Other Cost Cost Cost
Direct Expenses
Expenses
Semi-
Overheads Production/ variable
Manufacturing Cost
Overheads

Administration
Overheads

Selling Overheads

Distribution
Overheads

Research and
Development costs
etc.

By Costs for
Managerial
Decision Making* Opportunity Cost Out-of-pocket Cost

Pre-determined Cost Product Cost Shut down Cost Implicit Cost

Standard Cost Capitalized Cost Sunk Cost Explicit Cost

Marginal Cost Imputed Cost Absolute Cost Engineered Cost

Estimated Cost Differential Cost Discretionary Cost Period Cost

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ACCOUNTING

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. ……………….. is anything for which a separate measurement is required.
(a) Cost unit
(b) Cost object
(c) Cost driver
(d) Cost centre
2. Which of the following is true about Cost control:
(a) It is a corrective function
(b) It challenges the set standards
(c) It ends when targets achieved
(d) It is concerned with future

3. Cost units used in power sector is:

(a) Kilometer (K.M)
(b) Kilowatt-hour (kWh)

(c) Number of electric points

(d) Number of hours
4. Process Costing method is suitable for

(a) Transport sector

(b) Chemical industries
(c) Dam construction

(d) Furniture making

5. Which of the following is Not true about the cost control and cost reduction:
(a) Cost control seeks to attain lowest possible cost under best conditions.
(b) Cost control emphasises on past and present.

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 1.44 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(c) Cost reduction is a corrective function. It operates even when an efficient

cost control system exists.
(d) Cost control ends when targets are achieved.
6. The advantage of using IT in Cost Accounting does not include:
(a) Integration of various functions
(b) Stock needs to be reconciled with Goods Received Note
(c) Reduction in multicity of documents

(d) Customised reports can be prepared.

7. A taxi provider charges minimum ` 80 thereafter ` 12 per kilometer of distance
travelled, the behaviour of conveyance cost is:
(a) Fixed Cost
(b) Semi-variable Cost
(c) Variable Cost
(d) Administrative cost.
8. A Ltd. has three production department, and each department has two machines,
which of the following cannot be treated as cost centre for cost allocation:
(a) Machines under the production department
(b) Production departments
(c) Both Production department and machines
(d) A Ltd.
9. Which of the following is an example of functional classification of cost:
(a) Direct Material Cost
(b) Fixed Cost
(c) Administrative Overheads
(d) Indirect Overheads.

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ACCOUNTING
10. Ticket counter in a Railway Station is an example of
(a) Cost Centre
(b) Revenue Centre

(c) Profit Centre

(d) Investment Centre

Theoretical Questions
1. DESCRIBE the main objectives of introduction of a Cost and Management
Accounting System in a manufacturing organization.
2. DISCUSS the different cost centres that on organization can have.
3. DISCUSS cost classification based on variability and controllability.
4. DISCUSS the essential features of a good cost accounting system.

5. DESCRIBE the factors which are to be considered before installing a system of

cost accounting.
6. DISCUSS the four different methods of costing along with their applicability to
concerned industry.
7. STATE the method of costing and the suggested unit of cost for the following
industries:
(a) Transport (b) Power (c) Hotel
(d) Hospital (e) Steel (f) Coal
(g) Bicycles (h) Bridge Construction (i) Interior Decoration
(j) Advertising (k) Furniture (l) Brick-works
8. WRITE a note on the following, indicating in which kinds of industries or
undertakings, the different methods could be suitably applied:
(a) Single or Output Costing (b) Batch Costing
(c) Process Costing (d) Operating Costing
(e) Contract Costing (f) Multiple Costing

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 1.46 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ANSWERS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b)

7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (b)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 2
2. Please refer paragraph 11

3. Please refer paragraph 13

4. Please refer paragraph 7
5. Please refer paragraph 8
6. Please refer paragraph 14
7. Please refer paragraph 14 & 10
8. Please refer paragraph 14

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 CHAPTER
2

MATERIAL COST

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you would be able to-
♦ State the meaning, need and importance of materials.
♦ Discuss the procedures and documentations involved in
procuring, storing and issuing material.
♦ Discuss the various inventory control techniques and
determination of various stock levels.
♦ Compute Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) and apply the
EOQ to determine the optimum order quantity.
♦ Discuss the various methods of inventory accounting and
Prepare stock ledger/ account.
♦ Identify and explain normal and abnormal loss and its
accounting treatment.

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 2.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

1. INTRODUCTION
We have acquired a basic knowledge about the concepts, objectives, advantages,
methods and elements of cost. We shall now study each element of cost
separately beginning with material cost. The general meaning of material is all
commodities/ physical objects used to make the final product. It may be
direct or indirect.

(i) Direct Materials: Materials, cost of which can be directly attributable to the
end product for which it is being used, in an economically feasible way.

(ii) Indirect Materials: Those materials which are not directly attributable to a
particular final product.
Direct Materials constitute a significant part for manufacturing and production of
goods. Being an input and a significant cost element, it requires adequate

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 MATERIAL COST 2.3
2.3

management attention. Cost control starts from here, and for this purpose it is
necessary that the principle of 3Es (Economy, Efficiency and Effectiveness) i.e.
economy in procurement, efficiency in handling and processing the material and
effectiveness in producing desired output as per the standard, is also applied for
this cost element. Importance of proper recording and control of material are as
follows:
(a) Quality of final product: The quality of output depends on the quality of
inputs.
(b) Price of the final product: Material constitutes a significant part of any
product and the cost of final product is directly related with cost of materials
used to produce the product.
(c) Production continuity: The production firms need to ensure that
production process runs smoothly and should not be paused for the want
of materials. In order to avoid production interruptions, an adequate level
of stock of materials should be maintained.
(d) Cost of Stock holding and stock-out: An entity has to incur stock holding
costs in the form of interest and/or opportunity cost for the fund used, stock
handling losses like evaporation, obsolescence etc. Under-stocking causes in
loss of revenue due to stock-out and breach of commitment.
(e) Wastage and other losses: While handling and processing of materials,
some wastage and loss arise. Based on the nature of material and process,
these are classified as normal and abnormal for efficient utilisation and
control.
(f) Regular information about resources: Regular and updated information
on availability and utilisation of materials are necessary for the entity for
timely and informed decision making.

2. MATERIAL CONTROL
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the term Cost Control, which means all
activities and control mechanism which are necessary to keep the cost in
adherence to the set standards. Material, being one of the total cost elements, are
also required to be controlled so that the overall cost control objective can be
fulfilled.

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 2.4 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2.1 Objectives of System of Material Control

The objectives of a system of material control are as following:
(i) Minimising interruption in production process: Material Control system
ensures that no activity, particularly production, suffers from interruption for
want of materials and stores. It should be noted that this requires constant
availability of every item that may be needed in production process,
howsoever, small its cost may be.
(ii) Optimisation of Material Cost: The overall material costs includes price,
ordering costs and holding costs. Since all the materials and stores are
acquired at the lowest possible price considering the required quality and
other relevant factors like reliability in respect of delivery, etc., holding cost
too needs to be minimized.
(iii) Reduction in Wastages: Material Control System has an objective of
avoidance of unnecessary losses and wastages that may arise from
deterioration in quality due to defective or long storage or from
obsolescence. It may be noted that losses and wastages in the process of
manufacture are a concern of the production department.
(iv) Adequate Information: The system of material control maintains proper
records to ensure that reliable information is available for all items of materials
and stores. This not only helps in detecting losses and pilferages but also
facilitates proper production planning.
(v) Completion of order in time: Proper material management is very
necessary for fulfilling orders of the firm. This adds to the goodwill of the
firm.

2.2 Requirements of Material Control

Material control requirements can be summarised as follows:

1. Proper co-ordination of all departments involved viz., finance, purchasing,

receiving, inspection, storage, accounting and payment.
2. Determining purchase procedure to see that purchases are made, after
making suitable enquiries, at the most favourable terms to the firm.

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3. Use of standard forms for placing the order, noting receipt of goods,
authorising issue of the materials etc.
4. Preparation of budgets concerning materials, supplies and equipment to
ensure economy in purchasing and use of materials.
5. Operation of a system of internal check so that all transactions involving
materials, supplies and equipment purchases are properly approved and
automatically checked.
6. Storage of all materials and supplies in a well designated location with
proper safeguards.
7. Operation of a system of perpetual inventory together with continuous stock
checking so that it is possible to determine, at any time, the amount and the
value of each kind of material in stock.

8. Operation of a system of stores control and issue so that there will be delivery
of materials upon requisition to departments in the right amount at the time
they are needed.
9. Development of system of controlling accounts and subsidiary records which
exhibit summary and detailed material costs at the stage of material receipt
and consumption.
10. Regular reports of materials purchased issue from stock, inventory balances,
obsolete stock, goods returned to vendors, and spoiled or defective units
are required.

2.3 Elements of Material Control

Material control is a systematic control over the procurement, storage and usage
of material so as to maintain an even flow of material.

Material Control

Material
Material Storage Material Usage
Procurement Control Control
Control

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 2.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Material control involves efficient functioning of the following operations:

• Purchasing of materials
• Receiving of materials
• Inspection of materials
• Storage of materials
• Issuing materials
• Maintenance of inventory records
• Stock audit

3. MATERIALS PROCUREMENT PROCEDURE

Material procurement procedure can be understood with help of the following
diagram. Documents required and the departments who initiate these documents
are shown sequentially.

Diagram: Material Procurement Procedure

[The name of the departments and documents shown in the diagram are for illustrative purpose only]

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 MATERIAL COST 2.7
2.7

3.1 Bill of Materials

It is also known as Materials Specification List or Materials List. It is a detailed
list specifying the standard quantities and qualities of materials and
components required for producing a product or carrying out of any job. The
materials specification list is prepared by the product development team
commonly known as engineering or planning department in a standard form. This
is shared with other concerned departments like Marketing, Production, Store, and
Cost/ Accounting department.
Format and content of a Bill of Materials vary on the basis of industrial
peculiarities, management information system (MIS) and accounting system in
place.
Uses of Bill of Material

Marketing Production Dept. Stores Dept. Cost/ Accounting

(Purchase) Dept.
Dept.

Materials are Production is planned It is used as a It is used to estimate

procured according to the reference cost and profit. Any
(purchased) on nature, volume of the document while purchase, issue and
the basis of materials required to issuing materials usage are
specifications be used. Accordingly, to the compared/verified
mentioned in it. material requisition requisitioning against this
lists are prepared. department. document.

3.2 Material Requisition Note

It is also known as material requisition slip. It is a voucher of authority used to
get materials issued from store. Generally, it is prepared by the production
department and materials are withdrawn on the basis of material requisition list or
bill of materials. If no material list has been prepared, it is desirable that the task
of the preparation of material requisition notes be left to the planning department
or by the department requires the materials. The note is shared with Store and
Cost/ Accounting department.

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 2.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Format of a Material requisition note may vary on the basis of Industrial

Peculiarities, Management Information System (MIS) and Accounting System in
place.
Difference between Bill of Materials and Material Requisition Note

Bill of Materials Material Requisition Note

1. It is the document prepared by the 1. It is prepared by the production

engineering or planning dept. or other consuming department.

2. It is a complete schedule of 2. It is a document asking

component parts and raw materials Store-keeper to issue materials
required for a particular job or work to the consuming department.
order.

3. It often serves the purpose of a 3. It cannot replace a bill of

material requisition as it shows the materials.
complete schedule of materials
required for a particular job i.e. it can
replace material requisition.

4. It can be used for the purpose of 4. It is useful in arriving historical

quotations. cost only.

5. It helps in keeping a quantitative 5. It shows the material actually

control on materials drawn through drawn from stores.
material requisition.

3.3 Purchase Requisition

This document authorises the purchase department to order for the materials
specified in the note. Since the materials purchased will be used by the production
departments, there should be constant co-ordination between the purchase and
production departments. A purchase requisition is a form used for making a
formal request to the purchasing department to purchase materials. This
form is usually filled up by the store keeper for regular materials and by the
departmental head for special materials (not stocked as regular items).

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2.9

At the beginning a complete list of materials and stores required should be drawn
up, which should be reviewed periodically for any addition or deletion. On the
basis of standing order, once an item is included in the standard list, it becomes
the duty of the purchase department to arrange for fresh supplies before existing
stocks are exhausted. Any change in the consumption pattern should be informed
to the purchase department for necessary action from their end.
For control over buying of regular store materials, Inventory control system is to
determine stock levels to be maintained and the number of quantities to be
ordered. In respect of special materials, required for a special order or purpose, it
is desirable that the concerned technical department should prepare materials
specifications list specifying the quantity, size and order for the materials.
Purchase requisition note may either be originated by the stores department in
connection with regular materials or by the production planning or other technical
departments in respect of special materials.
Format of a purchase requisition note may vary on the basis of Industrial
Peculiarities, Management Information System (MIS) and Accounting System in
place.

3.4 Inviting Quotation/ Request for Proposal (RFP)/

Notification Inviting Tender (NIT)
Materials purchase department has to answer the following question before
initiating purchasing of materials:
(i) What to purchase?
(ii) When to purchase?
(iii) How much to purchase?
(iv) From where to purchase?
(v) At what price to purchase?
The following are the few suggestive steps to answer to the questions:
(i) What to purchase?
Materials are purchased as per the requisition received from the stores or
user departments. In case of materials used regularly, the materials are
purchased as per the standard operating procedures (SOP).

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 2.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) When to purchase?

Materials are purchased considering the need for the materials for
production and safety, however, the timing of placing the order is very
important to get the materials replenished before the requirement arise and
without affecting the production schedule. Supply of materials i.e., how
easily the materials are available in the market, Lead time i.e., time required
to get the order from supplier’s place to production place, consumption
pattern of materials are the important factors which affects the timing of
purchase. Related to the question, later in this chapter Re-order Stock Level
will be learnt. Further the concept of just-in-time (JIT), which is briefly
discussed in this chapter is also associated with the question ‘when’ to
purchase.

(iii) How much to purchase?

The quantity of materials to be ordered depends on the factors like material

consumption pattern, minimum order size as offered by the supplier,
quantity discount, storage cost and capacity and working capital
requirement etc. The concept of Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) will be
discussed later in this chapter.

(iv) Where to purchase?

This is the process of selecting supplier of materials to be purchased. This is

a very sensitive and crucial process, though for every organization but
specifically for the organizations where public money is involved i.e., public
sector undertakings (PSUs). Selection process of supplier could be a grey area
which attracts special attention of regulators like CVC (Central Vigilance
Commission), CAG (Comptroller and Auditor General of India), Auditors and
others. The question is why this is so sensitive to attract attention of
watchdogs. The answer to this question is in a line from Preamble of the
Constitution of India, which reads as to secure to all its citizens: “Equality of
status and of opportunity”. This means the supplier selection process be such
transparent and fair that all suppliers are treated equal to get opportunity in
participation in Tender process.

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 MATERIAL COST 2.11
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The selection process starts with Enquiry/Request for Proposals (RFP)/

Notification Inviting Tender (NIT). The geographical area for an enquiry/ RFP
or NIT can be local or global depending on the propriety, availability and
government guidelines for materials to be purchased. The RFP or NIT can be
floated offline i.e., manual process or online by publishing on website or
designated electronic market places. One of the examples of electronic
market place is GeM (Government e Marketplace).
Government e Marketplace (GeM): A dedicated e-market for different
goods & services procured by Government Organisations / Departments /
PSUs. It aims to enhance transparency, efficiency and speed in public
procurement. It provides the tools of e-bidding, reverse e-auction and
demand aggregation to facilitate the government users, achieve the best
value for their money. The purchases through GeM by Government users
have been authorised and made mandatory by Ministry of Finance.
(v) At what price to purchase?

The answer to the question is discussed in the following paragraph where

the Lowest bidder (also called L1 bidder) for the material is selected.

3.5 Selection of Quotation/ Proposal

After invitation of tender from the vendors, interested vendors who are fulfilling
all the criteria mentioned in the tender notice send their price quotations/
proposals to the purchase department. On the receipt of quotations, a
comparative statement is prepared. For selecting material suppliers, the factors
which the purchase department keeps in its mind are—price, quantity, quality
offered, time of delivery, mode of transportation, terms of payment, reputation of
supplier etc. In addition to the above listed factors purchase manager obtains
other necessary information for final selection of material suppliers.

3.6 Preparation and Execution of Purchase Orders

Having decided on the best quotation that should be accepted, the purchase
manager or concerned officer proceeds to issue the formal purchase order. It is a
written request to the supplier to supply specified materials at specified rates and
within a specified period. Generally, copies of purchase order are given to Store or

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 2.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

order indenting department, receiving department and cost accounting

department. A copy of the purchase order with relevant purchase requisitions, is
held in the file of the department to facilitate the follow-up of the delivery and
also for approval of the invoice for payment.

3.7 Receipt and Inspection of Materials

After execution of purchase order and advance payment (if terms of quotation so
specify), necessary arrangement is made to receive the delivery of materials After
receipt of materials along with relevant documents or/ and invoice, receiving
department (store dept.) arrange to inspect the materials for its conformity with
purchase order. After satisfactory inspection, materials are received and Goods
Received Note is issued. If some materials are not found in good condition or are
not in conformity with the purchase order are returned back to the vendor along
with a Material Returned Note.

3.7.1 Goods Received Note

If everything is in order and the supply is considered suitable for acceptance, the
Receiving department prepares a Receiving Report or Material Inward Note or
Goods Received Note. Generally, it is prepared in quadruplicate, the copies being
distributed to purchase department, store or order indenting department,
receiving department and accounting department.
3.7.2 Material Returned Note
Sometimes materials have to be returned to suppliers after these have been
received in the factory. Such returns may occur before or after the preparation of
the receiving report. If the return takes place before the preparation of the
receiving report, such material obviously would not be included in the report and
hence not shown in the stores ledgers. In that case, no adjustment in the account
books would be necessary. But if the material is returned after its entry in the
receiving report, a suitable document must be drawn up in support of the issue so
as to exclude from the Stores of Material Account the value of the materials
returned back. This document usually takes the form of a Material Returned Note
or Material outward return note.

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3.8 Checking and Passing of Bills for Payment

The invoice received from the supplier is sent to the accounts section to check
authenticity and mathematical accuracy. The quantity and price are also checked
with reference to goods received note and the purchase order respectively. The
accounts section after checking its accuracy finally certifies and passes the invoice
for payment.

4. VALUATION OF MATERIAL RECEIPTS

After the procurement of materials from the supplier actual material cost is
calculated. Ascertainment of cost of material purchased is called valuation of
materials receipts. Cost of material includes cost of purchase net of trade
discounts, rebates, duty draw-back, input credit availed, etc. and other costs
incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition.
Invoice of material purchased from the market sometime contain items such as
trade discount, quantity discount, freight, duty, insurance, cost of containers,
taxes, cash discount etc.
Treatment of items associated with purchase of materials is tabulated as below

Sl No. Items Treatment

Discounts and Subsidy

(i) Trade Trade discount is deducted from the purchase

Discount price if it is not shown as deduction in the invoice.

(ii) Quantity Like trade discount quantity discount is also shown

Discount as deduction from the invoice. It is deducted from
the purchase price if not shown as deduction.

(iii) Cash Discount Cash discount is not deducted from the purchase
price. It is treated as interest and finance item. It is
ignored.

(iv) Subsidy/ Any subsidy/ grant/ incentive received from the

Grant/ Government or from other sources deducted from
Incentives the cost of purchase.

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 2.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Duties and Taxes

(v) Road Tax/ Toll Road tax/ Toll tax, if paid by the buyer, is included
Tax with the cost of purchase.

(vi) Goods and Goods and Service Tax (GST) is paid on supply of
Service Tax goods and provision of services and collected from
(GST) the buyers. It is excluded from the cost of
purchase if credit for the same is available. Unless
mentioned specifically it should not form part of
cost of purchase.

(vii) Custom Duty Custom duty is paid on import of goods from

outside India. It is added with the purchase cost.

Penalty and Charges

(viii) Demurrage Demurrage is a penalty imposed by the transporter

for delay in uploading or offloading of materials. It
is an abnormal cost and not included with cost of
purchase

(ix) Detention Detention charges/ fines imposed for

charges/ Fine non-compliance of rule or law by any statutory
authority. It is an abnormal cost and not included
with cost of purchase

(x) Penalty Penalty of any type is not included with the cost of
purchase

Other expenditures

(xi) Insurance Insurance charges are paid for protecting goods

charges during transit. It is added with the cost of purchase.

(xii) Commission or Commission or brokerage paid is added with the

brokerage paid. cost of purchase.

(xiii) Freight inwards It is added with the cost of purchase as it is directly

attributable to procurement of material.

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(xiv) Cost of Treatment of cost of containers are as follows:

containers • Non-returnable containers: The cost of
containers is added with the cost of purchase
of materials.
• Returnable Containers: If the containers are
returned and their costs are refunded, then
cost of containers should not be considered in
the cost of purchase.
• If the amount of refund on returning the
container is less than the amount paid, then,
only the short fall is added with the cost of
purchase.
(xv) Shortage Shortage in materials is treated as follows:
Shortage due to normal reasons: Good units
absorb the cost of shortage due to normal reasons.
Losses due to breaking of bulk, evaporation, or due
to any unavoidable conditions etc. are the reasons
of normal loss.
Shortage due to abnormal reasons: Shortage
arises due to abnormal reasons such as material
mishandling, pilferage, or due to any avoidable
reasons are not absorbed by the good units. Losses
due to abnormal reasons are debited to costing
profit and loss account.

ILLUSTRATION 1
An invoice in respect of a consignment of chemicals A and B provides the following
information:

(`)
Chemical A: 10,000 kgs. at ` 10 per kg. 1,00,000
Chemical B: 8,000 kgs. at ` 13 per kg. 1,04,000
Basic custom duty @ 10% (Credit is not allowed) 20,400
Railway freight 3,840
Total cost 2,28,240

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 2.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

A shortage of 500 kgs. in chemical A and 320 kgs. in chemical B is noticed due to
normal breakages. You are required to COMPUTE the rate per kg. of each chemical,
assuming a provision of 2% for further deterioration.
SOLUTION
Working:

Computation of effective quantity of each chemical available for use

Chemical A (kg.) Chemical B (kg.)

Quantity purchased 10,000 8,000

Less: Shortage due to normal breakages 500 320

9,500 7,680

Less: Provision for deterioration 2% 190 153.6

Quantity available 9,310 7,526.4

Statement showing the computation of rate per kg. of each chemical

Chemical A (`) Chemical B (`)

Purchase price 10,000@ `10 per kg, 1,00,000 1,04,000

8,000@`13 per kg

Add: Basic Custom Duty @10% 10,000 10,400

Add: Railway freight

(in the ratio of quantity purchased i.e., 5:4) 2,133 1,707

Total cost (A) 1,12,133 1,16,107

Effective Quantity (see working) (B) 9,310 kg. 7,526.4 kg.

Rate per kg. (A ÷ B) 12.04 15.43

ILLUSTRATION 2
At WHAT price per unit would Part No. A 32 be entered in the Stores Ledger, if the
following invoice was received from a supplier:

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 MATERIAL COST 2.17
2.17

Invoice (` )

200 units Part No. A 32 @ ` 5 1,000.00

Less: 20% discount (200.00)

800.00

Add: GST @ 12% 96.00

896.00

Add: Packing charges (5 non-returnable boxes) 50.00

946.00

(i) A 2 per cent cash discount will be given if payment is made in 30 days.
(ii) Documents substantiating payment of GST are enclosed for claiming Input
credit.
SOLUTION
Computation of cost per unit
(`)

Net purchase Price 800.00

Add: Packing charges (5 non-returnable boxes) 50.00

850.00

No. of units purchased 200 units

Cost per unit 4.25

Note: (i) Cash discount is treated as interest and finance charges, hence, it is not
considered for valuation of material.

(ii) Input credit is available for GST paid; hence it will not be added to
purchase cost.

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 2.18 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

5. MATERIAL STORAGE & RECORDS

5
Proper storing of materials is of primary importance. It is not enough only to
purchase material of the required quality. If the purchased material subsequently
deteriorates in quality because of bad storage, the loss is even more than what
might arise from purchase of bad quality of materials. Apart from preservation of
quality, the store-keeper also ensures safe custody of the material. It should be
the function of store-keeper that the right quantity of materials always should be
available in stock.

5.1 Duties of Store Keeper

These can be briefly set out as follows:
(i) General control over store: Store keeper should keep control over all
activities in Stores department. He should check the quantities as mentioned
in Goods received note and with the purchased materials forwarded by the
receiving department and to arrange for the storage in appropriate places.
(ii) Safe custody of materials: Store keeper should ensure that all the materials
are stored in a safe condition and environment required to preserve the
quality of the materials.
(iii) Maintaining records: Store keeper should maintain proper record of
quantity received, issued, balance in hand and transferred to/ from other
stores.
(iv) Initiate purchase requisition: Store keeper should initiate purchase
requisitions for the replacement of stock of all regular stores items whenever
the stock level of any item of store approaches the re-order level fixed.
(v) Maintaining adequate level of stock: Store keeper should maintain
adequate level of stock at all time. He/ she should take all the necessary
action so that production could not be interrupted due to lack of stock.
Further he/ she should take immediate action for stoppage of further
purchasing when the stock level approaches the maximum limit. He also
needs to reserve a particular material for a specific job when so required.

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(vi) Issue of materials: Store keeper should issue materials only against the
material requisition slip approved by the appropriate authority. He/ she
should also refer to bill of materials while issuing materials to requisitioning
department.
(vii) Stock verification and reconciliation: Store keeper should verify the book
balances with the actual physical stock at frequent intervals by way of
internal control and check the any irregular or abnormal issues, pilferage,
etc.

5.2 Store Records

The record of stores may be maintained in three forms:
 Bin Cards
 Stock Control Cards

 Store Ledger
Bin Cards: It is a quantitative record of inventory which shows the quantity of
inventory available in a particular bin. Bin refers to a box/ container/ space where
materials are kept. Card is placed with each of the bin (space) to record the details
of material like receipt, issue and return. It is maintained by store department.
Stock Control Cards: It is also a quantitative record of inventory maintained by
stores department for every item of material. In other words, it is a record which
shows the overall inventory position in store. Recording includes receipt, issue,
return, in hand and order given.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Bin Cards

Advantages:
(i) There would be fewer chances of mistakes being made as entries are made
at the same time as goods received or issued by the person actually
handling the materials.
(ii) Control over stock can be more effective, as comparison of the actual
quantity in hand at any time with the book balance is possible.
(iii) Identification of the different items of materials is facilitated by reference to
the Bin Card, the bin or storage receptacle.

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 2.20 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Disadvantages
(i) Store records are dispersed over a wide area.
(ii) The cards are liable to be smeared with dirt and grease because of proximity
to material and also because of handling materials.
(iii) People handling materials are not ordinarily suitable for the clerical work
involved in writing Bin Cards.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Stock Control Cards
Advantages:
(i) Records are kept in a more compact manner so that reference to them is
facilitated.
(ii) Records can be kept in a neat and clean way by men solely engaged in
clerical work so that a division of workers between record keeping and
actual material handling is possible.
(iii) As the records are at one place, it is possible to get an overall idea of the
stock position without the necessity of going round the stores.
Disadvantages:
(i) On the spot comparison of the physical stock of an item with its book
balance is not facilitated.

(ii) Physical identification of materials in stock may not be as easy as in the case
of bin cards, as the Stock Control Cards are housed in cabinets or trays.
Stores Ledger: A Stores Ledger is maintained to record both quantity and cost
of materials received, issued and those in stock. It is a subsidiary ledger to the
main cost ledger; it is maintained by the Cost/ Accounts Department. The source
documents for posting the ledger are Goods received notes, Materials requisition
notes etc.
The first two forms are records of quantities received, issued and those in balance,
but in the third record i.e. store ledger, value of receipts, issues and closing
balance is also maintained. Usually, records of quantities i.e. Bin cards and Store
Control Cards are kept by the store keeper in store department while record of both
quantity and value is maintained by cost accounting department.

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Difference between Bin Card & Stores Ledger

Bin Card Stores Ledger

It is maintained by the storekeeper in It is maintained in cost accounting

the store. department.

It contains only quantitative details of It contains information both in

material received, issued and quantity and value.
returned to stores.

Entries are made when transaction It is always posted after the

takes place. transaction.

Each transaction is individually Transactions may be summarized and

posted. then posted.

Inter-department transfers do not Material transfers from one job to

appear in Bin Card. another job are recorded for costing
purposes.

6. INVENTORY CONTROL
The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) defines Inventory
Control as “The function of ensuring that sufficient goods are retained in stock to
meet all requirements without carrying unnecessarily large stocks.”
The objective of inventory control is to make a balance between sufficient stock
and over-stock. The stock maintained should be sufficient to meet the production
requirements so that uninterrupted production flow can be maintained.
Insufficient stock not only pause the production but also cause a loss of revenue
and goodwill. On the other hand, inventory requires some funds for purchase,
storage, maintenance of materials with a risk of obsolescence, pilferage etc. The
main objective of inventory control is to maintain a trade-off between stock-out
and over-stocking. The management may employ various methods of inventory
control to have a balance. Management may adopt the following basis for
inventory control:

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 2.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Inventory Control

By Setting On the basis of

Using Ratio
Quantitative Relative Physical Control
Analysis
Levels Classification

6.1 Inventory Control- By Setting Quantitative Levels

Re-order Stock Level •When to Order

Re-order Quantity/ EOQ •How Much to Order

Maximum Stock Level •Upto How much to stock

Minimum Stock Level •Atleast How much to stock

Average Stock Level •Stock normally kept

Danger Stock Level •Kept for emergency requirement

Buffer Stock •To meet sudden demand

(i) Re-order Stock Level (ROL): This level lies between minimum and the
maximum levels in such a way that before the material ordered is received
into the stores, there is sufficient quantity in hand to cover both normal and
abnormal consumption situations. In other words, it is the level at which
fresh order should be placed for replenishment of stock.
It is calculated as:
ROL = Maximum Consumption × Maximum Re-order Period

Maximum Consumption = The maximum rate of material

consumption in production activity
Maximum Re-order period = The maximum time to get order from
supplier to the stores

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 MATERIAL COST 2.23
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This can also be calculated alternatively as below:

ROL = Minimum Stock Level + (Average Rate of Consumption × Average
Re-order period)
Minimum Stock Level = Minimum Stock level that must be
maintained all the time.
Average Rate of Consumption = Average rate of material consumption in
production activity. It is also known as
normal consumption/ usage
Average Re-order period = Average time to get an order from
supplier to the stores. It is also known as
normal period.

(Re-order period is also known as Lead time)

(ii) Re-Order Quantity: Re-order quantity is the quantity of materials for which
purchase requisition is made by the store department. While setting the
quantity to be re-ordered, consideration is given to the maintenance of
minimum level of stock, re-order level, minimum delivery time and the most
important the cost. Hence, the quantity should be where, the total of
carrying cost and ordering cost is at minimum. For this purpose, an
economic order quantity should be calculated.
Economic Order Quantity (EOQ): The size of an order for which total of
ordering and carrying cost are minimum.
Ordering Cost: Ordering costs are the costs which are associated with the
purchase or order of materials such as cost to invite quotations,
documentation works like preparation of purchase orders, employee cost
directly attributable to the procurement of material, transportation and
inspection cost etc.
Carrying Cost: Carrying costs are the costs for holding/ carrying of
inventories in store such as the cost of fund invested in inventories, cost of
storage, insurance cost, obsolescence etc.

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 2.24 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) is calculated as below:

2 × Annual Requirement (A) ×Cost per order (O)

EOQ =
Carrying Costper unitper annum (C)

Annual Requirement (A)- It represents demand for raw material or Input for a
year.
Cost per Order (O) - It represents cost of placing an order for purchase.
Carrying Cost (C) – It represents cost of carrying average inventory on annual
basis.
Assumptions underlying E.O.Q. : The calculation of economic order of
material to be purchased is subject to the following assumptions:
(i) Ordering cost per order and carrying cost per unit per annum are
known and they are fixed.

(ii) Anticipated usage of material in units is known.

(iii) Cost per unit of the material is constant and is known as well.
(iv) The quantity of material ordered is received immediately i.e. the lead
time is zero.

ILLUSTRATION 3
CALCULATE the Economic Order Quantity from the following information. Also
state the number of orders to be placed in a year.
Consumption of materials per annum : 10,000 kg.

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 MATERIAL COST 2.25
2.25

Order placing cost per order : ` 50

Cost per kg. of raw materials : `2
Storage costs : 8% on average inventory
SOLUTION

2× A ×O
EOQ =
C
A = Units consumed during year = 10,000
O = Ordering cost per order = 50
C = Inventory carrying cost per unit per annum. = 8% of ` 2

2 ´ 10,000 ´ 50 2×10,000×50×25
EOQ = = = 2,500 kg
2´ 8 4
100

No. of orders to be placed in a year

= Total consumption of materials per annum

EOQ

= 10,000 kg. = 4 Orders per year

2,500 kg.

ILLUSTRATION 4
(i) COMPUTE E.O.Q. and the total variable cost for the following:
Annual Demand = 5,000 units
Unit price = ` 20.00
Order cost = ` 16.00
Storage rate = 2% per annum
Interest rate = 12% per annum
Obsolescence rate = 6% per annum
(ii) DETERMINE the total cost that would result for the items if a new price
of ` 12.80 is used.

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 2.26 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION
(i) Carrying cost (C) = Storage rate = 2%
Interest Rate = 12%
Obsolescence Rate = 6%
Total = 20% per annum
C= 20% of `Rs 20 = `Rs 4 per unit per annum.

2AO 2×5000×16
E.O.Q = = = 40,000 = 200 units
C 4

Total cost:
Purchase price of 5,000 units @ ` 20.00 per unit = ` 1,00,000
5000
Ordering cost = =25 orders @ ` 16 = ` 400
200

Carrying cost of average Inventory

200
= =100 units @ ` 4 = ` 400
2

Total cost ` 1,00,800

(ii) If the new price of ` 12.80 is used:
C = 20% of 12.80 = ` 2.56 per unit per annum.

2×5,000×16
E.O.Q. = = 250 units
2.56

Total cost:
Purchase price of 5,000 units @ ` 12.80 per unit = ` 64,000
5,000
Ordering cost = = 20 orders @ ` 16 = ` 320
250

Carrying cost (of average inventory) = 250 =125 units @ ` 2.56= ` 320
2

Total variable cost ` 64,640

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(iii) Minimum Stock Level: It is lowest level of material stock, which must be
maintained in hand at all times, so that there is no stoppage of production
due to non-availability of inventory.
It is calculated as below:
Minimum Stock Level = Re-order Stock Level - (Average Consumption Rate
× Average Re-order Period)

(iv) Maximum Stock Level: It is the highest level of quantity for any material
which can be held in stock at any time. Any quantity beyond this level cause
extra amount of expenditure due to engagement of fund, cost of storage,
obsolescence etc.
It can be calculated as below:
Maximum Stock Level = Re-order Level + Re-order Quantity - (Minimum
Consumption Rate × Minimum Re-order Period)
Here, Re-order Quantity may be EOQ
(v) Average Inventory Level: This is the quantity of material that is normally
held in stock over a period. It is also known as normal stock level.
It can be calculated as below:
Average Stock Level = Minimum Stock Level + 1/2 Re-order Quantity
Alternatively, it can be calculated as below:
Maximum Stock Level + Minimum StockLevel
Average Stock Level =
2
(vi) Danger level: It is the level at which normal issues of the raw material
inventory are stopped and emergency issues are only made.
It can be calculated as below:
Danger Level = Average Consumption* × Lead time for emergency purchase
*Some time minimum consumption is also used.
(vii) Buffer Stock: Some quantity of stock may be kept for contingency to be
used in case of sudden order, such stock is known as buffer stock.

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 2.28 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

All the above stock levels can be understood with the help of the following
diagram:
Stock Control Chart

When the materials are purchased, the level keeps rising. It may reach maximum
level if the rate of issuance is less. As the materials are consumed, the stock level
starts declining. At re-order level, reorder quantity is ordered and fresh supplies
are normally received when stocks reach minimum level. The time interval
between re-order level, when the fresh order is placed, and the time of actual
receipt of materials is known as lead time.
ILLUSTRATION 5
Two components, A and B are used as follows:
Normal usage 50 per week each
Maximum usage 75 per week each
Minimum usage 25 per week each
Re-order quantity A: 300; B: 500
Re-order period A: 4 to 6 weeks
B: 2 to 4 weeks

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2.29

CALCULATE for each component (a) Re-ordering level, (b) Minimum level, (c)
Maximum level, (d) Average stock level.
SOLUTION
(a) Re-ordering level:
Maximum usage per week × Maximum delivery period.
Re-ordering level for component A = 75 units × 6 weeks = 450 units
Re-ordering level for component B = 75 units × 4 weeks = 300 units
(b) Minimum level:
Re-order level – (Normal usage × Average period)
Minimum level for component A = 450 units – (50 units × 5 weeks) = 200 units
Minimum level for component B = 300 units – (50 units × 3 weeks) = 150 units
(c) Maximum level:
Re-order level + Re-order quantity – (Min. usage × Minimum period)
Maximum level for component A = (450 units + 300 units) – (25 units × 4
weeks) = 650 units
Maximum level for component B = (300 units + 500 units) – (25 units × 2
weeks) = 750 units
(d) Average stock level:
½ (Minimum + Maximum) stock level
Average stock level for component A = ½ (200 units + 650 units) =425 units.
Average stock level for component B = ½ (150 units + 750 units) =450 units.
ILLUSTRATION 6
From the details given below, CALCULATE:
(i) Re-ordering level
(ii) Maximum level
(iii) Minimum level
(iv) Danger level.

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 2.30 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Re-ordering quantity is to be calculated on the basis of following information:

Cost of placing a purchase order is ` 20
Number of units to be purchased during the year is 5,000
Purchase price per unit inclusive of transportation cost is ` 50
Annual cost of storage per units is ` 5.
Details of lead time : Average- 10 days, Maximum- 15 days, Minimum- 5 days.

For emergency purchases- 4 days.

Rate of consumption : Average: 15 units per day,
Maximum: 20 units per day.
SOLUTION
Basic Data:
A (Number of units to be purchased annually) = 5,000 units
O (Ordering cost per order) = ` 20
C (Annual cost of storage per unit) = `5
Purchase price per unit inclusive of transportation cost = ` 50.
Computations:

(i) Re-ordering level = Maximum usage per period × Maximum lead time
(ROL) = 20 units per day × 15 days
= 300 units
(ii) Maximum level = ROL + ROQ – [Min. rate of consumption × Min.
(Refer to working notes1 and 2) lead time]
= 300 units + 200 units – [10 units per day × 5 days]
= 450 units
(iii) Minimum level = ROL – Average rate of consumption × Average re-
order-period
= 300 units – (15 units per day × 10 days)
=150 units

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(iv) Danger level = Average consumption × Lead time for emergency

purchases
= 15 units per day × 4 days
= 60 units
Working Notes:
1. Minimum rate of consumption per day
Minimum rate of Maximum rate of
+
Av. rate of consumption consumption
=
consumption 2
X units/day + 20 units per day
15 units per day = or X = 10 units per day.
2

2. Re-order Quantity (ROQ) or Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) =

2×5,000 units×` 20
= 200 units
5

6.2 Inventory Stock-Out

Stock out is said to be occurred when an inventory item could not be supplied
due to insufficient stock in the store. The stock- out situation costs to the entity
not only in financial terms but in non-financial terms also. Due to stock out an
entity not only loses overheads costs and profit but reputation (goodwill) also due
to non-fulfilment of commitment. Though it may not be a monetary loss in short
term but in long term it could be a reason for financial loss.

While deciding on the level of inventory, a trade-off between the stock out cost
and carrying cost is made so that overall inventory cost can be minimized.
ILLUSTRATION 7
M/s Tyrotubes trades in four-wheeler tyres and tubes. It stocks sufficient quantity of
tyres of almost every vehicle. In year end 2022-23, the report of sales manager
revealed that M/s Tyrotubes experienced stock-out of tyres.

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 2.32 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The stock-out data is as follows:

Stock-out of Tyres No. of times of Stock Out

100 2
80 5
50 10
20 20
10 30
0 33

M/s Tyrotubes loses ` 150 per unit due to stock-out and spends ` 50 per unit on
carrying of inventory.
DETERMINE optimum safest stock level.
SOLUTION
Computation of Stock-out and Inventory carrying cost

Safety Stock- Probability Stock- Expected Inventory Total

Stock out (3) out cost stock-out carrying cost cost (`)
Level (units) (`) cost (`) (`) (7) =
(units) (2) (4) = (2) (5)=(3)x(4) (6) =(1)x` 50 (5)+(6)
(1) x ` 150
100 0 0.33 0 0 5,000 5,000
80 20 0.02 3,000 60 4,000 4,060
50 50 0.02 7,500 150
30 0.05 4,500 225
12,000 375 2,500 2,875
20 80 0.02 12,000 240
60 0.05 9,000 450
30 0.10 4,500 450
25,500 1,140 1,000 2,140
10 90 0.02 13,500 270
70 0.05 10,500 525

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40 0.10 6,000 600

10 0.20 1,500 300
31,500 1,695 500 2,195
0 100 0.02 15,000 300 2,700
80 0.05 12,000 600
50 0.10 7,500 750
20 0.20 3,000 600
10 0.30 1,500 450
39,000 2,700 0 2,700

At safety stock level of 20 units, total cost is least i.e., ` 2,140.

Working Note:
Computation of Probability of Stock-out

Stock-out (units) 100 80 50 20 10 0 Total

Nos. of times 2 5 10 20 30 33 100
Probability 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.33 1.00

Explanation:
Stock-out means the demand of an item that could not be fulfilled because of
insufficient stock level.
Safety stock is the level of stock of any item which is maintained in excess of
lead time consumption. It is kept as cushion against any unexpected demand
for that item.

Safety stock Impact

level
100 units Any unexpected demand up-to 100 units can be met.
80 units Stock out will only arise if unexpected demand will be for 100
units. In this case 20 units will remain unsatisfied. The
probability of any unexpected demand for 100 units is 0.02.

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 2.34 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

50 units Any unexpected demand beyond 50 units will be remain

unsatisfied. If unexpected demand for 100 units arises
(probability is 0.02) 50 units will be unsatisfied. Similarly, if
unexpected demand for 80 units arises (probability is 0.05), 30
units will be unsatisfied.

20 units Any unexpected demand beyond 20 units will be remain

unsatisfied. If unexpected demand for 100 units arises
(probability is 0.02), 80 units will remain unsatisfied. If
unexpected demand for 80 units arises (probability is 0.05), 60
units will remain unsatisfied. Similarly, when unexpected
demand for 50 units arises (probability is 0.10), 30 units will
remain unsatisfied.

10 units Any unexpected demand beyond 10 units will be remain

unsatisfied. If unexpected demand for 100 units arises
(probability is 0.02), 90 units will remain unsatisfied. If
unexpected demand for 80 units arises (probability is 0.05), 70
units will remain unsatisfied. If unexpected demand for 50 units
arises (probability is 0.10), 40 units will remain unsatisfied.
Similarly, when unexpected demand for 20 units arises
(probability is 0.20), 10 units will remain unsatisfied.

0 unit When no safety stock level is maintained, any unexpected

demand cannot be satisfied. If unexpected demand for 100
units arises (probability is 0.02), 100 units will remain
unsatisfied. If unexpected demand for 80 units arises
(probability is 0.05), 80 units will remain unsatisfied. If
unexpected demand for 50 units arises (probability is 0.10), 50
units will remain unsatisfied. If unexpected demand for 20 units
arises (probability is 0.20), 20 units will remain unsatisfied.
Similarly, unexpected demand for 10 units (probability is 0.30),
10 units will remain unsatisfied.

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6.3 Just In Time (JIT) Inventory Management

JIT is a system of inventory management with an approach to have zero
inventories in stores. According to this approach material should only be
purchased when it is actually required for production.
JIT is based on two principles
(i) Produce goods only when it is required and

(ii) the products should be delivered to customers at the time only when they want.
It is also known as ‘Demand pull’ or ‘Pull through’ system of production. In
this system, production process actually starts after the order for the products is
received. Based on the demand, production process starts and the requirement for
raw materials is sent to the purchase department for purchase. This can be
understood with the help of the following diagram:

Production Material Order for

Supplier
Demand starts to requirement is raw
sends the
for final process the sent to the materials
material for
product demand for Purchase sent to
production
product department supplier

6.4 Inventory Control- On the basis of Relative

Classification

ABC Analysis •On the basis of value and frequency of inventory

•On the basis of inventory turnover

Fast, Slow and Non Moving (FSN)

Vital, Essential and Desirable (VED) •On the basis of importance of inventory

High, Medium and Low (HML) •On the basis of price of an item of inventory

(1) ABC Analysis: This system exercises discriminating control over different
items of inventory on the basis of the investment involved. Usually the items are
classified into three categories according to their relative importance, namely,
their value and frequency of replenishment during a period.

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 2.36 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(i) ‘A’ Category: This category of items consists of only a small percentage i.e.,
about 10% of the total items handled by the stores but require heavy
investment about 70% of inventory value, because of their high prices or
heavy requirement or both. Items under this category can be controlled
effectively by using a regular system which ensures neither over-stocking
nor shortage of materials for production. Such a system plans its total
material requirements by making budgets. The stocks of materials are
controlled by fixing certain levels like maximum level, minimum level and
re-order level.

(ii) ‘B’ Category: This category of items is relatively less important; they may be
20% of the total items of material handled by stores. The percentage of
investment required is about 20% of the total investment in inventories. In the
case of these items, as the sum involved is moderate, the same degree of
control as applied in ‘A’ category of items is not warranted. The orders for
the items, belonging to this category may be placed after reviewing their
situation periodically.
(iii) ‘C’ Category: This category of items does not require much investment; it
may be about 10% of total inventory value but they are nearly 70% of the
total items handled by store. For these categories of items, there is no need
of exercising constant control. Orders for items in this group may be placed
either after six months or once in a year, after ascertaining consumption
requirements. In this case the objective is to economies on ordering and
handling costs.

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ILLUSTRATION 8
From the following details, DRAW a plan of ABC selective control:

Item Units Unit cost (`)

1 7,000 5.00

2 24,000 3.00

3 1,500 10.00

4 600 22.00

5 38,000 1.50

6 40,000 0.50

7 60,000 0.20

8 3,000 3.50

9 300 8.00

10 29,000 0.40

11 11,500 7.10

12 4,100 6.20

SOLUTION
Statement of Total Cost and Ranking

Item Units % of Total Unit cost Total % of Total Ranking

units (`) cost (`) cost

1 7,000 3.1963 5.00 35,000 9.8378 4

2 24,000 10.9589 3.00 72,000 20.2378 2

3 1,500 0.6849 10.00 15,000 4.2162 7

4 600 0.2740 22.00 13,200 3.7103 8

5 38,000 17.3516 1.50 57,000 16.0216 3

6 40,000 18.2648 0.50 20,000 5.6216 6

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 2.38 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

7 60,000 27.3973 0.20 12,000 3.3730 9

8 3,000 1.3699 3.50 10,500 2.9513 11

9 300 0.1370 8.00 2,400 0.6746 12

10 29,000 13.2420 0.40 11,600 3.2605 10

11 11,500 5.2512 7.10 81,650 22.9502 1

12 4,100 1.8721 6.20 25,420 7.1451 5

2,19,000 100 3,55,770 100

Basis for selective control (Assumed)

` 50,000 & above -- ‘A’ items
` 15,000 to 50000 -- ‘B’ items
Below ` 15,000 -- ‘C’ items
On this basis, a plan of A B C selective control is given below:

Ranking Item % of Total Cost (`) % of Total Category

Nos. units Cost
1 11 5.2512 81,650 22.9502
2 2 10.9589 72,000 20.2378
3 5 17.3516 57,000 16.0216
Total 3 33.5617 2,10,650 59.2096 A
4 1 3.1963 35,000 9.8378

5 12 1.8721 25,420 7.1451

6 6 18.2648 20,000 5.6216

7 3 0.6849 15,000 4.2162

Total 4 24.0181 95,420 26.8207 B

8 4 0.2740 13,200 3.7103

9 7 27.3973 12,000 3.3730

10 10 13.2420 11,600 3.2605

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11 8 1.3699 10,500 2.9513

12 9 0.1370 2,400 0.6746

Total 5 42.4202 49,700 13.9697 C

Grand Total 12 100 3,55,770 100

Advantages of ABC analysis: The advantages of ABC analysis are the following:
(i) Continuity in production: It ensures that, without there being any danger of
interruption of production for want of materials or stores, minimum
investment will be made in inventories of stocks of materials or stocks to be
carried.
(ii) Lower cost: The cost of placing orders, receiving goods and maintaining
stocks is minimised specially if the system is coupled with the determination
of proper economic order quantities.
(iii) Less attention required: Management time is saved since attention need to
be paid only to some of the items rather than all the items, as would be the
case if the ABC system was not in operation.
(iv) Systematic working: With the introduction of the ABC system, much of the
work connected with purchases can be systematized on a routine basis, to
be handled by subordinate staff.
ILLUSTRATION 9
A factory uses 4,000 varieties of inventory. In terms of inventory holding and
inventory usage, the following information is compiled:

No. of varieties of % % value of % of inventory

inventory inventory holding usage (in
(average) end-product)
3,875 96.875 20 5
110 2.750 30 10
15 0.375 50 85
4,000 100.00 100 100

CLASSIFY the items of inventory as per ABC analysis with reasons.

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SOLUTION
Classification of the items of inventory as per ABC analysis
1. 15 number of varieties of inventory items should be classified as ‘A’ category
items because of the following reasons:
(i) Constitute 0.375% of total number of varieties of inventory handled by
stores of factory, which is minimum as per given classification in the
table.
(ii) 50% of total use value of inventory holding (average), which is
maximum, according to the given table.
(iii) Highest in consumption, about 85% of inventory usage (in
end-product).
2. 110 number of varieties of inventory items should be classified as ‘B’
category items because of the following reasons:
(i) Constitute 2.750% of the total number of varieties of inventory items
handled by stores of factory.

(ii) Requires moderate investment of about 30% of total use value of

inventory holding (average).
(iii) Moderate in consumption, about 10% of inventory usage (in end–
product).
3. 3,875 number of varieties of inventory items should be classified as ‘C’
category items because of the following reasons:

(i) Constitute 96.875% of total varieties of inventory items handled by

stores of factory.
(ii) Requires about 20% of total use value of inventory holding (average).
(iii) Minimum inventory consumption, i.e., about 5% of inventory usage (in
end-product).
(2) Fast Moving, Slow Moving and Non-Moving (FSN) Inventory: It is also
known as FNS (Fast, Normal and Slow moving) classification of inventory analysis.
Under this system, inventories are controlled by classifying them on the basis of
frequency of usage. The classification of items into these three categories

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depends on the nature and managerial discretion. A threshold range on the basis
of inventory turnover is decided and classified accordingly.
(i) Fast Moving- This category of items is placed nearer to store issue point
and the stock is reviewed frequently for making of fresh orders.
(ii) Slow Moving- This category of items is stored little far and stock is
reviewed periodically for any obsolescence, and may be shifted to
Non-moving category.
(iii) Non-Moving- This category of items is kept for disposal. This category of
items is reported to the management and an appropriate provision for loss
may be created.
Some of the reasons for slow moving and non-moving inventories are stated
below:
(i) Failure of production management to communicate the updated
requirement to the stores management
(ii) Technological upgradation in terms of new machine requiring new kind of
material or existing material becoming obsolete.
(iii) Lack of periodic review of inventories.
By careful observation, timely identification and adoption of inventory
management techniques such as maintenance of minimum level or just in time
approach, one can manage slow moving and non-moving inventories. We may
calculate inventory turnover ratio and present the reports of comparison of actual
and standards with variations, if any to the management.
(3) Vital, Essential and Desirable (VED): Under this system of inventory
analysis, inventories are classified on the basis of its criticality for the
production function and final product. Generally, this classification is done for
spare parts which are used for production.
(i) Vital- Items are classified as vital when its unavailability can interrupt the
production process and cause a production loss. Items under this category
are strictly controlled by setting re-order level.
(ii) Essential- Items under this category are essential but not vital. The
unavailability may cause sub standardisation and loss of efficiency in
production process. Items under this category are reviewed periodically and
get the second priority.

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(iii) Desirable- Items under this category are optional in nature, unavailability
does not cause any production or efficiency loss.
For instance, in hospital administration, stock of medicines and essential chemicals
are categorized as VED or FSN inventory. In case of life saving, rare and critical
drugs, they are being categorized as vital inventory. They are the ones whose
unavailability can interrupt smooth service. Those inventories which are optional
or substitutes, not leading to loss in efficiency would be categorized as desirable
inventories. FNS categorization helps the store keepers in hospitals to keep a
check on medicines whose expiry date is close and needs to be disposed off at the
earliest. The quantity of slow-moving drugs are maintained accordingly.
(4) High Cost, Medium Cost, Low Cost (HML) Inventory: Under this system,
inventory is classified on the basis of the cost of an individual item, unlike ABC
analysis where inventories are classified on the basis of overall value of inventory.
A range of cost is used to classify the inventory items into the three categories.
High-Cost inventories are given more priority for control, whereas Medium-cost
and Low-cost items are comparatively given lesser priority.

6.5 Using Ratio Analysis

(i) Input-Output Ratio: Inventory control can also be exercised by the use of
input- output ratio analysis. Input-output ratio is the ratio of the
quantity of input of material to production and the standard material
content of the actual output.

This type of ratio analysis enables comparison of actual consumption and

standard consumption, thus indicating whether the usage of material is
favourable or adverse.
(ii) Inventory Turnover Ratio: Computation of inventory turnover ratios for
different items of material and comparison of the turnover rates provides a
useful guidance for measuring inventory performance. High inventory
turnover ratio indicates that the material in the question is a fast moving one.
A low turnover ratio indicates over-investment and locking up of the working
capital in inventories. Inventory turnover ratio may be calculated by using
the following formulae: -

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Inventory Turnover Ratio = Cost of materials consumed during the period

Cost of average stock held duirng the period

Average stock = 1/2 (opening stock + closing stock)

365 days /12months
Average no. of days of Inventory holding =
Inventory Turnover Ratio
By comparing the number of days in the case of two different materials, it is
possible to know which is fast moving and which is slow moving. On this basis,
attempt should be made to reduce the amount of capital locked up, and prevent
over-stocking of the slow-moving items.
ILLUSTRATION 10
The following data are available in respect of material X for the year ended 31st
March, 2023.
(`)
Opening stock 90,000
Purchases during the year 2,70,000
Closing stock 1,10,000
CALCULATE:
(i) Inventory turnover ratio, and
(ii) The number of days for which the average inventory is held.
SOLUTION
Inventory turnover ratio
(Refer to working note) = Cost of stock of raw material consumed
Average stock of raw material

`2,50,000
= = 2.5
`1,00,000

Average number of days for which the average inventory is held

365 365 days
= = = 146 days
Inventory turnover ratio 2.5

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 2.44 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Working Note:
(`)
Opening stock of raw material 90,000
Add: Material purchases during the year 2,70,000
Less: Closing stock of raw material 1,10,000
Cost of stock of raw material consumed 2,50,000
ILLUSTRATION 11
From the following data for the year ended 31st March, 2023, CALCULATE the
inventory turnover ratio of the two items and put forward your comments on them.

Material A (`) Material B (`)

Opening stock 1.04.2022 10,000 9,000
Purchase during the year 52,000 27,000
Closing stock 31.03.2023 6,000 11,000

SOLUTION
First of all, it is necessary to find out the material consumed:

Cost of materials consumed Material A Material B

(`) (`)
Opening stock 10,000 9,000
Add: Purchases 52,000 27,000
62,000 36,000
Less: Closing stock 6,000 11,000
Materials consumed 56,000 25,000
Average inventory: (Opening Stock + Closing Stock) ÷ 2 8,000 10,000
Inventory Turnover ratio: (Consumption ÷ Average 7 times 2.5 times
inventory)
Inventory Turnover (Number of Days in a year/IT ratio) 52 days 146 days
Comments: Material A is moving faster than Material B.

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6.6 Physical Control

(i) Two Bin System: Under this system, each bin is divided into two parts –
(I) smaller part to stock the quantity equal to the minimum stock or even
the re-ordering level, and
(II) the other part to keep the remaining quantity.
Issues are made out of the larger part; but as soon as it becomes necessary
to use quantity out of the smaller part of the bin, fresh order is placed. “Two
Bin System” is supplemental to the record of respective quantities on the bin
card and the stores ledger card.
(ii) Establishment of system of budgets: To control investment in the
inventories, it is necessary to know in advance about the inventories
requirement during a specific period (usually a year). The exact quantity of
various types of inventories and the time when they would be required can
be known by studying carefully production plans and production schedules.
Based on this, inventories requirement budget can be prepared. Such a
budget will discourage the unnecessary investment in inventories.
(iii) Perpetual inventory records and continuous stock verification:
Perpetual inventory represents a system of records maintained by the stores
department. It, in fact, comprises of: (i) Bin Cards, and (ii) Stores Ledger.
The success of perpetual inventory depends upon the following:
(a) The Stores Ledger showing quantities and amount of each item.

(b) Stock Control cards (or Bin Cards).

(c) Reconciling the quantity balances shown by (a) & (b) above.
(d) Checking the physical balances of a number of items every day
systematically and by rotation.
(e) Explaining promptly the causes of discrepancies, if any, between
physical balances and the book figures.

(f) Making corrective entries wherever required after step (e) and
(g) Removing the causes of the discrepancies referred to in step (e)

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Advantages of perpetual inventory: The main advantages of perpetual

inventory are as follows:

(1) Physical stocks can be counted and book balances adjusted as and
when desired without waiting for the entire stock-taking to be done.

(2) Quick compilation of Profit and Loss Account (for interim period) due
to prompt availability of stock figures.

(3) Discrepancies are easily located and thus corrective action can be
promptly taken to avoid their recurrence.

(4) A systematic review of the perpetual inventory reveals the existence of

surplus, dormant, obsolete and slow-moving materials, so that
remedial measures may be taken in time.

(5) Fixation of the various stock levels and checking of actual balances in
hand with these levels assist the store keeper in maintaining stocks
within limits and in initiating purchase requisitions for correct quantity
at the appropriate time.

(iv) Continuous Stock Verification: The checking of physical inventory is an

essential feature of every sound system of material control. The system of
continuous stock-taking consists of physical verification of items of
inventory. The stock verification may be done by internal audit department
but are independent of the store and production staff. Stock verification is
done at appropriate interval of time without prior notice. The element of
surprise is essential for effective control of the system.

Disadvantages of Annual/ Periodic Stock Taking: Annual stock-taking,

however, has certain inherent shortcomings which tend to detract from the
usefulness of such physical verification. For instance, since all the items have
to be covered in a given number of days, either the production department
has to be shut down during those days to enable thorough checking of
stock or else the verification must be of limited character.

On the contrary, continuous stock taking is holding more advantages. Some

of them are discussed below:

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Advantages of continuous stock-taking:

1. Closure of normal functioning is not necessary.
2. Stock discrepancies are likely to be brought to the notice and
corrected much earlier than under the annual stock-taking system.
3. The system generally has a sobering influence on the stores staff
because of the element of surprise present therein.
4. The movement of stores items can be watched more closely by the
stores auditor so that chances of obsolescence buying are reduced.
5. Final Accounts can be ready quickly. Interim accounts are possible
quite conveniently.

7. MATERIAL ISSUE PROCEDURE

Issue of material must not be made except under properly authorised requisition
slip. Usually, it is the foreman of a department who has the authority to draw
materials from the store. Issue of material must be made on the basis of first in
first out, that is, out of the earliest lot in hand. If care is not exercised in this
regard, quality of earliest lot of material may deteriorate for having been kept for
a long period.
(i) Issue against Material Requisition Note: It is the voucher of the
authority as regards to the issue of materials for use in the factory or in
any of its departments. After receipt of material requisition slip, store keeper
ensures that requisition is properly authorized and requisitioned quantity is
within the quantity specified in bill of materials. After satisfied with the
documents, store keeper issue materials and keeps one copy of the MRN to
maintain the necessary records.
(ii) Transfer of Material: The surplus material arising on a job or other units
of production may sometime be unsuitable for transfer to store because of
its bulk, heavy weight, brittleness or some other reason. It may, however, be
possible to find some alternative use for such materials by transferring them
to some other job instead of returning them to the store.

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It must be stressed that generally transfer of material from one job to

another is irregular, if not improper; in so far, it is not conducive to correct
allocation and control of material, cost of jobs or other units of production.
It is only in the circumstances envisaged above, that such direct transfer
should be made. At the time of material transfer, a material transfer note
should be made in duplicate. The disposition of the copies of this note being
are as follows:
Material Transfer

Cost Accounting Department

Note

Department Making Transfer

No copy is required for the store, as no entry in the stores records would be
called for. The Cost Accounting Department would use its copy for the
purpose of making the necessary entries in the cost ledger accounts for the
jobs affected.

Format of a material requisition note may vary on the basis of industrial

peculiarities, management information system (MIS) and accounting system
in place.
(iii) Return of Material: Sometimes, it is not possible before hand to make any
precise estimate of the material requirements or units of production.
Besides, at times, due to some technical issues or other difficulties, it is not
practicable to measure the exact quantity of material required by a
department. In either case, material may have to be issued from stores in
bulk, often in excess of the actual quantity required. Where such a condition
exists, it is of the utmost importance from the point of view of materials
control that any surplus material left over on the completion of a job
should be promptly hand over to the storekeeper for safe and proper
custody.
Unless this is done, the surplus material may be misappropriated or misap-
plied to some purpose, other than that for which it was intended. The

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material cost of the job against which the excess material was originally
drawn in that case, would be overstated, unless the job is given credit for the
surplus arising thereon.
The surplus material, when it is returned to the storeroom, should be
accompanied by a document known as a Shop Credit Note or alternatively
as a Stores Debit Note. This document should be made out; by the
department returning the surplus material and it should be in triplicate to be
used as follows:

Store Room

Shop Credit Note Cost Accounting Department

Department Returnign it

Format of a shop credit note may vary on the basis of industrial peculiarities,
management information system (MIS) and accounting system in place.

8. VALUATION OF MATERIAL ISSUES

Materials issued from stores should be priced at the value at which they are
carried in stock. But there can be a situation where the material may have been
purchased at different times and at different prices with varying discounts, taxes
etc. Because of this the problem arises as to how the material issues to production
are to be valued. There are several methods for tackling this situation. The cost
accountant should select the proper method based on following factors:

1. The frequency of purchases, price fluctuations and its range.

2. The frequency of issue of materials, relative quantity etc.
3. Nature of cost accounting system.
4. The nature of business and the type of production process.
5. Management policy relating to the valuation of closing stock.

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Several methods of pricing material issues have been evolved in an attempt to

satisfactorily answer the problem. These methods may be grouped and explained
as follows:

8.1 Cost Price Methods

(i) Specific Price Method: This method is useful, especially when materials
are purchased for a specific job or work order, as such materials are
issued subsequently to that specific job or work order at the price at which
they were purchased.
To use this method, it is necessary to store each lot of material separately
and maintain its separate account.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

• The cost of materials issued for • This method is difficult to

production purposes to specific operate, specially when
jobs represent actual and correct purchases and issues are
costs. numerous.

• This method is best suited for

non-standard and specific
products.

(ii) First-in First-out (FIFO) Method: It is a method of pricing the issues of

materials, in the order in which they are purchased. In other words, the
materials are issued in the order in which they arrive in the store or the items
longest in stock are issued first. Thus each issue of material only recovers the
purchase price which does not reflect the current market price.
This method is considered suitable in times of falling price because the
material cost charged to production will be high while the replacement cost
of materials will be low. But, in the case of rising prices, if this method is
adopted, the charge to production will be low as compared to the
replacement cost of materials. Consequently, it would be difficult to
purchase the same volume of material (as in the current period) in future
without having additional capital resources.

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Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

• It is simple to understand and • If the prices fluctuate frequently,

easy to operate. this method may lead to clerical
error.

• Material cost charged to • Since each issue of material to

production represents actual production is related to a specific
cost with which the cost of purchase price, the costs charged
production should have been to the same job are likely to show
charged. a variation from period to period.

• In the case of falling prices, the • In the case of rising prices, the real
use of this method gives better profits of the concern being low,
results. while the profits in the books will
appear high. This may lead to
inability of the firm to meet the
materials purchase demand at the
current market price.

• Closing stock of material will be

represented very closely at
current market price.

The application of FIFO method is illustrated below:

Material Received and Issued

Lot Date Quantity Lot Rate Amount

No. Kg. No. (`) (`)
1. July 3 600 1.00 600.00
2. July 13 800 1.20 960.00
3. July 23 600 0.90 540.00
4. August 5 400 1.10 440.00
5. August 6 1200 0.80 960.00
July 8 400 Kgs. out of (1) 1.00 400.00

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July 12 200 Kgs. out of (1) 1.00 200.00

July 22 600 Kgs. out of (2) 1.20 720.00
July 25 200 Kgs. out of (2) 1.20 240.00
200 Kgs. out of (3) 0.90 180.00
August 8 400 Kgs. out of (3) 0.90 360.00
400 Kgs. out of (4) 1.10 440.00
200 Kgs. out of (5) 0.80 160.00

The stock in hand after 8th August will be 1,000 kgs. This will be out of lot
number (5) and its value will be ` 800, i.e., @ ` 0.80 per kg.
(iii) Last-in-First-out (LIFO) Method: It is a method of pricing the issues of
materials on the basis of assumption that the items of the last batch (lot)
purchased are the first to be issued. Therefore, under this method the
prices of the last batch (lot) are used for pricing the issues, until it is
exhausted, and so on. If however, the quantity of issue is more than the
quantity of the latest lot, then earlier (lot) and its price will also be taken into
consideration.
During inflationary period or period of rising prices, the use of LIFO
would help to ensure that the cost of production determined on the above
basis is approximately the current one. This method is also useful specially
when there is a feeling that due to the use of FIFO or average methods, the
profits shown and tax paid are too high.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

• The cost of materials issued will • Calculation under LIFO system

be either nearer to and or will becomes complicated and
reflect the current market price. cumbersome when frequent
Thus, the cost of goods produced purchases are made at highly
will be related to the trend of the fluctuating rates.
market price of materials. Such a
trend in price of materials enables
the matching of cost of production
with current sales revenues.

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• The use of the method during the • Costs of different similar

period of rising prices does not batches of production carried
reflect undue high profit in the on at the same time may differ
income statement as it was under a great deal.
the first-in-first-out or average
method. In fact, the profit shown
here is relatively lower because the
cost of production takes into
account the rising trend of material
prices.

• In the case of falling prices profit • In time of falling prices, there

tends to rise due to lower material will be need for writing off
cost, yet the finished products stock value considerably to
appear to be more competitive stick to the principle of stock
and are at market price. valuation, i.e., the cost or the
market price whichever is lower.

• Over a period, the use of LIFO • This method of valuation of

helps to iron out the fluctuations material is not acceptable to
in profits. the income tax authorities.

• In the period of inflation LIFO will

tend to show the correct profit and
thus avoid paying undue taxes to
some extent.

It may be noted that Last in First out (LIFO) is not permitted under
Accounting Standard (AS)-2: Valuation of Inventories and Ind AS- 2:
Inventories. However, for the purpose of academic knowledge LIFO
method is included in this Study Material

ILLUSTRATION 12
The following transactions in respect of material Y occurred during the six months
ended 30th September, 2022:

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 2.54 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Month Purchase Price per unit Issued

(units) (` ) Units
April 200 25 Nil
May 300 24 250
June 425 26 300
July 475 23 550
August 500 25 800
September 600 20 400

Required:
(a) The Chief Accountant argues that the value of closing stock remains the same
no matter which method of pricing of material issues is used. Do you agree?
Why or why not? EXPLAIN. Detailed stores ledgers are not required.
(b) STATE when and why would you recommend the LIFO method of pricing
material issues?
SOLUTION
(a) Total number of units purchased = 2,500

Total number of units issued = 2,300

The closing stock at the end of six months’ period i.e., on 30th September,
2022 will be 200 units
Upto the end of August 2022, total purchases coincide with the total issues
i.e., 1,900 units. It means that at the end of August 2022, there was no
closing stock. In the month of September 2022, 600 units were purchased
out of which 400 units were issued. Since there was only one purchase and
one issue in the month of September, 2022 and there was no opening stock
on 1st September 2022, the Closing Stock of 200 units is to be valued at ` 20
per unit.
In the view of this, the argument of the Chief Accountant appears to be
correct. Where there is only one purchase and one issue in a month with no
opening stock, the method of pricing of material issues becomes irrelevant.
Therefore, in the given case one should agree with the argument of the

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Chief Accountant that the value of closing stock remains the same no matter
which method of pricing the issue is used.
It may, however, be noted that the argument of Chief Accountant would not
stand if one finds the value of the Closing Stock at the end of each month.
(b) LIFO method has an edge over FIFO or any other method of pricing material
issues due to the following advantages:

(i) The cost of the materials issued will be either nearer or will reflect the
current market price. Thus, the cost of goods produced will be related
to the trend of the market price of materials. Such a trend in price of
materials enables the matching of cost of production with current
sales revenues.
(ii) The use of the method during the period of rising prices does not
reflect undue high profit in the income statement, as it was under the
first-in-first-out or average method. In fact, the profit shown here is
relatively lower because the cost of production takes into account the
rising trend of material prices.
(iii) In the case of falling prices, profit tends to rise due to lower material
cost, yet the finished products appear to be more competitive and are
at market price.
(iv) During the period of inflation, LIFO will tend to show the correct profit
and thus, avoid paying undue taxes to some extent.
ILLUSTRATION 13
The following information is provided by Sunrise Industries for the fortnight of April,
2023:
Material Exe:
Stock on 1-4-2023 100 units at ` 5 per unit.
Purchases
5-4-2023, 300 units at ` 6
8-4-2023, 500 units at ` 7
12-4-2023, 600 units at ` 8

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Issues
6-4-2023, 250 units
10-4-2023, 400 units
14-4-2023, 500 units
Required:
(A) CALCULATE using FIFO and LIFO methods of pricing issues:
(a) the value of materials consumed during the period

(b) the value of stock of materials on 15-4-2023.

(B) EXPLAIN why the figures in (a) and (b) in part A of this question are different
under the two methods of pricing of material issues used. You need not draw
up the Stores Ledgers.
SOLUTION
(A) (a) Value of Material Exe consumed during the period
1-4-2023 to 15-4-2023 by using FIFO method.

Date Description Units Qty. (Units) Rate Amount

(`) (`)

1-4-2023 Opening balance 100 5 500

5-4-2023 Purchased 300 6 1,800

6-4-2023 Issued 100 5

1,400
150 6

8-4-2023 Purchased 500 7 3,500

10-4-2023 Issued 150 6

2,650
250 7

12-4-2023 Purchased 600 8 4,800

14-4-2023 Issued 250 7

3,750
250 8

15-4-2023 Balance 350 8 2,800

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Total value of material Exe consumed during the period under FIFO
method comes to (` 1,400 + ` 2,650 + ` 3,750) ` 7,800 and balance on
15-4-2023 is of ` 2,800.
Value of material Exe consumed during the period 01-4-2023 to
15-4-2023 by using LIFO method

Date Description Qty. Rate Amount

(Units) (`) (`)
1-4-2023 Opening balance 100 5 500
5-4-2023 Purchased 300 6 1,800
6-4-2023 Issued 250 6 1,500
8-4-2023 Purchased 500 7 3,500
10-4-2023 Issued 400 7 2,800
12-4-2023 Purchased 600 8 4,800
14-4-2023 Issued 500 8 4,000
15-4-2023 Balance 350 — 2,300*

Total value of material Exe issued under LIFO method comes to

(` 1,500 + ` 2,800 + ` 4,000) ` 8,300.
*The balance 350 units on 15-4-2023 of ` 2,300, relates to opening
balance on 1-4-2023 and purchases made on 5-4-2023, 8-4-2023 and
12-4-2023. (100 units @ ` 5, 50 units @ ` 6, 100 units @ ` 7 and 100
units @ ` 8).

(b) As shown in (a) above, the value of stock of materials on 15-4-2023:

Under FIFO method ` 2,800
Under LIFO method ` 2,300
(B) Total value of material Exe issued to production under FIFO and LIFO
methods comes to ` 7,800 and ` 8,300 respectively. The value of closing
stock of material Exe on 15-4-2023 under FIFO and LIFO methods comes to
` 2,800 and ` 2,300 respectively.
The reasons for the difference of ` 500 (` 8,300 – ` 7,800) as shown by the
following table in the value of material Exe, issued to production under FIFO
and LIFO is as follows:

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Date Quantity Value Total Value Total

Issued FIFO LIFO
(Units) (`) (`) (`) (`)
6-4-2023 250 1,400 1,500
10-4-2023 400 2,650 2,800
14-4-2023 500 3,750 7,800 4,000 8,300

1. On 6-4-2023, 250 units were issued to production. Under FIFO their

value comes to ` 1,400 (100 units × ` 5 + 150 units × ` 6) and under
LIFO ` 1,500 (250 × ` 6). Hence, ` 100 more was charged to production
under LIFO.
2. On 10-4-2023, 400 units were issued to production. Under FIFO their
value comes to ` 2,650 (150 × ` 6 + 250 × ` 7) and under LIFO ` 2,800
(400 × ` 7). Hence, ` 150 more was charged to production under LIFO.
3. On 14-4-2023, 500 units were issued to production. Under FIFO their
value comes to ` 3,750 (250 × ` 7 + 250 × ` 8) and under LIFO ` 4,000
(500 × ` 8). Hence, ` 250 more was charged to production under LIFO.
Thus, the total excess amount charged to production under LIFO comes to
` 500.
The reasons for the difference of ` 500 (` 2,800 – ` 2,300) in the value of 350
units of Closing Stock of material Exe under FIFO and LIFO are as follows:
1. In the case of FIFO, all the 350 units of the closing stock belongs to the
purchase of material made on 12-4-2023, whereas under LIFO these
units were from opening balance and purchases made on 5-4-2023,
8-4-2023 and 12-4-2023.
2. Due to different purchase price paid by the concern on different days
of purchase, the value of closing stock differed under FIFO and LIFO.
Under FIFO 350 units of closing stock were valued @ ` 8 p.u. Whereas
under LIFO first 100 units were valued @ ` 5 p.u., next 50 units @ ` 6
p.u., next 100 units @ ` 7 p.u. and last 100 units @ ` 8 p.u.
Thus, under FIFO, the value of closing stock increased by ` 500.

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(iv) Base Stock Method: Minimum quantity of stock under this method is
always held at a fixed price as reserve in the stock, to meet the state of
emergency, if it arises. This minimum stock is known as base stock and is
valued at a price at which the first lot of materials is received and remains
unaffected by subsequent price fluctuations.
This method of valuing inventory is different from other methods of valuing
issues, as the base stock of materials are valued at the original cost, whereas,
materials other than the base are valued using other methods like FIFO, LIFO
etc. This method is not an independent method as it uses FIFO or LIFO.
Advantages and disadvantages of this method depend upon the use of the
other method viz., FIFO or LIFO.

8.2 Average Price Methods

(i) Simple Average Price Method: Under this method, materials issued are
valued at average price, which is calculated by dividing the total of rates at
which different lot of materials are purchased by total number of lots. In this
method quantity purchased in each lot is ignored. However, the price of
stock of that lot which is completely sold out is not considered for taking
average price.
Example - 1: During the month of April, a company has made five purchases
as follows:
1st April, 200 units @ `10 each;
5th April, 150 units @ `12 each;
14th April, 210 units @ `12 each;
21st April, 50 units @ `15 each and
28th April, 140 units @ ` 11 each.
The issue price under Simple Average Price Method would be calculated as
below:
`10 + `12 + `12 + `15 + `11
= ` 12 each
5 lots

This method is suitable when the materials are received in uniform lots of
similar quantity, and prices do not fluctuate considerably.

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Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages Disadvantages
• This method is simple to use for • This method does not provide right
an entity which orders materials stock valuation when standard
in a lot of standard quantity, as quantity for purchase in a lot is not
only price per lot is taken to specified.
calculate average price
• In a stable price environment, • When price of materials fluctuates
this method gives a price which and the entity chooses to
approximates to the current customise the order quantity, the
market price. price under this method may differ
substantially from the current
market price.

(ii) Weighted Average Price Method: Unlike Simple Average Price method,
this method gives due weightage to quantities also. Under this method,
issue price is calculated by dividing sum of products of price and quantity by
total number quantities.
Example - 2: During the month of April, a company has made five purchases
as follows:

1st April, 200 units @ `10 each;

5th April, 150 units @ `12 each;
14th April, 210 units @ `12 each;

21st April, 50 units @ `15 each and

28th April, 140 units @ ` 11 each.
The issue price under Weightage Average Price Method would be calculated
as below:
{( ` 10×200 units)+( ` 12×150 units)+( ` 12×210 units)
+( ` 15×50 units)+( ` 11×140 units)}
=
(200+150+210+50+140) units

` 8,610
= = ` 11.48 each
750 units

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This method is useful in case when quantity purchased under each lot is
different and price fluctuates frequently.
Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages Disadvantages
• It smoothens the price • Material cost does not represent
fluctuations, if at all it is there, actual cost price and therefore, a
due to material purchases. different profit or loss will arise
out of such a pricing method.

• Issue prices need not be • It may be difficult to compute,

calculated for each issue unless since every time lot is received,
new lot of materials is received. it would require re-computation
of issue prices.

8.3 Market Price Methods

(i) Replacement Price Method: Replacement price is defined as the price at
which it is possible to purchase an item, identical to that which is being
replaced or revalued. Under this method, materials issued are valued at the
replacement cost of the items. This method pre-supposes the determination of
the replacement cost of materials at the time of each issue; viz., the cost at
which identical materials could be currently purchased. The product cost
under this method is at current market price, which is the main objective of
the replacement price method.
This method is useful to determine true cost of production and to value
material issues in periods of rising prices, because the cost of material
considered in cost of production would be able to replace the materials at
the increased price.
(ii) Realisable Price Method: Realisable price means a price at which the
material to be issued can be sold in the market. This price may be more
or may be less than the cost price at which it was originally purchased. Like
replacement price method, the stores ledger would show profit or loss in
this method too.

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8.4 Notional Price Methods

(i) Standard Price Method: Under this method, materials are priced at some
predetermined rate or standard price irrespective of the actual purchase
cost of the materials. Standard cost is usually fixed after taking into
consideration the following factors:
(i) Current prices,
(ii) Anticipated market trends, and
(iii) Discount available and transport charges etc.
Standard prices are fixed for each material and the requisitions are priced at
the standard price. This method is useful for controlling material cost and
determining the efficiency of purchase department. In the case of highly
fluctuating prices of materials, it is difficult to fix their standard cost on
long-term basis.

Advantages Disadvantages
• The use of the standard price • The use of standard price does
method simplifies the task of not reflect the market price and
valuing issues of materials. thus results in a different or
incorrect profit or loss.
• It facilitates the control of • The fixation of standard price
material cost and the task of becomes difficult when prices
judging the efficiency of fluctuate frequently
purchase department.
• It reduces the clerical work.

(ii) Inflated Price Method: In case material suffers loss in weight due to natural
or climatic factors, e.g., evaporation, the issue price of the material is inflated
to cover up the losses.
(iii) Re-use Price Method: When materials are rejected and returned to the
stores or a processed material is put to some other use, other than for the
purpose it is meant, then such materials are priced at a rate quite different
from the price paid for them originally. There is no final procedure for
valuing use of material.

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9. VALUATION OF RETURNS & SHORTAGES

9.1 Valuation of Materials Returned to the Vendor
Generally, materials are checked for quality, before dispatching to the store; and if
any issues arise such as not meeting the quality requirements or any specification
or are considered unfit for production due to any reason, due notice is made and
materials are returned to the vendor. However, even if any substandard quality is
noticed, before or after reaching the store, such materials can also be returned to
the vendor.
The price of the materials to be returned to the vendor should include its invoice
price plus freight, receiving and handling charges etc. Strictly speaking, the
materials returned to the vendor should be returned at the stores ledger price and
not at invoice price. But in practice, only invoice price is considered and the gap
between the invoice price and stores ledger price is charged as overhead. In stores
ledger, the defective or sub-standard materials are shown in the issue column at
the rate shown in the ledger, and the difference between issue price and invoice
cost is debited to an inventory adjustment account.

9.2 Valuation of Materials Returned to Stores

When materials requisitioned for a specific job or work-in progress are found to
be in excess of the requirement or are unsuitable for the purpose, they are
returned to the stores. There are two ways of treating such returns.
(1) Such returns are entered in the receipt column at the price at which they
were originally issued, and the materials are kept in suspense account, to be
issued at the same price, against the next requisition.
(2) Include the materials in stock, as if they were fresh purchases at the original
issue price.

9.3 Valuation of Shortages during Physical Verification

Materials found short during physical verification should be entered in the issue
column and valued at the rate as per the method adopted, i.e., FIFO or any other.
[Kindly refer Illustration 14 at Page no. 2.68]

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10. TREATMENT OF NORMAL AND ABNORMAL

LOSS OF MATERIALS
Loss of materials during handling, storage, process may occur any of the following
forms:

Loss of Material

Waste Scrap Spoilage Defectives Obsolescence

(i) Waste: The portion of raw material which is lost during storage or
production and discarded. The waste may or may not have any value.
Treatment of Waste
Normal- Cost of normal waste is absorbed by good production units.
Abnormal- The cost of abnormal loss is transferred to Costing Profit and
loss account.
(ii) Scrap: The materials which are discarded and disposed-off without further
treatment. Generally, scrap has either no value or insignificant value.
Sometimes, it may be reintroduced into the process as raw material.
Treatment of Scrap
Normal- The cost of scrap is borne by good units and income arises on
account of realisable value is deducted from the cost.
Abnormal- The scrap account should be charged with full cost. The credit is
given to the job or process concerned. The profit or loss in the scrap
account, on realisation, will be transferred to the Costing Profit and Loss
Account.
(iii) Spoilage: It is the term used for materials which are badly damaged in
manufacturing operations, and they cannot be rectified economically and
hence taken out of the process to be disposed off in some manner without
further processing.

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Treatment of Spoilage

Normal- Normal spoilage (i.e., which is inherent in the operation) costs are
included in costs, either by charging the loss due to spoilage to the
production order or by charging it to the production overhead so that it is
spread over all the products.

Any value realised from spoilage is credited to production order or

production overhead account, as the case may be.

Abnormal- The cost of abnormal spoilage (i.e., arising out of causes not
inherent in manufacturing process) is charged to the Costing Profit and Loss
Account. When spoiled work is the result of rigid specification, the cost of
spoiled work is absorbed by good production while the cost of disposal is
charged to production overhead.

(iv) Defectives: It signifies those units or portions of production which do not

meet the quality standards. Defectives arise due to sub-standard materials,
bad-supervision, bad-planning, poor workmanship, inadequate-equipment
and careless inspection.

The defectives which can be re-made as per the quality standard by using
additional materials are known as reworks. Reworks include repairs,
reconditioning and refurbishing.

Defectives which cannot be brought up to the quality standards are known

as rejects. The rejects may either be disposed-off or re-cycled for production
process.

Treatment of Defectives:

Normal- An amount equal to the cost less realisable value on sale of

defectives are charged to material cost of good production.

Abnormal- Material cost of abnormal defectives are not included in material

cost but treated as loss after giving credit to the realisable value of such
defectives. The material cost of abnormal loss is transferred to costing profit
and loss account.

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Reclamation of loss from defective units

In the case of articles that have been spoiled, it is necessary to take steps to
reclaim as much of the loss as possible. For this purpose:

(i) All defective units should be sent to a place fixed for the purpose;

(ii) These should be dismantled;

(iii) Goods and serviceable parts should be separated and taken back into
the stock;

(iv) Parts which can be made serviceable by further work should be

separated and sent to the workshop for the purpose and taken into
stock after the defects have been removed; and

(v) Parts which cannot be made serviceable should be collected in one

place for being melted or sold off.

Printed forms should be used to record quantities for all purposes

aforementioned.
Difference between Waste and Scrap

Waste Scrap

1. It is connected with raw 1. It is the loss connected with the

material or inputs to the output
production process.

2. Waste of materials may be 2. Scraps are generally

visible or invisible. identifiable and has physical
substance.

3. Generally, waste has no 3. Scraps are termed as

recoverable value. by-products and has small
recoverable value.

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Difference between Scrap and Defectives

Scrap Defectives
1. It is the loss connected with the 1. This type of loss is connected
output with the output as well as the
input.
2. Scraps are not intended but 2. Defectives also are not
cannot be eliminated due to intended but can be eliminated
the nature of material or through a proper control
process itself. system.
3. Generally, scraps are not used 3. Defectives can be used after
or rectified. rectification.
4. Scraps have insignificant 4. Defectives are sold at a lower
recoverable value. value from that of the good
one.

Distinction between Spoilage and Defectives: The difference between

spoilage and defectives is that while spoilage cannot be repaired or
reconditioned, defectives can be rectified and transferred, either back to the
standard production or to the seconds.
The problem of accounting for defective work is in relation to the costs of
rectification or rework.

(v) Obsolescence: Obsolescence is defined as “the loss in the intrinsic value of

an asset due to its supersession”. In simple words, obsolescence refers to the
loss in the value of an asset due to technological advancements.

Treatment: Materials may become obsolete under any of the following

circumstances:
(i) where it is a spare part or a component of a machinery that is used in
manufacturing and is now obsolete;
(ii) where it is used in the manufacturing of a product which has now
become obsolete;
(iii) where the material itself is replaced by another material due to either
improved quality or fall in price.

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In all the three cases, the value of the obsolete material held in stock is a
total loss and immediate steps should be taken to dispose it off at the best
available price. The loss arising out of obsolete materials is an abnormal loss
and it does not form part of the cost of manufacture.
ILLUSTRATION 14
Imbrios India Ltd. is recently incorporated start-up company back in the year 2019.
It is engaged in creating Embedded products and Internet of Things (IoT) solutions
for the Industrial market. It is focused on innovation, design, research and
development of products and services. One of its embedded products is LogMax, a
system on module (SoM) Carrier board for industrial use. It is a small, flexible and
embedded computer designed as per industry specifications. In the beginning of the
month of September 2022, company entered into a job agreement of providing 4800
LogMax to NIT, Mandi. Following details w.r.t. issues, receipts, returns of Store
Department handling Micro-controller, a component used in the designated
assembling process have been extracted for the month of September, 2022:

Sep. 1 Opening stock of 6,000 units @ ` 285 per unit

Issued 4875 units to mechanical division vide material requisition no.
Sep. 8
Mech 009/22
Received 17,500 units @ ` 276 per unit vide purchase order no.
Sep. 9
159/22
Issued 12,000 units to technical division vide material requisition no.
Sep. 10
Tech 012/22
Returned to stores 2375 units by technical division against material
Sep. 12
requisition no. Tech 012/22.
Received 9,000 units @ ` 288 per units vide purchase order no. 160/
Sep. 15
2222
Returned to supplier 700 units out of quantity received vide purchase
Sep. 17
order no. 160/22.
Issued 9,500 units to technical division vide material requisition no.
Sep. 20
Tech 165/22

On 25th September, 2022, the stock manager of the company expressed his need to
leave for his hometown due to certain contingency and immediately left the job
same day. Later, he also switched his phone off.

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As the company has the tendency of stock-taking every end of the month to check
and report for the loss due to rusting of the components, the new stock manager, on
30th September, 2022, found that 900 units of Micro-controllers were missing which
was apparently misappropriated by the former stock manager. He, further, reported
loss of 300 units due to rusting of the components.
From the above information you are required to prepare the Stock Ledger account
using ‘Weighted Average’ method of valuing the issues.
SOLUTION
Store Ledger of Imbrios India Ltd. (Weighted Average Method)

Date Receipts Issues Balance of Stock

Qty Rate Amount Qty Rate Amount Qty Rate Amount

Sep.
(kg.) (`) (`) (kg.) (`) (`) (kg.) (`) (`)

1 - - - - - - 6,000 285.00 17,10,000

8 - - - 4,875 285.00 13,89,375 1,125 285.00 3,20,625

9 17,500 276.00 48,30,000 - - - 18,625 276.54 51,50,625

10 - - - 12,000 276.54 33,18,480 6,625 276.54 18,32,145

12 2,375 276.54 6,56,783 - - - 9,000 276.54 24,88,928

15 9,000 288.00 25,92,000 - - - 18,000 282.27 50,80,928

17 - - - 700 288.00 2,01,600 17,300 282.04 48,79,328

20 - - - 9,500 282.04 26,79,380 7,800 282.04 2199948

30 - - - 900* 282.04 2,53,836 6,900 282.04 19,46,112

30 - - - 300** - - 6,600 294.87 19,46,112

* 900 units is abnormal loss, hence it will be transferred to Costing Profit & Loss
A/c.
** 300 units is normal loss; hence it will be absorbed by good units.

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 2.70 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

11. CONSUMPTION OF MATERIALS

Any product that is manufactured in a firm entails consumption of resources like
material, labour etc. The management for planning and control must know the
cost of using these resources in manufacturing process. The consumption of
materials takes place when it is used in the manufacturing of the product.
It is important to note that the amount of materials consumed in a period by a
cost object need not be equal to the amount of material available with the
concern. For example, during any period, the total of raw material stock available
for use in production may not be equal to the amount of materials actually
consumed and assigned to the cost object of the production. The difference
between the material available and material consumed represents the surplus
stock or stock of material at the end of the period.

11.1 Identification of Materials

For the identification of consumption of materials with products of cost centres
the followings points should be noted:
1. It is required that the concern should follow coding system for all materials,
so that each material is identified by unique code number.

2. It is required that each product of a cost centre should be given a unique

code number so that the direct material issued for production of particular
product of a cost centre can be collected against the code number of that
product.
However, it may not be possible to allocate all materials directly to
individual product of a cost centre e.g. maintenance materials, inspection
and testing materials etc. The consumption of these materials are collected
for cost centre and then charged to individual product by adopting suitable
overhead absorption rate of cost centre.
Cost for cost centre
Overhead absorption rate of cost centre =
Base relating to cost centre
(e.g. labour hrs. or machine hrs.)

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3. Each issue of materials should be recorded. One way of doing this is to use a
material requisition note. This note shows the details of materials issued for
the product of cost centre or the cost centre which is to be charged with
cost of materials.
4. A material return note is required for recording the excess materials
returned to the store. This note is required to ensure that original product of
cost centre is credited with the cost of material which was not used and that
the stock records are updated.
5. A material transfer note is required for recording the transfer of materials
from one product of cost centre to other or from one cost centre to other
cost centre.
6. The cost of materials issued would be determined according to stock
valuation method used.

11.2 Monitoring Consumption of Materials

For monitoring consumption of materials, a storekeeper should periodically
analyse the various material requisitions, material return notes and material
transfer notes. Based on this analysis, a material abstracts or material issue
analysis sheet is prepared, which shows at a glance the value of material
consumed in manufacturing each product. This statement is also useful for
ascertaining the cost of material issued for each product.
Format of Material Abstract
Week Ending............

Material Amount Product Nos. Total Overheads

requisition (`) for (Indirect
or Transfer Product Material
Note or charged)
Returned 101 102 103 104 105 106
Note No. (`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
— — — — — — — — —

Total

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 2.72 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The material abstract statement serves a useful purpose. It, in fact, shows the
amount of material to be debited to various products & overheads. The total
amount of stores debited to various products & overheads should be the same as
the total value of stores issued in any period.

11.3 Basis for Consumption Entries in Financial Accounts

Every manufacturing organisation assigns material costs to the products for two
purposes.

Firstly, for external financial accounting requirements, in order to allocate the

material costs incurred during the period between cost of goods produced and
inventories; secondly to provide useful information for managerial
decision-making requirements. In order to meet external financial accounting
requirements, it may not be necessary to accurately trace material costs to
individual products.

Some products costs may be overstated and others may be understated. But this
may not matter for financial accounting purposes, as long as total of individual
materials costs transactions are recorded i.e., transactions between cost centre
within the firm are recorded in a manner that facilitates analysis of costs for
assigning them to cost units.

The consumption entries in financial accounts are made on the basis of total cost of
purchases of materials after adjustment for opening and closing stock of materials.

Following equation is applicable here:

Consumption of Materials = Opening Stock of materials + Purchases – Closing Stock

of materials

The stock of materials is taken at cost or net realisable value, whichever is less.

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SUMMARY
♦ Material Control: It is the systematic control over the procurement, storage
and usage of materials to maintain even flow of materials and avoiding at the
same time excessive investment in inventories.
♦ Material Requisition Note: Document used to authorize and record the issue
of materials from store.
♦ Purchase Requisition Note: Document is prepared by the storekeeper to
initiate the process of purchases.
♦ Purchase Order: It is a written request to the supplier to supply certain
specified materials at specified rates and within a specified period.
♦ Goods Received Note: This document is prepared by receiving department
which unpacks the goods received and verify the quantities and other details.
♦ Material Transfer Note: This document is prepared when the material is
transferred from one department to another.
♦ Material Return Note: It is a document given with the goods being returned
from factory back to the stores.
♦ Bin Card: A prime entry record of the quantity of stocks, kept on
in/out/balance, held in designated storage areas.
♦ Stores Ledger: A ledger containing a separate account for each item of
material and component stocked in store giving details of the receipts, issues
and balance both in terms of quantity and value.
♦ Minimum Level: It is the minimum quantity, which must be retained in stock
ROL- (Avg. consumption × Avg. Lead time)
♦ Maximum Level: It is the maximum limit up to which stock can be stored at
any time
ROL + ROQ – (Min consumption × Min Lead Time)

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 2.74 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

♦ Re order Level: It is the level at which new order needs to be placed

Maximum lead time × Maximum Usage
Or
Minimum level + (Average rate of consumption × Average time to obtain fresh
supplies).
♦ Average Inventory Level = Minimum level + 1/2 Re-order quantity
Or
Maximum level+Minimum level
=
2
♦ Danger Level: The level where normal issue of materials is stopped, and only
emergency materials are issued.
Danger level = Average consumption × Lead time for emergency purchases.
♦ Stock-out = Stock out is said to be occurred when an inventory item could not
be supplied due to insufficient stock in the store.
♦ Just-in-time (JIT) Inventory management: JIT is a system of inventory
management with an approach to have zero inventories in stores. According to
this approach material should only be purchased when it is actually required for
production.
♦ ABC analysis: Items are classified into the following categories:
A Category: Quantity less than 10 % but value more than 70 %
B Category: Quantity less than 20 % but value about 20 %
C Category: Quantity about 70 % but value less than 10%
♦ Fast Moving, Slow Moving and Non-Moving (FSN) Inventory: Under this
system, inventories are controlled by classifying them on the basis of frequency
of usage.
♦ Vital, Essential and Desirable (VED): Under this system of inventory analysis,
inventories are classified on the basis of its criticality for the production function
and final product.

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♦ High Cost, Medium Cost, Low Cost (HML) Inventory: Under this system,
inventory is classified on the basis of the cost of an individual item, unlike ABC
analysis where inventories are classified on the basis of overall value of inventory.
♦ Two bin system: If one bin items exhausts, new order is placed and in the mean
time, quantity from pthe smaller bin is used or issued.
♦ First-in First-out method: The materials received first are to be issued first when
material requisition is received. Materials left as closing stock will be at the price
of the latest purchases.
♦ Last-in First-out method: The materials purchased last are to be issued first
when material requisition is received. Closing stock is valued at the oldest
available stock price.
♦ Simple Average Method: Material Issue Price
Total of unit price of each purchase
=
Total number of Purchases
♦ Weighted Average Price Method: This method gives due weightage to
quantities purchased and the purchase price to determine the issue price.
Total cost of material in stock
Weighted Average Price =
Total quantity of materials

♦ Various Material Losses

(a) Wastage: Portion of basic raw material lost in processing, having no
recoverable value
(b) Scrap: The incidental material residue coming out of certain manufacturing
operations, having low recoverable value.
(c) Spoilage: Goods damaged beyond rectification, to be sold off without
further processing.
♦ Defectives: Goods which can be rectified and turned out as good units by the
application of additional labour or other services.

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TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Direct material can be classified as
(a) Fixed cost
(b) Variable cost
(c) Semi-variable cost.
(d) Prime Cost
2. In most of the industries, the most important element of cost is

(a) Material
(b) Labour
(c) Overheads
(d) Administration Cost
3. Which of the following is considered to be the normal loss of materials?
(a) Loss due to accidents

(b) Pilferage
(c) Loss due to breaking the bulk
(d) Loss due to careless handling of materials.
4. In which of following methods of pricing, costs lag behind the current
economic values?
(a) Last-in-first out price
(b) First-in-first out price
(c) Replacement price
(d) Weighted average price

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5. Continuous stock taking is a part of

(a) Annual stock taking

(b) Perpetual inventory

(c) ABC analysis.

(d) Bin Cards

6. In which of the following methods, issues of materials are priced at

pre-determined rate?

(a) Inflated price method

(b) Standard price method

(c) Replacement price method

(d) Market price method.

7. When material prices fluctuate widely, the method of pricing that gives absurd
results is

(a) Simple average price

(b) Weighted average price

(c) Moving average price

(d) Inflated price.

8. When prices fluctuate widely, the method that will smooth out the effect of
fluctuations is

(a) Simple average

(b) Weighted average

(c) FIFO

(d) LIFO

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 2.78 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

9. Under the FSN system of inventory control, inventory is classified on the basis
of:
(a) Volume of material consumption
(d) Frequency of usage of items of inventory
(c) Criticality of the item of inventory for production
(d) Value of items of inventory
10. Form used for making a formal request to the purchasing department to
purchase materials is a - :
(a) Material Transfer Note

(b) Purchase Requisition Note

(c) Bill of Materials
(d) Material Requisition Note

Theoretical Questions
1. STATE how normal and abnormal loss of material arising during storage are
treated in Cost Accounts?

2. DISTINGUISH clearly between Bin cards and Stores Ledger.

3. DISCUSS the accounting treatment of defectives in Cost Accounts.
4. EXPLAIN the concept of "ABC Analysis" as a technique of inventory control.
5. DISTINGUISH between Re-order level and Re-order quantity.
6. EXPLAIN how is slow moving and non-moving item of stores detected and
what steps are necessary to reduce such stocks?
7. WRITE short notes on any three of the following:
(i) Danger Level
(ii) Just in Time Inventory Management
(iii) Maximum stock level and Minimum Stock level
(iv) Obsolescence

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 MATERIAL COST 2.79
2.79

Practical Problems
1. Anil & Company buys its annual requirement of 36,000 units in 6 instalments.
Each unit costs ` 1 and the ordering cost is `25. The inventory carrying cost is
estimated at 20% of unit value. FIND the total annual cost of the existing
inventory policy. CALCULATE, how much money can be saved by Economic
Order Quantity?
2. A Company manufactures a special product which requires a component
‘Alpha’. The following particulars are collected for the year 2022-23:

(i) Annual demand of Alpha 8,000 units

(ii) Cost of placing an order ` 200 per order
(iii) Cost per unit of Alpha ` 400
(iv) Carrying cost p.a. 20%
The company has been offered a quantity discount of 4 % on the purchase of
‘Alpha’ provided the order size is 4,000 components at a time.
Required:
(i) COMPUTE the economic order quantity
(ii) STATE whether the quantity discount offer can be accepted.
3. The complete Gardener is deciding on the economic order quantity for two
brands of lawn fertilizer - Super Grow and Nature’s Own. The following
information is collected:

FERTILIZER
Super Grow Nature’s Own
Annual demand 2,000 bags 1,280 bags
Relevant ordering cost per purchase ` 1,200 ` 1,400
order
Annual relevant carrying cost per bag ` 480 ` 560

Required:
(i) COMPUTE EOQ for Super Grow and Nature’s own.

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 2.80 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) For the EOQ, WHAT is the sum of the total annual relevant ordering
costs and total annual relevant carrying costs for Super Grow and
Nature’s own?
(iii) For the EOQ, COMPUTE the number of deliveries per year for Super
Grow and Nature’s own.
4. A Company uses three raw materials A, B and C for a particular product for
which the following data apply:

Raw Usage per Re-order Price Delivery period Re- Minimum

Material unit of quantity per (in weeks) order level
Product (Kgs.) Kg. level (Kgs.)
(Kgs.) (Kgs)

Minimum Average Maximum

A 10 10,000 10 1 2 3 8,000 ?

B 4 5,000 30 3 4 5 4,750 ?

C 6 10,000 15 2 3 4 ? 2,000

Weekly production varies from 175 to 225 units, averaging 200 units of the
said product. COMPUTE the following quantities:

(i) Minimum stock of A,

(ii) Maximum stock of B,
(iii) Re-order level of C,
(iv) Average stock level of A.
5. (a) EXE Limited has received an offer of quantity discounts on its order of
materials as under:

Price per ton (` ) Ton (Nos.)

1,200 Less than 500

1,180 500 and less than 1,000
1,160 1,000 and less than 2,000
1,140 2,000 and less than 3,000
1,120 3,000 and above.

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2.81

The annual requirement for the material is 5,000 tons. The ordering cost
per order is `R 1,200 and the stock holding cost is estimated at 20% of
material cost per annum. You are required to COMPUTE the most
economical purchase level.

(b) WHAT will be your answer to the above question if there are no
discounts offered and the price per ton is ` 1,500?

6. From the details given below, CALCULATE:

(i) Re-ordering level

(ii) Maximum level

(iii) Minimum level

(iv) Danger level.

Re-ordering quantity is to be calculated on the basis of following information:

Cost of placing a purchase order is ` 4,000

Number of units to be purchased during the year is 5,00,000

Purchase price per unit, inclusive of transportation cost is ` 50

Annual cost of storage per unit is ` 10.

Details of lead time : Average - 10 days, Maximum - 15 days Minimum- 5 days,

for emergency purchases- 4 days.

Rate of consumption: Average: 1,500 units per day,

Maximum: 2,000 units per day.

7. G. Ltd. produces a product which has a monthly demand of 4,000 units. The
product requires a component X which is purchased at ` 20. For every finished
product, one unit of component is required. The ordering cost is
` 120 per order and the holding cost is 10% p.a.

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 2.82 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

You are required to CALCULATE:

(i) Economic order quantity.
(ii) If the minimum lot size to be supplied is 4,000 units, what is the extra
cost, the company has to incur?
(iii) What is the minimum carrying cost, the company has to incur?
8. ‘AT’ Ltd. furnishes the following store transactions for September, 2022:
1-9-22 Opening balance 25 units value ` 162.50

4-9- 22 Issues Req. No. 85 8 units

6-9- 22 Receipts from B & Co. GRN No. 26 50 units @ ` 5.75 per unit
7-9- 22 Issues Req. No. 97 12 units

10-9- 22 Return to B & Co. 10 units

12-9- 22 Issues Req. No. 108 15 units
13-9- 22 Issues Req. No. 110 20 units
15-9- 22 Receipts from M & Co. GRN. No. 33 25 units @ ` 6.10 per unit
17-9- 22 Issues Req. No. 121 10 units
19-9- 22 Received replacement from B & Co.
GRN No. 38 10 units
20-9- 22 Returned from department, material
of M & Co. MRR No. 4 5 units
22-9- 22 Transfer from Job 182 to Job 187 in
the dept. MTR 6 5 units
26-9- 22 Issues Req. No. 146 10 units
29-9- 22 Transfer from Dept. “A” to
Dept. “B” MTR 10 5 units
30-9- 22 Shortage in stock taking 2 units
PREPARE the priced stores ledger on FIFO method and STATE how would you
treat the shortage in stock taking.

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9. The following information is extracted from the Stores Ledger:

Material X
Opening Stock Nil
Purchases:
Jan. 1 100 @ ` 1 per unit
Jan. 20 100 @ ` 2 per unit
Issues:
Jan. 22 60 for Job W 16
Jan. 23 60 for Job W 17
Complete the receipts and issues valuation by adopting the First-In-First-Out,
Last-In-First-Out and the Weighted Average Method. TABULATE the values
allocated to Job W 16, Job W 17 and the closing stock under the methods
aforesaid and discuss from different points of view which method you would
prefer.

ANSWERS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b)

7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (b)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 10
2. Please refer paragraph 5.2
3. Please refer paragraph 10

4. Please refer paragraph 6.4

5. Please refer paragraph 6.1
6. Please refer paragraph 6.4
7. Please refer paragraph 6.1, 6.3, 6.1, 10

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 2.84 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. (a) Total Annual Cost in Existing Inventory Policy

(`)

Ordering cost (6 orders @ ` 25) 150

Carrying cost of average inventory (36,000 ÷ 6) = 6,000

units per order

Average inventory = 3,000 units

Carrying cost = 20% of ` 1 × 3,000 = 3,000 × 0.20 600

Total cost A 750

(b) Total Annual Cost in E.O.Q

2×36,000×25
EOQ = = 3000 units
` 1×20%
(`)
No. of orders = 36,000 ÷3,000 units = 12 orders

Ordering cost (12 × `Rs 25) = 300

Carrying cost of average inventory (3,000 × 0.20) ÷ 2 = 300

Total Cost B 600

Savings due to E.O.Q ` (750 – 600) (A – B) 150

Note: As the units purchase cost of ` 1 does not change in both the
computation, the same has not been considered to arrive at total cost
of inventory for the purpose of savings.
2. (i) Calculation of Economic Order Quantity
2AO 2 ×8,000 units × `200
EOQ = = = 200 units
C ` 400×20 / 100

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(ii) Evaluation of Profitability of Different Options of Order Quantity

(a) When EOQ is ordered

(`)
Purchase Cost (8,000 units × ` 400) 32,00,000
Ordering Cost [(8,000 units/200 units) × ` 200] 8,000
Carrying Cost (200 units × `400 × ½ × 20/100) 8,000
Total Cost 32,16,000

(b) When Quantity Discount is accepted

(`)
Purchase Cost (8,000 units × ` 384*) 30,72,000
Ordering Cost [(8,000 units/4000 units) × ` 400
200]
Carrying Cost (4000 units × ` 384 × ½ × 1,53,600
20/100)
Total Cost 32,26,000

*Unit Cost `400

Less Quantity Discount @ 4% = 16
Purchase Cost = 400- 16 = `384
Advise – The total cost of inventory is lower if EOQ is adopted.
Hence, the company is advised not to accept the quantity
discount.

2AO
3. EOQ =
C

Where,
A = Annual Demand

O = Ordering cost per order

C = Inventory carrying cost per unit per annum

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 2.86 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(i) Calculation of EOQ

Super Grow Nature’s Own

2 × 2,000 × 1,200 2 × 1,280 × 1,400

EOQ = EOQ =
480 560

= 10,000 or 100 bags = 6,400 or or 80 bags

(ii) Total annual relevant cost = Total annual relevant ordering costs +
Total annual relevant carrying cost

Super Grow Nature’s Own

Number of Orders 2,000/100 =20 orders 1,280/80 =16 orders

= Annual Require-
ment ÷EOQ

Ordering Cost 20 × 1200 = ` 24000 16 × 1400 = `22,400

Carrying Cost ½ × 100 × 480 = ½ × 80 × 560 =

`24,000 `22,400

Total of Ordering =` 24,000+ ` 24,000 = ` 22,400 + ` 22,400 =

and Carrying Cost ` 48,000 ` 44,800

(iii) Number of deliveries for Super Grow and Nature’s own fertilizer per
Annual demand for fertilizer bags
year =
EOQ

Super Grow Nature’s Own

2,000 bags = 1,280 bags = 16 orders.
= = 20 orders
100 bags 80 bags

4. (i) Minimum stock of A

Re-order level – (Average rate of consumption × Average time
required to obtain fresh delivery)
= 8,000 – (200 × 10 × 2) = 4,000 kgs.

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(ii) Maximum stock of B

Re-order level + Re-order quantity – (Minimum consumption ×
Minimum delivery period)
= 4,750 + 5,000 – (175 × 4 × 3)
= 9,750 – 2,100 = 7,650 kgs.
(iii) Re-order level of C
Maximum delivery period × Maximum usage
= 4 × 225 × 6 = 5,400 kgs.
OR

Re-order level of C
= Minimum level of C + [Average rate of consumption × Average
time required to obtain fresh delivery]

= 2,000 + [(200 × 6) × 3] kgs = 5,600 kgs.

(iv) Average stock level of A
= Minimum stock level of A + ½ Re-order quantity of A

= 4,000 + ½ × 10,000 = 4,000 + 5,000 = 9,000 kgs

OR
Average Stock level of A
Minimum stock level of A + Maximum stock level of A
=
2
(Refer to working note)
4,000 + 16,250
= 10,125 kgs
2
Working note:
Maximum stock of A = ROL+ ROQ – (Minimum consumption ×
Minimum re-order period)
= 8,000 + 10,000 – [(175 × 10) × 1] = 16,250 kgs

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 2.88 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

5. (a)

Total Order No. Cost of Ordering Carrying cost Total Cost

annual size of inventory cost p.t. p.a (4+5+6)
require (Tonne) orders A × Per tonne A/q × 1/2× q × 20% (`)
ment (q) A/q cost ` 1200 of cost p.t.
(A) (`) (`) (`)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5,000 400 12.5 60,00,000 15,600 48,000 60,63,600

(13)*

Ton (5,000×`1200) (200 × ` 240)

500 10 59,00,000 12,000 59,000 59,71000

(5,000 × ` 1180) (250 × ` 236)

1,000 5 58,00,000 6,000 1,16,000 59,22,000

(5,000× ` 1160) (500 × ` 232)

2,000 2.5 57,00,000 2,28,000

(3)* 3,600 59,31,600

(5,000×` 1140) (1,000×`228)

3,000 1.666 56,00,000 3,36,000

(2)* 2,400

(5,000×` 1120) (1,500×`224) 59,38,400

* Since number of orders cannot be in decimals, thus 12.5 orders are

taken as 13 orders, 2.5 are taken as 3 order and 1.66 orders are taken
as 2 orders.
The above table shows that the total cost of 5,000 units including
ordering and carrying cost is minimum (` 59,22,000) when the order size
is 1,000 units. Hence the most economical purchase level is 1,000 units.
(b) If there will are no discount offer then the purchase quantity should be
equal to EOQ. The EOQ is as follows:

2AO
EOQ =
C

where A = annual inventory requirement,

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 MATERIAL COST 2.89
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O = ordering cost per order and

C = carrying cost per unit per annum.

2×5,000 units × `1,200

= = 200 units
20% × `1,500

6. Basic Data:
A (Number of units to be purchased annually) = 5,00,000 units
O (Ordering cost per order) = ` 4,000

C (Annual cost of storage per unit) = ` 10

Purchase price per unit inclusive of transportation cost = ` 50
Computations:
(i) Re-ordering level = Maximum usage per period × Maximum
(ROL) lead time
= 2,000 units per day × 15 days
= 30,000 units
(ii) Maximum level = ROL + ROQ – [Min. rate of consumption ×
Min. lead time] (Refer to working notes 1 and 2)
= 30,000 units + 20,000 units – [1,000 units per
day×5 days]
= 45,000 units

(iii) Minimum level = ROL–Average rate of consumption×

Average re-order-period
= 30,000 units – (1,500 units per day × 10
days)
= 15,000 units
(iv) Danger level = Average consumption × Lead time for
emergency purchases
= 1,500 units per day × 4 days
= 6,000 units

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 2.90 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Working Notes:
1. Minimum rate of consumption per day
Minimum rate of Maximum rate of
+
Av. rate of consumption consumption
=
consumption 2

X units / day + 2,000 units per day

1,500 units per day = or X
2

= 1,000 units per day.

2 × 5, 00, 000 units × ` 4, 000

2. Re-order Quantity (ROQ)= =20,000 units
10

7. (a) (i) Economic order quantity:

A (Annual requirement or Component ‘X’)
= 4,000 units per month × 12 months

= 48,000 units
C (Purchase cost p.u.) = ` 20
O (Ordering cost per order) = ` 120

Ci (Holding cost) = 10% per annum

2AO 2×48,000units× `120

E.O.Q. = = = 2,400 units
C 10%of `20
i

(ii) Extra cost incurred by the company:

A. Total cost when order size is equal 4,000 units:
Total cost = Total ordering cost + Total carrying cost
A
= × O + 1 Q (Ci)
Q 2

=  48,000 units ×`120  +  1 × 4,000 units ×10% × ` 20 

 4,000 units  2 
= ` 1,440 + ` 4,000 = ` 5,440

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 MATERIAL COST 2.91
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B. Total cost when order size is equal EOQ i.e. 2,400 units:

Total cost =  48,000 units 1

×`120  +  × 2,400 units × 10% × ` 20 
 

 2,400 units  2 

= ` 2,400 + ` 2,400 = ` 4,800

Extra cost that the company has to incur = (A) – (B)
= ` 5,440 – ` 4,800
= ` 640

(iii) Minimum carrying cost: Carrying cost depends upon the size of
the order. It will be minimum on the least order size. (In this part
of the question the two order sizes are 2,400 units and 4,000
units. Here 2,400 units is the least of the two order sizes. At this
order size carrying cost will be minimum.)
The minimum carrying cost in this case can be computed as
under:
1
Minimum carrying cost = × 2,400 units × 10% × ` 20 = ` 2,400.
2
8. Working Notes:
1. The material received as replacement from vendor is treated as fresh
supply.
2. In the absence of any information, the price of the material returned
from a user department on 20-9-22 has been taken at the price of the
latest issue made on 17-9-22. In FIFO method, physical flow of the
material is irrelevant, and issue price is based on first in first out.
3. The issue of material on 26-9-22 is made out of the material received
from a user department on 20-9-22.
4. The entries for transfer of materials from one job and department to
another on 22-9-22 and 29-9-22 respectively, do not affect the store
ledger. However, adjustment entries to calculation of cost of respective
jobs and departments are made in cost accounts.
5. The material found short as a result of stock taking has been written
off at relevant issue price.

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 2.92 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
2.92
2.92
Stores Ledger of AT Ltd. for the month of September, 2022 (FIFO Method)
RECEIPT ISSUE BALANCE
Date GRN Qty. Rate Amount Requisi- Qty. Rate Amount Qty. Rate Amount
No Units (`) (`) tion No Units (`) (`) Units (`) (`)
MRR
No.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1-9-22 — — — — — — — — 25 6.50 162.50

4-9-22 — — — — 85 8 6.50 52 17 6.50 110.50

17 6.50
6-9-22 26 50 5.75 287.50 — — — — 398.00
50 5.75

5 6.50
7-9-22 — — — — 97 12 6.50 78 320.00
50 5.75

6.50
10-9-22 — — — — Return 10 5.75 57.50 262.50
40 5.75

5 6.50
12-9-22 — — — — 108 90 30 5.75 172.50
10 5.75

13-9-22 — — — — 110 20 5.75 115 10 5.75 57.50

10 5.75

2.71
15-9-22 33 25 6.10 152.50 — — — — 210.00
25 6.10

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 2.93

17-9-22 — — — — 121 10 5.75 57.50 25 6.10 152.50

25 6.10
19-9-22 38 10 5.75 57.50 — — — — 210.00
10 5.75

5 5.75

20-9-22 4 5 5.75 28.75 — — — — 25 6.10 238.75

10 5.75

5 5.75 20 6.10
26-9-22 — — — — 146 59.25 179.50
5 6.10 10 5.75

18 6.10
30-9-22 — — — — Shortage 2 6.10 12.20 167.30
10 5.75

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 2.94 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
2.94
2.94
9. From the point of view of cost of material charged to each job, it is minimum
under FIFO and maximum under LIFO (Refer to Tables). During the period of
rising prices, the use of FIFO give rise to high profits and that of LIFO low
profits. In the case of weighted average, there is no significant adverse or
favourable effect on the cost of material as well as on profits.
From the point of view of valuation of closing stock, it is apparent from the
above statement, that it is maximum under FIFO, moderate under weighted
average and minimum under LIFO.
It is clear from the tables that the use of weighted average evens out the
fluctuations in the prices. Under this method, the cost of materials issued to
the jobs and the cost of material in hands reflects greater uniformity than
under FIFO and LIFO. Thus, from different points of view, weighted average
method is preferred over LIFO and FIFO.

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 2.95 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
2.95
2.95
Statement of receipts and issues by adopting First-in-First-Out Method
Date Particulars Receipts Issues Balance
Units Rate Value Units Rate Value Units Rate Value
No. (`) (`) No. (`) (`) No. (`) (`)
Jan. 1 Purchase 100 1 100 — — — 100 1 100
100 1 100
Jan. 20 Purchase 100 2 200 — — —
100 2 200
40 1 40
Jan. 22 Issue to Job W 16 — — — 60 1 60
100 2 200
40 1 40
Jan. 23 Issue to Job W 17 — — — 80 2 160
20 2 40
Statement of receipts and issues by adopting Last-In-First-Out method
Date Particulars Receipts Issues Balance
Units Rate Value Units Rate Value Units Rate Value
No. (`) (`) No. (`) (`) No. (`) (`)
Jan. 1 Purchase 100 1 100 — — — 100 1 100
100 1 100
Jan. 20 Purchase 100 2 200 — — —
100 2 200
100 1 100
Jan. 22 Issue to Job W 16 — — — 60 2 120
40 2 80
Jan. 23 Issue to Job W 17 — — — 40 2 80 80 1 80
20 1 20

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 2.96

Statement of Receipt and Issues by adopting Weighted Average method

Date Particulars Receipts Issues Balance
Units Rate Value Units Rate Value Units Rate Value
No. (`) (`) No. (`) (`) No. (`) (`)
Jan. 1 Purchase 100 1 100 — — — 100 1 100
Jan. 20 Purchase 100 2 200 — — — 200 1.50 300
Jan. 22 Issue to Job W 16 — — — 60 1.50 90 140 1.50 210
Jan. 23 Issue to Job W 17 — — — 60 1.50 90 80 1.50 120

Statement of Material Values allocated to Job W 16, Job 17 and Closing Stock, under aforesaid methods
FIFO LIFO Weighted Average
(`) (`) (`)
Material for Job W 16 60 120 90
Material for Job W 17 80 100 90
Closing Stock 160 80 120
300 300 300

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 3
CHAPTER
3
EMPLOYEE COST AND
DIRECT EXPENSES
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you would be able to-
♦ State the meaning and importance of Employee (Labour)
Cost in an organisation.
♦ Discuss the attendance and payroll procedures.
♦ State the meaning and treatment of idle time and overtime
cost.
♦ Compute employee (labour) turnover, discuss its meaning,
reasons, methods of measurement and cost impacts.
♦ Discuss and apply the various methods of remuneration and
incentive system in calculation of wages, bonus etc.
♦ Discuss the efficiency rating procedures.
♦ Discuss the measurement and treatment of Direct expenses.

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 3.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

1. INTRODUCTION
To manufacture a product or to make provision for service, the role of human
exertion is inevitable. The term used for human resources may include workers,
employees, labourers, staffs etc. Whatsoever nomenclature may be used to denote
them; they are required to be compensated for their exertions. The compensation
so paid, either in monetary terms or in kind and facility is known as wages. Cost of
paying wages to workers is popularly known as labour cost as it relates to labour
(exertion) they put for manufacturing of product or provision of services; hence,
employee cost is also interchangeably known as labour cost. In a nutshell,
employee cost is wider term which includes wages, salary, bonus, incentives
etc. paid to an employee and charged to a cost object as labour cost.
Unlike other costs, employee costs are influenced by human behavior. Due to this
peculiarity, divergence in employee compensation is observed across the different
industries. Wages are determined on both quantitative and qualitative factors like
volume of work, skills required etc. Hence, it is necessary that employees should

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 3.3 3.3
EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

be monitored, measured, and compensated appropriately to achieve economy in

cost, efficiency in performance and effectiveness in desired output.

2. EMPLOYEE (LABOUR) COST

Employee (Labour) Cost: Benefits paid or payable to the employees of an entity,
whether permanent, or temporary for the services rendered by them. Employee cost
includes payments made in cash or kind. Employee cost includes the following:
(i) Wages and salary;
(ii) Allowances and incentives;
(iii) Payment for overtimes;
(iv) Employer’s contribution to Provident fund and other welfare funds;
(v) Other benefits (leave with pay, free or subsidised food, leave travel
concession etc.) etc.
Classification of Employee (Labour) Cost: Employee cost are broadly
classified as direct and indirect employee cost.
(i) Direct Employee (Labour) Cost
Benefits paid or payable to the employees which can be attributed to a
cost object in an economically feasible manner. This can be easily identified
and allocated to an activity, contract, cost centre, customer, process,
product etc.
(ii) Indirect Employee (Labour) Cost
Benefits paid or payable to the employees, which cannot be directly
attributable to a particular cost object in an economically feasible
manner.
Distinction between Direct and Indirect Employee Cost

Direct employee cost Indirect employee cost

1. It is the cost incurred in payment 1. Cost incurred for payment of

of employees who are directly employees who are not directly
engaged in the production engaged in the production
process. process.

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 3.4 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2. Direct employee cost can be easily 2. Indirect employee cost is

identified and allocated to cost apportioned on some
unit. appropriate basis.

3. Direct employee cost varies with 3. Indirect employee cost may not
the volume of production and vary with the volume of
has positive relationship with the production.
volume.

3. EMPLOYEE (LABOUR) COST CONTROL

Employee costs are associated with human beings. To control employee costs one
has to understand human behavior. Employee cost control means control over the
cost incurred on employees. Control over employee costs does not imply control
over the size of the wage bill; it also does not imply that wages of each employee
should be kept as low as possible.
The aim should be to keep the wages per unit of output as low as possible.
This can only be achieved by giving employees appropriate compensation to
encourage efficiency so that optimum output can be achieved in effective
manner.
A well-motivated team of employees can bring about wonders. Each concern
should, therefore, constantly strive to raise the productivity of employee. The
efforts for the control of employee costs should begin from the very beginning.
There has to be a concerted effort by all the concerned departments.

Department Functions

1. Personnel Department (i) On receipt of employee requisition from the

various departments it searches for the
required skills and qualification.
(ii) It ensures that the persons recruited possess
the requisite qualification and skills required
for the job.
(iii) Arranges proper training for the newly
recruited employees and workshops for
existing employees.

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 3.5 3.5
EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

(iv) Maintains all personal and job related

records of the employees.
(v) Evaluation of performance from time to time

2. Engineering and Work (i) Prepares plans and specifications for each
Study Department job.
(ii) Providing training and guidance to the
employees.
(iii) Supervises production activities.
(iv) Conducts time and motion studies.
(v) Undertakes job analysis.
(vi) Conducts job evaluation.

3. Time-keeping (i) Concerned with the maintenance of

Department attendance records i.e. time keeping and
(ii) Time spent by an employee on various jobs
i.e. time booking etc.

4. Payroll Department (i) The preparation of payroll of the employees.

(ii) It disburses salary and wage payments.

5. Cost Accounting (i) Accumulation and classification of employee

Department costs.
(ii) Analysis and allocation of costs to various
cost centres or cost objects

3.1 Important Factors for the Control of Employee Cost

To exercise an effective control over the employee costs, the essential requisite is
efficient utilisation of employee and allied factors. The main points which need
consideration for controlling employee costs are the following:
(i) Assessment of manpower requirements.
(ii) Control over time-keeping and time-booking.
(iii) Time & Motion Study.

(iv) Control over idle time and overtime.

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 3.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(v) Control over employee turnover.

(vi) Wage and Incentive systems.
(vii) Job Evaluation and Merit Rating.

(viii) Employee productivity.

3.2 Collection of Employee Costs

The task of collecting employee costs is performed by the Cost Accounting
Department which record separately wages paid to direct and indirect employee.
It is the duty of this department to ascertain the effective wages paid per hour in
each department and to analyse the total payment of wages of each department
into:
(i) the amount included in the direct cost of goods produced or jobs
completed;
(ii) the amount treated as indirect employee cost and thus included in
overheads; and
(iii) the amount treated as the cost of idle time and hence loss.
(iv) the amount treated as abnormal loss/ gain and to be transferred to profit
and loss account.

Through this process costs of various jobs are ascertained. Naturally, in this the
proper recording of time spent by the employees is essential.

4. ATTENDANCE & PAYROLL PROCEDURES

4.1 Attendance Procedure / Time-keeping
It refers to correct recording of the employees’ attendance time. Students may
note the difference between “time keeping” and “time booking”. The latter refers
to break up of time on various jobs while the former implies a record of total time
spent by the employees in a factory.
Objectives of Time-keeping: Correct recording of employees’ attendance time is
of utmost importance where payment is made on the basis of time worked.

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EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

Where payment is made by results viz; straight piece work, it would still be
necessary to correctly record attendance for the purpose of ensuring that proper
discipline and adequate rate of production are maintained. The objectives of
time-keeping are as follows:
(i) For the preparation of payrolls.

(ii) For calculating overtime.

(iii) For ascertaining and controlling employee cost.
(iv) For ascertaining idle time.

(v) For disciplinary purposes.

(vi) For overhead distribution.
Methods of Time-keeping: There are various methods of time-keeping, which
may be categorized into manual and mechanical methods. The choice of a
particular method depends upon the requirements and policy of an entity; but
whichever method is followed, it should make a correct record of the time by
incurring minimum possible expenditure and it should minimise the risk of
fraudulent payments of wages. The examples of time keeping methods are
follows:
1. Manual Methods
(a) Attendance Register Method- Under this method, an attendance
register is kept to record the arrival and departure time of an
employee. This method is simple and inexpensive and is suitable for
small organisations. However, this method may lead to dishonest
practice of time manipulation by way of recording wrong time and
back date entry in collusion with time keeper.
(b) Metal Disc/ Token Method- This method of time recording is very
old and is almost obsolete in practice. Under this method, each
employee is allotted a metal disc or a token with a hole bearing his
identification number. The token is kept or handed to the time keeper
who record the token number in his register. Like attendance register
method, this method also has some disadvantages like error in
recording, proxy attendance etc.

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 3.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2. Mechanical/ Automated Methods

(a) Punch Card Attendance- Under this method, each employee is
provided a card for marking attendance. A punch card contains data
related with the employee in digital form. In punch card attendance
system, an employee needs to either insert or wave his card to a card
reader which then ensures whether the correct person is logging in
and/or out. This system does not require to employ any time keeper
and minimises the risk of recording error and time manipulation.
(b) Bio-Metric Attendance system- Under bio-metric attendance system
attendance is marked by recognizing an employee on the basis of
physical and behavioural traits. An employee’s unique identity like
finger print, face and retina image etc. are kept in a database which is
matched at the time of marking of attendance before the attendance
device for this purpose. Bio-metric attendance system includes
fingerprint recognition system, face recognition system, Time and
attendance tracking technology etc. This system reduces the risk of
time manipulation and proxy attendance. However, it may not be
suitable for small organisations due to cost associated with set-up and
maintenance.
Requisites of a Good Time-Keeping System: A good time-keeping system
should have following requisites:

1. System of time-keeping should be such which should not allow proxy

for another employee under any circumstances.
2. There should also be a provision of recording of time of piece
employees so that regular attendance and discipline may be
maintained. This is necessary to maintain uniformity of flow of
production.

3. Time of arrival as well as time of departure of employees should be

recorded so that total time of employees may be recorded and wages
may be calculated accordingly.

4. As far as possible, method of recording of time should be mechanical

so that chances of disputes regarding time may not arise between
employees and the time-keeper.

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 3.9 3.9
EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

5. Late-comers should record late arrivals. Any relaxation by the time-

keeper in this regard will encourage indiscipline.
6. The system should be simple, smooth and quick. Unnecessary queuing
for marking attendance should be avoided.
7. The system should be reviewed and maintained periodically to prevent
any error.

4.2 Time-Booking
Time keeping just records the time spent by an employee in the premises for
production but it does not show how much time a person spent on a particular
job. Time booking refers to a method wherein each activity of an employee is
recorded. This data recorded is further used for measure the time spent on a
particular job for costing, measurement of efficiency, fixation of responsibility etc.

Time booking for costing: The time spent on a particular job or activity is used
to compute the cost of the job or activity.

Time booking to measure efficiency: The efficiency of the employees is

measures by comparing the actual time taken by an employee with the standard
time that should have been taken.

Time booking for fixation of responsibility: The time booked data is used to
analyse the variance in time taken by an employee on a particular job or process
with respect to standard time to see the reasons for the variance. The reasons for
variance is further classified as controllable and uncontrollable. The controllable
reasons are those which can be avoided by due care and efficiency. On the other
hand, uncontrollable reasons cannot be avoided under the normal circumstances.
Employees or any other concerned person or departments are made accountable
for variance under controllable reasons.

For the collection of all such data, a separate record, generally known as Time (or
Job) card, is kept.

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 3.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The time (or job) card can be of two types:

• One containing analysis of time with reference to each job: A separate

job card is employed in respect of a job undertaken; where a job involves
several operations, a separate entry is made in respect of each operation.

Thus, the job card would record the total time spent on a particular job or
operation. If a number of people are engaged on the same job or operation,
the time of all those employees would be booked on the same card.

One advantage of this method is that it provides complete data on the

employee content of job or operation collectively so that the computation
of employee cost is greatly facilitated.

But this method has drawbacks as well. Since an employee’s job timing is
scattered over a number of job cards the time spent on all these jobs and
idle time must be abstracted periodically for finding each employee’s total
time spent on different jobs and the time for which he remained idle during
the period. The total of these two times (job and idle) must obviously equal
his total attendance time, as shown by his attendance record.

• The other with reference to each employee: In this case, it would greatly
facilitate reconciliation of the employee’s job time with his attendance time
recorded.

Under this system, a separate card would be used for each employee for each
day or for each week and the time which he spends on different jobs (and also
any idle time) would be recorded in the same card so that the card would
have a complete history on it as to how his time had been spent during the
period.

The format of job or time may vary industry to industry and according to
the accounting system into used.

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EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

4.3 Payroll Procedure

Steps included in this process are as under:

Time -keeping Personnel/ HR

Department Department
1. Time and Attendance

2. Employee Details
Payroll
Department

3. Wage and Salary Sheet

5. Deposit of deductions and

Cost/ Accounting contributions
Department

4. Payment after deductions and

contributions

Statutory Bodies
Employees

Diagram: Payroll Procedures

1. Time and Attendance details: A detailed sheet of number of days or hours

worked by each employee (in case of time-based payment) and units or
percentage of work (in case of piece rate) as reflected by the time keeping
methods are sent to the payroll department by the time keeping department.
Further, payroll department with the help of time booking records calculate
any further incentives such as overtime payment, bonus to be paid to the
employees.
2. List of employees and other details: A list of employees on roll and the
rate at which they will be paid is sent by the personnel/ HR department.
Payroll department should ensure that no unauthorised or bogus employee
is paid.

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 3.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

3. Computation of wages and other incentives: Payroll department based

on the details provided by the time keeping department and personnel
department calculate wages/ salary to be paid to the employees. Payroll
department prepares pay slip for all employees authorized by the personnel
department and forward the same to the cost/ accounting department for
further deductions and payment.
4. Payment to the employees: Cost/ accounting department deduct all
statutory deduction such as employee’s contribution to provident fund and
employee state insurance (ESI) scheme, TDS on salary etc. After all
deductions wages/ salary is paid to the employees.
5. Deposit of all statutory liabilities: All statutory deduction made from
wages/ salary of the employees alongwith employer’s contributions such as
provident fund and employee state insurance scheme are paid to the
respective statutory bodies.
The followings are generally deducted from the payroll

Type of deductions Description

Statutory Deductions

1. Provident fund Employee’s contribution to the Provident

fund is deducted from the salary/ wages of
the concerned employee.

2. Employee State Insurance Employee’s contribution to the ESI is

Scheme (ESI) deducted from the salary/ wages.

3. Tax Deduction at Source Employer is obliged to deduct tax at source if

(TDS) it will be paying to the employee net salary
exceeding maximum exemption limit, in equal
monthly instalments to the income tax
department.

4. Professional Tax Professional tax is a state level tax imposed for

carrying on business, profession or service.

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 3.13
3.13
EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

Other Deductions

1. Voluntary contribution to If any employee so desires may contribute

Provident fund over and above the contribution payable by
the employer.
2. Contribution to any An employee may contribute to any
benevolent fund. benevolent fund voluntarily by putting a
request to the payroll department.
3. Loan deductions Instalments of any loan taken by the
employee.
4. Other advances and dues Other advances like festival advance and
unadjusted advances taken.

5. IDLE TIME
The time during which no production is carried-out because the worker remains
idle but are paid. In other words, it is the difference between the time paid and the
time booked. Idle time can be normal or abnormal. The time for which employees are
paid includes holidays, paid leaves, allowable rest or off time etc.

Normal idle time: It is the time which cannot be avoided or reduced in the normal
course of business.

Causes Treatment

1. The time lost between factory gate It is treated as a part of cost of

and the place of work, production. Thus, in the case of direct
workers an allowance for normal idle
time is considered setting of
standard hours or standard rate.
In case of indirect workers, normal
2. The interval between one job and idle time is considered for the
another, computation of overhead rate.

3. The setting up time for the machine,

4. Normal rest time, break for lunch etc.

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 3.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Abnormal idle time: Apart from normal idle time, there may be factors which give
rise to abnormal idle time.

Causes Treatment
1. Idle time may also arise due to Abnormal idle time cost is not included
abnormal factors like lack of as a part of production cost and is
coordination shown as a separate item in the Costing
2. Power failure, Breakdown of Profit and Loss Account.
machines The cost of abnormal idle time should
3. Non-availability of raw materials, be further categorised into controllable
strikes, lockouts, poor and uncontrollable. For each category,
supervision, fire, flood etc. the break-up of cost due to various
factors should be separately shown.
4. The causes for abnormal idle
This would help the management in
time should be further analysed
fixing responsibility for controlling idle
into controllable and uncontroll-
time.
able.
Management should aim at eliminating
(i) Controllable abnormal idle
controllable idle time and on a long-
time refers to that time
term basis reducing even the normal
which could have been put
idle time. This would require a detailed
to productive use had the
analysis of the causes leading to such
management been more
idle time.
alert and efficient. All such
time which could have been
avoided is controllable idle
time.
(ii) Uncontrollable abnormal idle
time refers to time lost due
to abnormal causes, over
which management does not
have any control e.g.,
breakdown of machines,
flood etc. may be cha-
racterised as uncontrollable
idle time.

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EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

ILLUSTRATION 1
‘X’ an employee of ABC Co. gets the following emoluments and benefits:
(a) Basic pay ` 10,000 p.m.
(b) Dearness allowance ` 2,000 p.m.
(c) Bonus 20% of salary and D.A.
(d) Other allowances ` 2,500 p.m.
(e) Employer’s contribution to P.F. 10% of salary and D.A.
‘X’ works for 2,400 hours per annum, out of which 400 hours are non-productive
and treated as normal idle time. You are required to COMPUTE the effective hourly
cost of employee ‘X’.
SOLUTION
Statement showing computation of effective hourly cost of employee ‘X’

Per month (`) Per annum (`)

(A) Earning of Employee ‘X’:

Basic pay 10,000 1,20,000

Dearness Allowance 2,000 24,000

Bonus 2,400 28,800

Employer’s contribution to provident fund 1,200 14,400

Other allowances 2,500 30,000

18,100 2,17,200
(B) Effective working hours (refer workings) 2,000 hours
(C) Effective hourly cost {(A) ÷ (B)} `108.60
Workings:
Calculation of effective working hours:
Annual working hours less Normal idle time = 2,400 hours – 400 hours = 2,000 hours.

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 3.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 2
In a factory working six days in a week and eight hours each day, a worker is paid
at the rate of ` 100 per day basic plus D.A. @ 120% of basic. He is allowed to take
30 minutes off during his hours shift for meals-break and a 10 minutes recess for
rest. During a week, his card showed that his time was chargeable to :
Job X 15 hrs.

Job Y 12 hrs.
Job Z 13 hrs.
The time not booked was wasted while waiting for a job. In Cost Accounting, STATE
how would you allocate the wages of the workers for the week?
SOLUTION
Working notes:

(i) Total effective hours in a week:

[(8 hrs. – (30 mts. + 10 mts.)] × 6 days = 44 hours
(ii) Total wages for a week:

(` 100 + 120% of ` 100) × 6 days = ` 1,320

(iii) Wage rate per hour = 1320 ÷ 44 hours = ` 30
(iv) Time wasted waiting for job (Abnormal idle time):

= 44 hrs. – (15 hrs. + 12 hrs. + 13 hrs.) = 4 hrs.

Allocation of wages in Cost Accounting

(`)

Allocated to Job X : 15 hours × ` 30 450

Allocated to Job Y : 12 hours × ` 30 360

Allocated to Job Z : 13 hours × ` 30 390

Charged to Costing Profit & Loss A/c : 4 hours × ` 30 120

Total 1,320

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EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

6. OVERTIME
Work done beyond normal working hours is known as ‘overtime work’.
Overtime payment is the amount of wages paid for working beyond normal working
hours. Overtime payment consist of two elements- (i) Normal wages for overtime work
and (ii) Premium payment for overtime work.

Overtime Payment = Wages paid for overtime at normal rate + Premium

(extra) payment for overtime work

Overtime premium: The rate for overtime work is higher than the normal time rate;
usually it is at double the normal rates. The extra amount so paid over the normal rate
is called overtime premium.
Rate and conditions for overtime premium may either be fixed by an entity itself or it
may be required by any statute in force. The overtime premium should not be less
than the premium calculated as per the statute.
As per the Factories Act 1948 “Where a worker works in a factory for more than
nine hours in any day or for more than fourty eight hours in any week, he shall, in
respect of overtime work, be entitled to wages at the rate of twice his ordinary rate
of wages.”
Where any workers in a factory are paid on a piece-rate basis, the time rate shall
be deemed to be equivalent to the daily average of their full-time earnings for the
days on which they actually worked on the same or identical job during the month
immediately preceding the calendar month during which the overtime work was
done, and such time rates shall be deemed to be the ordinary rates of wages of
those workers
Ordinary rate of wages means the basic wages plus such allowances, including the
cash equivalent of the advantage accruing through the concessional sale to workers
of food grains and other articles, as the worker is for the time being entitled to, but
does not include a bonus and wages for overtime work.

Occasional overtime is a healthy sign as it indicates that the firm has the optimum
capacity and that the capacity is being fully utilised. But persistent overtime is rather a
bad sign because it may indicate either (a) that the firm needs larger capacity in men
and machines, or (b) that men have got into the habit of postponing their ordinary

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 3.18 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

work towards the evening so that they can earn extra money in the form of overtime
wages.
Causes of Overtime and Treatment of Overtime premium in cost accounting

Causes Treatment

(1) The customer may agree to (1) If overtime is resorted to at the

bear the entire charge of desire of the customer, then
overtime because urgency of overtime premium may be
work. charged to the job directly.

(2) Overtime may be called for to (2) If overtime is required to cope

make up any shortfall in with general production
production due to some programmes or for meeting
unexpected development. urgent orders, the overtime
premium should be treated as
overhead cost of the particular
department or cost centre which
works overtime.

(3) Overtime work may be (3) If overtime is worked in a

necessary to make up a department due to the fault of
shortfall in production due to another department, the overtime
some fault of management. premium should be charged to the
latter department.

(4) Overtime work may be resorted (4) Overtime worked on account of

to, to secure an out-turn in abnormal conditions such as
excess of the normal output to flood, earthquake etc., should not
take advantage of an be charged to cost, but to Costing
expanding market or of rising Profit and Loss Account.
demand

ILLUSTRATION 3
CALCULATE the earnings of A and B from the following particulars for a month and
allocate the employee cost to each job X, Y and Z:

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EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

A B

(i) Basic Wages (`) 10,000 16,000

(ii) Dearness Allowance 50% 50%

(iii) Contribution to provident Fund (on basic wages) 8% 8%

(iv) Contribution to Employee’s State Insurance (on basic wages) 2% 2%

(v) Overtime (Hours) 10 --

The normal working hours for the month are 200. Overtime is paid at double the
total of normal wages and dearness allowance. Employer’s contribution to state
Insurance and Provident Fund are at equal rates with employees’ contributions.
The two workers were employed on jobs X, Y and Z in the following proportions:

Jobs X Y Z

Worker A 40% 30% 30%

Worker B 50% 20% 30%

Overtime was done on job Y.

SOLUTION
Statement showing Earnings of Workers A and B

A (`) B (`)

Basic wages 10,000 16,000

Dearness Allowance (50% of Basic Wages) 5,000 8,000

Overtime wages (Refer to Working Note 1) 1,500 --

Gross wages earned 16,500 24,000

Less: Contribution to Provident fund (800) (1,280)

Less: Contribution to ESI (200) (320)

Net wages earned 15,500 22,400

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 3.20 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Statement of Employee Cost:

A (`) B (`)

Gross Wages (excluding overtime) 15,000 24,000

Add: Employer’s contribution to PF 800 1,280

Add: Employer’s contribution to ESI 200 320

Gross wages earned 16,000 25,600

Normal working hours 200 200

Ordinary wages rate per hour 80 128

Statement Showing Allocation of Wages to Jobs

Jobs
Total
Wages (`) X (`) Y (`) Z (`)

Worker A:

- Ordinary Wages (4: 3 : 3) 16,000 6,400 4,800 4,800

- Overtime 1,500 -- 1,500 --

Worker B:

- Ordinary Wages (5 : 2 : 3) 25,600 12,800 5,120 7,680

43,100 19,200 11,420 12,480

Working Notes
1. Normal Wages are considered as basic wages
2× (Basic wage + DA ) ×10 hours
Over time =
200

 `15,000 
= 2×   ×10 hours = `150 × 10 hours = `1,500
 200 

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 3.21
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ILLUSTRATION 4
It is seen from the job card for repair of the customer’s equipment that a total of 154
labour hours have been put in as detailed below:

Worker ‘A’ paid Worker ‘B’ paid Worker ‘C’ paid

at ` 200 per day at ` 100 per at ` 300 per day
of 8 hours day of 8 hours of 8 hours

Monday (hours) 10.5 8.0 10.5

Tuesday (hours) 8.0 8.0 8.0

Wednesday (hours) 10.5 8.0 10.5

Thursday (hours) 9.5 8.0 9.5

Friday (hours) 10.5 8.0 10.5

Saturday (hours) -- 8.0 8.0

Total (hours) 49.0 48.0 57.0

In terms of an award in employee conciliation, the workers are to be paid dearness allowance
on the basis of cost of living index figures relating to each month which works out @ ` 968
for the relevant month. The dearness allowance is payable to all workers irrespective of
wages rate if they are present or are on leave with wages on all working days.
Each worker has to work for 8 hours on weekdays. Saturday and Sunday will be weekly
holiday, however workers may work on Saturdays due to exigency of work for 4 hours,
though full payment of 8 hours will be made with no other payments.
Overtime is paid twice of ordinary wage rate if a worker works for more than nine
hours in a day. Excluding holidays, the total number of hours works out to 176 in the
relevant month. The company’s contribution to Provident Fund and Employees State
Insurance Premium are absorbed into overheads.
CALCULATE the wages payable to each worker.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 3.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION
(1) Calculation of hours to be paid for worker A:

Normal Extra Overtime Equivalent normal Total

hours hours hours hours for normal
overtime worked hours

Monday 8 1 1½ 3 12

Tuesday 8 -- -- -- 8

Wednesday 8 1 1½ 3 12

Thursday 8 1 ½ 1 10

Friday 8 1 1½ 3 12

Saturday -- -- -- -- --

Total 40 4 5 10 54

Calculation of hours to be paid for worker B:

Normal Extra Overtime Equivalent normal Total

hours hours hours hours for overtime normal
worked hours

Monday 8 --- --- --- 8

Tuesday 8 --- --- --- 8

Wednesday 8 --- --- --- 8

Thursday 8 --- --- --- 8

Friday 8 --- --- --- 8

Saturday 4 4* --- --- 8

Total 44 4 --- --- 48

(*Worker-B has not worked more than 9 hours in any day)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

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Calculation of hours to be paid for worker C:

Normal Extra Overtime Equivalent normal Total

hours hours hours hours for overtime normal
worked hours

Monday 8 1 1½ 3 12

Tuesday 8 --- --- --- 8

Wednesday 8 1 1½ 3 12

Thursday 8 1 ½ 1 10

Friday 8 1 1½ 3 12

Saturday 8* --- --- --- 8

Total 48 4 5 10 62
(*Worker-C will be paid for equivalent 8 hours, though 4 hours of working is
required on Saturday. Further, no overtime will be paid for working beyond 4
hours since it is paid for working beyond 9 hours.)

Wages payable:

A B C

Basic Wages per hour (`) 25.00 12.50 37.50

Dearness allowance per hour (`) 5.50 5.50 5.50

Hourly rate (`) 30.50 18.00 43.00

Total normal hours 54.00 48.00 62.00

Total Wages payable (`) 1,647.00 864.00 2,666.00

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 3.24 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 5
In a factory, the basic wage rate is `100 per hour and overtime rates are as follows:

Before and after normal working hours 175% of basic wage rate

Sundays and holidays 225% of basic wage rate

During the previous year, the following hours were worked

- Normal time 1,00,000 hours

- Overtime before and after working hours 20,000 hours

Overtime on Sundays and holidays 5,000 hours

Total 1,25,000 hours

The following hours have been worked on job ‘Z’

Normal 1,000 hours

Overtime before and after working hrs. 100 hours.

Sundays and holidays 25 hours.

Total 1,125 hours

You are required to CALCULATE the labour cost chargeable to job ‘Z’ and overhead in
each of the following instances:
(a) Where overtime is worked regularly throughout the year as a policy due to the
workers’ shortage.
(b) Where overtime is worked irregularly to meet the requirements of production.
(c) Where overtime is worked at the request of the customer to expedite the job.

SOLUTION
Workings
Basic wage rate : ` 100 per hour
Overtime wage rate before and after working hours : ` 100 × 175%
= ` 175 per hour

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EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

Overtime wage rate for Sundays and holidays : ` 100 × 225%

= ` 225 per hour
Computation of average inflated wage rate (including overtime premium):

Particulars (`)

Annual wages for the previous year for normal time 1,00,00,000
(1,00,000 hrs. × `100)

Wages for overtime before and after working hours 35,00,000

(20,000 hrs. × `175)

Wages for overtime on Sundays and holidays 11,25,000

(5,000 hrs. × `225)

Total wages for 1,25,000 hrs. 1,46,25,000

` 1, 46,25,000
Average inflated wage rate = = `117
1,25,000 hours

(a) Where overtime is worked regularly as a policy due to workers’ shortage:

The overtime premium is treated as a part of employee cost and job is charged
at an inflated wage rate. Hence, employee cost chargeable to job Z

= Total hours × Inflated wage rate = 1,125 hrs. × ` 117 = ` 1,31,625

(b) Where overtime is worked irregularly to meet the requirements of
production:
Basic wage rate is charged to the job and overtime premium is charged to
factory overheads as under:
Employee cost chargeable to Job Z: 1,125 hours @ `100 per hour =
` 1,12,500
Factory overhead: {100 hrs. × ` (175 – 100)} + {25 hrs. × ` (225 – 100)} =
{`7,500 + `3,125} = `10,625

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 3.26 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(c) Where overtime is worked at the request of the customer, overtime premium
is also charged to the job as under:
(`)
Job Z Employee cost 1,125 hrs. @ ` 100 = 1,12,500
Overtime premium 100 hrs. @ ` (175 – 100) = 7,500
25 hrs. @ ` (225 – 100) = 3,125
Total 1,23,125

7. LABOUR UTILISATION
For identifying utilisation of labour a statement is prepared (generally weekly) for
each department / cost centre. This statement should show the actual time paid
for, the standard time (including normal idle time) allowed for production and the
abnormal idle time analysed for causes thereof.

7.1 Identification of Utilisation of labours with Cost

Centres
For the identification of utilisation of labour with the cost centre, a wage analysis
sheet is prepared. Wage analysis sheet is a statement in which total wages paid
are analysed according to cost centre, jobs, work orders etc. The data for analysis is
provided by wage sheet, time card, piece work cards and job cards.
The preparation of such sheet serves the following purposes:

(i) It analyse the labour time into direct and indirect labour by cost centres,
jobs, work orders.
(ii) It provides details of direct labour cost comprises of wages, overtime to be
charged as production cost of cost centre, jobs or work orders.
(iii) It provides information for treatment of indirect labour cost as overhead
expenses.

7.2 Identification of labour hours with work order or

batches or capital job
For identification of labour hours with work order or batches or capital jobs or
overhead work orders the following points are to be noted:

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EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

(i) The direct labour hours can be identified with the particular work order or
batches or capital job or overhead work orders on the basis of details
recorded on source document such as time sheet or job cards.
(ii) The indirect labour hours cannot be directly identified with the particular
work order or batches or capital jobs or overhead work orders. Therefore,
they are traced to cost centre and then assigned to work order or batches
or capital jobs or overhead work orders by using overhead absorption rate.

8. SYSTEMS OF WAGE PAYMENT AND

INCENTIVES
There exist several systems of employee wage payment and incentives, which can
be classified under the following heads:

Time based

Output based
System of Wages

Combination of time and output based

Payment

Premium Bonus method

Group Bonus scheme

Incentives for indirect workers

8.1 Time Based (Time Rate System)

Straight Time Rate System: Under this system, the workers are paid on time
basis i.e. hour, day, week, or month. The amount of wages due to a worker are
arrived at by multiplying the time worked (including normal idle period) by rate for
the time.
Time based wages payment is suitable for the employees (i) whose services
cannot be directly or tangibly measured, e.g., general helpers, supervisory and
clerical staff etc. (ii) engaged in highly skilled jobs, (iii) where the pace of output is
independent of the operator, e.g., automatic chemical plants.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 3.28 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Wages under time rate system is calculated as under:

Wages = Time Worked (Hours/ Days/ Months) × Rate for the time

8.2 Output Based (Piece Rate System)

Straight Piece Rate System: Under this system, each operation, job or unit of
production is termed a piece. A rate of payment, known as the piece rate or piece
work rate is fixed for each piece. The wages of the worker depend upon his
output and rate of each unit of output; it is in fact independent of the time taken
by him. The wages paid to a worker are calculated as:

Wages = Number of units produced × Rate per unit

8.3 Premium Bonus Method

Under these methods, standard time is established for performing a job. The
worker is guaranteed his daily wages (except in Barth System), if his output is
below and upto standard. In case the task is completed in less than the standard
time, the saved time is shared between the employee and the employer.

(i) Halsey Premium Plan: Under Halsey premium plan a standard time is fixed
for each job or process. If there is no saving on this standard time allowance,
the worker is paid only his day rate. He gets his time rate even if he exceeds
the standard time limit, since his day rate is guaranteed.

If, however, he does the job in less than the standard time, he gets a bonus
equal to 50 percent of the wages of time saved; the employer benefits by
the other 50 percent. The scheme also is sometimes referred to as the Halsey
fifty percent plan. Earnings under Halsey Premium plan is calculated as
under:

Wages = Time taken × Time rate + 50% of time saved × Time rate

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

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EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

Advantages and Disadvantages of Halsey Premium Plan

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Time rate is guaranteed while 1. Incentive is not so strong as

there is opportunity for increasing with piece rate system. In fact
earnings by increasing the harder the worker works,
production. the lesser he gets per piece.
2. The system is equitable in as 2. The sharing principle may not
much as the employer gets a be liked by employees.
direct return for his efforts in
improving production methods
and providing better equipment.

ILLUSTRATION 6
CALCULATE the earnings of a worker under Halsey System. The relevant data is as
below:
Time Rate (per hour) ` 60
Time allowed 8 hours
Time taken 6 hours
Time saved 2 hours

SOLUTION
Calculation of total earnings:
= Time taken × Time rate + 50% (Time Allowed – Time Taken) × Time rate

= 6 hrs. × `60 + 1/2 × (2 hrs. × `60) or `360 + `60 = `420

Of his total earnings, `360 is on account of the time worked and `60 is on
account of his share of the premium bonus.

(ii) Rowan Premium Plan: According to this system a standard time allowance
is fixed for the performance of a job and bonus is paid if time is saved.
Under Rowan System the bonus is that proportion of the time wages as
time saved bears to the standard time.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 3.30 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Time Saved
Time taken × Rate per hour + × Time taken × Rate per hour
Time Allowed

Advantages and Disadvantages of Rowan Premium Plan

Advantages Disadvantages

1. It is claimed to be a fool-proof 1. The system is a bit

system in as much as a worker can complicated.
never double his earnings even if
there is bad rate setting.

2. It is admirably suitable for 2. The incentive is weak at a

encouraging moderately efficient high production level where
workers as it provides a better the time saved is more than
return for moderate efficiency than 50% of the time allowed.
under the Halsey Plan.

3. The sharing principle appeals to 3. The sharing principle is not

the employer as being equitable. generally welcomed by
employees.

ILLUSTRATION 7
CALCULATE the earnings of a worker under Rowan System. The relevant data is
given as below:
Time rate (per Hour) ` 60
Time allowed 8 hours.
Time taken 6 hours.
Time saved 2 hours.

SOLUTION
Calculation of total earnings:
Time Saved
=Time taken × Rate per hour + × Time taken × Rate per hour
Time Allowed
2 hours
= 6 hours × `60 + × 6 hours × ` 60 = ` 360 + ` 90 = ` 450
8 hours

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

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ILLUSTRATION 8
Two workmen, ‘A’ and ‘B’, produce the same product using the same material.
Their normal wage rate is also the same. ‘A’ is paid bonus according to the
Rowan system, while ‘B’ is paid bonus according to the Halsey system. The
time allowed to make the product is 50 hours. ‘A’ takes 30 hours while ‘B’
takes 40 hours to complete the product. The factory overhead rate is ` 5 per
man-hour actually worked. The factory cost for the product for ‘A’ is ` 3,490
and for ‘B’ it is ` 3,600.
Required:
(a) COMPUTE the normal rate of wages;
(b) COMPUTE the cost of materials cost;

(c) PREPARE a statement comparing the factory cost of the products as made
by the two workmen.
SOLUTION
Step 1 : Let X be the cost of material and Y be the normal rate of wages per
hour.
Step 2 : Factory Cost of Workman ‘A’

(`)

A. Material Cost X

B. Wages (Rowan Plan) 30 Y

30 12 Y
C. Bonus = × (50 - 30) × Y
50

D. Overheads (30 × `5) 150

E. Factory Cost 3,490

Or, X + 42 Y = `3,490 (Given) – `150 = `3,340……………………...equation (i)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 3.32 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Step 3 : Factory Cost of Workman ‘B’

(`)
A. Material Cost X

B. Wages (Halsey Plan) 40 Y

C. Bonus = 50% of (SH - AH) × R 5Y

= 50% of (50 - 40) × R

D. Overheads (40 × `5) 200

E. Factory Cost 3,600

Or, X + 45 Y = `3,600 (Given) – `200 = `3,400…………….equation (ii)

Step 4 : Subtracting equation (i) from equation (ii)

3Y = `60
Y = `60/3 = `20 per hour.
(a) The normal rate of wages: `20 per hour
(b) The cost of material: X + 45 × ` 20 = ` 3,400 or, X = ` 3,400 – ` 900 =
` 2,500
(c) Comparative Statement of the Factory Cost of the product made by
the two workmen.

‘A’ (`) ‘B’ (`)

Material cost 2,500 2,500

Direct Wages 600 800

(30 × `20) (40 × `20)

Bonus 240 100

(12 × `20) (5 × `20)

Factory Overhead 150 200

Factory Cost 3,490 3,600

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

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ILLUSTRATION 9

(a) Bonus paid under the Halsey Plan with bonus at 50% for the time saved
equals the bonus paid under the Rowan System. When will this statement
hold good? (Your answer should contain the proof).

(b) The time allowed for a job is 8 hours. The hourly rate is ` 8. PREPARE a statement
showing:

(i) The bonus earned

(ii) The total earnings of employee and

(iii) Hourly earnings.

Under the Halsey System with 50% bonus for time saved and Rowan System for
each hour saved progressively.

SOLUTION
50
(a) Bonus under Halsey Plan = × (SH - AH) × R (i)
100
AH
Bonus under Rowan Plan : = × (SH - AH) × R (ii)
SH

Bonus under Halsey Plan will be equal to the bonus under Rowan Plan
when the following condition holds good:
50 AH
× (SH - AH) × R = × (SH - AH) × R
100 SH
50 AH
=
100 SH

Hence, when the actual time taken (AH) is 50% of the time allowed
(SH), the bonus under Halsey and Rowan Plans is equal.

(b) Statement of Bonus, total earnings of Employee and hourly earnings

under Halsey and Rowan Systems.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 3.34 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SH AH Time Basic Bonus Bonus Total Total Hourly Hourly

saved wages under under Earnings Earnings Earnings Earnings
(AH x`8) Halsey Rowan under under under under
(B x `8) System system Halsey Rowan Halsey Rowan

 50  B  System System System System

 100 × C × 8  A × C × 8 D+E D+F G/B H/B

A B C= D E F G H I J
Hours Hours (A-B)
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
Hours

8 8 - 64 - - 64 64 8.00 8.00
8 7 1 56 4 7 60 63 8.57 9.00
8 6 2 48 8 12 56 60 9.33 10.00
8 5 3 40 12 15 52 55 10.40 11.00
8 4 4 32 16 16 48 48 12.00 12.00
8 3 5 24 20 15 44 39 14.67 13.00
8 2 6 16 24 12 40 28 20.00 14.00
8 1 7 8 28 7 36 15 36.00 15.00

ILLUSTRATION 10
A skilled worker in XYZ Ltd. is paid a guaranteed wage rate of ` 30 per hour. The
standard time per unit for a particular product is 4 hours. Mr. P, a machine man, has
been paid wages under the Rowan Incentive Plan and he had earned an effective
hourly rate of ` 37.50 on the manufacture of that particular product.
STATE what could have been his total earnings and effective hourly rate, had he
been put on Halsey Incentive Scheme (50%)?

SOLUTION
Total earnings (under 50% Halsey Scheme) = Hours worked × Rate per hour +
½ × time saved × Rate per hour

= 3 hours × ` 30 + ½ × 1 hour × `30

= `105

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Total earnings
Effective hourly rate = = ` 105 = `35
Hours taken 3 hours

Working Note:
Let T hours be the total time worked in hours by the skilled workers (machine
man P), `30 is the rate per hour; standard time is 4 hours per unit and effective
hourly earnings rate is `37.50 then
Time saved
Earning (under Rowan plan) = Hours worked × Rate per hr + ×
Time allowed

Time taken × Rate per hr

(4 − T)
`37.5 T = T × `30 + × T × `30
4

(both sides are divided by T)

` 37.5 = ` 30 + (4 – T) × ` 7.5

` 37.5 = ` 30 + `30 - 7.5T

or, ` 7.5 T = `60-`37.5
or, ` 7.5 T = ` 22.5

or, T = 3 hours.

ILLUSTRATION 11
A factory having the latest sophisticated machines wants to introduce an incentive
scheme for its workers, keeping in view the following:
(i) The entire gains of improved production should not go to the workers.
(ii) In the name of speed, quality should not suffer.
(iii) The rate setting department being newly established are liable to commit
mistakes.
You are required to PREPARE a suitable incentive scheme and DEMONSTRATE by an
illustrative numerical example how your scheme answers to all the requirements of
the management.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 3.36 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION
Rowan Scheme of premium bonus (variable sharing plan) is a suitable incentive
scheme for the workers of the factory. If this scheme is adopted, the entire
gains due to time saved by a worker will not pass to him.
Another feature of this scheme is that a worker cannot increase his earnings or
bonus by merely increasing its work speed. The reason for this is that the bonus
under Rowan Scheme is maximum when the time taken by a worker on a job is
half of the time allowed. As this fact is known to the workers, therefore, they
work at such a speed which helps them to maintain the quality of output too.
Lastly, Rowan System provides a safeguard in the case of any loose fixation of the
standards by the rate-setting department. It may be observed from the following
illustration that in the Rowan Scheme the bonus paid will be low due to any loose
fixation of standards. Workers cannot take undue advantage of such a situation.
The above three features of Rowan Plan can be discussed with the help of the
following illustration:

(i) Time allowed = 4 hours

Time taken = 3 hours
Time saved = 1 hour
Rate = `5 per hour
Time taken
Bonus = × Time saved × Rate
Time allowed
3 hours
= × 1 hour × `5 = `3.75
4 hours
In the above illustration time saved is 1 hour and, therefore, total gain is
` 5. Out of `5 according to Rowan Plan only ` 3.75 is given to the worker
in the form of bonus and the remaining ` 1.25 remains with the
management. In other words, a worker is entitled for 75 percent of the
time saved in the form of bonus.
(ii) The figures of bonus in the above illustration when the time taken is 2
hours and 1 hour respectively are as below:
Time taken
Bonus = × Time saved × Rate
Time allowed

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2 hours
= × 2 hours × `5 = `5
4 hours
1 hours
= × 3 hours × `5 = `3.75
4 hours
The above figures of bonus clearly show that when time taken is half of
the time allowed, the bonus is maximum. When the time taken is reduced
from 2 to 1 hour, the bonus figure fell by `1.25. Hence, it is quite
apparent to workers that it is of no use to increase speed of work. This
feature of Rowan Plan thus protects the quality of output.
(iii) If the rate-setting department erroneously sets the time allowed as 10 hours
instead of 4 hours, in the above illustration; then the bonus paid will be as
follows:
3 hours
Bonus = × 7 hours × `5 = `10.50
10 hours
The bonus paid for saving 7 hours thus is `10.50 which is approximately equal
to the wages of 2 hours. In other words, the bonus paid to the workers is low.
Hence workers cannot take undue advantage of any mistake committed by the
time setting department of the concern.

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 3.38 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

9. ABSORPTION OF WAGES
9.1 Elements of Wages
In common parlance, the term ‘wages’ represents monetary payment which an
employee receives at regular intervals for the services rendered. Strictly speaking,
however, from the point of view of the employer and the cost to the industry,
wages should be taken to include also non-monetary benefits which an employee
receives by virtue of employment. Such non-monetary benefits may include:
(i) Medical facilities;
(ii) Educational and training facilities;
(iii) Recreational and sports facilities;
(iv) Housing and social welfare; and

(v) Cost of subsidised canteen and co-operative societies.

Such benefits are generally given in an industrial establishment. In some cases,
the provision of benefits is compulsory. Therefore, while computing the wage cost
per worker, the monetary value of such non-monetary benefits should also be
taken into account.
The monetary part of a worker’s remuneration includes the basic wages, dearness
allowance, overtime wages, other special allowance, if any, production bonus,

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employer’s contribution to the provident fund, Employees State Insurance scheme

premium, contribution to pension fund, leave pay, etc.
The basic wage is the payment for work done, measured in terms of hours
attended or the units produced, as the case may be. The basic wage rate is not
normally altered unless there is a fundamental change in the working conditions
or methods of manufacture.
Dearness allowance is an allowance provided to cover the increase in cost of
living from one period to another. This allowance is calculated either as
percentage of the basic wage or as a fixed amount for the days worked. In either
case, the percentage or the fixed amount is subject to revision whenever the cost
of living index or consumer price Index rises or falls by a certain figure as agreed
to by the employer with the Employee union. When permanent rise in the cost of
living index occurs, a part of the dearness allowance is often absorbed in the
basic wage.
Overtime allowance is an allowance paid for the extra hours worked at the rates
laid down in the Factories Act. In certain industries, where special allowance for
the working conditions, tool maintenance, etc., are paid they are also considered
as part of wages.
Production Bonus is an incentive payment made to workers for efficiency that
results in production above the standard. There are different methods of
computing incentives. Under the Payment of Bonus Act, a worker is entitled to
compulsory bonus of 8.33% wages earned in the relevant year or `100 (whichever
is greater). The bonus may be upto 20% of wages depending upon the quantum
of profits calculated as per the Act.

9.2 Component of Wages Cost or Wages for Costing

Purposes
In addition to wages (including allowances, such as D.A.) that are paid to workers,
a firm may have to spend on many other items (such as premium to the ESI or
provident fund or bonus).
Further, the worker does not spend all the time for which he is paid on productive
work.

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 3.40 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

This is because he is entitled to weekly holiday and various type of leave. There is
also a certain amount of unavoidable idle time. The question is to what extent
such additional payment or cost in respect of Employee can be charged directly
to unit of cost as part of direct Employee cost? Of course, in the case of indirect
Employee, all such payments as also the wages paid to them, must be treated as
part of overheads.
But in the case of direct workers, two alternatives are possible. The additional
charges may be treated as overheads. Alternatively, the wage rates being charged
to job may be computed by including such payments; automatically then, such
payments will be charged to the work done along with wages of the worker. (It
should be remembered that such wage rate will be only for costing purposes and
not for payment to workers). The total of wages and additional payment should
be divided by effective hours of work to get such wage rates for costing purposes.
ILLUSTRATION 12
A worker is paid `10,000 per month and a dearness allowance of `2,000 p.m.
Worker contribution to provident fund is @ 10% and employer also contributes the
same amount as the employee. The Employees State Insurance Corporation
premium is 6.5% of wages of which 1.75% is paid by the employees. It is the firm’s
practice to pay 2 months’ wages as bonus each year.
The number of working days in a year are 300 of 8 hours each. Out of these the worker is
entitled to 15 days leave on full pay. CALCULATE the wage rate per hour for costing
purposes.
SOLUTION

(`)

Wages paid to worker during the year {(` 10,000 +2,000) × 12} 1,44,000

Add: Employer Contribution to:

Provident Fund @ 10% 14,400

E.S.I. Premium @ 4.75% (6.5 – 1.75) 6,840

Bonus at 2 months’ wages (Basic + DA) 24,000

Total 1,89,240

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Effective hours per year: 285 days × 8 hours = 2,280 hours

Wage-rate per hour (for costing purpose): `1,89,240/2,280 hours = `83

9.3 Holiday and Leave Wages

One alternative to account for wages paid on account of paid holiday and leave
can be to include them as departmental overheads. In such a case, it is necessary
to record such wages separately from “worked for wages”. Such a segregation can
be made possible by providing a separate column in the payroll for holiday and
leave wages in the same way as there are columns for dearness allowance,
provident fund deductions, etc. If, however, a separate or additional column
cannot be provided for this purpose it would be necessary to analyse the payroll
periodically to ascertain how much of the total payment pertains to “worked for
wages” and how much is attributed to leave and holiday wages.

Another way could be to inflate the wage rate for costing purposes to include
holiday and leave wages. This can be done only in the case of direct workers.

ILLUSTRATION 13

CALCULATE the Employee hour rate of a worker X from the following data:

Basic pay ` 10,000 p.m.

D.A. ` 3,000 p.m.
Fringe benefits ` 1,000 p.m.
Number of working days in a year 300. 20 days are availed off as holidays on full pay
in a year. Assume a day of 8 hours.
SOLUTION
(i) Effective working days in a year 300
Less: Leave days on full pay 20
Effective working days 280 days
Total effective working hours (280 days × 8 hours) 2,240

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 3.42 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) Total wages paid in a year (`)

Basic pay 1,20,000
D.A. 36,000

Fringe benefits 12,000

Total wages 1,68,000
(iii) Hourly rate : `1,68,000/2,240 hours `75.00

9.4 Night Shift Allowance

In some cases, workers get extra payment if they work at night. Since the extra
payment is not for any particular job, therefore such a payment should be treated
as part of overheads.

9.5 Absorption Rates of Employee Cost

Employee cost as stated above include monetary compensation and non-monetary
benefits to workers.
Monetary benefits include, basic wages, D.A., overtime pay, incentive or
production bonus contribution to employee provident fund, House Rent
Allowance, Holiday and vacation pay etc.
The non-monetary benefits include medical facilities, subsidized canteen services,
subsidized housing, education and training facilities.
Accounting of monetary and non-monetary benefits to indirect workers does not
pose any problems because the total of monetary and non-monetary benefits are
treated as overhead and absorbed on the basis of rate per direct employee hour,
if overheads are predominantly employee oriented.
For direct workers, the ideal method is to charge jobs or units produced by
supplying per hour rate calculated as below:
Total estimated monetary benefits and cost of non monetary benefits
Rate per hour =
Budgeted direct employee hour -Normal idle time

Another alternative method is to treat the monetary benefits other than basic
wages and dearness allowance as well as cost of non-monetary benefits as
overheads.

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10. EFFICIENCY RATING PROCEDURES

Efficiency is usually related with performance and may be computed by
comparing the time taken with the standard time allotted to perform the given
job/task.
If the time taken by a worker on a job equals or less than the standard time,
then he is rated efficient.
In case he takes more time than the standard time he is rated as inefficient.
Time allowed as per standard
Efficiency in % = ×100
Time Taken
For efficiency rating of employees the following procedures may be followed:
1. Determining standard time/performance standards: The first step is to
determine the standard time taken by a worker for performing a particular
job/task. The standard time can be determined by using Time & Motion study
or Work study techniques. While determining the standard time for a
job/task a heterogeneous group of workers is taken and contingency
allowances are added for determining standard time.
2. Measuring Actual Performance of workers: For computing efficiency
rating it is necessary to develop a procedure for recording the actual
performance of workers. The system developed should record the output of
each worker along with the time taken by him.

3. Computation of efficiency rating: The efficiency rating of each worker can

be computed by using the above mentioned Formula.

10.1 Need for Efficiency Rating

1. As discussed earlier when a firm follows a system of payment by results, the
payment has a direct relationship with the output given by a worker. The
firm for making payment to worker is required to ascertain his efficiency
level.
2. The efficiency rating also helps the management in preparing employee
requirement budget or for preparing manpower requirements.

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Example - 1: P Ltd. manufactures two products by using one grade of

employees. The following estimates are available:

Product- A Product- B

Budgeted production (units) 3,480 4,000

Standard hours allowed per product 5 4

It is further worked out that the efficiency rating (efficiency ratio) for productive
hours worked by direct workers in actually manufacturing the production is
80% then the exact standard employee-hours requirement can be worked out
as follows:

Product- A Product- B Total

Budgeted production 3,480 4,000

(units)

Standard hours allowed 17,400 16,000 33,400

for budgeted production (3,480 units × 5 hours) (4,000 units × 4 hours)

Since efficiency ratio is given as 80% therefore standard employee hours

 100 
required for 100% efficiency level is  33, 400 hours×  = 41,750 hours.
 80 

Employee Productivity: Productivity is generally determined by the input/output

ratio. In case of employees, it is calculated as below:
Standard timefor doing actual work
Actual timetaken

Employee productivity is used for measuring the efficiency of individual workers.

It is an index of efficiency in the utilisation of human resources, materials, capital,
power and all kinds of services and facilities.
It is measured by the output in relation to input. Productivity can be improved by
reducing the input for a certain quantity or value of output or by increasing the
output from the same given quantity or value of input.
Factors for increasing Employee Productivity: The important factors which
must be taken into consideration for increasing employee productivity are as
follows:

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1. Employing only those workers who possess the right type of skill.
2. Placing a right type of person to a right job.
3. Training young and old workers by providing them the right types of opportunities.
4. Taking appropriate measures to avoid the situation of excess or shortage of
employees.

5. Carrying out work study for fixation of wages and for the simplification and
standardisation of work.

11. EMPLOYEE (LABOUR) TURNOVER

11.1 Employee (Labour) Turnover
Employee turnover or labour turnover in an organisation is the rate of
change in the composition of employee force during a specified period
measured against a suitable index.
The standard of usual employee turnover in the industry or locality or the
employee turnover rate for a past period may be taken as the index or norm
against which actual turnover rate is compared.
There are three methods of calculating Employee turnover which are given below:
(i) Replacement Method: This method takes into consideration actual
replacement of employees irrespective of number of persons leaving the
organisation. Employee Turnover under this method is calculated as under:
Number of employees replaced during the period
×100
Average number of employees during the period on roll

New employees appointed on account of expansion plan of the

organisation are not included in number of replacements.
(ii) Separation Method: In this method employee turnover is measured by
dividing the total number of employees separated during the period by the
average total number of employees on payroll during the same period.
Employee Turnover under this method is calculated as under:

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Number of employees separated during the period

×100
Average number of employees during the period on roll

(iii) Flux Method: This method takes both the number of replacements as well
as the number of separations during the period into account for calculation
of employee turnover. Employee Turnover under this method is calculated as
under:
 Number of employees Number of employees 
 + 
 separated replaced during the period 
 
  ×100
Average number of employees during the period on roll

Employee turnover due to new recruitment: Generally, employees recruited on

account of expansion of an organisation, are not considered for calculation of
employee turnover. But it is considered that the newly recruited employees are
also responsible for changes in the composition or work force. Due to this
feature, some management accountants feel to take new recruitment for
calculating employee turnover. The total number of workers joining, including
replacements, is called accessions.
When number of accessions are considered for measuring employee turnover, the
employee turnover rate by Flux method may be computed by using any one of
the following expressions:
No.of Separations+ No.of Replacements+No.of new Joinings
×100
Average no. of employees duringthe period on roll

Or
No. of Separations+No. of Accessions
×100
Average no. of employees during the period on roll

Average number of employees during the period is calculated as follows:

No.of employees at begining +No. of employees at end of the period
=
2

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Equivalent Employee (Labour) Turnover rate:

If in the above computations, the data given is for a period other than a year, the
employee turnover rate so computed may be converted into equivalent annual
employee turnover rate by using the following formula:
Employee Turnover rate for the period
×365
Number of days in the period

ILLUSTRATION 14
The Accountant of Y Ltd. has computed employee turnover rates for the quarter ended
31st March, 2023 as 10%, 5% and 3% respectively under ‘Flux method’, ‘Replacement
method’ and ‘Separation method’ respectively. If the number of workers replaced
during that quarter is 30, FIND OUT the number of workers for the quarter
(i) recruited and joined and (ii) left and discharged and (iii) Equivalent employee
turnover rates for the year.
SOLUTION
Working Note:

Average number of workers on roll (for the quarter):

Employee Turnover rate using Replacement method
No. of replacements
= ×100
Average number of workers on roll

5 30
Or, =
100 Average number of workers on roll
30×100
Or, Average number of workers on roll = = 600
5
(i) Number of workers recruited and joined:
Employee turnover rate (Flux method)
No. of Separations * (S)+No. of Accessions(A)
=
Average number of workers on roll

10 18 *+A  6000 
Or, = Or, A = − 80  = 42
100 600  100 
No. of workers recruited and joined 42.

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(ii) Number of workers left and discharged:

Employee turnover rate (Separation method)
No. of Separations(S) 3 S
= × 100 = = Or, S* = 18
Average number of workers on roll 100 600

Hence, number of workers left and discharged comes to 18

(iii) Calculation of Equivalent employee turnover rates:
Employee Turnover rate for the quarter(s)
= ×4 quarters
Number of quarter(s)
10%
Using Flux method = ×4 = 40%
1
5%
Using Replacement method = ×4 = 20%
1
3%
Using Separation method = ×4 = 12%
1

11.2 Causes of Employee (Labour) Turnover

The reasons for employee turnover in an organisation can be classified under the
following three heads:

(a) Personal Causes;

(b) Unavoidable Causes; and
(c) Avoidable Causes.
(a) Personal causes: All the personal reasons which induce or compel an
employee to leave his job; such causes include the following:
(i) Change of jobs for betterment.
(ii) Premature retirement due to ill health or old age.
(iii) Domestic problems and family responsibilities.
(iv) Discontent over the jobs and working environment.

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In all the above cases the employee leaves the organisation at his will and,
therefore, it is difficult to suggest any possible remedy in the first three
cases.
But the last one can be overcome by creating conditions leading to a
healthy working environment. For this, officers should play a positive role
and make sure that their subordinates work under healthy working
conditions.
(b) Unavoidable Causes: Unavoidable causes are those under which it
becomes obligatory on the part of management to ask one or more of their
employees to leave the organisation; such causes are summed up as listed
below:
(i) Seasonal nature of the business;
(ii) Shortage of raw material, power, slack market for the product etc.;
(iii) Change in the plant location;
(iv) Disability, making a worker unfit for work;
(v) Disciplinary measures;
(c) Avoidable Causes: Avoidable causes are those which require the attention
of management on a continuous basis so as to keep employee turnover
ratio as low as possible. The main causes under this case are indicated
below:

(i) Dissatisfaction with job, remuneration, hours of work, working conditions,

etc.,
(ii) Strained relationship with management, supervisors or fellow workers;

(iii) Lack of training facilities and promotional avenues;

(iv) Lack of recreational and medical facilities;
(v) Low wages and allowances.
Proper and timely management action can reduce the employee turnover
appreciably so far as avoidable causes are concerned.

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11.3 Effects of Employee (Labour) Turnover

High employee turnover increases the cost of production in the following ways:

(i) Even flow of production is disturbed;

(ii) Efficiency of new workers is low; productivity of new but experienced workers is
low in the beginning;

(iii) There is increased cost of training and induction;

(iv) New workers cause increased breakage of tools, wastage of materials, etc.
(v) Cost of recruitment and training increases.

Cost of Employees (Labour) Turnover: Two types of costs which are associated
with employee turnover are:
(a) Preventive Costs: The cost incurred to prevent employee turnover or keep
it as lowest as possible. Cost incurred for prevention of employee turnover
includes the following:
(i) Cost of medical benefit provided to the employees;

(ii) Cost incurred on employees’ welfare like pension etc.

(iii) Cost on other benefits with an objective to retain employees.
(b) Replacement Costs: These are the costs which arise due to employee
turnover. If employees leave soon after they acquire the necessary training
and experience of good work, additional costs will have to be incurred on
new workers, i.e., cost of recruitment, training and induction, abnormal
breakage and scrap and extra wages and overheads due to the inefficiency
of new workers.
It is obvious that a company will incur very high replacement costs if the rate of
employee turnover is high. Similarly, only adequate preventive costs can keep
Employee turnover at a low level. Each company must, therefore, work out the
optimum level of Employee turnover keeping in view its personnel policies and
the behaviour of replacement cost and preventive costs at various levels of
Employee turnover rates.

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ILLUSTRATION 15
The management of B.R Ltd. is worried about their increasing employee turnover in
the factory and before analyzing the causes and taking remedial steps; it wants to
have an idea of the profit foregone as a result of employee turnover in the last year.
Last year sales amounted to ` 83,03,300 and P/V ratio was 20 per cent. The total number
of actual hours worked by the direct employee force was 4.45 lakhs. The actual direct
employee hours included 30,000 hours attributable to training new recruits, out of which
half of the hours were unproductive. As a result of the delays by the Personnel Department
in filling vacancies due to employee turnover, 1,00,000 potentially productive hours
(excluding unproductive training hours) were lost.
The costs incurred consequent on employee turnover revealed, on analysis, the
following:
Settlement cost due to leaving ` 43,820
Recruitment costs ` 26,740
Selection costs ` 12,750
Training costs ` 30,490
Assuming that the potential production lost as a consequence of employee turnover
could have been sold at prevailing prices, FIND the profit foregone last year on
account of employee turnover.
SOLUTION
Workings:
(i) Computation of productive hours
Actual hours worked (given) 4,45,000
Less: Unproductive training hours 15,000
Actual productive hours 4,30,000
(ii) Productive hours lost:

Loss of potential productive hours + Unproductive training hours

= 1,00,000 + 15,000 = 1,15,000 hours

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(iii) Loss of contribution due to unproductive hours:

Sales value
= ×Total unproductive hours
Actual productive hours

` 83,03,300
= × 1,15,000 hours = `22,20,650
4,30,000 hrs
` 22,20,650
Contribution lost for 1,15,000 hours = ×20 = `4,44,130
100
Computation of profit forgone on account of employee turnover

(`)
Contribution foregone (as calculated above) 4,44,130
Settlement cost due to leaving 43,820
Recruitment cost 26,740
Selection cost 12,750
Training costs 30,490
Profit foregone 5,57,930

12. DIRECT EXPENSES

12.1 Direct Expenses
Expenses other than direct material cost and direct employee cost, which are
incurred to manufacture a product or for provision of service and can be directly
traced in an economically feasible manner to a cost object. The following costs
are examples for direct expenses:
(i) Royalty paid/ payable for production or provision of service;
(ii) Hire charges paid for hiring specific equipment;
(iii) Cost for product/ service specific design or drawing;
(iv) Cost of product/ service specific software;
(v) Other expenses which are directly related with the production of goods or
provision of service.

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The above list of expenses is not exhaustive, any other expenses which are
directly attributable to the production or service are also included as direct
expenses.

12.2 Measurement of Direct Expenses

The direct expenses are measured at invoice or agreed price net of rebate or
discount but includes duties and taxes (for which input credit not available),
commission and other directly attributable costs.
In case of sub-contracting, where goods are get manufactured by job workers
independent of the principal entity, are measured at agreed price. Where the
principal supplies some materials to the job workers, the value of such materials
and other incidental expenses are added with the job charges paid to the job
workers.

12.3 Treatment of Direct Expenses

Direct Expenses form part of the prime cost for the product or service to which it
can be directly traceable and attributable. In case of lump-sum payment or one-
time payment, the cost is amortised over the estimated production volume or
benefit derived.
If the expenses incurred are of insignificant amount i.e. not material, it can be
treated as part of overheads.

ILLUSTRATION 16
Aditya Ltd. is an engineering manufacturing company producing job order on the
basis of specification given by the customers. During the last the month it has
completed three job works namely A, B and C. The following are the items of
expenditures which are incurred apart from direct materials and direct employee
cost:
(i) Office and administration cost- ` 3,00,000.
(ii) Product blueprint cost for job A – ` 1,40,000
(iii) Hire charges paid for machinery used for job work B- ` 40,000
(iv) Salary to office attendants- ` 50,000

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(v) One time license fee paid for software used to make computerised graphics
for job C- ` 50,000.
(vi) Salary paid to marketing manager- ` 1,20,000.
Required:
CALCULATE direct expenses attributable to each job.
SOLUTION
Calculation of Direct expenses

Particulars Job A (`) Job B (`) Job C (`)

Product blueprint cost 1,40,000 -- --

Hire charges paid for -- 40,000 --

machinery

license fee paid for -- -- 50,000

software

Total Direct expenses 1,40,000 40,000 50,000

Note:
(i) Office and administration cost is classified as overheads.
(ii) Salary paid to office attendants is classified under office and administration
cost.
(iii) Salary paid to marketing manager is classified under selling overheads

SUMMARY
♦ Employee Cost: Benefits paid or payable to the employees of an entity,
whether permanent or temporary for the services rendered by them.
Employee cost includes payments made in cash or kind.
♦ Direct Employee (Labour) Cost: Benefits paid or payable to the employees
which can be attributed to a cost object in an economically feasible manner.

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♦ Indirect Employee (Labour) Cost: Benefits paid or payable to the

employees, which cannot be directly attributable to a particular cost object
in an economically feasible manner.
♦ Idle Time: The time for which the employer pays but obtains no direct
benefit or for no productive purpose.
♦ Normal Idle Time: Time which cannot be avoided or reduced in the normal
course of business. The cost of normal idle time should be charged to the
cost of production.
♦ Abnormal Idle Time: It arises on account of abnormal causes and should
be charged to Costing Profit and Loss account.
♦ Time Keeping: It refers to recording and keeping of the employees’
attendance time.
♦ Time Booking: It is basically recording the details of work done and the
time spent by an employee on each job or process.
♦ Overtime: Payment to employees, when an employee works beyond the
normal working hours. Usually overtime has to be paid at double the rate of
normal hours.
♦ Overtime Premium: It’s the amount of extra payment paid to an employee
for extra work.
♦ Employee (Labour) Turnover: It is the rate of change in employee force
during a specified period due to resignation, retirement and retrenchment.
If the employee turnover is high, it’s a sign of instability and may affect the
profitability of the firm.
♦ Employee (Labour) turnover can be measured through the following
methods:
(i) Replacement Method:
Number of employees replaced
×100
Average number of employees on roll

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(ii) Separation Method:

Number of employees separated during the year
×100
Average number of employees on rolls during the period

(iii) Flux Method:

Number of employees separated+number of employees replaced
×100
Average number of employees on rolls during the period

(iv) Employee turnover due to new recruitment:

Number of new employees joining in a period (excluding replacements)
×100
Average number of employees on the roll in a period

(v) Employee turnover including accessions:

Number of new employees joining in a period (excluding replacements)
×100
Average number of employees on the roll in a period

OR
Number of separations + number of accessions
×100
Average number of employees

♦ Time Rate System: The system of wage payment where wages to an

employee is paid on the basis of time irrespective of production volume.
♦ Straight Piece Work: The system of wage payment where wages is paid on
the basis of number of units produced irrespective of time spent for
production. Calculation takes number of units produced by the employee
multiplied by rate per unit.

♦ Halsey System: Time taken × Time rate + 50% of time saved × Time rate.
Time saved
♦ Rowan System: Time taken × Rate per hour + × Time taken ×
Time allowed
Rate per hour

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TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Idle time is the time under which-
(a) Full wages are paid to workers
(b) No productivity is given by the workers
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
2. Cost of idle time due to non- availability of raw material is-
(a) Charged to overhead costs
(b) Charged to respective jobs
(c) Charged to costing profit and loss account

(d) None of the above

3. Time and motion study is conducted by-
(a) Time keeping department
(b) Personnel department
(c) Payroll department
(d) Engineering department
4. Identify, which one of the following, does not account for increasing labour
productivity-
(a) Job satisfaction

(b) Motivating workers

(c) High labour turnover
(d) Proper supervision and control
5. Labour turnover is measured by-
(a) Number of persons replaced/ average number of workers

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(b) Numbers of persons separated / number of workers at the beginning of the year
(c) (Number of persons replaced + number of persons separated)/(number of
persons at the beginning + the number of persons at the end of the year)
(d) None of the above
6. Time booking refers to a method wherein ……………… of an employee is recorded.
(a) Attendance
(b) Food expenses
(c) Health status
(d) Time spent on a particular job
7. Employee Cost includes-
(a) Wages and salaries
(b) Allowances and incentives
(c) Payment for overtime
(d) All of the above
8. If the time saved is less than 50% of the standard time, then the wages under
Rowan and Halsey premium plan on comparison gives-
(a) More wages to workers under Rowan plan than Halsey plan
(b) More wages to workers under Halsey plan than Rowan plan

(c) Equal wages under two plans

(d) None of the above
9. Standard time of a job is 60 hours and guaranteed time rate is `0.30 per hour.
What is the amount of wages under Rowan plan if job is completed in 48 hours?
(a) ` 16.20
(b) ` 17.28
(c) ` 18.00
(d) ` 14.40

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10. Important factors for control of employee cost can be-

(a) Time and Motion Study

(b) Control over idle time and overtime
(c) Control over employee turnover
(d) All of the above
11. Out of the following methods attendance is marked by recognizing an employee
based on physical and behavioural traits-
(a) Punch Card Attendance method
(b) Bio- Metric Attendance system
(c) Attendance Register method
(d) Token Method
12. If overtime is required for meeting urgent orders, the overtime premium should
be charged as-
(a) Respective job
(b) Overhead cost
(c) Costing P& L A/c

(d) None of above

Theoretical Questions
1. DISCUSS the accounting treatment of Idle time and overtime wages.
2. DISCUSS the effect of overtime payment on productivity.
3. STATE the circumstances in which time rate system of wage payment can be
preferred in a factory.
4. DISCUSS the objectives of time keeping & time booking.
5. DISCUSS the two types of cost associated with labour turnover.

6. DESCRIBE briefly, how wages may be calculated under the following systems:
(i) Rowan system
(ii) Halsey system

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Practical Problems
1. Mr. A. is working by employing 10 skilled workers. He is considering the
introduction of some incentive scheme - either Halsey Scheme (with 50% bonus)
or Rowan Scheme - of wage payment for increasing the Employee productivity to
cope with the increased demand for the product by 25%. He feels that if the
proposed incentive scheme could bring about an average 20% increase over the
present earnings of the workers, it could act as sufficient incentive for them to
produce more and he has accordingly given this assurance to the workers.
As a result of the assurance, the increase in productivity has been observed as
revealed by the following figures for the current month:

Hourly rate of wages (guaranteed) `40

Average time for producing 1 piece by one worker at the 2 hours
previous performance (This may be taken as time allowed)

No. of working days in the month 25

No. of working hours per day for each worker 8

Actual production during the month 1,250 units

Required:

(i) CALCULATE effective rate of earnings per hour under Halsey Scheme and
Rowan Scheme.
(ii) CALCULATE the savings to Mr. A in terms of direct labour cost per piece
under the schemes.
2. Wage negotiations are going on with the recognised employees’ union, and
the management wants you as an executive of the company to formulate an
incentive scheme with a view to increase productivity.
The case of three typical workers A, B and C who produce respectively 180,
120 and 100 units of the company’s product in a normal day of 8 hours is
taken up for study.
Assuming that day wages would be guaranteed at ` 75 per hour and the
piece rate would be based on a standard hourly output of 10 units,
CALCULATE the earnings of each of the three workers and the employee cost

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per 100 pieces under (i) Day wages, (ii) Piece rate, (iii) Halsey scheme, and (iv)
The Rowan scheme.
Also CALCULATE under the above schemes the average cost of labour for the
company to produce 100 pieces.
3. The following expenditures were incurred in Aditya Ltd. For the month of
March 2023:

(`)

(i) Paid for power & fuel 4,80,200

(ii) Wages paid to factory workers 8,44,000

(iii) Bill paid to job workers 9,66,000

(iv) Royalty paid for production 8,400

(v) Fee paid to technician hired for the job 96,000

(vi) Administrative overheads 76,000

(vii) Commission paid to sales staffs 1,26,000

You are required to CALCULATE direct expenses for the month.

ANSWERS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (d)

7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (a)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 5 & 6
2. Please refer paragraph 6
3. Please refer paragraph 8.1

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 3.62 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

4. Please refer paragraph 4.1 & 4.2

5. Please refer paragraph 11.3
6. Please refer paragraph 8.3

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. Working Notes:
1. Actual time taken to produce 1,250 pieces
= No. of working days in the month × No. of working hours per day
of each worker × No. of workers

= 25 days × 8 hrs. × 10 workers = 2,000 hours

2. Total time wages of 10 workers per month:
= No. of working days in the month × No. of working hours per day
of each worker × Hourly rate of wages × No. of workers
= 25 days × 8 hrs. × `40 × 10 workers = `80,000
3. Time saved per month:

Time allowed per piece to a worker 2 hours

No. of units produced during the month by 10 workers 1,250 pieces
Total time allowed to produce 1,250 pieces (1,250 × 2 hours) 2,500 hours
Actual time taken to produce 1,250 pieces 2,000 hours
Time saved (2,500 hours – 2,000 hours) 500 hours
4. Bonus under Halsey scheme to be paid to 10 workers:
Bonus = (50% of time saved) × hourly rate of wages
= 50/100 × 500 hours × `40 = `10,000
Total wages to be paid to 10 workers are (`80,000 + `10,000) `90,000, if
Mr. A considers the introduction of Halsey Incentive Scheme to increase
the employee productivity.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 3.63
3.63
EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

5. Bonus under Rowan Scheme to be paid to 10 workers:

Time taken
Bonus = × Time saved × hourly rate
Time allowed
2,000 hours
= × 500 hours × ` 40 = `16,000
2,500 hours

Total wages to be paid to 10 workers are (`80,000 + `16,000)

` 96,000, if Mr. A considers the introduction of Rowan Incentive Scheme
to increase the Employee productivity.
(i) (a) Effective hourly rate of earnings under Halsey scheme:
(Refer to Working Notes 1, 2, 3 and 4)
Total time wages of 10 workers+Total bonus under Halsey scheme
=
Total hours worked
` 80,000 + ` 10,000
= = `45
2,000 hours
(b) Effective hourly rate of earnings under Rowan scheme:
(Refer to Working Notes 1, 2, 3 and 5)
Total time wages of Total bonus under
+
10 workers Rowan scheme
=
Total hours worked
` 80,000+`16,000
= = `48
2,000 hours
(ii) (a) Saving in terms of direct Employee cost per piece under
Halsey scheme:
(Refer to Working Note 4)
Employee cost per piece (under time wage scheme)
= 2hours × `40 = `80.
Employee cost per piece (under Halsey scheme)
Total wages paid under the scheme ` 90,000
= = = `72
Total number of units produced 1,250

Saving per piece: (`80 – `72) = `8

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 3.64 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(b) Saving in terms of direct Employee cost per piece

under Rowan Scheme:
(Refer to Working Note 5)
Employee cost per piece under Rowan scheme
= `96,000/1,250 units = `76.80
Saving per piece = `80 – `76.80 = `3.20
2. Calculation of earnings under different wage schemes:
(i) Day wages

Worker Day wages (`) Actual Output Labour cost per

(Units) 100 pieces (`)

A 600 180 333.33

B 600 120 500.00

C 600 100 600.00

Total 1,800 400

Average labour cost to produce 100 pieces:
Total wages paid ` 1,800
= × 100 = ×100 = `450
Total output 400 units

(ii) Piece rate

Worker Actual Output Piece Wages Labour cost per

(Units) rate (`) earned (`) 100 pieces (`)

A 180 7.50 1,350 750.00

B 120 7.50 900 750.00

C 100 7.50 750 750.00

Total 400 3,000

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 3.65
3.65
EMPLOYEE COST AND DIRECT EXPENSES

Average cost of labour for the company to produce 100 pieces:

` 3,000
= ×100 = `750
400 units

(iii) Halsey Scheme

Worker Actual Std. Actual Time Bonus Rate Total wages Labour cost
Output time time saved hours per (`) per 100
(Units) (Hrs.) (Hrs.) (Hrs.) (50% of hour pieces (`)
time (`)
saved)

A B C D=B-C E F G = F x (C+E) H=G/A*100

A 180 18 8 10 5 75 975 541.67

B 120 12 8 4 2 75 750 625.00

C 100 10 8 2 1 75 675 675.00

Total 400 2,400

Average cost of labour for the company to produce 100 pieces =
` 2, 400
×100 = ` 600
400 units

(iv) Rowan Scheme:

Worker Actual Std. Actual Time Bonus Rate Total wages Labour cost
Output time time saved hours* per including per 100
(Units) (Hrs.) (Hrs.) (Hrs.) hour bonus (`) pieces (`)
(`)

A B C D=B-C E F G=F×(C+E) H=G/A*100

A 180 18 8 10 4.44 75 933 518.33

B 120 12 8 4 2.67 75 800 666.67

C 100 10 8 2 1.60 75 720 720.00

Total 400 2,453

TimeSaved
* Bonus hours = ×Actualtime
Std. Time

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 3.66 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Average cost of labour for the company to produce 100 pieces

` 2, 453
= ×100 = ` 613.25
400 units

3. Calculation of Direct Expenses

(`)

(i) Paid for power & fuel 4,80,200

(ii) Bill paid to job workers 9,66,000

(iii) Royalty paid for production 8,400

(iv) Fee paid to the technician 96,000

Total Direct expenses 15,50,600

Notes:
(i) Wages paid to factory workers is direct employee cost.

(ii) Administrative overhead is indirect expense.

(iii) Commission paid to sales staffs comes under selling expenses.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 CHAPTER
4
OVERHEADS-
ABSORPTION
COSTING METHOD
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you would be able to-
♦ Discuss the meaning of Overheads-Production,
Administrative and Selling & Distribution.
♦ Discuss the meaning and methods of allocation,
apportionment and absorption of overheads.
♦ Discuss the meaning and treatment of under-absorption
and over-absorption of overheads and apply the same in
cost computation.
♦ State the accounting and control of administrative, selling
and distribution overheads.
♦ Discuss and apply the various methods to calculate
overhead rate.

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 4.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

1. INTRODUCTION
Overheads are the expenditure which cannot be conveniently traced to or
identified with any particular cost unit. Such expenses are incurred for output
generally and not for a particular work order e.g., wages paid to watch and ward
staff, heating and lighting expenses of factory etc. Overheads are also very
important cost element along with direct materials and direct employees. Often in
a manufacturing concern, overheads exceed direct wages or direct materials and
at times even both put together. On this account, it would be a grave mistake to
ignore overheads either for the purpose of arriving at the cost of a job or a
product or for controlling total expenditure.
Overheads also represent expenses that have been incurred in providing certain
ancillary facilities or services which facilitate or make possible the carrying out of
the production process; by themselves these services are not of any use. For
instance, a boiler house produces steam so that machines may run and, without
the generation of steam, production would be seriously hampered. But if
machines do not run or do not require steam, the boiler house would be useless
and the expenses incurred would be a waste.
Overheads are incurred not only in the factory of production but also on
administration, selling and distribution.

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.3

2. CLASSIFICATION OF OVERHEADS
Description Example
By Function
Factory or Manufacturing overhead is (i) Stock keeping expenses,
Manufacturing the indirect cost incurred for (ii) Repairs and
or Production manufacturing or production maintenance of plant,
Overhead activity in a factory. (iii) Depreciation of factory
Manufacturing overhead building,
includes all expenditures (iv) Indirect labour,
incurred from the (v) cost of primary packing
procurement of materials to (vi) Insurance of plant and
the completion of finished machinery etc.
product. Production overhead
include administration
costs relating to
production, factory,
works or manufacturing.
Office and Office and Administrative (i) Salary paid to office
Administrative overheads are expenditures staffs,
Overheads incurred on all activities (ii) Repairs and maintenance
relating to general of office building,
management and (iii) Depreciation of office
administration of an building
organisation. It includes (iv) postage and stationery,
formulating the policy, (v) Lease rental in case of
directing the organisation operating lease (in case
and controlling the of finance lease, lease
operations of an undertaking rental excluding finance
which is not related directly cost)
to production, selling, (vi) accounts and audit
distribution, research or expenses etc.
development activity or
function.

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 4.4 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Selling and (i) Selling overhead: (i) Salesmen commission,

Distribution expenses related to sale (ii) Advertisement cost,
Overheads of products and include (iii) Sales office expenses etc.
all indirect expenses in
sales management for
the organisation. (i) Delivery van expenses,
(ii) Distribution overhead: (ii) Transit insurance,
cost incurred on making
(iii) warehouse and cold
product available for sale
storage expenses,
in the market.
(iv) secondary packing
expenses etc.
By Nature
Fixed These are the costs which are (i) Salary paid to permanent
Overhead incurred for a period, and employees,
which, within certain output (ii) Depreciation of building
and turnover limits, tend to and plant and equipment,
be unaffected by fluctuations (iii) Interest on capital,
in the levels of activity (iv) Insurance.
(output or turnover). They do
not tend to increase or de-
crease with the changes in
output.
Variable These costs tend to vary with (i) Indirect materials,
Overhead the volume of activity. Any (ii) Power and fuel,
increase in the activity results (iii) lubricants,
in an increase in the variable (iv) tools and spares etc.
cost and vice-versa.
Semi-Variable These costs contain both fixed (i) Electricity cost,
Overheads and variable components and (ii) water cost,
are thus partly affected by (iii) telephone and internet
fluctuations in the level of expenses etc.
activity.

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.5

By Element
Indirect Materials which do not (i) Stores used for
materials normally form part of the maintaining machines
finished product (cost object) and buildings (lubricants,
are known as indirect cotton waste, bricks etc.)
materials. (ii) Stores used by service
departments like power
house, boiler house,
canteen etc.
Indirect Employee costs which cannot (i) Salary paid to foreman
employee cost be allocated but can be and supervisor.
apportioned to or absorbed (ii) Salary paid to
by cost units or cost centres administration staff etc.
is known as indirect
employee.
Indirect Expenses other than direct (i) Rates & taxes,
expenses expenses are known as (ii) insurance,
indirect expenses, that (iii) depreciation,
cannot be directly, (iv) advertisement expenses
conveniently and wholly etc.
allocated to cost centres.
By Control
Controllable These are those costs which (i) Materials cost,
costs can be controlled by the (ii) wages and salary,
implementation of (iii) power and fuel etc.
appropriate managerial
influence and proper policies.
Uncontrollable Overhead costs which cannot (i) Rates and taxes,
costs be controlled by the (ii) Depreciation,
management even after the (iii) Interest on borrowings.
implementation of appro-
priate managerial influence
and proper polices are known
as uncontrollable costs.

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 4.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2.1 Advantages of Classification of Overheads into Fixed

and Variable
The primary objective of segregating semi-variable expenses into fixed and
variable is to ascertain marginal costs. Besides this, it has the following
advantages also.
(a) Controlling Expenses: The classification of expenses into fixed and variable
components helps in controlling expenses. Fixed costs are generally policy
costs, which cannot be easily reduced. They are incurred irrespective of the
output and hence are more or less non controllable. Variable expenses vary
with the volume of activity and the responsibility for incurring such expenditure
is determined in relation to the output. The management can control these
costs by giving proper allowances in accordance with the output achieved.

(b) Preparation of Budget Estimates: The segregation of overheads into fixed

and variable part helps in the preparation of flexible budget. It enables a firm
to estimate costs at different levels of activity and make comparison with the
actual expenses incurred.
Suppose in October, 2022 the output of a factory was 1,000 units and the
expenses were:

(`)
Fixed 5,00,000
Variable 4,00,000

Semi-variable (40% fixed) 6,00,000

15,00,000
In November, 2022 the output was likely to increase to 1,200 units. In that case
the budget or estimate of expenses will be:
(`)
Fixed 5,00,000
 ` 4,00,000 ×1,200 units 
Variable   4,80,000
 1,000 units 

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.7

Semi-variable
Fixed, 40% of ` 6,00,000 2,40,000

 ` 3,60,000 ×1,200 units 

Variable:   4,32,000
 1,000 units 
16,52,000
It would be a mistake to think that with the output going up from 1,000 units
to 1,200 units the expenses would increase proportionately to ` 18,00,000. This
would be wrong budgeting.
(c) Decision Making: The segregation of semi variable cost between fixed and
variable overhead also helps the management to take many important
decisions. For example, decisions regarding the price to be charged during
depression or recession or for export market. Likewise, decisions on make or
buy, shut down or continue, etc., are also taken after separating fixed costs
from variable costs.
In fact, when any change is contemplated, say, increase or decrease in production,
change in the process of manufacture or distribution, it is necessary to know the total
effect on cost (or revenue) and that would be impossible without a correct
segregation of fixed and variable costs. The technique of marginal costing, cost
volume profit relationship and break-even analysis are all based on such segregation.

3. ACCOUNTING AND CONTROL OF

MANUFACTURING OVERHEADS
We have already seen that overheads are by nature those costs which cannot be
directly related to a product or to any other cost unit. Yet for working out the
total cost of a product or a unit of service, the overheads must be included. Thus,
we have to find out a way by which the overheads can be distributed over the
various units of production.
One method of working out the distribution of overheads over the various
products could be to ascertain the amount of actual overheads and distribute
them over the products. This, however, creates a problem since the actual amount
of overheads can be known only after the financial accounts are closed. If we wait
that long, the cost sheets lose their main advantages and utility to the

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 4.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

management. All the decisions for which cost sheets are prepared are immediate
decisions and cannot be postponed till the actual overheads are known.
Therefore, some method has to be found by which overheads can be included in
the cost of the products, as soon as prime cost, the cost of raw materials, direct
employees and other direct expenses, is ascertained.
One method is to work out pre-determined rates for absorbing overheads.
These rates are worked out before an accounting period begins by estimating the
amount of overheads and the level of activity in the ensuing period. Thus, as soon
as the prime cost of a product or a job is available, the various overheads are
charged by these rates. Of course, this implies that the overheads are charged on
an estimated basis. Later, when the actual overheads are known, the difference
between the overheads charged to the products and actual overheads is worked
out and adjusted.

Manufacturing Overheads: Generally manufacturing overheads form a

substantial portion of the total overheads. It is important, that such overheads
should be properly absorbed over the cost of production. The following
procedure may be adopted in this regard. The steps given below shows how
factory overhead rates are estimated and overheads absorbed on that basis and
the last one show how actual are compared with the absorbed amount.
1. Estimation and Collection of Manufacturing Overheads: The first stage is
to estimate the amount of overheads, keeping in view the past figures and
adjusting them for known future changes. The sources available for the
collection of factory overheads may include (a) Invoices, (b) Stores requisition,
(c) Wage analysis book (d) Journal entries. etc.
2. Assignment of Manufacturing Overheads: The guiding principle for
assignment of manufacturing overheads to a cost object is the traceability
of the overheads in an economically feasible manner.
Assignment of the manufacturing overhead is done on the basis of either of
the following two principles:
(i) Cause and Effect: Cause is the process or operation or activity and
effect is the incurrence of cost.
(ii) Benefit received: Manufacturing overheads are to be apportioned to
various cost objects in proportion to the benefits received by them.

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.9

(a) Cost Allocation: The term ‘allocation’ refers to the direct

assignment of cost to a cost object which can be traced directly. It
implies relating overheads directly to the various departments. The
estimated amount of various items of manufacturing overheads
should be allocated to various cost centres or departments. For
example- if a separate power meter has been installed for a
department, the entire power cost ascertained from the meter is
allocated to that department. The salary of the works manager cannot
be directly allocated to any one department since he looks after the
whole factory. It is, therefore, obvious that many overhead items will
remain unallocated after this step.
(b) Cost Apportionment: There are some items of estimated overheads
(like the salary of the works manager) which cannot be directly
allocated to the various departments and cost centres. Such
unallocable expenses are to be spread over the various departments
or cost centres on the basis of two principles. This is called
apportionment. Thus, apportionment implies “the allotment of
proportions of items of cost to cost centres or departments”. After this
stage, all the overhead costs would have been either allocated to or
apportioned over the various departments.
(c) Re-apportionment: Upto the last stage all overheads are allocated
and apportioned to all the departments- both production and service
departments. Service departments are those departments which do
not directly take part in the production of goods or providing
services. Such departments provide auxiliary services across the entity
and renders services to other cost centres and in some cases to
outside parties. Examples of such departments are engineering,
quality control and assurance, laboratory, canteen, stores, time office,
dispensary etc. The overheads of these departments are to be shared
by the production departments since service departments operate
primarily for the purpose of providing services to production
departments. The process of assigning service department
overheads to production departments is called reassignment or
re-apportionment. At this stage, all the factory overheads are col-
lected under production departments.

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 4.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

3. Absorption: After completing the distribution as stated above the overheads

charged to department are to be recovered from the output produced in
respective departments. This process of recovering overheads of a
department or any other cost center from its output is called recovery or
absorption.

Absorption of manufacturing overheads shall be as follows:

(i) Variable Manufacturing overheads: The variable manufacturing
overheads shall be absorbed on the basis of actual production.
(ii) Fixed Manufacturing overheads: The fixed manufacturing overhead
shall be absorbed on the basis of normal capacity.

The overhead expenses can be absorbed by estimating the overhead (as

assigned above) and then working out an absorption rate. When overheads
are estimated, their absorption is carried out by adopting a pre-determined
overhead absorption rate. This rate can be calculated by using any one
method as discussed in this chapter at the end.
As the actual accounting period begins, each unit of production
automatically absorbs a certain amount of factory overheads through pre-
determined rates. During the year a certain amount will be absorbed over
the various products. This is known as the total amount of absorbed
overheads.

4. Treatment of over and under absorption of overheads: After the year

end the total amount of actual factory overheads is known. There is bound
to be some difference between the actual amount of overheads and the
absorbed amount of overheads. So, the overheads are generally either
under-absorbed or over-absorbed. The difference has to be adjusted
keeping in view of such differences and the reasons therefore.

Students will thus see that the whole discussion as above is meant to serve
the following two purposes:
(a) to charge various products and services with an equitable portion of the
total amount of factory overheads; and
(b) to charge factory overheads immediately as the product or the job is
completed without waiting for the figures of actual factory overheads.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.11

4. STEPS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF

OVERHEADS
The various steps for the distribution of overheads have been discussed in detail
as below:

Estimation of overheads:
Allocation of overheads:
By standing
Orders Apportionment of overheads:
Directly
Through Re-apportionment
apportionment of
attributable to
budgeting department/ On the basis of overheads:
process cost cenres Benefit Absorption:
received Service
department to
On the basis of Production By actual units
cause & effect departments at
predetermined
Other suitable
rate
basis

4.1 Estimation and Collection of Overheads

The amount of overheads is required to be estimated. The estimation is usually
done with reference to past data adjusted for known future changes. The
overhead expenses are usually collected through a system of standing
orders.

Standing Orders: In every manufacturing business, expenses are incurred on

direct materials and direct labour in respect of several jobs or other units of
production. Incurrence of these expenses are authorised by production orders or
work orders. The term “Standing Order” denotes sanction for indirect expenses
under various heads of expenditure.

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 4.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

In large factories, usually the classification of indirect expenditures is combined

with a system of Standing Orders (sometimes also referred as Service “Orders”). It
is a system under which a number is allotted to each item of expense for the
purpose of identification, and the same is continued from year to year. The
extent of such analysis and the nomenclature adopted are settled by the
management according to the needs of the industry.

4.2 Allocation of Overheads over Various Departments or

Departmentalisation of Overheads
Most of the manufacturing processes functions are performed in different
departments of a factory. Some of the departments of the factory are engaged in
production process while few may function as ancillary departments. The ancillary
departments are service departments supporting the production departments in
manufacturing, administration, selling & distribution of goods or services.

Factory overheads which are related to any of the production or service

departments are allocated to these departments.

A department may be sub-divided into various cost centres for better cost control
and performance evaluation. It is thus obvious that the principal object of setting
up cost centres is to collect data, in respect of similar activities more conveniently.
This avoids a great deal of cost analysis. When costs are collected by setting up
cost centres, several items can be ascertained definitely and the element of
estimation is reduced considerably. For instance, the allowance of the normal idle
time or the amount to be spent on consumable stores, etc. There are two main
types of cost centres - machine or personnel - depending on whether the process
of manufacture is carried on at a centre by man or machine. For the convenience
of recording of expenditure, cost centres are sometimes allotted a code number.

Advantages of Departmentalisation: The collection of overheads department

wise gives rise to the following advantages:

(a) Better Estimation of Expenses: Some expenses which relate to the

departments will be estimated almost on an exact basis and, to that extent,
the accuracy of estimation of overheads will be higher.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.13

(b) Better Control: For the purpose of controlling expenses in a department, it is

obviously necessary that the figures in relation to each department should
be separately available. It is one of the main principles of control that one
should know for each activity how much should have been spent and how
much is actually spent. If information about expenses is available only for
factory as a whole, it will not be possible to know which department has
been over spending.
(c) Ascertainment of Cost for each department: From the point of view of
ascertaining the cost of each job, the expenses incurred in the departments
through which the job or the product has passed should be known. It is only
then that the cost of the job or the product can be charged with the
appropriate share of indirect expenses. It is not necessary that a job must
pass through all the departments or that the work required in each
department should be the same for all jobs. It is, therefore, necessary that
only appropriate charge in respect of the work done in the department is
made. This can be done only if overheads for each department are known
separately.
(d) Suitable Method of Costing: A suitable method of costing can be followed
differently for each department e.g., batch costing when a part is manu-
factured, but single or output costing when the product is assembled.

4.3 Apportioning Overhead Expenses over Various

Departments
Overheads which are related to more than one department are required to be
distributed between/ among the departments. This distribution of overheads
between/ among the departments is called apportionment. The example of
overheads may include e.g. rent of building, power, lighting, insurance,
depreciation etc. To apportioning these overheads over different departments
benefiting thereby, it is necessary at first to determine the proportion of benefit
received by each department and then distribute the total expenditure
proportionately on that basis. But the same basis of apportionment cannot be
followed for different items of overheads since the benefit of service to a
department in each case has to be measured differently. Some of the bases that
may be adopted for the apportionment of expenses are stated below:

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Overhead Cost Bases of Apportionment

1. (i) Rent and other building Floor area, or volume of department
expenses
(ii) Lighting and heating
(conditioning)
(iii) Fire precaution service
(iv) Air- conditioning
2. (i) Perquisites Number of workers
(ii) Labour welfare expenses
(iii) Time keeping
(iv) Personnel office
(v) Supervision
3. (i) Compensation to workers Direct wages
(ii) Holiday pay
(iii) ESI and PF contribution
(iv) Perquisites
4. General overhead Direct labour hour, or Direct wages, or
Machine hours.
5. (i) Depreciation of plant and Capital values
machinery
(ii) Repairs and maintenance
of plant and machinery
(iii) Insurance of stock
6. (i) Power/steam Technical estimates
consumption
(ii) Internal transport
(iii) Managerial salaries
7. Lighting expenses (light) No. of light points, or Area or Metered
units
8. Electric power (machine Horse power of machines, or Number
operation) of machine hour, or value of machines
or units consumed.
9. (i) Material handling Weight of materials, or volume of
(ii) Stores overhead materials, or value of materials or unit
of materials.

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.15

Some other basis of apportioning overhead costs: We have considered already

that the benefit received by the department generally is the principal criterion on
which the costs of service departments or common expenses are apportioned. But
other bases of apportionments which may be used are mentioned below:
(a) Analysis or survey of existing conditions.
(b) Ability to pay.
(c) Efficiency or incentive.
A concern may have predominantly only one criterion or may use all (including
the service or benefit criterion) for different phases of its activity.

(a) Analysis or Survey of existing conditions: At times it may not be possible to

determine the advantage of an item of expenses without undertaking an
analysis of expenditure. For example, lighting expenses can be distributed over
departments only on the basis of the number of light points fixed in each
department.
(b) Ability to pay: It is a principle of taxation which has been applied in cost
accounting as well for distributing the expenditure on the basis of income of
the paying department, on a proportionate basis. For example, if a company is
selling three different products in a territory, it may decide to distribute the
expenses of the sales organisation to the amount of sales of different articles in
these territories. This basis, though simple to apply, may be inequitable since
the expenditure charged to an article may have no relation to the actual effort
involved in selling it. Easy selling lines thus may have to bear the largest
proportion of expenses while, on the other hand, these should bear the lowest
charge.

(c) Efficiency or Incentives: Under this method, the distribution of overheads

is made on the basis of pre-determined levels of production or sales. When
distribution of overhead cost is made on this basis and if the level of
production exceeds the pre-determined level of production the incidence of
overhead cost gets reduced and the total cost per unit of production or of
sales, lowered. The opposite is the effect if the assumed levels are not
reached.

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 4.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Thus, the department whose sales are increasing is able to show a greater profit
and thereby is able to earn greater goodwill and appreciation of the management
than it would have if the distribution of overheads was made otherwise.
Difference between Allocation and Apportionment
The difference between the allocation and apportionment is important to
understand because the purpose of these two methods is the identification of the
items of cost to cost units or centers. However, the main difference between the
above methods is given below.

Allocation Apportionment
Allocation deals with the whole items Apportionment deals with the
of cost, which are identifiable with proportions of an item of cost for
any one department. For example, example; the cost of the benefit of a
indirect wages of three departments service department will be divided
are separately obtained and hence between those departments which has
each department will be charged by availed those benefits.
the respective amount of wages
individually.
Allocation is a direct process of Apportionment is an indirect process
charging expenses to different cost because there is a need for the
centres identification of the appropriate
portion of an expense to be borne by
the different departments benefited.
• The allocation or apportionment of an expense is not dependent on its
nature, but the relationship between the expense and the cost centre decides
that whether it is to be allocated or apportioned.

• Allocation is a much wider term than apportionment.

4.4 Re-apportionment of Service Department Overheads

over Production Departments
The re-apportionment of the service department cost to the production
department is known as secondary distribution. The suggestive bases that may be
adopted for re-apportionment are given below:

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.17

Cost of the Service Departments: Basis

1. Maintenance and Repair shop Direct labour hours, Machine hours,

2. Planning and progress Direct labour wages, Asset value x
Hours worked
3. Tool room

4. Canteen and Welfare No of direct workers

5. Hospital and Dispensary No. of employees etc.
6. Personnel Department

7. Time-keeping No. of card punched, No. of employees

8. Computer Section Computer hours, Specific allocation to

departments

9. Power House (electric lighting Floor area, Cubic content, No. of

cost) electric Points, Wattage.

10. Power House (electric power cost) Horse power, Kwh, Horse power ×
Machine hours, Kwh × Machine hours

11. Stores Department No. of requisitions, Weight or value of

Materials issued.

12. Transport Department Crane hours, Truck hours, Truck

mileage, Truck tonnage, Truck ton-
hours, Tonnage handled. No. of
packages of Standard size

13. Fire Protection Capital values

14. Inspection Inspection hours

Notes:
(1) Repairs included in repairs shop cost, building maintenance cost included in
maintenance shop cost etc. should be apportioned on the basis of capital values.
(2) Economy, practicability, equitability and reliability are the matters of
consideration for selection of the base.

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 4.18 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Methods for Re-apportionment: The re-apportionment of service department

expenses over the production departments may be carried out by using any one
of the following methods:
(i) Direct re-distribution method.
(ii) Step method of secondary distribution or non-reciprocal method.
(iii) Reciprocal Service method.

Direct re-distribution
method

Methods for Re- Step method or non- Simultaneous Equation

apportionment reciprocal method. method

Reciprocal Service
Trial and error method
method.

Repeated distribution
method

(i) Direct Re-Distribution Method: Service department costs under this method
are apportioned over the production departments only, ignoring the services
rendered by one service department to the other. To understand the
applications of this method, go through the illustration which follows.
ILLUSTRATION 1
XL Ltd., has three production departments and four service departments. The expenses
for these departments as per Primary Distribution Summary are as follows:

Production Departments: (`) (`)

Dept.-A 30,00,000
Dept.-B 26,00,000
Dept.-C 24,00,000 80,00,000
Service Departments: (`) (`)
Stores 4,00,000
Time-keeping and Accounts 3,00,000
Power 1,60,000
Canteen 1,00,000 9,60,000

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.19

The following information is also available in respect of the production departments:

Dept. A Dept. B Dept. C

Horse power of Machine 300 300 200
Number of workers 20 15 15
Value of stores requisition in (`) 2,50,000 1,50,000 1,00,000

PREPARE a statement apportioning the costs of service departments over the

production departments using direct re-distribution method.
SOLUTION
Secondary Overhead Distribution Statement

Items of cost Basis of Total Production Departments

(as per primary apportionment (`) A (`) B (`) C (`)
distribution
summary)

Cost as per primary 80,00,000 30,00,000 26,00,000 24,00,000

distribution
summary

Stores (5:3:2) Value of Store 4,00,000 2,00,000 1,20,000 80,000

requisition

Time-keeping and No. of workers 3,00,000 1,20,000 90,000 90,000

Accounts (4:3:3)

Power (3:3:2) H.P. of Machine 1,60,000 60,000 60,000 40,000

Canteen (4:3:3) No. of workers 1,00,000 40,000 30,000 30,000

89,60,000 34,20,000 29,00,000 26,40,000

(ii) Step Method or Non-Reciprocal Method: This method gives cognizance to

the services rendered by service department to another service department.
Therefore, as compared to previous method, this method is more complicated
because a sequence of apportionments has to be selected here. The sequence
here begins with the department that renders maximum number of
services to the other service department(s). In other words, the cost of the

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 4.20 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

service department that serves the largest number of services to the other
service department(s) and production department(s) is distributed first. After
this, the cost of service department serving the next largest number of
departments is apportioned.
This process continues till the cost of last service department is apportioned.
The cost of last service department is apportioned among production
departments only.
Some authors are of the view that the cost of service department with
largest amount of cost should be distributed first.

ILLUSTRATION 2
Suppose the expenses of two production departments A and B and two service
departments X and Y are as under:

Department Amount (`) Apportionment Basis

Y A B
Dept.-X 2,00,000 25% 40% 35%
Dept.-Y 1,50,000 — 40% 60%
Dept.-A 3,00,000
Dept.-B 3,20,000

PREPARE a statement apportioning the costs of service departments over the

production departments using step method.
SOLUTION
Summary of Overhead Distribution

Departments X (`) Y (`) A (`) B (`)

Amount as given above 2,00,000 1,50,000 3,00,000 3,20,000
Expenses of service (2,00,000) 50,000 80,000 70,000
dept.-X is apportioned
among other
departments- Y, A and B
in the ratio (5:8:7)
2,00,000 3,80,000 3,90,000

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.21

Expenses of Dept.-Y - (2,00,000) 80,000 1,20,000

apportioned between
department A and B in
the ratio (2:3)
Total Nil Nil 4,60,000 5,10,000

(iii) Reciprocal Service Method: This method recognises the fact that where there
are two or more service departments they may render services to each other
and, therefore, these inter-departmental services are to be given due
weight while re-distributing the expenses of the service departments.
The methods available for dealing with reciprocal services are:
(a) Simultaneous equation method;

(b) Trial and error method;

(c) Repeated distribution method.

Reciprocal Service Method

Simultaneous Trial and Error Repeated

Equation Method Method Distribution Method

(a) Simultaneous Equation Method:

According to this method firstly, the costs of service departments are
ascertained. These costs are then re-distributed to production departments
on the basis of given percentages. (Refer to the following illustration to
understand the method)

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 4.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 3
Service departments’ expenses

(`)

Boiler house 3,00,000

Pump room 60,000

Total 3,60,000

The allocation basis is:

Production Department Service Department

A B Boiler House Pump Room
Boiler House 60% 35% - 5%
Pump Room 10% 40% 50% -

SOLUTION
The total expenses of the two service departments will be determined as follows:
Let B stand for Boiler House expenses and P for Pump Room expenses.
Then
B = 3,00,000 + 0.50 P
P = 60,000 + 0.05 B

Substituting the value of B,

P = 60,000 + 0.05 (3,00,000 + 0.5 P)
= 60,000 + 15,000 + 0.025 P
= 75,000 + 0.025 P
P - 0.025P = 75,000
 75,000 
P =   = ` 76,923
 0.975 

The total of expenses of the Pump Room is `76,923 and that of the Boiler House
is `3,38,462 i.e., `3,00,000 + 0.5 × ` 76,923.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.23

The expenses will be allocated to the production departments as under:

Production Department

Dept.-A Dept.-B

Boiler House (60% and 35% of ` 3,38,462) 2,03,077 1,18,462

Pump Room (10% and 40% of ` 76,923) 7,692 30,769

Total 2,10,769 1,49,231

The total of expenses apportioned to A and B is ` 3,60,000.

(b) Trial and Error Method:

According to this method the cost of one service cost centre is apportioned to
another service cost centre. The cost of another service centre plus the share
received from the first cost centre is again apportioned to the first cost centre.
This process is repeated till the amount to be apportioned becomes negligible,
that means repeated distribution method is followed to the extent of
service departments only. All apportioned amounts for each service cost
centre are added to get the total apportioned cost. These total service cost
centre costs are redistributed to the production departments. Trial and
error method and Simultaneous equation method gives the same result. (Refer
to the following illustration to understand this method.)
ILLUSTRATION 4
Sanz Ltd., is a manufacturing company having three production departments, ‘A’, ‘B’ and
‘C’ and two service departments ‘X’ and ‘Y’. The following is the budget for December 2022:

Total (`) A (` ) B (`) C (`) X (` ) Y (` )

Direct material 1,00,000 2,00,000 4,00,000 2,00,000 1,00,000

Direct wages 5,00,000 2,00,000 8,00,000 1,00,000 2,00,000
Factory rent 4,00,000
Power 2,50,000
Depreciation 1,00,000
Other overheads 9,00,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.24 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Additional information:
Area (Sq. ft.) 500 250 500 250 500
Capital value of assets 20 40 20 10 10
(` lakhs)
Machine hours 1,000 2,000 4,000 1,000 1,000
Horse power of machines 50 40 20 15 25

A technical assessment of the apportionment of expenses of service departments is as

under:

A B C X Y

Service Dept. ‘X’ (%) 45 15 30 – 10

Service Dept. ‘Y’ (%) 60 35 – 5 –

Required:
(i) PREPARE a statement showing distribution of overheads to various departments.
(ii) PREPARE a statement showing re-distribution of service departments expenses to
production departments using Trial and error method.
SOLUTION
(i) Overhead Distribution Summary

Basis Total (`) A (`) B (`) C (`) X (`) Y (`)

Direct Direct – – – – 2,00,000 1,00,000

materials

Direct wages Direct – – – – 1,00,000 2,00,000

Factory rent Area 4,00,000 1,00,000 50,000 1,00,000 50,000 1,00,000

(2:1:2:1:2)

Power H.P. × 2,50,000 50,000 80,000 80,000 15,000 25,000

Machine
(10:16:16:3:5)*
Hrs.

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.25

Depreciation Capital 1,00,000 20,000 40,000 20,000 10,000 10,000

value
(2:4:2:1:1)

Other Machine 9,00,000 1,00,000 2,00,000 4,00,000 1,00,000 1,00,000

overheads hrs.
(1:2:4:1:1)

16,50,000 2,70,000 3,70,000 6,00,000 4,75,000 5,35,000

*{(1000×50) : (2000×40) : (4000×20) : (1000×15) : (1000×25)}

(50000 : 80000 : 80000 : 15000 : 25000)

(ii) Redistribution of Service Department’s expenses:

Service Departments

X (`) Y (`)

Overheads as per primary distribution 4,75,000 5,35,000

(i) Apportionment of Dept-X expenses to Dept-Y

--- 47,500
(10% of ` 4,75,000)

--- 5,82,500

(ii) Apportionment of Dept-Y expenses to Dept-X

29,125 ---
[5% of (` 5,35,000 + ` 47,500)]

(i) Apportionment of Dept-X expenses to Dept-Y

--- 2,913
(10% of ` 29,125)

(ii) Apportionment of Dept-Y expenses to Dept-X

146 ---
(5% of ` 2,913)

Total 5,04,271 5,85,413

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.26 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Distribution of Service departments’ overheads to Production departments

Production Departments
A (`) B (`) C (`)
Overhead as per primary distribution 2,70,000 3,70,000 6,00,000
Dept- X (90% of ` 5,04,300) 2,26,900 75,600 1,51,300
Dept- Y (95% of ` 5,85,400) 3,51,300 2,04,900 ---
8,48,200 6,50,500 7,51,300

(c) Repeated Distribution Method:

Under this method, service departments’ costs are distributed to other

service and production departments on agreed percentages and this
process continues to be repeated, till the figures of service departments are
either exhausted or reduced to too small a figure. (Refer to the following
illustration to understand this method)

ILLUSTRATION 5
Taking all the information from Illustration 4 above, PREPARE a statement showing re-
distribution of service departments’ expenses to production departments using repeated
distribution method. Also CALCULATE machine hour rates of the production
departments ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’.
SOLUTION
Redistribution of Service Department’s expenses using ‘repeated distribution
method’:

A (`) B (`) C (`) X (`) Y (`)

Total overheads {Refer (i) of 2,70,000 3,70,000 6,00,000 4,75,000 5,35,000

Solution to Illustration 4}
Dept. X overhead apportioned 2,13,750 71,250 1,42,500 (4,75,000) 47,500
in the ratio (45:15:30: —:10)
Dept. Y overhead apportioned 3,49,500 2,03,875 − 29,125 (5,82,500)
in the ratio (60:35: —:5: —)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.27

Dept. X overhead apportioned 13,106 4,369 8,738 (29,125) 2,912

in the ratio (45:15:30: —:10)
Dept. Y overhead apportioned 1,747 1,019 − 146 (2,912)
in the ratio (60:35: —:5: —)
Dept. X overhead apportioned 65 22 44 (146) 15
in the ratio (45:15:30: —:10)
Dept. Y overhead apportioned 9 6 - - (15)
in the ratio (60:35: —:5: —)
8,48,177 6,50,541 7,51,282 − −

Calculation of machine hour rate:

A B C
A Total overheads (`) 8,48,177 6,50,541 7,51,282
B Machine hours 1,000 2,000 4,000
C Machine hour rate (`) [A ÷ B] 848.18 325.27 187.82

4.5 Absorbing Overheads over Cost Units, Products, etc.

Collection of the figure of overheads for the factory as a whole or for various
departments is not enough. It is clearly necessary to ascertain how much of the
overheads is to be debited to the cost of the various jobs, products etc. This process
is called absorbing the overhead to cost units. We take up below the various
implications of this process. However, if only one uniform type of work is done,
the task is easy and under such a situation the overhead expenses to be absorbed
may be calculated by dividing actual overheads by the number of units of work
done or estimated overheads by the estimated output.
The whole process of overhead distribution and absorption to units produced is
depicted in the synopsis as below:

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.28 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.29

5. METHODS OF ABSORBING OVERHEADS TO

VARIOUS PRODUCTS OR JOBS
The method selected for charging overheads to products or jobs should be such
as will ensure:
(i) that the total amount charged (or recovered) in a period does not differ
materially from the actual expenses incurred in the period. and
(ii) that the amount charged to individual jobs or products is equitable. In case of
factory overhead, this means:
(a) that the time spent on completion of each job should be taken into
consideration;
(b) that a distinction should be made between jobs done by skilled workers
and those done by unskilled workers. and

(c) that jobs done by manual labour and those done by machines should be
distinguished.
In addition, the methods should be capable of being used conveniently; and yield
uniform result from period to period as far as possible; any change that is
apparent should reflect a change in the underlying situation such as substitution
of human labour by machines.
Several methods are commonly employed either individually or jointly for
computing the appropriate overhead rate. The more common of these are:

Methods of Absorption of Overheads

Percentage Percentage Percentage Labour Machine Rate per

of direct of prime of direct hour hour unit of
materials cost labour cost rate rate output

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 4.30 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(1) Percentage of direct materials,

(2) Percentage of prime cost,
(3) Percentage of direct labour cost,

(4) Labour hour rate,

(5) Machine hour rate and
(6) Rate per unit of Output

5.1 Percentage of Direct Material Cost

Under this method, the cost of direct material consumed is the base for calculating the
amount of overhead absorbed. This overhead rate is computed by the following
formula:
Total Production Overheads of a Department
Overhead rate = ×100
Budgeted Direct Material cost of all products

5.2 Percentage of Prime Cost Method

This method is based on the fact that both materials as well as labour contribute
in raising factory overheads. Hence, the total of the two i.e. Prime cost should be
taken as base for absorbing the factory overhead. The overhead rate in this
method is computed by the following formals:

Total Production Overheads of a Department

Overhead rate = ×100
Prime cost

Example for the above two methods:

Suppose for a given period, actual figures are estimated as follows:

`
Direct materials 2,00,000
Direct labour 1,00,000
Factory overheads 90,000

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.31

The percentage of factory overheads to direct materials will be 45%, to prime cost
30%. If, on a job, material cost is ` 10,000 and direct labour is `7,000 the cost,
after absorbing factory overhead, will be as follows:
(i) ` 17,000 + 45% ` 10,000 or ` 21,500,
(ii) ` 17,000 + 30% ` 17,000 or ` 22,100, and
One can see how, with a different method, the works cost comes out to be
different. Of these methods, the first and second are generally considered to be
unsuitable on account of the following reasons:
(i) Manufacturing overhead expenses are mostly a function of time i.e., time is the
determining factor for the incurrence and application of manufacturing
overhead expenses. That they are so would be clear if we recall that overhead
expenses, specially manufacturing expenses, can in the ultimate analysis be
regarded as expenditure incurred in providing the necessary facilities and
service to workers employed in the productive process. The question of
facilities and service made available to workers naturally is dependent on the
length of time during which workers make use of the facilities. It may,
therefore, be said that the job or product on which more time has been spent
would entail larger manufacturing expenses than the job requiring less time. The
factor is ignored altogether by the first method and largely by the second
method.
(ii) Overheads are neither related to the prime cost nor to direct material cost
except to a very small extent. Thus, if the percentage of material cost is used
when there are two jobs requiring the same operational time but using
material having varying prices, their manufacturing overhead cost would be
different whereas this should not normally be so.
The method of absorbing overhead costs on the basis of prime cost also does
not take into consideration the time factor. The fact that the amount includes
labour cost in addition to material cost does not render the prime cost to be
more suitable; infact, the results are liable to be more misleading because of
the cumulative error of using both the labour and material cost as the basis of
allocation of overhead expenses, on neither of which they are already
dependent.

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 4.32 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(iii) Since material prices are prone to frequent and wide fluctuations, the
manufacturing overheads, if based on material cost or prime cost, also would
fluctuate violently from period to period.
(iv) The skill of the workers involved and whether machines were used or not, are
ignored when these methods are used.
Percentage of materials cost may, however, be used for the limited purpose of
absorbing material handling and store overheads.

5.3 Percentage of Direct Labour Cost

Formula to be used under this method is:
Direct Labour Cost Percentage Rate
Total Production Overheads of a Department
Overhead rate = ×100
Direct Labour cost

Advantages Disadvantages
(i) The method is simple and (i) It gives rise to certain inaccuracies
economical to apply. due to the time factor not being
given full importance.
(ii) The time factor is given (ii) Where machinery is used to some
recognition even if indirectly. extent in the process of
manufacture, an allowance for such
a factor is not made.
(iii) Total expenses recovered will (iii) It does not provide for varying skills
not differ much from the of workers
estimated figure since total
wages paid are not likely to
fluctuate much.

5.4 Labour Hour Rate Method

This method is an improvement on the percentage of direct wage basis, as it fully
recognises the significance of the element of time in the incurring and absorption of
manufacturing overhead expenses. This method is admirably suited to operations
which do not involve any large use of machinery. To calculate labour hour rate,

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.33

the amount of factory overheads is divided by the total number of direct labour
hours. Suppose factory overheads are estimated at `90,000 and labour hours at
1,50,000. The overhead absorption rate will be `0.60. If 795 direct labour hours
are spent on a job, `477 will be absorbed as overhead. It can be calculated for
each category of workers.
Formula to be used under this method is:
Total Production Overheads of a Department
Direct Labour Hour Rate = ×100
Direct Labour Hour
5.5 Machine Hour Rate Method
Machine hour rate implies, cost of running a machine for an hour to produce
goods. There are two methods of computing machine hour rates:
(i) Direct Machine hour rate: According to the first method, only the
expenses directly or immediately connected with the operation of the
machine are taken into account e.g., power, depreciation, repairs and
maintenance, insurance, etc. The rate is calculated by dividing the estimated
total of these expenses for a period by the estimated number of operational
hours of the machines during the period.
(ii) Comprehensive Machine hour rate: It will be obvious, however, that in
addition to the expenses stated above there may still be other
manufacturing expenses such as supervision charges, shop cleaning and
lighting, consumable stores and shop supplies, shop general labour, rent
and rates, etc. incurred for the department as a whole and, hence, not
charged to any particular machine or group of machines. In order to see
that such expenses are not left out of production costs, one should include
a portion of such expenses to compute the machine hour rate. Alternatively,
the overheads not directly related to machines may be absorbed on the
basis of Productive Labour Hour Rate Method or any other suitable method.

Note: Sometimes even it is prefered to add the wages paid to the machine
operator in order to get a comprehensive rate of working a machine for one hour.

By the machine hour rate method, manufacturing overhead expenses are charged
to production on the basis of number of hour machines are used on jobs or work
orders. Here each machine or group of machines is treated as a cost centre.

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 4.34 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Overheads apportioned to a production department are further apportioned to

machines or group of machines. These apportioned costs are divided by the
estimated productive machine hour to get machine hour rate.
The steps involved in determining of Machine hour rate are as follows:

Step1: Calculate total of overheads apportioned to a production department (as

discussed earlier in this chapter)

Step 2: Apportion further these overheads to machines or group of machines in

the department.

Step 3: Allocate machine specific costs (directly identifiable with the machine)

Step 4: Estimate total productive hours for the machine

Step 5: Aggregate overheads as apportioned in step-2 and allocated in step-3

and divide it by Estimated total productive hours

Step 6: The resultant figure is machine hour rate

The above costs are further divided into fixed cost or standing charges and variable
cost. Costs which remain constant irrespective of operation of machine are treated
as fixed cost or standing charges. Examples of fixed cost include insurance
premium for machine, rent for premises, supervisor’s salary, depreciation (if
relates to effluxion of time) etc.

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.35

Costs which vary with the operation of the machine are treated as variable cost.
Examples of variable cost include cost for power, cost for consumables (lubricants,
oils etc.), repairs and maintenance, depreciation (if it relates to activity) etc.
Advantages and disadvantages of Machine hour rate:

Advantages Disadvantages

(1) Where machines are the main (1) Additional data concerning the
factor of production, it is usually operation time of machines, not
the best method of charging otherwise necessary, must be
machine operating expenses to recorded and maintained.
production.

(2) The under-absorption of (2) As general department rates for

machine overheads would all the machines in a depart-
indicate the extent to which the ment may be suitable, the
machines have been idle. computation of a separate
machine hour rate for each
machine or group of machines
would mean further additional
work.

(3) It is particularly advantageous

where one operator attends to
several machines (e.g. automatic
screw manufacturing machine),
or where several operators are
engaged on the machine e.g.
the belt press used in making
conveyer belts.

5.6 Rate Per Unit of Output Method

This is the simplest of all the methods. In this method overhead rate is determined by
the following formula:
Amount of overheads
Overheads Rate=
Number of units

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 4.36 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

6. TYPES OF OVERHEAD RATES

The overhead rates may be of the following types:

Type of Overhead Rates

1. Normal 2. Pre-determined 3. Blanket 4. Departmental

Rate Rate Rate Rate

1. Normal Rate: This rate is calculated by dividing the actual overheads by

actual base. It is also known as actual rate.
It is calculated by the following formula:

Actual amount of overheads

Normal overhead Rate =
Actual base

2. Pre-determined Overhead Rate: This rate is determined in advance by

estimating the amount of the overhead for the period in which it is to be
used. It is computed by the following formula:

Budgeted amount of overheads

Pre-determined Rate =
Budgeted base

The amount of overhead rate of expenses for absorbing them to production

may be estimated on the following three bases.
(1) The figure of the previous year or period may be adopted as the
overhead rate to be charged to production in the current year. The
assumption is that the value of production as well as overheads will
remain constant or that the two will change, proportionately.
(2) The overhead rate for the year may be determined on the basis of
estimated expenses and anticipated volume of production activ-
ity.
For instance, if expenses are estimated at `10,000 and output at 4,000
units, the overhead rate will be `2.50 per unit.

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.37

(3) The overhead rate for a year may be fixed on the basis of the
normal volume of the business.
3. Blanket Overhead Rate: Blanket overhead rate refers to the computation
of one single overhead rate for the whole factory. It is to be
distinguished from the departmental overhead rate which refers to a
separate rate for each individual cost centre or department. The use of
blanket rate may be proper in certain factories producing only one major
product in a continuous process or where the work performed in every
department is fairly uniform or standardised.

This overhead rate is computed as follows:

Total overheads for the factory

Blanket Rate =
Total number of units of base for the factory

A blanket rate should be applied in the following cases:

(1) Where only one major product is being produced.
(2) Where several products are produced, but
(a) All products pass through all departments; and

(b) All products are processed for the same length of time in each
department.
Where these conditions do not exist, departmental rates should be used.
4. Departmental Overhead Rate: It refers to the computation of one single
overhead rate for a particular production unit or department. Where the
product lines are varied or machinery is used to a varying degree in the
different departments, that is, where conditions throughout the factory are
not uniform, the use of departmental rates is to be preferred.
This overhead rate is determined by the following formula:

Overheads of department or cost centre

Departmental overhead Rate =
Corresponding base

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 4.38 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 6
A machine costing ` 1,00,00,000 is expected to run for 10 years. At the end of this
period its scrap value is likely to be ` 9,00,000. Repairs during the whole life of the
machine are expected to be ` 18,00,000 and the machine is expected to run 4,380
hours per year on the average. Its electricity consumption is 15 units per hour, the
rate per unit being ` 5. The machine occupies one-fourth of the area of the
department and has two points out of a total of ten for lighting. The foreman has to
devote about one sixth of his time to the machine. The monthly rent of the
department is ` 30,000 and the lighting charges amount to ` 8,000 per month. The
foreman is paid a monthly salary of ` 19,200. FIND OUT the machine hour rate,
assuming insurance is @ 1% p.a. and the expenses on oil, etc., are ` 900 per month.

SOLUTION
Total number of hours per annum- 4,380
Total number of hours per month- 365
Computation of Machine Hour Rate

Per month (`) Per hour (`)

Fixed costs (Standing Charges)

Depreciation (Refer working note-1) 75,833
Rent (`30,000 × ¼ ) 7,500
Lighting charges {(`8,000 × 2 points) ÷ 10 points} 1,600
Foreman’s salary (`19,200 × 1/6) 3,200
Sundry expenses (oil etc.) 900
Insurance {(1% of ` 1,00,00,000) ÷ 12 months} 8,333
97,366 266.76
Variable costs:
Repairs (Refer working note -2) 41.10
Electricity (15 units × ` 5) 75.00
Machine Hour rate 382.86

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.39

Working Notes:
Cost of Machine-Scrap value
(1) Depreciation per month =
Life of the machine

` 1,00,00,000 - ` 9,00,000
= =` 75,833
(10 years ×12months) *

*In the question the life of the machine is given as 10 years and it is also
mentioned the machine will run for 4,380 hours per annum. The depreciation
can be calculated either on the basis of time i.e. 10 years or on the basis of
activity of 43,800 hours (4,380 hours p.a.)

(2) Repairs for the whole life is ` 18,00,000, which can be linked to activity level of
`18,00,000
43,800 hours. Thus, Repairs cost per hour = = ` 41.10
43,800 hours

ILLUSTRATION 7
A machine shop cost centre contains three machines of equal capacities. To
operate these three machines nine operators are required i.e. three operators on
each machine. Operators are paid ` 20 per hour. The factory works for fourty eight
hours in a week which includes 4 hours set up time. The work is jointly done by
operators. The operators are paid fully for the fourty eight hours. In additions they
are paid a bonus of 10 per cent of productive time. Costs are reported for this
company on the basis of thirteen four-weekly period.
The company for the purpose of computing machine hour rate includes the direct
wages of the operator and also recoups the factory overheads allocated to the
machines. The following details of factory overheads applicable to the cost centre
are available:
 Depreciation 10% per annum on original cost of the machine. Original cost of
the each machine is `52,000.
 Maintenance and repairs per week per machine is `60.
 Consumable stores per week per machine are `75.
 Power: 20 units per hour per machine at the rate of 80 paise per unit. No
power is used during the set-up hours.

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 4.40 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

 Apportionment to the cost centre: Rent per annum `5,400, Heat and Light per
annum `9,720, foreman’s salary per annum `12,960 and other miscellaneous
expenditure per annum `18,000.
Required:
CALCULATE the cost of running one machine for a four week period.
SOLUTION
Effective Machine hour for four-week period
= Total working hours – unproductive set-up time
= {(48 hours × 4 weeks) – {(4 hours × 4 weeks)}
= (192 – 16 hours) =176 hours.
(i) Computation of cost of running one machine for a four week period

(`) (`)
(A) Standing charges (per annum)
Rent 5,400
Heat and light 9,720
Forman’s salary 12,960
Other miscellaneous expenditure 18,000
Standing charges (per annum) 46,080
Total expenses for one machine for four 1,181.54
week period
 ` 46,080 
 
 3 machines ×13 four - week period 
Wages (48 hours × 4 weeks × ` 20 × 3 11,520.00
operators)
Bonus {(176 hours × ` 20 × 3 operators) × 1,056.00
10%}
Total standing charges 13,757.54

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.41

(B) Machine Expenses

Depreciation 400.00
 1 
 `52,000 ×10% × 
 13four - week period 

Repairs and maintenance (`60 × 4 weeks) 240.00

Consumable stores (`75 × 4 weeks) 300.00
Power (176 hours × 20 units ×` 0.80)
2,816.00
Total machine expenses 3,756.00
(C) Total expenses (A) + (B) 17,513.54

` 17,513.54
(ii) Machine hour rate = = `99.51
176 hours

7. TREATMENT OF UNDER-ABSORBED AND

OVER–ABSORBED OVERHEADS IN COST
ACCOUNTING
Overhead expenses are usually applied to production on the basis of pre-
determined rates. Production overheads are to be determined in advance for
fixing selling price, quote tender price and to formulate budgets etc.
Estimated / Normal overheads for the period
Pre-determined overhead rate =
Budgeted Number of units during the period

The actual overhead rate will rarely coincide with the pre-determined overhead
rate, due to variation in pre-determined overhead rate and actual overhead rate.
Such a variation may arise due to any one of the following situations:
(i) Estimated overheads for the period under consideration may remain the
same or they coincide with actual overheads but the number of units
produced during the period is either more or less in comparison with
budgeted figure. In the former case actual overhead rate will be less and in
the latter case, actual overhead rate will be more than the pre-determined

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 4.42 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

overhead rate, hence over-absorption and under-absorption will occur

respectively.
(ii) Similarly, if the number of units actually produced during the period
remains the same as budgeted figure but the actual overheads incurred
are more or less than the estimated overheads for the period, then a
situation of under-absorption or over-absorption will arise respectively.
(iii) If changes occur in different proportion both in the actual overheads and
in the number of units produced during the period, then a situation of
under or over-absorption (depending upon the situation) will arise.
(iv) If the changes in the numerator (i.e. in actual overheads) and denominator
(i.e. in number of units produced) occur uniformly (without changing the
proportion between the two) then a situation of neither under nor of over-
absorption will arise.
Such over or under-absorption as arrived at under different situations may also
be termed as overhead variance. The amount of over-absorption being
represented by a credit balance in the accounts and the amount of under-
absorption as a debit balance.
The situations of under/ over absorption can be summarized as below:
When the absorbed amount is less than the actual amount it is called under-
absorption. Similarly, when the absorbed amount is more than the actual
amount it is called over-absorption.

Budgeted Figure Actual Figure Absorbed Difference Result

Amount
(`) Units (`) Units Under/Over
(`) (`) absorption

1 2 3 4 5=1/2×4 6=3-5

100 100 110 100 100 10 Under-absorption

100 100 90 100 100 -10 Over-absorption

100 100 100 90 90 10 Under-absorption

100 100 100 110 110 -10 Over-absorption

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.43

100 100 90 90 90 0 No under/over-

absorption

100 100 110 110 110 0 No under/over-

absorption

100 100 110 90 90 20 Under-absorption

100 100 90 110 110 -20 Over-absorption

`100
In above example Pre-determined rate is =`1
100units

Treatment of under/ over absorption of overheads in cost accounting:

Treatment of such under/ over absorption of overheads can be understood with

the help of the following flow chart:

Costing
P&L A/c

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 4.44 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

As regards the treatment of such debit or credit balances, the general view is
that if the balances are small they should be transferred to the Costing Profit
and Loss Account and the cost of individual products should not be increased or
reduced as these would be representing normal cost.
Where, however the difference is large and due to wrong estimation (estimation is
wrong due to unavoidable reasons), it would be desirable to adjust the cost of
products manufactured, as otherwise the cost figures would convey a misleading
impression. Such adjustments usually take the form of supplementary rates.
Supplementary rate is calculated as below:

Under / Over - absorbed OH

Supplementary rate =
Units produced

Supplementary overhead rate as calculated above is applied to finished goods,

semi-finished goods (WIP) and goods finished and sold. Therefore, under/ over
absorbed overheads are distributed among the unsold stock of finished goods,
semi-finished goods (WIP) and cost of sales (goods produced and sold).

The accounting is done as follows:

In case of Under-absorption:

Accounts Dr/Cr Calculation of amount

1. Stock of Finished goods A/c Debit Units of Finished stock ×
Supplementary rate per unit
2. Stock of Semi-finished goods Debit Equivalent completed units ×
(WIP) A/c Supplementary rate per unit
3. Cost of Sales A/c Debit Units sold × Supplementary
rate per unit
In case of Over-absorption:

Accounts Dr/Cr Calculation of amount

1. Stock of Finished goods A/c Credit Units of Finished stock ×
Supplementary rate per unit
2. Stock of Semi-finished goods Credit Equivalent completed units ×
(WIP) A/c Supplementary rate per unit
3. Cost of Sales A/c Credit Units sold × Supplementary
rate per unit

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.45

However, over or under recovery of overheads due to abnormal reasons (such as

abnormal over or under capacity utilisation) should be transferred to the Costing
Profit and Loss Account.

ILLUSTRATION 8
The total overhead expenses of a factory is ` 4,46,380. Taking into account the normal
working of the factory, overhead was recovered in production at ` 1.25 per hour. The
actual hours worked were 2,93,104. STATE how would you proceed to close the books
of accounts, assuming that besides 7,800 units produced of which 7,000 were sold,
there were 200 equivalent units in work-in-progress?

On investigation, it was found that 50% of the unabsorbed overhead was on

account of increase in the cost of indirect materials and indirect labour and the
remaining 50% was due to factory inefficiency.

SOLUTION
Calculation of under/ over- absorption of overhead

(`)

Actual factory overhead expenses incurred 4,46,380

Overheads absorbed (2,93,104 hours × ` 1.25) 3,66,380

Under-absorption of overhead 80,000

Reasons for unabsorbed overheads

(i) 50% of the unabsorbed overhead was on account of increase in the cost of
indirect material and indirect labour.
(ii) 50% of the unabsorbed overhead was due to factory inefficiency.
Treatment of unabsorbed overheads in Cost Accounting

1. Unabsorbed overhead amounting to ` 40,000, which were due to increase in

the cost of indirect material and labour should be charged to units produced by
using a supplementary rate.
` 40,000
Supplementary rate = = ` 5 per unit
(7,800 + 200) units

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 4.46 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The sum of ` 40,000 (unabsorbed overhead) should be distributed by using a

supplementary rate among cost of sales, finished goods and work-in progress
A/cs. The amount to be debited is calculated as below:

(`)

Stock of finished goods 4,000

[(7,800-7,000) × ` 5]

Work-in progress 1,000

(200 units × ` 5)

Cost of sales 35,000

(7,000 units × ` 5)

Total 40,000

1. The use of cost of sales figure, would reduce the profit for the period by
` 35,000 and will increase the value of stock of finished goods and work-
in-progress by ` 4,000 and ` 1,000 respectively.
2. The balance amount of unabsorbed overheads of ` 40,000 due to factory
inefficiency should be debited to Costing Profit & Loss Account, as this is
an abnormal loss.

8. ACCOUNTING AND CONTROL OF ADMINIS-

TRATIVE OVERHEADS
Definition - According to CIMA Terminology, Administrative overhead is defined
as “The sum of those costs of general management and of secretarial accounting
and administrative services, which cannot be directly related to the production,
marketing, research or development functions of the enterprise.” According to this
definition, administrative overhead constitutes the expenses incurred in
connection with the formulation of policy directing the organisation and
controlling the operations of an undertaking. These overheads are also collected
and classified in the same way as the factory overheads.

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.47

8.1 Accounting of Administrative Overheads

There are three distinct methods of accounting of administrative overheads,
which are briefly discussed below:
(a) Apportioning Administrative Overheads between Production and Sales
Departments: According to this method administrative overheads are
apportioned over production and sales departments. The reason for the
apportionment of overhead expenses over these departments, recognises
the fact that administrative overheads are incurred for the benefit of both of
these departments. Therefore, each department should be charged with the
proportionate share of the same. When this method is adopted, administra-
tive overheads lose their identity and get merged with production and
selling and distribution overheads.
Disadvantages:
(1) It is difficult to find suitable bases of administrative overhead
apportionment over production and sales departments.
(2) Lot of clerical work is involved in apportioning overheads.
(3) It is not justified to apportion total administrative overheads only over
production and sales departments when other equally important
department like finance is also there.
(b) Charging to Profit and Loss Account: According to this method
administrative overheads are charged to Costing Profit & Loss Account. The
reason for charging to Costing Profit & Loss are firstly, the administrative
overheads are concerned with the formulation of policies and thus are not
directly concerned with either the production or the selling and distribution
functions. Secondly, it is difficult to determine a suitable basis for
apportioning administrative overheads over production and sales depart-
ments. Lastly, these overheads are the fixed costs. In view of these
arguments, administrative overheads should be charged to Profit and Loss
Account.
Disadvantages:
(1) Cost of products is understated as administrative overheads are not
charged to costs.

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 4.48 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(2) The exclusion of administrative overheads from cost of products is

against sound accounting principle.
(c) Treating Administrative Overheads as a separate addition to Cost of
Production/ Sales: This method considers administration as a separate
function like production and sales and, as such costs relating to formulating
the policy, directing the organisation and controlling the operations are
taken as a separate charge to the cost of the jobs or a product, sold along
with the cost of other functions. The bases which are generally used for
apportionment are:

(i) Works cost

(ii) Sales value or quantity
(iii) Gross profit on sales

(iv) Quantity produced

(v) Conversion cost, etc.

8.2 Control of Administrative Overheads

Mostly administrative overheads are of fixed nature, and they arise as a result of
management policies. These fixed overheads are generally non-controllable. But
at the same time these overheads should not be allowed to grow
disproportionately. Some degree of control has to be exercised over them. The
methods usually adopted for controlling administrative overheads are as follows:
(i) Classification and analysis of overheads by administrative departments
according to their functions, and a comparison with the accomplished
results: According to this method the expenses incurred by each
administrative department are collected under a standing order for each
class of expenditure. These are compared with similar figures of the
previous period in relation to accomplishment. Such a comparison will
reveal efficiency or inefficiency of the concerned department.
However, this method provides only a limited degree of control and
comparison does not give useful results if the level of activity is not
constant during the periods under comparison. To overcome this difficulty,
overhead absorption rates may also be compared from period to period; the

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.49

extent of over or under absorption will reveal the efficiency or otherwise of

the department. It may be possible to compare the cost of a service
department with that of similar services obtainable from outside and a
decision may be taken whether it is economical to continue the department
or entrust the work to outsiders.
(ii) Control through Budgets: According to this method, administration
budgets (monthly or annually) are prepared for each department. The
budgeted figures are compared with actual ones to determine variances.
The variances are analysed and responsibility assigned to the concerned
department to control these variances.
(iii) Control through Standard: Under this method, standards of performance
are fixed for each administrative activity, and the actual performance is
compared with the standards set. In this way, standards serve not only as
yardstick of performance but also facilitate control of costs.
ILLUSTRATION 9 (Reverse Calculation of Factory Overhead and
Administrative overheads)
In an engineering company, the factory overheads are recovered on a fixed
percentage basis on direct wages and the administrative overheads are absorbed on
a fixed percentage basis on factory cost.
The company has furnished the following data relating to two jobs undertaken by it
in a period:

Job 101 Job 102

(` ) (` )

Direct materials 54,000 37,500

Direct wages 42,000 30,000
Selling price 1,66,650 1,28,250
Profit percentage on Total Cost 10% 20%

Required:
(i) COMPUTATION of percentage recovery rates of factory overheads and
administrative overheads.

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 4.50 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) CALCULATION of the amount of factory overheads, administrative overheads

and profit for each of the two jobs.
(iii) Using the above recovery rates DETERMINE the selling price of job 103. The
additional data being:
Direct materials ` 24,000
Direct wages ` 20,000
Profit percentage on selling price 12-½%
SOLUTION
(i) Computation of percentage recovery rates of factory overheads and
administrative overheads.
Let the factory overhead recovery rate as percentage of direct wages be F and
administrative overheads recovery rate as percentage of factory cost be A.

Factory Cost of Jobs:

Direct materials + Direct wages + Factory overhead
For Job 101 = ` 54,000 +` 42,000 + ` 42,000F
For Job 102 = ` 37,500 +` 30,000 + ` 30,000F
Total Cost of Jobs:
Factory cost + Administrative overhead

For Job 101 = (` 96,000 + ` 42,000F) + (` 96,000+ ` 42,000F) A = ` 1,51,500*

For Job-102 = (` 67,500 + ` 30,000F) + (` 67,500+ ` 30,000F) A = ` 1,06,875**
The value of F & A can be found using following equations

` 96,000 + ` 42,000F + ` 96,000A +

` 42,000AF = ` 1,51,500 …eqn (i)

` 67,500 + ` 30,000F + ` 67,500A +

` 30,000AF = ` 1,06,875 …eqn (ii)

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.51

Multiply equation (i) by 5 and equation (ii) by 7

` 4,80,000 + ` 2,10,000F + ` 4,80,000A +

` 2,10,000AF = ` 7,57,500 …eqn (iii)

` 4,72,500 + ` 2,10,000F + ` 4,72,500A +

` 2,10,000AF = ` 7,48,125 …eqn (iv)

- - - - -

` 7,500 + ` 7,500A = ` 9,325

` 7,500 A = ` 9,325 – ` 7,500
A = 0.25
Now put the value of A in equation (i) to find the value of F
` 96,000 + ` 42,000F + ` 24,000 + ` 10,500F = ` 1,51,500
` 52,500F = ` 1,51,500 – ` 1,20,000
F = 0.6
On solving the above relations: F = 0.60 and A = 0.25
Hence, percentage recovery rates of:
Factory overheads = 60% of wages and
Administrative overheads = 25% of factory cost.

Working note:
Selling price
Total Cost =
(100% + Percentage of profit)

`1,66,650
*For Job 101= = ` 1,51,500
(100% + 10%)

`1,28,250
**For Job 102= = ` 1,06,875
(100% + 20%)

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 4.52 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) Statement of jobs, showing amount of factory overheads, administrative

overheads and profit:

Job 101 Job 102

(`) (`)
Direct materials 54,000 37,500
Direct wages 42,000 30,000
Prime cost 96,000 67,500
Factory overheads
60% of direct wages 25,200 18,000
Factory cost 1,21,200 85,500
Administrative overheads
25% of factory cost 30,300 21,375
Total cost 1,51,500 1,06,875
Profit (10% & 20% respectively) 15,150 21,375
Selling price 1,66,650 1,28,250

(iii) Selling price of Job 103

(`)
Direct materials 24,000
Direct wages 20,000
Prime cost 44,000
Factory overheads (60% of Direct Wages) 12,000
Factory cost 56,000
Administrative overheads (25% of factory cost) 14,000
Total cost 70,000
Profit margin (balancing figure) 10,000
 Total Cost 
Selling price  
 87.5%  80,000

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.53

9. ACCOUNTING AND CONTROL OF SELLING

AND DISTRIBUTION OVERHEADS
Selling cost or overhead expenses are the expenses incurred for the purpose of
promoting the marketing and sales of different products. Distribution expenses, on
the other hand, are expenses relating to delivery and dispatch of goods sold.
Examples of selling and distribution expenses have been considered earlier in this
booklet. From the definitions it is clear that the two types of expenses represent
two distinct type of functions. Some concerns group together these two types of
overhead expenses into one composite class, namely, selling and distribution
overhead, for the purpose of Cost Accounting.

9.1 Accounting of Selling and Distribution Overheads

The collection and accumulation of each expense is made by means of
appropriate standing orders in the usual way. Where it is decided to apportion a
part of the administrative overhead to the selling division the same should also
be collected through appropriate standing orders.
As in the case of administrative overheads, it is not easy to determine an entirely
satisfactory basis for computing the overhead rate for absorbing selling
overheads. The bases usually adopted are:
(a) Sales value of goods;
(b) Cost of goods sold;
(c) Gross Profit on sales; and
(d) Number of orders or units sold.
It is considered that the sale value is ordinarily the most logical basis, there being
some connection between the amount of sales and the amount of expenses
incurred to achieve them. The cost of production, however, is not as satisfactory
basis as it may not have any direct relationship with the selling and distribution
cost.
The basis of gross profit on sales results in a larger share of the selling overhead
being applied to goods yielding a large margin of profit and vice versa. The basis
therefore follows the principle of ‘ability to pay, it may not reflect costs or in-
curred efforts.

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 4.54 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

An estimated amount per unit - The best method for absorbing selling and
distributing expenses over various products is to separate fixed expenses from
variable expenses. Apportion the fixed expenses according to the benefit derived
by each product and thus ascertaining the fixed expenses per unit. We give below
some of the fixed expenses and the basis of apportionment:

Expenses Basis
Salaries in the Sales Department Estimated time devoted to the sale of
and of the sales men. various products.
Advertisement Actual amount incurred for each product
since these days it is usual to advertise
each product separately; common
expenses, such as in an exhibition,
should be apportioned on the basis of
advertisement expenditure on each
product.
Show Room expenses Average space occupied by each
product.
Rent of finished goods godowns Average quantities delivered during a
and Expenses on own delivery period.
vans

If a suitable basis for apportioning expenses does not exist it may be apportioned
in the proportion of sales of various products.
The total of fixed expenses apportioned in this manner, divided by the number of
units sold or likely to be sold, will give the fixed expenses per unit. To this should
be added the variable expenses which will be different for each product. These
expenses are, packaging, freight outwards, insurance in transit, commission
payable to salesmen, rebate allowed to customers, etc. All these items will be
worked out per unit for each product separately. These items added to fixed
expenses per unit will give an estimated amount of the selling and distribution
expenses per unit.

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.55

9.2 Control of Selling and Distribution Overheads

Control of selling and distribution expenses is a difficult task. The reasons for this
are as follows:
1. The incidence of selling and distribution overheads depends mainly on
external factors, such as distance of market, extent and nature of
competition, terms of sales, etc. which are beyond the control of
management.
2. These overheads are dependent upon the customers, behaviour, their liking
and disliking, tastes etc. Therefore, as such control over the overheads may
result in loss of customers.
3. These expenses being of the nature of policy costs are not amenable to
control.
In spite of the above difficulties, the following methods may be used for
controlling them.

(a) Comparison with past performance - According to this method, selling and
distribution overheads are compared with the figures of the previous period.
Alternatively, the expenses may be expressed as a percentage of sales, and the
percentages may be compared with those of the past period. This method is
suitable for small concerns.
(b) Budgetary Control - A budget is set up for selling and distribution expenses.
The expenses are classified into fixed and variable. If necessary, a flexible
budget may be prepared indicating the expenses at different levels of sales.
The actual expenses are compared with the budgeted figures and in the case of
variances suitable actions are taken.
(c) Standard Costing - Under this method standards are set up in relation to the
standard sales volume. Standards may be set up for salesmen, territories,
products etc. Once the standards are set up, comparison is made between the
actuals and standards: variances are enquired into and suitable action taken.

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 4.56 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 10
A company which sells four products, some of these are unprofitable. Company
proposes to discontinue to sale one of these products. The following information is
available regarding income, costs and activity for the year ended 31st March.

Products

A B C D

Sales (`) 30,00,000 50,00,000 25,00,000 45,00,000

Cost of goods sold (`) 20,00,000 45,00,000 21,00,000 22,50,000

Area of storage (Sq.ft.) 50,000 40,000 80,000 30,000

Number of parcels sent 1,00,000 1,50,000 75,000 1,75,000

Number of invoices sent 80,000 1,40,000 60,000 1,20,000

Selling and Distribution overheads and the basis of allocation are:

Amount (`) Basis of allocation

to products
Fixed Costs
Rent & Insurance 3,00,000 Area of storage
(Sq.ft.)
Depreciation 1,00,000 No. of Parcels sent
Salesmen’s salaries & expenses 6,00,000 Sales Volume
Administrative wages and salaries 5,00,000 No. of invoices sent
Variable Costs:
Packing wages & materials ` 2 per parcel
Commission 4% of sales
Stationery ` 1 per invoice

You are required to PREPARE Costing Profit & Loss Statement, showing the
percentage of profit or loss to sales for each product.

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.57

SOLUTION
Statement of Profit or Loss on Various Products during the year ended March 31st.

Total (`) Products

A (`) B (`) C (`) D (`)
Sales 1,50,00,000 30,00,000 50,00,000 25,00,000 45,00,000
Variable costs:
Cost of goods sold 1,08,50,000 20,00,000 45,00,000 21,00,000 22,50,000
Commissions 4% of sales 6,00,000 1,20,000 2,00,000 1,00,000 1,80,000
Packing wages & 10,00,000 2,00,000 3,00,000 1,50,000 3,50,000
materials @ ` 2 per
parcel
Stationery @ ` 1 per 4,00,000 80,000 1,40,000 60,000 1,20,000
invoice
Total variable costs 1,28,50,000 24,00,000 51,40,000 24,10,000 29,00,000
Contribution 21,50,000 6,00,000 (1,40,000) 90,000 16,00,000
(Sales – variable cost)
Fixed Costs:
Rent & Insurance 3,00,000 75,000 60,000 1,20,000 45,000
(5:4:8:3)
Depreciation (4:6:3:7) 1,00,000 20,000 30,000 15,000 35,000
Salesmen’s salaries & 6,00,000 1,20,000 2,00,000 1,00,000 1,80,000
expenses (6:10:5:9)
Administrative wages & 5,00,000 1,00,000 1,75,000 75,000 1,50,000
salaries (4:7:3:6)
Total Fixed costs 15,00,000 3,15,000 4,65,000 3,10,000 4,10,000
Profit or Loss 6,50,000 2,85,000 (6,05,000) (2,20,000) 11,90,000
(Contribution–fixed
Costs)
Percentage of profit or 4.33 9.50 (12.10) (8.80) 26.4
Loss on sales (%)

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 4.58 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

10. CONCEPTS RELATED TO CAPACITY

(i) Installed/ Rated capacity: It refers to the maximum capacity of producing
goods or providing services. Installed capacity is determined either on the
basis of technical specification or through a technical evaluation. It is also
known as theoretical capacity and is could not be achieved in normal
operating circumstances.
(ii) Practical capacity: It is defined as actually utilised capacity of a plant. It
is also known as operating capacity. This capacity takes into account loss
of time due to repairs, maintenance, minor breakdown, idle time, set up
time, normal delays, Sundays and holidays, stock taking etc. Generally,
practical capacity is taken between 80 to 90% of the rated capacity. It is also
used as a base for determining overhead rates. Practical capacity is also
called net capacity or available capacity.
(iii) Normal capacity: Normal capacity is the volume of production or
services achieved or achievable on an average over a period under normal
circumstances taking into account the reduction in capacity resulting from
planned maintenance.
Normal capacity is determined as under:

Installed capacity xxx

Adjustments for:
(i) Time lost due to scheduled preventive or planned xxx
maintenance
(ii) Number of shifts or machine hours or man hours
(iii) Holidays, normal shut down days, normal idle time xxx
(iv) Normal time lost in batch change over xxx xxx
Normal Capacity xxx

(iv) Actual capacity: It is the capacity actually achieved during a given period. It
is presented as a percentage of installed capacity.

(v) Idle capacity: It is that part of the capacity of a plant, machine or

equipment which cannot be effectively utilised in production.

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.59

(a) Normal Idle Capacity: It is the difference between Installed capacity and
Normal capacity.
(b) Abnormal Idle Capacity: It is the difference between Normal capacity
and Actual capacity utilization where the actual capacity is lower than the
normal capacity.
The idle capacity may arise due to lack of product demand, non-availability of raw
material, shortage of skilled labour, absenteeism, shortage of power fuel or
supplies, seasonal nature of product etc.

Installed Capacity
Normal Idle Capacity
Normal Capacity
Abnormal Idle Capacity
Actual Capacity

Treatment of Idle capacity costs: Idle capacity costs can be treated in product
costing, in the following ways:
(a) If the idle capacity cost is due to unavoidable reasons such as repairs,
maintenance, changeover of job etc. a supplementary overhead rate may be
used to recover the idle capacity cost. In this case, the costs are charged to the
production capacity utilised.
(b) If the idle capacity cost is due to avoidable reasons such as faulty planning,
power failure etc.; the cost should be charged to costing profit and loss
account.
(c) If the idle capacity cost is due to seasonal factors, then, the cost should be
charged to the cost of production by inflating overhead rates.

11. TREATMENT OF CERTAIN ITEMS IN

COSTING
(i) Interest and financing charges: It includes any payment in nature of
interest for use of non- equity funds and incidental cost that an entity incurs
in arranging those funds. Example of interest and financing charges are

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 4.60 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

interest on borrowings, financing charges in respect of finance leases, cash

discount allowed to customers. The term interest and financing charges,
finance costs and borrowing costs are used interchangeably. It does not
include imputed costs.
Interest and financing charges shall be presented in the cost statement as a
separate item of cost of sales.

(ii) Depreciation: Depreciation “is the diminution in the intrinsic value of an

asset due to use and/or the lapse of time.” Depreciation is thus the result of
two factors viz., the use, and the lapse of time. We know that each fixed
asset loses its intrinsic value due to their continuous use and as such the
greater the use the higher is the amount of depreciation. The loss in the
intrinsic value may also arise even if the asset in question is not in service.
Assignment of Depreciation:
It shall be traced to the cost object to the extent economically feasible.
Where it is not directly traceable it should be assigned using either or two
principles i.e. (i) Cause and Effect and (ii) Benefit received.
(iii) Packing expenses: Cost of primary packing necessary for protecting the
product or for convenient handling, should become a part of the
production cost. The cost of packing to facilitate the transportation of
the product from the factory to the customer should become a part of the
distribution cost. If the cost of special packing is at the request of the
customer, the same should be charged to the specific work order or the job.
The cost of fancy packing necessary to attract customers is an advertising
expenditure. Hence, it is to be treated as a selling overhead.
(iv) Fringe benefits: These are the additional payments or facilities provided to
the workers apart from their salary and direct cost-allowances like house
rent, dearness and city compensatory allowances. These benefits are given
in the form of overtime, extra shift duty allowance, holiday pay, pension
facilities etc.
These indirect benefits stand to improve the morale, loyalty and stability of
employees towards the organisation. If the amount of fringe benefit is
considerably large, it may be recovered as direct charge by means of a

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.61

supplementary wage or labour rate; otherwise these may be collected as

part of production overheads.
(v) Expenses on removal and re-erection of machines: Expenses are
sometime incurred on removal and re-erection of machinery in factories.
Such expenses may be incurred due to factors like change in the method of
production; an addition or alteration in the factory building, change in the
flow of production, etc. All such expenses are treated as production
overheads. When amount of such expenses is large, it may be spread over a
period of time.

If such expenses are incurred due to faulty planning or some other

abnormal factor, then they may be charged to costing Profit and Loss
Account.
(vi) Bad debts: There is no unanimity among different authors of Cost
Accounting about the treatment of bad debts. One view is that ‘bad debts’
should be excluded from cost. According to this view bad debts are financial
losses and therefore, they should not be included in the cost of a particular
job or product.
According to another view it should form part of selling and distribution
overheads, especially when they arise in the normal course of trading.
Therefore bad debts should be treated in cost accounting in the same way as
any other selling and distribution cost. However extra ordinarily large bad
debts should not be included in cost accounts.
(vii) Training expenses: Training is an essential input for industrial workers.
Training expenses in fact includes wages of workers, costs incurred in
running training department, loss arising from the initial lower production,
extra spoilage etc. Training expenses of factory workers are treated as part of
the cost of production. The training expenses of office; sales or distribution workers
should be treated as office; sales or distribution overhead as the case may be. These
expenses can be spread over various departments of the concern on the basis of the
number of workers on roll.
Training expenses would be abnormally high in the case of high labour
turnover such expenses should be excluded from costs and charged to the
costing profit and loss account.

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 4.62 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(viii) Canteen expenses: The subsidy provided or expenses borne by the firm in
running the canteen should be regarded as a production overhead. If the
canteen is meant only for factory workers therefore this expenses should be
apportioned on the basis of the number of workers employed in each
department. If office workers also take advantage of the canteen facility, a
suitable share of the expenses should be treated as office overhead.
(ix) Carriage and cartage expenses: It includes the expenses incurred on the
movement (inward and outwards) and transportation of materials and
goods. Transportation expenses related to direct material may be included in
the cost of direct material and those relating to indirect material (stores) may
be treated as factory overheads. Expenses related to the transportation of
finished goods may be treated as distribution overhead.
(x) Expenses for welfare activities: All expenses incurred on the welfare
activities of employees in a company are part of general overheads. Such
expenses should be apportioned between factory, office, selling and
distribution overheads on the basis of number of persons involved.
(xi) Night shift allowance: Workers in the factories, which operate during night
time are paid some extra amount known as ‘night shift allowance’. This extra
amount is generally incurred due to the general pressure of work beyond
normal capacity level and is treated as production overhead and recovered
as such.

If this allowance is treated as part of direct wages, the jobs/production

carried at night will be costlier than jobs/production performed during the
day. However, if additional expenditure on night shift is incurred to meet
some specific customer order, such expenditure may be charged directly to
the order concerned. If night shifts are run due to abnormal circumstances,
the additional expenditure should be charged to the costing profit and loss
account.
(xii) Research and Development Expenses: The Terminology defines research
expenses as “the expenses of searching for new or improved products, new
application of materials, or new or improved methods.” Similarly,
development expenses are defined as “the expenses of the process which
begins with the implementation of the decision to produce a new or improved
product.”

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.63

If research is conducted in the methods of production, the research

expenses should be taken separately while computing cost of production;
while the expenditure becomes a part of the administration overhead if
research relates to administration. Similarly, market research expenses are
charged to the selling and distribution overhead.
Development costs incurred in connection with a particular product should
be charged directly to that product. Such expenses are usually treated as
“deferred revenue expenses,” and recovered as a cost per unit of the
product when production is fully established.

General research expenses of a routine nature incurred on new or improved

methods of manufacture or the improvement of the existing products
should be charged to the general overhead.
Even in this case, if the amount involved is substantial it may be treated as a
deferred revenue expenditure, and spread over the period during which the
benefit would accrue. Expenses on fundamental research, not relating to any
specific product, are treated as a part of the administration overhead.
Where research proves a failure, the cost associated with it should be
excluded from costs and charged to the costing Profit and Loss Account.

SUMMARY
♦ Overheads: Overheads represent expenses that have been incurred in
providing certain ancillary facilities or services which facilitate or make
possible the carrying out of the production process; by themselves these
services are not of any use.
♦ Cost allocation: The term ‘allocation’ refers to assignment or allotment of
an entire item of cost to a particular cost center or cost unit.
♦ Cost apportionment: Apportionment implies the allotment of proportions
of items of cost to cost centres or departments.
♦ Re-apportionment: The process of assigning service department overheads
to production departments is called reassignment or re-apportionment.
♦ Absorption- The process of recovering overheads of a department or any
other cost center from its output is called recovery or absorption.

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 4.64 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

♦ Direct re-distribution method: Under this method service department

costs are apportioned over the production departments only, ignoring the
services rendered by one service department to the other.
♦ Step method or Non-reciprocal method: This method gives cognizance to
the service rendered by service department to another service department.
The sequence here begins with the department that renders service to the
maximum number of other service departments.
♦ Reciprocal service method: These methods are used when different service
departments render services to each other, in addition to rendering services
to production departments. In such cases various service departments have
to share overheads of each other. The methods available for dealing with
reciprocal services are
(a) Simultaneous equation method;
(b) Repeated distribution method;
(c) Trial and error method.
♦ Blanket overhead rates: Blanket overhead rate refers to the computation
of one single overhead rate for the whole factory. It is to be distinguished
from the departmental overhead rate which refers to a separate rate for
each individual cost centre or department.
Overhead costs for the whole factory
Blanket Overhead rate = ×100
Total units of the selected base

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. “Fixed overhead costs are not affected in monetary terms during a given period by a
change in output”. But this statement holds good provided:
(a) Increase in output is not substantial
(b) Increase in output is substantial
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.65

2. ………….. capacity is defined as actually utilised capacity of a plant.

(a) Theoretical
(b) Installed

(c) Practical
(d) Normal
3. The allotment of whole items of cost to cost centres or cost units is called:
(a) Overhead absorption
(b) Cost apportionment
(c) Cost allocation
(d) None of the above
4. Primary packing cost is a part of:
(a) Direct material cost
(b) Production Cost
(c) Selling overheads
(d) Distribution overheads
5. Director’s remuneration and expenses form part of:
(a) Production overhead
(b) Administration overhead

(c) Selling overhead

(d) Distribution overhead
6. Which of the following is not the classification of overhead based on its
functionality?
(a) Factory Overhead
(b) Administrative Overhead
(c) Fixed Overhead
(d) Selling Overhead

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 4.66 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

7. Bad debt is an example of:

(a) Distribution overhead
(b) Production overhead

(c) Selling overhead

(d) Administration overhead
8. Normal capacity of a plant refers to the difference between:
(a) Maximum capacity and practical capacity
(b) Practical capacity and normal capacity
(c) Practical capacity and estimated idle capacity as revealed by long term sales trend.
(d) Maximum capacity and actual capacity
9. The difference between actual factory overhead and absorbed factory overhead will be
usually at the minimum level, provided pre- determined overhead rate is based on:
(a) Maximum capacity
(b) Direct labour hours
(c) Machine hours
(d) Normal capacity
10. Which of the following overhead cost may not be apportioned on the basis of direct
wages?

(a) Worker’s Holiday Pay

(b) Perquisites to worker
(c) ESI contribution

(d) Managerial Salaries

Theoretical Questions
1. STATE what is blanket overhead rate. In which situations, blanket rate is to be
used and why?

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.67

2. DISCUSS the step method and reciprocal service method of secondary

distribution of overheads.
3. DISCUSS the problems of controlling the selling and distribution overheads.
4. DISTINGUISH between cost allocation and cost absorption.
5. EXPLAIN Single and Multiple Overhead Rates.
6. EXPLAIN how would you treat the idle capacity costs in Cost Accounts.
7. DISCUSS the difference between allocation and apportionment of overhead.
8. EXPLAIN what are the methods of re-apportionment of service department
expenses over the production departments? Discuss.

Practical Problems
1. The ABC Company has the following account balances and distribution of direct
charges on 31st March.

Total Production Depts. Service Depts.

Machine Packin Gen. Store &

shop g Plant Maintenance

(` ) (` ) (` ) (` ) (` )

Allocated Overheads:

Indirect labour 14,650 4,000 3,000 2,000 5,650

Maintenance 5,020 1,800 700 1,020 1,500

material

Misc. supplies 1,750 400 1,000 150 200

Superintendent’s 4,000 – – 4,000 –

salary

Cost & payroll 10,000 – – 10,000 –

salary

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.68 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Overheads to be apportioned:

Power 8,000

Rent 12,000

Fuel and heat 6,000

Insurance 1,000

Trade License fees 2,000

Depreciation 1,00,000

1,64,420 6,200 4,700 17,170 7,350

The following data were compiled by means of the factory survey made in the
previous year:

Floor Space Radiator No. of Investment H.P

(Sqft) Sections Employees (` ) hours

Machine Shop 2,000 45 20 6,40,000 3,500

Packing 800 90 10 2,00,000 500

General Plant 400 30 3 10,000 -

Store & 1,600 60 5 1,50,000 1,000

Maintenance

4,800 225 38 10,00,000 5,000

Expenses charged to the stores and maintenance departments are to be
distributed to the other departments by the following percentages:
Machine shop 50%; Packing 20%; General Plant 30%; General Plant overheads is
distributed on the basis of number of employees:
PREPARE
(a) An overhead distribution statement.
(b) Distribution of the service departments’ expense to production
departments.

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.69

2. Modern Manufactures Ltd. has three Production Departments P1, P2, P3 and two
Service Departments S1and S2 details pertaining to which are as under:

P1 P2 P3 S1 S2

Direct wages (`) 3,000 2,000 3,000 1,500 195

Working hours 3,070 4,475 2,419 - -

Value of machines (`) 60,000 80,000 1,00,000 5,000 5,000

H.P. of machines 60 30 50 10 -

Light points 10 15 20 10 5

Floor space (sq. ft.) 2,000 2,500 3,000 2,000 500

The following figures extracted from the Accounting records are relevant:

(` )

Rent and Rates 5,000

General Lighting 600

Indirect Wages 1,939

Power 1,500

Depreciation on Machines 10,000

Sundries 9,695

The expenses of the service departments are allocated as under:

P1 P2 P3 S1 S2

S1 20% 30% 40% - 10%

S2 40% 20% 30% 10% -

DETERMINE the total cost of product X which is processed for manufacture in

Departments P1, P2 and P3 for 4, 5 and 3 hours respectively, given that its Direct
Material Cost is ` 50 and Direct Labour Cost is ` 30.

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3. Deccan Manufacturing Ltd., have three departments which are regarded as

production departments. Service departments’ costs are distributed to these
production departments using the “Step Ladder Method” of distribution.
Estimates of factory overhead costs to be incurred by each department in the
forthcoming year are as follows. Data required for distribution is also shown
against each department:

Department Factory overhead Direct labour No. of Area in

(` ) hours employees sq.m.
Production:
X 1,93,000 4,000 100 3,000
Y 64,000 3,000 125 1,500
Z 83,000 4,000 85 1,500
Service:
P 45,000 1,000 10 500
Q 75,000 5,000 50 1,500
R 1,05,000 6,000 40 1,000
S 30,000 3,000 50 1,000

The overhead costs of the four service departments are distributed in the same
order, viz. P, Q, R and S respectively on the following basis.
Department Basis
P Number of employees
Q Direct labour hours
R Area in square metres
S Direct labour hours
You are required to:
(a) PREPARE a schedule showing the distribution of overhead costs of the four
service departments to the three production departments; and

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.71

(b) CALCULATE the overhead recovery rate per direct labour hour for each of
the three production departments.
4. Gemini Enterprises undertakes three different jobs A, B and C. All of them require
the use of a special machine and also the use of a computer. The computer is
hired and the hire charges work out to ` 4,20,000 per annum. The expenses
regarding the machine are estimated as follows:
(`)
Rent for a quarter 17,500
Depreciation per annum 2,00,000
Indirect charges per annum 1,50,000
During the first month of operation the following details were taken from the job
register:

Job
A B C
Number of hours the machine was used:
(a) Without the use of the computer 600 900 —
(b) With the use of the computer 400 600 1,000
You are required to COMPUTE the machine hour rate:

(a) For the firm as a whole for the month when the computer was used and
when the computer was not used.
(b) For the individual jobs A, B and C.
5. A machine shop has 8 identical Drilling machines manned by 6 operators. The
machine cannot be worked without an operator wholly engaged on it. The
original cost of all these machines works out to ` 8 lakhs. These particulars are
furnished for a 6 months period:
Normal available hours per month 208
Absenteeism (without pay) hours 18
Leave (with pay) hours 20

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Normal idle time unavoidable-hours 10

Average rate of wages per worker for 8 hours a day. `800
Production bonus estimated 15% on wages
Value of power consumed `80,500
Supervision and indirect labour `33,000
Lighting and electricity `12,000
These particulars are for a year
Repairs and maintenance including consumables- 3% of value of machines.
Insurance- ` 40,000

Depreciation- 10% of original cost.

Other sundry works expenses- ` 12,000
General management expenses allocated- ` 54,530.

You are required to COMPUTE a comprehensive machine hour rate for the
machine shop.
6. Job No. 198 was commenced on October 10, 2022 and completed on
November 1, 2022. Materials used were ` 6,000 and labour charged directly
to the job was ` 4,000. Other information is as follows:
Machine No. 215 used for 40 hours, the machine hour rate being ` 35.

Machine No. 160 used for 30 hours, the machine hour rate being ` 40. Six
welders worked on the job for five days of 8 hours each: the Direct labour
hour per welder is ` 20.
General expenses related to production not included for calculating either the
machine hour or direct labour hour rate totaled `20,000, total direct wages
for the period being `2,00,000. COMPUTE the works costs for job No. 198.
7. In a factory, overheads of a particular department are recovered on the basis
of ` 5 per machine hour. The total expenses incurred and the actual machine
hours for the department for the month of August were ` 80,000 and 10,000
hours respectively. Of the amount of ` 80,000, ` 15,000 became payable due
to an award of the Labour Court and ` 5,000 was in respect of expenses of the

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previous year booked in the current month (August). Actual production was
40,000 units, of which 30,000 units were sold. On analysing the reasons, it
was found that 60% of the under-absorbed overhead was due to defective
planning and the rest was attributed to normal cost increase. SHOW the
treatment of over/under-absorbed overhead in the cost accounts?
8. In a manufacturing unit, factory overhead was recovered at a pre-determined
rate of ` 25 per man-day. The total factory overhead expenses incurred and
the man-days actually worked were ` 41.50 lakhs and 1.5 lakh man-days
respectively. Out of the 40,000 units produced during a period, 30,000 were
sold.
On analysing the reasons, it was found that 60% of the unabsorbed overheads
were due to defective planning and the rest were attributable to increase in
overhead costs.
EXPLAIN how would unabsorbed overheads be treated in Cost Accounts?
9. A factory has three production departments. The policy of the factory is to
recover the production overheads of the entire factory by adopting a single
blanket rate based on the percentage of total factory overheads to total
factory wages. The relevant data for a month are given below:

Department Direct Direct Factory Direct Machine

Materials Wages Overheads Labour hours hours
(` ) (` ) (` )
Budget:

Machining 6,50,000 80,000 3,60,000 20,000 80,000

Assembly 1,70,000 3,50,000 1,40,000 1,00,000 10,000
Packing 1,00,000 70,000 1,25,000 50,000 −
Actual:
Machining 7,80,000 96,000 3,90,000 24,000 96,000
Assembly 1,36,000 2,70,000 84,000 90,000 11,000
Packing 1,20,000 90,000 1,35,000 60,000 −

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 4.74 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The details of one of the representative jobs produced during the month are as
under:
Job No. CW 7083 :

Department Direct Direct Direct Machine

Materials Wages Labour hours hours
(` )
Machining 1,200 240 60 180
Assembly 600 360 120 30
Packing 300 60 40 −

The factory adds 30% on the factory cost to cover administration and selling
overheads and profit.
Required:
(i) COMPUTE the overhead absorption rate as per the current policy of the
company and determine the selling price of the Job No. CW 7083.
(ii) Suggest any suitable alternative method(s) of absorption of the factory
overheads and CALCULATE the overhead recovery rates based on the
method(s) so recommended by you.
(iii) DETERMINE the selling price of Job CW 7083 based on the overhead
application rates calculated in (ii) above.
(iv) CALCULATE the department-wise and total under or over recovery of
overheads based on the company’s current policy and the method(s)
recommended by you.
10. A light engineering factory fabricates machine parts for customers. The factory
commenced fabrication of 12 nos. machine parts as per customers’
specifications, the expenditure incurred on the job for the week ending 21st
August is as tabulated below:

(` ) (` )

Direct materials (all items) 780.00

Direct labour (manual) 20 hours @` 15 per 300.00

hour

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 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.75

Machine facilities :

Machine No. I : 4 hours @ ` 45 180.00

Machine No. II : 6 hours @ ` 65 390.00 570.00

Total 1,650.00

Overheads @ ` 8 per hour on 20 manual hours 160.00

Total cost 1,810.00

The overhead rate of ` 8 per hour is based on 3,000 man hours per week;
similarly, the machine hour rates are based on the normal working of
Machine Nos. I and II for 40 hours out of 45 hours per week.
After the close of each week, the factory levies a supplementary rate for the
recovery of full overhead expenses on the basis of actual hours worked during
the week. During the week ending 21st August, the total labour hours worked
was 2,400 and Machine Nos. I and II had worked for 30 hours and 32.5 hours
respectively.

PREPARE a Cost Sheet for the job for the fabrication of 12 nos. machine parts
duly levying the supplementary rates.
11. ABC Ltd. manufactures a single product and absorbs the production overheads at
a pre-determined rate of ` 10 per machine hour.
At the end of current financial year, it has been found that actual production
overheads incurred were ` 6,00,000. It included ` 45,000 on account of ‘written
off’ obsolete stores and ` 30,000 being the wages paid for the strike period under
an award.
The production and sales data for the current year is as under:
Production :
Finished goods 20,000 units
Work-in-progress 8,000 units
(50% complete in all respects)
Sales :
Finished goods 18,000 units

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.76 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The actual machine hours worked during the period were 48,000. It has been
found that one-third of the under-absorption of production overheads was due to
lack of production planning and the rest was attributable to normal increase in
costs.
(i) CALCULATE the amount of under-absorption of production overheads
during the current year; and

(ii) SHOW the accounting treatment of under-absorption of production overheads.

12. A Ltd., manufactures two products A and B. The manufacturing division consists
of two production departments P1 and P2 and two service departments S1 and S2.
Budgeted overhead rates are used in the production departments to absorb
factory overheads to the products. The rate of Department P1 is based on direct
machine hours, while the rate of Department P2 is based on direct labour hours.
In applying overheads, the pre-determined rates are multiplied by actual hours.
For allocating the service department costs to production departments, the
basis adopted is as follows:
(i) Cost of Department S1 to Department P1 and P2 equally, and
(ii) Cost of Department S2 to Department P1 and P2 in the ratio of 2 : 1
respectively.
The following budgeted and actual data are available:
Annual profit plan data:
Factory overheads budgeted for the year:

Production Departments Service Departments

P1 P2 S1 S2

` 25,50,000 ` 21,75,000 ` 6,00,000 ` 4,50,000

Budgeted output in units:

Product A 50,000; B 30,000.
Budgeted raw-material cost per unit:
Product A ` 120; Product B ` 150.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.77

Budgeted time required for production per unit:

Department P1 : Product A : 1.5 machine hours
Product B : 1.0 machine hour
Department P2 : Product A : 2 Direct labour hours
Product B : 2.5 Direct labour hours
Average wage rates budgeted in Department P2 are:

Product A - ` 72 per hour and Product B – ` 75 per hour.

All materials are used in Department P1 only.
Actual data: (for the month of July, 2022)

Units actually produced: Product A: 4,000 units

Product B: 3,000 units
Actual direct machine hours worked in Department P1:

On product A- 6,100 hours, Product B- 4,150 hours.

Actual direct labour hours worked in Department P2:

on product A- 8,200 hours, Product B- 7,400 hours.

Costs actually incurred: Product A Product B
Raw materials ` 4,89,000 ` 4,56,000
Wages ` 5,91,900 ` 5,52,000
Overheads: Department P1 ` 2,31,000 S1 ` 60,000
P2 ` 2,04,000 S2 ` 48,000
You are required to:
(i) COMPUTE the pre-determined overhead rate for each production
department.
(ii) PREPARE a performance report for July, 2022 that will reflect the budgeted
costs and actual costs.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.78 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ANSWERS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (c)
7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10 (d)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 6
2. Please refer paragraph 4.4
3. Please refer paragraph 9.2
4. Please refer paragraph 4.3
5. Please refer paragraph 6
6. Please refer paragraph 10
7. Please refer paragraph 4.3

8. Please refer paragraph 4.4

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. (a) Overhead Distribution Statement

Particulars Production Service Department

Department

Machine Packing General Stores &

Plant Maint.

Allocated Expenses:

Indirect labour 4,000 3,000 2,000 5,650

Maintenance material 1,800 700 1,020 1,500

Superintendent’s salary - - 4,000 -

Misc. supplies 400 1,000 150 200

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.79

Cost & payroll salaries - - 10,000 -

Total Allocated 6,200 4,700 17,170 7,350

Overheads

Apportioned expenses 77,720 25,800 2,830 22,650

(as per schedule below)

Total overheads 83,920 30,500 20,000 30,000

Schedule of Apportioned Expenses

Item Basis Total Production Depts. Service Depts.

Amount
Machine Packing Gen. Store
shop Plant &
Maint.

(`) (`) (`) (`) (`)

Power (7:1:-:2) HP hours 8,000 5,600 800 - 1,600

Rent (5:2:1:4) Floor Space 12,000 5,000 2,000 1,000 4,000

Fuel and heat Radiator 6,000 1,200 2,400 800 1,600

Secs.
(3:6:2:4)

Insurance Investment 1,000 640 200 10 150

(64:20:1:15)

Trade license Investment 2,000 1,280 400 20 300

fees
(64:20:1:15)

Depreciation Investment 1,00,000 64,000 20,000 1,000 15,000

(64:20:1:15)

Total 1,29,000 77,720 25,800 2,830 22,650

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.80 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(b) Distribution of Service Department Expenses

Production Depts. Service Depts.

Machine Packing Gen. Store &

shop Plant Maint.

(`) (`) (`) (`)

Total Expense [as per (a)] 83,920 30,500 20,000 30,000

Dist. of Store & Maint. 15,000 6,000 9,000 -30,000
(5:2:3)
Dist. of General plant (4:2:1) 16,571 8,286 -29,000 4,143
Dist. of Store & Maint. 2,072 829 1,242 -4,143
(5:2:3)
Dist. of General plant (4:2:1) 710 355 -1,242 177
Dist. of Store & Maint. 89 35 53 -177
(5:2:3)
Dist. of General plant (4:2:1) 35 18 -53 0
Total 1,18,397 46,023

2. Statement Showing Distribution of Overheads of Modern Manufactures

Ltd.

Production Service
Total Departments Departments
Particulars Basis
P1 P2 P3 S1 S2

(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)

Direct wages Actual 1,695 - - - 1,500 195

Rent & rates Area 5,000 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,000 250

General Light 600 100 150 200 100 50

lighting points

Indirect wages Direct 1,939 600 400 600 300 39

wages

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.81

Power H.P. 1,500 600 300 500 100 −

Depreciation of Value of 10,000 2,400 3,200 4,000 200 200

machines machines

Sundries Direct 9,695 3,000 2,000 3,000 1,500 195

wages

30,429 7,700 7,300 9,800 4,700 929

Redistribution of Service Department’s Expenses over Production

Departments
P1 (`) P2(`) P3(`) S1(`) S2(`)

Total overhead 7,700 7,300 9,800 4,700 929

distributed as above
Dept. S1 Overheads 940 1,410 1,880 -4,700 470
apportioned

(20:30:40:—:10)
Dept. S2 overheads 559.6 279.8 419.7 139.9 -1,399
apportioned

(40:20:30:10:—)
Dept. S1 Overheads 28 42 56 -139.9 13.9
apportioned

(20:30:40:—:10)
Dept. S2 overheads 6.2 3.1 4.6 - -13.9
apportioned

(40:20:30:10:—)

9,233.8 9,034.9 12,160.3

Working hours 3070 4475 2419

Rate per hour 3.00 2.02 5.03

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.82 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Determination of total cost of Product ‘X’

(`)

Direct material cost 50.00

Direct labour cost 30.00
Overhead cost (See working note) 37.19
117.19
Working Note:

Overhead cost:
(` 3 × 4 hrs.) + (` 2.02 × 5 hrs.) + (` 5.03 × 3 hrs.)
= ` 12 + ` 10.10 + ` 15.09 = ` 37.19
3. (a) Deccan Manufacturing Limited
Schedule Showing the Distribution of Overhead Costs among
Departments
Production Service

X (`) Y (`) Z (`) P (`) Q (`) R (`) S (`)

Overhead cost 1,93,000 64,000 83,000 45,000 75,000 1,05,000 30,000

Distribution of 10,000 12,500 8,500 -45,000 5,000 4,000 5,000
Dept.P
(100:125:85:-

:50:40:50)

Distribution of 16,000 12,000 16,000 - -80,000 24,000 12,000

Dept.Q
(4:3:4:-:-:6:3)

Distribution of 57,000 28,500 28,500 - - -1,33,000 19,000

Dept.R
(6:3:3:-:-:-:-:2)

Distribution of 24,000 18,000 24,000 - - - -66,000

Dept.S
(4:3:4:-:-:-:-)

Total 3,00,000 1,35,000 1,60,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.83

(b) Calculation of overhead recovery rate

Dept-X Dept-Y Dept-Z

Total apportioned overheads `3,00,000 `1,35,000 `1,60,000

Direct labour hours 4,000 3,000 4,000

Overhead recovery rate per labour `75 `45 `40

hour

4. Working notes:
(i) Total machine hours used 3,500
(600 + 900 + 400 + 600 + 1,000)
(ii) Total machine hours without the use of computers 1,500
(600 + 900)
(iii) Total machine hours with the use of computer 2,000

(400 + 600 + 1,000)

(iv) Total overheads of the machine per month
Rent (` 17,500 ÷ 3 months) ` 5,833.33
Depreciation (` 2,00,000 ÷ 12 months) ` 16,666.67
Indirect Charges (` 1,50,000 ÷ 12 months) ` 12,500.00
Total ` 35,000.00

(v) Computer hire charges for a month = ` 35,000

(` 4,20,000 ÷ 12 months)
(vi) Overheads for using machines without computer
` 35,000
= × 1,500 hrs. = ` 15,000
3,500 hrs.

(vii) Overheads for using machines with computer

` 35,000
= ×2,000 hrs. + ` 35,000 = ` 55,000
3,500 hrs.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.84 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(a) Computation of Machine hour rate for the firm as a whole for a
month.
` 55,000
(1) When the Computer was used: = ` 27.50 per hour
2,000 hours
` 15,000
(2) When the computer was not used: = ` 10 per hour
1,500 hrs.

(b) Computation of Machine hour rate for the individual job

Rate Job
per
A B C
hour

(`) Hrs. (`) Hrs. (`) Hrs. (`)

Overheads

Without 10.0 600 6,000 900 9,000 - -

Computer

With computer 27.5 400 11,000 600 16,500 1,000 27,500

Total 1,000 17,000 1,500 25,500 1,000 27,500

Machine hour 17 17 27.5

rate

5. Computation of comprehensive machine hour rate of machine shop

Particulars (`)

Operator’s wages (Refer to working note 2) 7,38,000

Production bonus (15% on wages) 1,10,700

Power consumed 80,500

Supervision and indirect labour 33,000

Lighting and electricity 12,000

Repairs and maintenance (3%× ` 8 lakh×½) 12,000

Insurance (` 40,000 × ½) 20,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.85

Depreciation (10%×` 8 lakh×½) 40,000

Sundry works expenses (`12,000 × ½) 6,000

General management expenses (`54,530 × ½) 27,265

10,79,465

Total overheads of machine shop

Machine hour rate =
Hours of machines operation

` 10,79, 465
= (Refer to working note 1) = `149.93
7,200 hours

Working notes
1. Computation of hours, for which 6 operators are available for 6 months.

For 6 months and

6 operators

Normal available hours 7,488

(208 x 6 months x 6 operators)

Less: Absenteeism hours (18 x 6 operators) (108)

Paid hours 7,380

Less: Leave hours (20 x 6 operators) (120)

Less: Idle time hours (10 x 6 operators) (60)

Effective working hours 7,200

As machines cannot be worked without an operator wholly engaged on

them therefore, hours for which 6 operators are available for 6 months
are the hours for which machines can be used. Hence 7,200 hours
represent effective working hours.
2. Computation of operator’s wages
`800
Average rate of wages: = `100 per hour
8hours

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.86 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Total wages paid to 6 operators for 6 months = 7,380 hours × ` 100

= ` 7,38,000
6. Computation for works costs for job No. 198

(`) (`)

Materials 6,000

Direct labour 4,000

10,000

Factory overheads:

Machine No. 215 : 40 hours @ `35 1,400

Machine No. 160 : 30 hours @ `40 1,200

*240 hours of welders @ ` 20 per hr. 4,800

**General expenses 10% of wages 400 7,800

Work cost 17,800

* 6 welders × 5 days × 8 hours = 240 hours

** Un- apportioned expenses ` 20,000 which works out at 10% of direct wages.

7. Computation of Over/Under-absorbed overhead expenses during the

month of August

(`) (`)

Total expenses incurred in the month of August: 80,000

Less: The amount paid according to labour court 15,000

award (Assumed to be non-recurring)

Expenses of previous year 5000 (20,000)

Net overhead expenses incurred for the month 60,000

Overhead recovered for 10,000 hours @ ` 5 per hour (50,000)

Under-absorbed overheads 10,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.87

60% of under-absorbed overhead was due to defective planning, it will be

charged to costing profit & loss account.
40% of under-absorbed overhead i.e. `4,000 may be distributed over
Finished Goods and Cost of Sales using supplementary overhead rate:
Under - absorbed OH
Supplementary rate =
Units produced

` 4,000
= = `0.10
40,000 units

Amount of under-absorbed overheads charged to finished goods

= 10,000 units × `0.10 = `1,000
Amount of under-absorbed overheads charged to cost of sales
= 30,000 units × `0.10 = `3,000

8. Computation of unabsorbed overheads

Man-days worked 1,50,000

(`)
Overhead actually incurred 41,50,000
Less: Overhead absorbed @ ` 25 per man-day 37,50,000
(` 25 × 1,50,000) ________
Unabsorbed overheads 4,00,000

Unabsorbed overheads due to defective

planning (i.e. 60% of ` 4,00,000) 2,40,000
Balance of unabsorbed overhead 1,60,000
Treatment of unabsorbed overheads in Cost Accounts
(i) The unabsorbed overheads of ` 2,40,000 due to defective planning to be
treated as abnormal and therefore be charged to Costing Profit and Loss
Account.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.88 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) The balance unabsorbed overheads of `1,60,000 be charged to

production i.e., 40,000 units at the supplementary overhead absorption
rate i.e., ` 4 per unit (Refer to Working Note)
(`)
Charge to Costing Profit and Loss Account as part of
the cost of unit sold 1,20,000
(30,000 units @ ` 4 p.u.)
Add: To closing stock of finished goods 40,000
(10,000 units @ ` 4 p.u.) _________
Total 1,60,000
Working Note:
` 1,60,000
Supplementary overhead absorption rate = = ` 4 p.u.
40,000 units

9. (i) Computation of overhead absorption rate

(as per the current policy of the company)

Department Budgeted factory Budgeted direct

Overheads wages

(`) (`)

Machinery 3,60,000 80,000

Assembly 1,40,000 3,50,000

Packing 1,25,000 70,000

Total 6,25,000 5,00,000

Budgeted factory overheads

Overhead absorption rate = × 100
Budgeted direct wages

` 6,25,000
= × 100 = 125% of Direct wages
` 5,00,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.89

Selling Price of the Job No. CW-7083

(`)
Direct materials (` 1,200 + ` 600 + ` 300) 2,100.00

Direct wages (` 240 + ` 360 + ` 60) 660.00

Overheads (125% × ` 660) 825.00
Total factory cost 3,585.00

Add: Mark-up (30% × ` 3,585) 1,075.50

Selling price 4,660.50
(ii) Methods available for absorbing factory overheads and their
overhead recovery rates in different departments
1. Machining Department
In the machining department, the use of machine time is the
predominant factor of production. Hence machine hour rate
should be used to recover overheads in this department. The
overhead recovery rate based on machine hours has been
calculated as under:
Budgeted factory overheads
Machine hour rate =
Budgeted machine hours

` 3,60,000
= = ` 4.50 per hour
80,000 hours

2. Assembly Department
In this department direct labour hours is the main factor of
production. Hence direct labour hour rate method should be
used to recover overheads in this department. The overheads
recovery rate in this case is:
Budgeted factory overheads
Direct labour hour rate =
Budgeted direct labour hours

` 1, 40,000
= = ` 1.40 per hour
1,00,000 hours

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.90 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

3. Packing Department
Labour is the most important factor of production in this depart-
ment. Hence direct labour hour rate method should be used to
recover overheads in this department.
The overhead recovery rate in this case comes to:
Budgeted factory overhead
Budgeted factory overheads
Direct labour hour rate =
Direct labour hours
` 1,25,000
= 50,000 hours = ` 2.50 per hour
(iii) Selling Price of Job CW-7083 [based on the overhead application
rates calculated in (ii) above]
(`)
Direct materials 2,100.00
Direct wages 660.00
Overheads (Refer to Working note) 1,078.00

Factory cost 3,838.00

Add: Mark up (30% of ` 3,838) 1,151.40
Selling price 4,989.40

Working note:
Overhead Summary Statement

Dept. Basis Hours Rate Overheads

(`) (`)

Machining Machine hour 180 4.50 810

Assembly Direct labour hour 120 1.40 168

Packing Direct labour hour 40 2.50 100

Total 1,078

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.91

(iv) Department-wise statement of total under or over recovery of

overheads
(a) Under current policy
Departments

Machining Assembly Packing Total

(`) (`) (`) (`)

Direct wages (Actual) 96,000 2,70,000 90,000

Overheads recovered @

125% of Direct wages: (A) 1,20,000 3,37,500 1,12,500 5,70,000

Actual overheads: (B) 3,90,000 84,000 1,35,000 6,09,000

(Under)/Over recovery of
overheads : (A–B) (2,70,000) 2,53,500 (22,500) (39,000)
(b) As per methods suggested
Basis of overhead recovery

Machine Direct Direct Total

hours labour labour (`)
hours hours
(Assembly) (Packing)

Hours worked 96,000 90,000 60,000

Rate/hour (`) 4.50 1.40 2.50

Overhead recovered (`): (A) 4,32,000 1,26,000 1,50,000 7,08,000

Actual overheads (`): (B) 3,90,000 84,000 1,35,000 6,09,000

(Under)/Over recovery: (A−B) 42,000 42,000 15,000 99,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.92 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

10. Fabrication of 12 nos. machine parts (job No......)

Date of commencement: 16th August
Date of Completion:
Cost sheet for the week ending, August 21st:

(`) (`)

Direct materials (all items) 780.00

Direct labour (manual) 20 hours @` 15 per hour 300.00

Machine facilities:

Machine No. I : 4 hours @ ` 45 180.00

Machine No. II : 6 hours @ ` 65 390.00 570.00

Total 1,650.00

Overheads @ ` 8 per hour on 20 manual hours 160.00

Total cost 1,810.00

Supplementary Rates

Overheads 20 hours @ ` 2 per hour (Refer WN-1) 40.00

Machine facilities: (Refer WN-2)

Machine No. I - 4 hours @ ` 15 60.00

Machine No. II - 6 hours @ ` 15 90.00 190.00

Cost 2,000.00

Working notes (WN):

1. Overheads budgeted: 3,000 man-hours × `8 =`24,000
Actual hours: 2,400 man-hours

Actual rate per hour `24,000 ÷ 2,400 hours = `10

Supplementary charge ` 2 (`10 – ` 8) per hour

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.93

2. Machine facilities:

Machine No. I Machine No. II

Budgeted `1,800 `2,600

(40 × `45) (40 × `65)

Actual number of hours 30 32.5

Actual rate per hour `60.00 `80.00

Supplementary rate per ` 15.00 ` 15.00

hour
(`60.00 – `45.00) (`80.00 – `65.00)

11. (i) Amount of under-absorption of production overheads during the

current year
(`)
Total production overheads actually incurred 6,00,000
during the current year
Less : ‘Written off’ obsolete stores ` 45,000
Wages paid for strike period ` 30,000 75,000
Net production overheads actually incurred : (A) 5,25,000
Production overheads absorbed by 48,000 machine
hours @ ` 10 per hour : (B) 4,80,000
Amount of under – absorption of production overheads :
[(A) – (B)] 45,000

(ii) Accounting treatment of under absorption of production overheads

It is given in the statement of the question that 20,000 units were
completely finished and 8,000 units were 50% complete, one third of
the under-absorbed overheads were due to lack of production
planning and the rest were attributable to normal increase in costs.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.94 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(`)
1. (33 – 1/3% of ` 45,000) i.e., ` 15,000 of under-absorbed
overheads were due to lack of production planning.
This being abnormal, should be debited to the Costing
Profit and Loss A/c. 15,000
2. Balance (66–2/3% of ` 45,000) i.e., ` 30,000
of under-absorbed overheads should be distributed
over work-in-progress, finished goods and cost of
sales by using supplementary rate. 30,000
Total under-absorbed overheads 45,000
Apportionment of unabsorbed overheads of ` 30,000 over, work-in
progress, finished goods and cost of sales

Equivalent (`)
Completed Units

Work-in-Progress

(4,000 units × ` 1.25) 4,000 5,000

(Refer to working note)

Finished goods

(2,000 units × ` 1.25) 2,000 2,500

Cost of sales

(18,000 units × ` 1.25) 18,000 22,500

24,000 30,000

Working Note
` 30,000
Supplementary rate per unit = = ` 1.25
24,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.95

12. (i) Computation of predetermined overhead rate for each

production departments from budgeted data

Production Service Department

Department

P1 P2 S1 S2

Budgeted factory overheads for 25,50,000 21,75,000 6,00,000 4,50,000

the year in (`)

Allocation of service department 3,00,000 3,00,000 (6,00,000) —

S1’s costs to production
departments P1 and P2 equally in
(`)

Allocation of service department 3,00,000 1,50,000 — (4,50,000)

S2’s costs to production
departments P1 and P2 in the
ratio of 2:1 in (`)

Total 31,50,000 26,25,000 — —

Budgeted machine hours in 1,05,000 —

department P1 (working note 1)

Budgeted labour hours in — 1,75,000

department P2 (working note 1)

Budgeted machine/ labour hour 30.00 15.00

rate (`)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.96 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) Performance report for July, 2022

(When 4,000 and 3,000 units of products A and B respectively were actually
produced)

Budgeted Actual
(`) (`)

Raw materials used in Dept. P1:

A : 4,000 units × ` 120 4,80,000 4,89,000

B : 3,000 units × ` 150 4,50,000 4,56,000

Direct labour cost

(on the basis of labour hours worked in department P2)

A : 4,000 units × 2 hrs. × ` 72 5,76,000 5,91,900

B : 3,000 units × 2.5 hrs. × ` 75 5,62,500 5,52,000

Overhead absorbed on machine hour basis in Dept.

P 1:

A : 4,000 units × 1.5 hrs. × `30 1,80,000 1,74,400*

B : 3,000 units × 1 hr. × `30 90,000 1,18,649*

Overhead absorbed on labour hour basis in Dept. P2:

A : 4,000 units × 2 hrs. × ` 15 1,20,000 1,31,364**

B : 3,000 units × 2.5 hrs. × ` 15 1,12,500

1,18,548**

25,71,000 26,31,861

* (Refer to working note 4) **(Refer to working note 5)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 OVERHEADS-ABSORPTION COSTING METHOD 4.97

Working notes:
1.

Product A Product B Total

Budgeted output (in units) 50,000 30,000

Budgeted machine hours in Dept. P1 75,000 30,000 1,05,000

(50,000×1.5 hrs.) (30,000×1 hr.)

Budgeted labour hours in Dept. P2 1,00,000 75,000 1,75,000

(50,000×2 hrs.) (30,000×2.5 hrs.)

2.

Product A Product B Total

Actual output (in units) 4,000 3,000

Actual machine hours utilized in Dept. P1 6,100 4,150 10,250

Actual labour hours utilised in Dept. P2 8,200 7,400 15,600

3. Computation of actual overhead rates for each production department

from actual data

Production Department Service Department

P1 P2 S1 S2

Actual factory overheads for the 2,31,000 2,04,000 60,000 48,000

month of July, 2022 in (`)

Allocation of service Dept. S1’s costs 30,000 30,000 (60,000) −

to production Dept. P1 and P2
equally in (`)

Allocation of service Dept. S2’s costs 32,000 16,000 − (48,000)

to production Dept. P1 and P2 in the
ratio of 2:1 in (`)

Total 2,93,000 2,50,000 -- --

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 4.98 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Actual machine hours in Dept. P1 10,250 --

(working note 2)

Actual labour hours in Dept. P2 -- 15,600

(working note 2)

Actual machine/ labour hour rate 28.59 16.02

(`)

4. Actual overheads absorbed (based on machine hours)

A : 6,100 hrs × ` 28.59 = ` 1,74,400
B : 4,150 hrs × ` 28.59 = ` 1,18,649
5. Actual overheads absorbed (based on labour hours)

A : 8,200 hrs × ` 16.02 = ` 1,31,364

B : 7,400 hrs × ` 16.02 = ` 1,18,548

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 CHAPTER a
5

ACTIVITY BASED
COSTING
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you would be able to-
 Discuss problem of Traditional Costing System.
 Discuss usefulness of Activity Based Costing (ABC).
 Discuss Cost Allocation under ABC.
 Discuss Different level of activities under ABC.
 Understand stages, advantages, and limitations of ABC.
 Discuss various requirements in ABC implementation.
 Explain the concept of Activity Based Management (ABM).
 Explain the concept of Activity Based Budgeting (ABB).

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Activity Based Costing

Cost
Concept Usefulness Steps
Hierarchy

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 a 5.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

1. INTRODUCTION
As discussed in chapter 4 i.e. Overhead, in Traditional Costing System, overhead
costs are grouped together under cost center and then absorbed into product
costs on either of the basis such as direct labour hours, machine hours, volume
etc. In certain cases, this traditional costing system gives inaccurate cost
information. Though, it should not be assumed that all traditional absorption
costing systems are not accurate enough to give adequate information for pricing
purposes or other long-run management decision purposes. Some traditional
systems treat overheads in a detailed way and relate them to service cost centres
as well as production cost centres. The service centre overheads are then spread
over the production cost centres before absorption rates are calculated. The main
cause of inaccuracy is in the calculation of the overhead rate itself, which is usually
based on direct labour hours or machine hours. These rates assume that products
that take longer to make, generate more overheads and so on.

Organisations, who do not wish to know how much it costs to make a product
with precise accuracy, may be happy with traditional costing system. Others,
however, fix their price on cost basis and need to determine it with reasonable
accuracy. The latter organisations have been greatly benefitted from the
development of activity-based costing (ABC), which is considered as a modern
absorption costing method, and was evolved to give more accurate product costs.

1.1 Factors prompting the development of ABC

Various factors lead to the development of ABC include:
1. Growing overhead costs because of increasingly automated production
2. Increasing market competition, which necessitated more accurate product
costs.
3. Increasing product diversity to secure economies of scope & increased
market share.
4. Decreasing costs of information processing because of continual
improvements and increasing application of information technology.

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1.2 Usefulness/Suitability of ABC

ABC is particularly needed by organisations for product costing in the following
situations:

1. High amount of overhead: When production overheads are high and form
significant costs, ABC is more useful than traditional costing system.

2. Wide range of products: ABC is most suitable, when, there is diversity in

the product range or there are multiple products.

3. Presence of non-volume related activities: When non-volume related

activities e.g. material handling, inspection set-up, are present significantly
and traditional system cannot be applied, ABC is a superior and better
option. ABC will identify non-value-adding activities in the production process
that might be a suitable focus for attention or elimination.

4. Stiff competition: When the organisation is facing stiff competition and

there is an urgent requirement to compute cost accurately and to fix the
selling price according to the market situation, ABC is very useful. ABC can
also facilitate in reducing cost by identifying non-value-adding activities in the
production process that might be a suitable focus for attention or elimination.

2. MEANING AND DEFINITION

Activity Based Costing is an accounting methodology that assigns costs to
activities rather than products or services. This enables resources & overhead
costs to be more accurately assigned to products & services that consume them.
ABC is a technique which involves identification of cost with each cost
driving activity and making it as the basis for apportionment of costs over
different cost objects/ jobs/ products/customers or services.

ABC assigns cost to activities based on their use of resources. It then assigns cost
to cost objects, such as products or customers, based on their use of activities.
ABC can track the flow of activities in organization by creating a link between the
activity (resource consumption) and the cost object.

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 a 5.4 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

CIMA defines ‘Activity Based Costing’ as “An approach to the costing and
monitoring of activities which involves tracing resource consumption and costing
final outputs. Resources are assigned to activities, and activities to cost objects
based on consumption estimates. The latter utilise cost drivers to attach activity
costs to outputs.”

3. MEANING OF TERMS USED IN ABC

(i) Activity: Activity, here, refers to an event that incurs cost.
(ii) Cost Object: It is an item for which cost measurement is required e.g. a
product or a customer.

(iii) Cost Driver: It is a factor that causes a change in the cost of an activity.
There are two categories of cost driver.
• Resource Cost Driver: It is a measure of the quantity of resources
consumed by an activity. It is used to assign the cost of a resource to an
activity or cost pool.
• Activity Cost Driver: It is a measure of the frequency and intensity of
demand, placed on activities by cost objects. It is used to assign activity
costs to cost objects.
(iv) Cost Pool: It represents a group of various individual cost items. It consists
of costs that have same cause and effect relationship. Example machine
set-up.
Examples of Cost Drivers:

Business Functions Cost Driver

Research and Development • Number of research projects

• Personnel hours on a project

Design of products, services • Number of products in design

and procedures
• Number of parts per product
• Number of engineering hours

Customer Service • Number of service calls

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.55.5 a

• Number of products serviced

• Hours spent on servicing products

Marketing • Number of advertisements

• Number of sales personnel

• Sales revenue

Distribution • Number of units distributed

• Number of customers

4. COST ALLOCATION UNDER ABC

Under activity based cost allocation overheads are attributed to products on the
activity base. Traditionally, overhead costs are grouped together under cost
centre and then absorbed into product costs on some basis such as direct labour
hours. Activity based costing identifies the activities which cause cost to be
incurred and searches for fundamental cost drivers of these activities. Once the
activities and there cost drivers have been identified this information can be used
to assign overheads to cost objects (e.g. products) which have actually caused
cost to be incurred.

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 a 5.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

5. TRADITIONAL ABSORPTION COSTING VS

ABC
Cost Allocation under Traditional and Activity Based Costing system

Direct Cost
Tracing of Product/
Cost Ascertainment
Cost Service
Indirect Cost
Cost
Allocation

Traditional Costing Activity based Costing

Based on Machine
hours, labour Hours, Based on Cost Driver
Volume etc.

Cost Allocation under Traditional and Activity Based Costing System

In traditional absorption costing overheads are first related to cost centres
(Production & Service Centres) and then to cost objects, i.e., products. In ABC
overheads are related to activities or grouped into cost pools. Then they are
related to the cost objects, e.g., products. The two processes are, therefore, very
similar, but the first stage is different, as ABC uses activities instead of functional
departments (cost centres). The problem with functional departments is that they
tend to include a series of different activities, which incur a number of different
costs that behave in different ways. Activities also tend to run across functions; for
instance, procurement of materials often includes raising a requisition note in a
manufacturing department or stores. It is not raised in the purchasing department
where most procurement costs are incurred. Activity costs tend to behave in a
similar way to each other i.e., they have the same cost driver. Therefore, ABC gives
a more realistic picture of the way in which costs behave.

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.75.7 a

Difference between Activity Based Costing and Traditional Absorption

Costing

Activity Based Costing Traditional Absorption Costing

1. Overheads are related to 1. Overheads are related to cost

activities and grouped into centers/departments.
activity cost pools.

2. Costs are related to activities 2 Costs are related to cost centers

and hence are more realistic. and hence not realistic of cost
behaviour.

3 Activity–wise cost drivers are 3. Time (Hours) are assumed to be

determined. the only cost driver governing
costs in all departments.

4. Activity–wise recovery rates are 4. Either multiple overhead recovery

determined and there is no rates (for each department) or a
concept of a single overhead single overhead recovery rate may
recovery rate. be determined for absorbing
overheads.

5. Cost are assigned to cost 5. Costs are assigned to Cost Units

objects, e.g. customers, i.e. to products, or jobs or hours.
products, services, departments,
etc.

6. Essential activities can be 6. Cost Centers/ departments cannot

simplified and unnecessary be eliminated. Hence, not suitable
activities can be eliminated. for cost control.
Thus, the corresponding costs
are also reduced/ minimized.
Hence ABC aids cost control.

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 a 5.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

6. LEVEL OF ACTIVITIES UNDER ABC METHO-

DOLOGY/COST HIERARCHY
These categories are generally accepted today, but were first identified by Cooper
(1990). The categories of activities help to determine the type of activity cost
driver required.
The categories of activities are:

Level of Meaning Example

Activities
1. Unit level These are those activities • The use of indirect
activities for which the materials/consumables tends to
consumption of resources increase in proportion to the
can be identified with the number of units produced.
number of units • The inspection or testing of every
produced. item produced, if this was deemed
necessary or, perhaps more likely,
every 100th item produced.
2. Batch The activities such as • Material ordering–where an order
level setting up of a machine is placed for every batch of
activities or processing a purchase production
order are performed each • Machine set-up costs–where
time a batch of goods is machines need resetting between
produced. The cost of each different batch of production.
batch related activities • Inspection of products where the
varies with number of first item in every batch is
batches made, but is inspected rather than every 100th
common (or fixed) for all item quoted above.
units within the batch.
3. Product These are the activities • Designing the product,
level which are performed to • Producing parts specifications
activities support different • Keeping technical drawings of
products in product line products up to date.

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.95.9 a

4. Facilities These are the activities • Maintenance of buildings

level which cannot be directly • Plant security
activities attributed to individual
products. These activities
are necessary to sustain
the manufacturing
process and are common
and joint to all products
manufactured

7. STAGES IN ACTIVITY BASED COSTING (ABC)

The different stages in ABC calculations are listed below:
(1) Identify the different activities within the organisation: Usually the
number of cost centres that a traditional overhead system uses is quite
small, say up to fifteen. In ABC, the number of activities will be much more,
say 200; the exact number will depend on how the management subdivides
the organisation’s activities. It is possible to break the organisation down into
many very small activities. But if ABC is to be acceptable as practical system
it is necessary to use larger groupings, say, 40 activities may be used in
practice. The additional number of activities over cost centres means that
ABC should be more accurate than the traditional method regardless of
anything else. Some activities may be listed as follows:-
• Production schedule changes
• Customer liaison
• Purchasing
• Production process set up
• Quality control
• Material handling
• Maintenance

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 a 5.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(2) Relate the overheads to the activities, both support and primary, that
caused them. This creates ‘cost pools’ or ‘cost buckets’. This will be done
using resource cost drivers that reflect causality.
(3) Support activities are then spread across the primary activities on some
suitable base, which reflects the use of the support activity. The base is the
cost driver that is the measure of how the support activities are used.
(4) Determine the activity cost drivers that will be used to relate the
overheads collected in the cost pools to the cost objects/products. This is
based on the factor that drives the consumption of the activity. The
question to ask is – what causes the activity to incur costs? In production
scheduling, for example, the driver will probably be the number of batches
ordered.
(5) Calculate activity cost driver rates for each activity, just as an overhead
absorption rate would be calculated in the traditional system.

Activity cost driver rate = Total cost of activity

Activity driver

The activity driver rate can be used not only to identify cost of products, as
in traditional absorption costing, but it can also be used for costing other
cost objects such as customers/customer segments and distribution
channels. The possibility of costing objects other than products is part of
the benefit of ABC. The activity cost driver rates will be multiplied by the
different amounts of each activity that each product/other cost object
consumes.

Cost allocation under ABC

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.11
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Let us take a small example to understand the steps stated above:

Assume that a company makes widgets and the management decides to install an
ABC system. The management decides that all overhead costs will have only three
cost drivers viz. direct labour hours, machine hours and number of purchase
orders. The general ledger of the company shows the following overhead costs –

General Ledger (`)

Perquisite taxes 1,000
Machine maintenance 500
Purchasing Dept. labour 4,000
Fringe benefits 2,000
Purchasing Dept. Supplies 250
Equipment depreciation 750
Electricity 1,250
Employees’ group insurance 1,500
Total 11,250

So, which overheads do you think are driven by direct labour hours?
The answer is

Perquisite taxes ` 1,000

Fringe benefits ` 2,000
Employees’ group insurance ` 1,500
Total ` 4,500

Similarly, overheads driven by machine hours include Machine maintenance,

depreciation and electricity, totaling ` 2,500 and finally overheads driven by
number of purchase orders include purchasing department labour and purchasing
department supplies, totaling ` 4,250.
Now, overhead rate is calculated by the formula
Total cost in the activity pool ÷ Base,
base being the total number of labour hours, machine hours and total number of
purchase orders in the given case.

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 a 5.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Assume that the total number of labour hours be 1,000 hours, machine hours be
250 hours and total purchase orders be 100 orders.
So, Cost driver rate would be

Cost Driver Rate (`)

` 4,500/ 1,000 ` 4.50 per labour hour

` 2,500/ 250 ` 10 per machine hour

` 4,250/ 100 ` 42.50 per purchase order

Now, let’s allocate the overheads between two widgets A and B the details of
which are given below:

Particulars Widget A Widget B

Labour hours 400 600

Machine Hours 100 150

Purchase Orders 50 50

So, total overhead costs applied to widget A = (400 × ` 4.50) + (100 × ` 10) + (50
× ` 42.50) = ` 4,925
And total overheads applied to widget B = (600 × ` 4.50) + (150 × ` 10) + (50 ×
` 42.50) = ` 6,325
So total overheads = ` 4,925 + ` 6,325 = ` 11,250.
Generally, in the traditional costing method, overheads are applied on the basis
of direct labour hours (total 1,000 labour hours in the given case). So, in that case
the overhead absorption rate would be – ` 11,250/1000 = ` 11.25 per hour and
the total overheads applied to Widget A would have been = 400 × 11.25 =
` 4,500 and to Widget B = 600 × ` 11.25 = ` 6,750.
Hence Widget A would have been under-valued and Widget B over-valued by
` 425.

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Examples of Cost Drivers

Some of the examples of cost drivers for different activity pools in a production
department are stated below:

Activity Cost Pools Related Cost Drivers

Ordering and Receiving Materials cost Number of purchase orders
Setting up machines costs Number of set-ups
Machining costs Machine hours
Assembling costs Number of parts
Inspecting and testing costs Number of tests
Painting costs Number of parts
Supervising Costs Direct labour hours

The process of calculating cost driver rate is illustrated in diagrammatic

presentation as below:

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 a 5.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 1
ABC Ltd. is a multiproduct company, manufacturing three products A, B and C. The
budgeted costs and production for the year ending 31st March are as follows:

A B C

Production quantity (Units) 4,000 3,000 1,600

Resources per Unit:

- Direct Materials (Kg.) 4 6 3

- Direct Labour (Minutes) 30 45 60

The budgeted direct labour rate was ` 10 per hour, and the budgeted material cost
was ` 2 per kg. Production overheads were budgeted at ` 99,450 and were
absorbed to products using the direct labour hour rate. ABC Ltd. followed the
Absorption Costing System.
ABC Ltd. is now considering to adopt an Activity Based Costing system. The
following additional information is made available for this purpose.
1. Budgeted overheads were analysed into the following:

(`)

Material handling 29,100

Storage costs 31,200

Electricity 39,150
2. The cost drivers identified were as follows:

Material handling Weight of material handled

Storage costs Number of batches of material

Electricity Number of Machine operations

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3. Data on Cost Drivers was as follows:

A B C

For complete production:

Batches of material 10 5 15

Per unit of production:

Number of Machine operations 6 3 2

You are requested to:
1. PREPARE a statement for management showing the unit costs and total costs
of each product using the absorption costing method.
2. PREPARE a statement for management showing the product costs of each
product using the ABC approach.

3. STATE what are the reasons for the different product costs under the two
approaches?
SOLUTION
1. Traditional Absorption Costing

A B C Total

(a) Quantity (units) 4,000 3,000 1,600 8,600

(b) Direct labour (minutes) 30 45 60 -

(c) Direct labour hours (a × b)/60 minutes 2,000 2,250 1,600 5,850
Overhead rate per direct labour hour:
= Budgeted overheads Budgeted labour hours
= ` 99,450  5,850 hours
= ` 17 per direct labour hour

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 a 5.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Unit Costs:

A (`) B (`) C (`)

Direct Costs:

- Direct Labour 5.00 7.50 10.00

- Direct Material 8.00 12.00 6.00

Production Overhead: 8.50 12.75 17.00

 ` 17×30   ` 17×45   ` 17×60 
     
 60   60   60 

Total unit costs 21.50 32.25 33.00

Number of units 4,000 3,000 1,600

Total costs 86,000 96,750 52,800

2. Activity Based Costing

A B C Total

Quantity (units) 4,000 3,000 1,600 -

Material Weight per unit (Kg.) 4 6 3 -

Total material weight 16,000 18,000 4,800 38,800

Machine operations per unit 6 3 2 -

Total operations 24,000 9,000 3,200 36,200

Total batches of Material 10 5 15 30

Material handling rate per kg. = ` 29,100  38,800 kg.

= ` 0.75 per kg.

Electricity rate per machine operations = ` 39,150  36,200

= ` 1.081 per machine operations
Storage rate per batch = ` 31,200  30 batches
= ` 1,040 per batch

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.17
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Unit Costs:

A (`) B (`) C (`)

Direct Costs:

Direct Labour 5.00 7.50 10.00

Direct material 8.00 12.00 6.00

Production Overheads:

Material Handling 3.00 4.50 2.25

(`0.75  4) (`0.75  6) (`0.75  3)

Electricity 6.49 3.24 2.16

(`1.081  6) (`1.081  3) (`1.081  2)

Storage 2.60 1.73 9.75

 ` 1,040   `1,040   `1,040 
 `10    `5×   `15× 
 4,000   3,000   1,600 
Total unit costs 25.09 28.97 30.16

Number of units 4,000 3,000 1,600

Total costs ` 1,00,360 ` 86,910 ` 48,256

3. Comments: The difference in the total costs under the two systems is due
to the differences in the overheads borne by each of the products. The
Activity Based Costs appear to be more precise.

8. ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVITY BASED COSTING

The main advantages of using Activity Based Costing are:
(i) More accurate costing of products/services.
(ii) Overhead allocation is done on logical basis.
(iii) It enables better pricing policies by supplying accurate cost information.
(iv) Utilizes unit cost rather than just total cost

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 a 5.18 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(v) Help to identify non-value added activities which facilitates cost reduction.
(vi) It is helpful to the organizations with multiple products.
(vii) It highlights problem areas which require attention of the management.

9. LIMITATIONS OF ACTIVITY BASED COSTING

The main limitations using Activity Based Costing are:
(i) It is more expensive, particularly in comparison with traditional costing
system.
(ii) It is not helpful to the small organizations.
(iii) It may not be applied to organizations with limited products.
(iv) Selection of the most suitable cost driver may not be easy/ may be difficult
or complicated.

10. REQUIREMENTS IN ABC IMPLEMENTATION

A number of distinct practical stages are required in the ABC implementation
which are given as below:
(1) Staff Training: The co-operation of the workforce is critical to the
successful implementation of ABC. Staff training should be done to create
an awareness on the purpose of ABC.
(2) Process Specification: Informal, but structured interviews with key members
of personnel will identify the different stages of the production process, the
commitment of resources to each, processing times and bottlenecks.
(3) Activity Definition: The activities must be defined clearly in the early stage in
order to manage the problems, if any, effectively. There might be overloading
of information from the new data, but the same is needed in codification.
(4) Activity Driver Selection: Cost driver for each activity shall be selected.
(5) Assigning Cost: A single representative activity driver can be used to assign
costs from the activity pools to the cost objects.

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11. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF ACTIVITY

BASED COSTING
11.1 As a Decision-Making Tool
ABC can act as a decision making tool in the following ways:
(i) ABC along with some other cost management technique can be utilized to
improve performance and profitability of an organization.
(ii) Wholesale distributors can gain significant advantage in the decision-
making process through implementation of ABC concepts by correlating
costs to various activities. Introduction of new product or vendor can be
better decided through ABC.
(iii) ABC can assist in decisions related to facility and resource expansion. Often
the basis for relocation or opening of a new distribution center is based on
cost associations. Reduction in freight or other logistic costs can offset the
expense of the new facility, staff or equipment. The ABC model can identify
the specific cost elements being targeted, providing a much clearer picture
which aids in management actions.
(iv) ABC augments decision support for human resources. Since the activity
(and therefore costs) can be associated to an individual, new levels of
financial performance can be determined. This might be evident in the case
of branch management or sales.
(v) Companies who wish to determine price based on cost plus markup basis
find ABC method of costing very relevant and are able to determine
competitive prices for their products.

11.2 As Activity Based Management

Meaning of Activity Based Management
The term Activity Based Management (ABM) is used to describe the cost
management application of ABC. The use of ABC as a costing tool to manage
costs at activity level is known as Activity Based Management (ABM). ABM is
a discipline that focuses on the efficient and effective management of activities as
the route to continuously improving the value received by customers. ABM
utilizes cost information gathered through ABC.

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Various analysis in Activity Based Management

The various types of analysis involved in ABM are as follows:
(1) Cost Driver Analysis: The factors that cause activities to be performed need
to be identified in order to manage activity costs. Cost driver analysis
identifies the causal factors.
(2) Activity Analysis.

(a) Value-Added Activities (VA): The value-added activities are those

activities which are indispensable in order to complete the process.
The customers are usually willing to pay (in some way) for these
services. For example, polishing furniture by a manufacturer dealing in
furniture is a value added activity.
(b) Non-Value-Added Activities (NVA): The NVA activity represents work
that is not valued by the external or internal customer. NVA
activities do not improve the quality or function of a product or
service, but they can adversely affect costs and prices. Moving
materials and machine set up for a production run are examples of
NVA activities.
(3) Performance Analysis: Performance analysis involves the identification of
appropriate measures to report the performance of activity centres or
other organisational units, consistent with each unit’s goals and objectives.
Activity Based Management in Business
Activity Based Management can be used in the following ways
(i) Cost Reduction: ABM helps the organisation to identify costs against
activities and to find opportunities to streamline or reduce the costs or
eliminate the entire activity, especially if there is no value added.

(ii) Business Process Re-engineering: Business process re-engineering

involves examining business processes and making substantial changes
to how organisation currently operates. ABM is a powerful tool for
measuring business performance, determining the cost of business output
and is used as a means of identifying opportunities to improve process
efficiency and effectiveness.

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(iii) Benchmarking: Benchmarking is a process of comparing of ABC-derived

activity costs of one segment of company with those of other
segments. It requires uniformity in the definition of activities and
measurement of their costs.
(iv) Performance Measurement: Many organisations are now focusing on
activity performance as a means of facing competitors and managing costs
by monitoring the efficiency and effectiveness of activities.

Area Measure

Quality of purchased component Zero defects

Quality of output % yield

Customer awareness Orders; number of complaints

11.3 Facilitate Activity Based Budgeting

Meaning of Activity Based Budgeting (ABB)
Activity based budgeting analyse the resource input or cost for each activity. It
provides a framework for estimating the amount of resources required in
accordance with the budgeted level of activity. Actual results can be compared
with budgeted results to highlight both, in financial and non-financial terms,
those activities with major discrepancies from budget for potential reduction in
supply of resources. It is a planning and control system which seeks to support
the objectives of continuous improvement. It means planning and controlling the
expected activities of the organization to derive a cost-effective budget that meet
forecast workload and agreed strategic goals. ABB is the reversing of the ABC
process to produce financial plans and budgets.
Key Elements of ABB
The three key elements of activity based budgeting are as follows:-
 Type of work to be done
 Quantity of work to be done
 Cost of work to be done

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Benefits of ABB
Few benefits of activity based budgeting are as follows:-
(i) Activity Based Budgeting (ABB) can enhance accuracy of financial forecasts
and increasing management understanding.
(ii) When automated, ABB can rapidly and accurately produce financial plans
and models based on varying levels of volume assumptions.
(iii) ABB eliminates much of the needless rework created by traditional
budgeting techniques.

ILLUSTRATION 2
MST Limited has collected the following data for its two activities. It calculates
activity cost rates based on cost driver capacity.

Activity Cost Driver Capacity Cost

Power Kilowatt hours 50,000 kilowatt hours ` 2,00,000

Quality Inspections Number of Inspections 10,000 Inspections ` 3,00,000

The company makes three products M, S and T. For the year ended March 31st, the
following consumption of cost drivers was reported:

Product Kilowatt hours Quality Inspections

M 10,000 3,500

S 20,000 2,500

T 15,000 3,000
Required:
(i) COMPUTE the costs allocated to each product from each activity.
(ii) CALCULATE the cost of unused capacity for each activity.
(iii) DISCUSS the factors the management considers in choosing a capacity level
to compute the budgeted fixed overhead cost rate.

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SOLUTION
(i) Statement of cost allocation to each product from each activity

Product
M (`) S (`) T (`) Total
(`)
Power (Refer 40,000 80,000 60,000 1,80,000
to working (10,000 kWh (20,000 kWh (15,000 kWh
note) × `4) ×`4) ×`4)
Quality 1,05,000 75,000 90,000 2,70,000
Inspections (3,500 (2,500 (3,000
(Refer to inspections inspections × inspections ×
working note) × `30) ` 30) ` 30)
Working note
Rate per unit of cost driver:

Power (` 2,00,000 / 50,000 kWh) ` 4/kWh

Quality Inspection (` 3,00,000 / 10,000 inspections) ` 30 per inspection
(ii) Computation of cost of unused capacity for each activity:

(`)
Power (` 2,00,000 – ` 1,80,000) or 5,000 x 4 20,000
Quality Inspections (` 3,00,000 – ` 2,70,000) or 1,000 x 30 30,000
Total cost of unused capacity 50,000

(iii) Factors management consider in choosing a capacity level to compute

the budgeted fixed overhead cost rate:
• Effect on product costing & capacity management

• Effect on pricing decisions.

• Effect on performance evaluation
• Effect on financial statements
• Regulatory requirements.
• Difficulties in forecasting.

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 a 5.24 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 3
ABC Ltd. Manufactures two types of machinery equipment Y and Z and
applies/absorbs overheads on the basis of direct-labour hours. The budgeted
overheads and direct-labour hours for the month of December are
` 12,42,500 and 20,000 hours respectively. The information about Company’s
products is as follows:

Equipment Equipment
Y Z
Budgeted Production volume 2,500 units 3,125 units
Direct material cost ` 300 per unit ` 450 per unit
Direct labour cost
Y : 3 hours @ ` 150 per hour
Z : 4 hours @ ` 150 per hour ` 450 ` 600
ABC Ltd.’s overheads of ` 12,42,500 can be identified with three major activities:
Order Processing (` 2,10,000), machine processing ( ` 8,75,000), and product
inspection (` 1,57,500). These activities are driven by number of orders processed,
machine hours worked, and inspection hours, respectively. The data relevant to
these activities is as follows:

Orders processed Machine hours Inspection hours

worked

Y 350 23,000 4,000

Z 250 27,000 11,000

Total 600 50,000 15,000

Required:
(i) Assuming use of direct-labour hours to absorb/apply overheads to production,
COMPUTE the unit manufacturing cost of the equipment Y and Z, if the
budgeted manufacturing volume is attained.

(ii) Assuming use of activity-based costing, COMPUTE the unit manufacturing costs
of the equipment Y and Z, if the budgeted manufacturing volume is achieved.

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.25
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(iii) ABC Ltd.’s selling prices are based heavily on cost. By using direct -labour
hours as an application base, CALCULATE the amount of cost distortion
(under-costed or over-costed) for each equipment.
SOLUTION
(i) Overheads application base: Direct labour hours

Equipment Equipment

Y (`) Z (`)

Direct material cost 300 450

Direct labour cost 450 600

Overheads* 186.38 248.50

936.38 1,298.50

Budgeted overheads ` 12, 42,500

*Pre-determined rate = = = `62.125
Budgeted direct labour hours 20,000 hours

(ii) Estimation of Cost-Driver rate

Overhead cost Cost-driver level Cost driver

Activity rate

(`) (`)

Order processing 2,10,000 600 350

Orders processed

Machine 8,75,000 50,000 17.50

processing
Machine hours

Inspection 1,57,500 15,000 10.50

Inspection hours

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 a 5.26 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Equipment Equipment

Y (`) Z (`)

Direct material cost 300 450

Direct labour cost 450 600

Prime Cost 750 1,050

Overhead Cost
Order processing 350 : 250 or Rs 350 per 1,22,500 87,500
order

Machine processing 23,000 : 27,000 or ` 4,02,500 4,72,500

17.5 per hour

Inspection 4,000 : 11,000 42,000 1,15,500

Total overhead cost 5,67,000 6,75,500

Per unit cost Y (`) Z (`)

5,67,000 /2,500 226.80 ` 216.16

6,75,500/ 3,125

Unit manufacturing cost (Prime Cost + ` 976.80 ` 1,266.16

Overhead per unit)

(iii)

Equipment Equipment
Y (`) Z (`)
Unit manufacturing cost–using direct
labour hours as an application base 936.38 1,298.50
Unit manufacturing cost-using activity 976.80 1,266.16
based costing
Cost distortion (-)40.42 + 32.34
Low volume product Y is under-costed and high volume product Z is over
costed using direct labour hours for overhead absorption.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.27
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ILLUSTRATION 4
‘Humara - Apna’ bank offers three products, viz., deposits, Loans and Credit Cards.
The bank has selected 4 activities for a detailed budgeting exercise, following
activity based costing methods.
The bank wants to know the product wise total cost per unit for the selected
activities, so that prices may be fixed accordingly.
The following information is made available to formulate the budget:

Activity Present Estimation for the budget

Cost (`) period

ATM Services:
(a) Machine Maintenance 4,00,000 All fixed, no change.
(b) Rents 2,00,000 Fully fixed, no change.
(c) Currency Replenishment 1,00,000 Expected to double during
Cost budget period.
7,00,000 (This activity is driven by no. of
ATM transactions)
Computer Processing 5,00,000 Half this amount is fixed and no
change is expected.
The variable portion is expected
to increase to three times the
current level.
(This activity is driven by the
number of computer
transactions)
Issuing Statements 18,00,000 Presently, 3 lakh statements are
made. In the budget period, 5
lakh statements are expected.
For every increase of one lakh
statement, one lakh rupees is the
budgeted increase.
(This activity is driven by the
number of statements)

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 a 5.28 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Computer Inquiries 2,00,000 Estimated to increase by 80%

during the budget period.
(This activity is driven by
telephone minutes)

The activity drivers and their budgeted quantifies are given below:

Activity Drivers Deposits Loans Credit

Cards

No. of ATM Transactions 1,50,000 --- 50,000

No. of Computer Processing 15,00,000 2,00,000 3,00,000
Transactions
No. of Statements to be issued 3,50,000 50,000 1,00,000
Telephone Minutes 3,60,000 1,80,000 1,80,000
The bank budgets a volume of 58,600 deposit accounts, 13,000 loan accounts, and
14,000 Credit Card Accounts.
Required:

(i) CALCULATE the budgeted rate for each activity.

(ii) PREPARE the budgeted cost statement activity wise.
(iii) COMPUTE the budgeted product cost per account for each product using (i)
and (ii) above.
SOLUTION
Statement Showing “Budgeted Cost per unit of the Product”

Activity Activity Activity No. of Activity Deposits Loans Credit

Cost Driver Units of Rate Cards
(Budgeted) Activity (`) (`) (`) (`)
(` ) Driver
(Budget)

ATM 8,00,000 No. of ATM 2,00,000 4.00 6,00,000 --- 2,00,000

Services Transaction

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.29
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Computer 10,00,000 No. of 20,00,000 0.50 7,50,000 1,00,000 1,50,000

Processing Computer
processing
Transaction

Issuing 20,00,000 No. of 5,00,000 4.00 14,00,000 2,00,000 4,00,000

Statements Statements

Customer 3,60,000 Telephone 7,20,000 0.50 1,80,000 90,000 90,000

Inquiries Minutes

Budgeted 41,60,000 29,30,000 3,90,000 8,40,000

Cost

Units of Product (as estimated in the budget period) 58,600 13,000 14,000

Budgeted Cost per unit of the product (`) 50 (`) 30 (`) 60

Working Note

Activity Budgeted Remark

Cost (` )

ATM Services:
(a) Machine 4,00,000 − All fixed, no change.
Maintenance −
(b) Rents 2,00,000 − Fully fixed, no change.
(c) Currency
Replenishment
2,00,000 − Doubled during budget period.
Cost

Total 8,00,000

Computer Processing 2,50,000 − ` 2,50,000 (half of ` 5,00,000) is

fixed and no change is
expected.
− ` 2,50,000 (variable portion) is
expected to increase to three
7,50,000
times the current level.
Total 10,00,000

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 a 5.30 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Issuing Statements 18,00,000 − Existing.

2,00,000 − 2 lakh statements are expected
to be increased in budgeted
period. For every increase of
one lakh statement, one lakh
rupees is the budgeted
Total 20,00,000 increase.

Computer Inquiries 3,60,000 − Estimated to increase by 80%

during the budget period.
Total 3,60,000 (` 2,00,000 x 180%)

SUMMARY
 Activity based costing is an accounting methodology that assigns costs to
activities rather than products or services. This enables resources &
overhead costs to be more accurately assigned to products & services that
consume them.
 Unit level activities, batch level activities, product level activities and facility
level activities are the categories of activities that help to determine the
type of activity cost driver required.
 ABC is very much useful to the organization with multiple products.
 The limitations of ABC are that, it is very costly and cannot be applied to all
companies.
 The use of ABC as a costing tool to manage costs at activity level is known
as Activity Based Cost Management (ABM). ABM is a discipline that focuses
on the efficient and effective management of activities as the route to
continuously improving the value received by customers. ABM utilizes cost
information gathered through ABC.
 The value-added activities are those activities which are indispensable in
order to complete the process.

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.31
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 NVA activity represents work that is not valued by the external or internal
customer. NVA activities do not improve the quality or function of a product
or service, but they can adversely affect costs and prices.
 Activity-based budgeting is a process of planning and controlling the
expected activities for the organisation to derive a cost-effective budget
that meets forecast workload and agreed strategic goals.
 Key elements of ABB are type of work/activity to be performed, quantity of
work/activity to be performed and cost of work/activity to be performed.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. A cost driver is:
(a) An item of production overheads
(b) A common cost which is shared over cost centres
(c) Any cost relating to transport

(d) An activity which generates costs

2. In activity based costing, costs are accumulated by activity using:
(a) Cost drivers

(b) Cost objects

(c) Cost pools
(d) Cost benefit analysis

3. A cost driver:
(a) Is a force behind the overhead cost
(b) Is an allocation base

(c) Is a transaction that is a significant determinant of cost

(d) All of the above

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4. Which of the following is not a correct match:

Activity Cost Driver

(a) Production Scheduling Number of Production runs
(b) Despatching Number of dispatch orders
(c) Goods receiving Goods received orders
(d) Inspection Machine hours

5. Transactions undertaken by support department personnel are the

appropriate cost drivers. Find the one which is not appropriate:
(a) The number of purchase, supplies and customers’ orders drives the cost
associated with new material inventory, work-in-progress and finished
goods inventory
(b) The number of production runs undertaken drives production
scheduling, inspection and material handling
(c) The quality of raw material issued drives the cost of receiving
department costs

(d) The number of packing orders drives the packing costs

6. Steps in ABC include:
(a) Identification of activities and their respective costs

(b) Identification of cost driver of each activity and computation of an

allocation rate per activity
(c) Allocation of overhead cost to products/ services based on the activities
involved
(d) All of the above
7. Which of the following is not a benefit of ABC?
(a) Accurate cost allocation
(b) Improved decision making
(c) Better control on activity and costs

(d) Reduction of prime cost

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.33
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8. The steps involved for installation of ABC in a manufacturing company

include the following except:

(a) Borrowing fund

(b) Feasibility study
(c) Building up necessary IT infrastructure and training of line employees
(d) Strategy and value chain analysis
9. Which of the following statements are true: (1) Activity based Management
involves activity analysis and performance measurement. (2) Activity based
costing serves as a major source of information in ABM.
(a) (1) True; (2) False
(b) (1) True; (2) True
(c) (1) False; (2) True
(d) (1) False; (2) False
10. The key elements of activity based budgeting are:
(a) Type of activity to be performed
(b) Quantity of activity to be performed
(c) Cost of activity to be performed
(d) All of the above

Theoretical Questions
1. DEFINE the following terms:
(i) Cost driver
(ii) Activity cost pool
2. EXPLAIN in brief the problems of traditional costing where overhead costs are
allocated based on volume.
3. STATE what is Activity based costing. How are product costs determined in
ABC?

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 a 5.34 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

4. A manufacturing company in India wants to replace its traditional costing

system by ABC. It produces a number of products, each having complex
production process of different degree. SUGGEST various requirements for
installing activity based costing.
5. DESCRIBE various levels of activities under ABC.
6. STATE what are the benefits of ABC.
7. STATE what are the limitations of ABC.
8. STATE what are the practical applications of ABC.
9. STATE what is Activity based Management. How does ABC help ABM?
10. DEFINE Activity based Budgeting. STATE what are its key elements.

Practical Problems
1. Woolmark Ltd. manufactures three types of products namely P, Q and R. The
data relating to a period are as under:

Particulars P Q R

Machine hours per unit 10 18 14

Direct Labour hours per unit 4 12 8

Direct Material per unit ( `) 90 80 120

Production (units) 3,000 5,000 20,000

Currently the company uses traditional costing method and absorbs all
production overheads on the basis of machine hours. The machine hour rate
of overheads is ` 6 per hour. Direct labour hour rate is ` 20 per hour.
The company proposes to use activity based costing system and the activity
analysis is as under:

Particulars P Q R

Batch size (units) 150 500 1,000

Number of purchase orders per batch 3 10 8

Number of inspections per batch 5 4 3

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.35
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The total production overheads are analysed as under:

Machine set up costs……………………………………… 20%

Machine operation costs……………………………………. 30%

Inspection costs……………………………………………… 40%

Material procurement related costs……………………….. 10%

Required
(i) CALCULATE the cost per unit of each product using traditional method
of absorbing all production overheads on the basis of machine hours.
(ii) CALCULATE the cost per unit of each product using activity based
costing principles.
2. RST Limited specializes in the distribution of pharmaceutical products. It buys
from the pharmaceutical companies and resells to each of the three different
markets.
(i) General Supermarket Chains

(ii) Drugstore Chains

(iii) Chemist Shops
The following data for the month of April in respect of RST Limited has been
reported:

General Drugstore Chemist

Supermarket Chains Shops
Chains
(` ) (` ) (` )

Average revenue per delivery 84,975 28,875 5,445

Average cost of goods sold per 82,500 27,500 4,950

delivery

Number of deliveries 330 825 2,750

In the past, RST Limited has used gross margin percentage to evaluate the
relative profitability of its distribution channels.

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 a 5.36 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The company plans to use activity–based costing for analysing the

profitability of its distribution channels.

The Activity analysis of RST Limited is as under:

Activity Area Cost Driver

Customer purchase order processing Purchase orders by customers

Line-item ordering Line-items per purchase order

Store delivery Store deliveries

Cartons dispatched to stores Cartons dispatched to a store per

delivery

Shelf-stocking at customer store Hours of shelf-stocking

The April month’s operating costs (other than cost of goods sold) of RST
Limited are ` 8,27,970. These operating costs are assigned to five activity
areas. The cost in each area and the quantity of the cost allocation basis u sed
in that area for the month of April are as follows:

Activity Area Total costs (`) Total Units of Cost

Allocation Base

Customer purchase order 2,20,000 5,500 orders

processing

Line-item ordering 1,75,560 58,520 line items

Store delivery 1,95,250 3,905 store deliveries

Cartons dispatched to 2,09,000 2,09,000 cartons

store

Shelf-stocking at customer 28,160 1,760 hours

store

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.37
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Other data for the month of April include the following:

General Drugstore Chemist

Supermarket Chains Shops
Chains
Total number of orders 385 990 4,125
Average number of line items 14 12 10
per order
Total number of store deliveries 330 825 2,750
Average number of cartons 300 80 16
shipped per store delivery
Average number of hours of 3 0.6 0.1
shelf-stocking per store delivery
Required:
(i) COMPUTE gross-margin percentage for each of its three distribution
channels and compute RST Limited’s operating income.
(ii) COMPUTE the rate per unit of the cost-allocation base for each of the
five activity areas.
(iii) COMPUTE the operating income of each distribution channel using the
activity-based costing information. Comment on the results. What new
insights are available with the activity-based cost information?
(iv) DESCRIBE four challenges one would face in assigning the total
operating costs of ` 8,27,970 to five activity areas.
3. Family Store wants information about the profitability of individual product
lines: Soft drinks, Fresh produce and Packaged food. Family store provides the
following data for the current year for each product line:

Soft drinks Fresh Packaged

produce food
Revenues ` 39,67,500 ` 1,05,03,000 ` 60,49,500
Cost of goods sold ` 30,00,000 ` 75,00,000 ` 45,00,000
Cost of bottles returned ` 60,000 `0 `0

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 a 5.38 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Number of purchase orders 360 840 360

placed
Number of deliveries received 300 2,190 660
Hours of shelf-stocking time 540 5,400 2,700
Items sold 1,26,000 11,04,000 3,06,000

Family store also provides the following information for the current year:

Activity Description of activity Total Cost Cost-allocation

base

Bottles Returning of empty ` 60,000 Direct tracing to

returns bottles soft drink line

Ordering Placing of orders for ` 7,80,000 1,560 purchase

purchases orders

Delivery Physical delivery and ` 12,60,000 3,150 deliveries

receipt of goods

Shelf Stocking of goods on ` 8,64,000 8,640 hours of

stocking store shelves and on- shelf-stocking time
going restocking

Customer Assistance provided to ` 15,36,000 15,36,000 items

Support customers including sold
check-out

Required:
(i) Family store currently allocates support cost (all cost other than cost of
goods sold) to product lines on the basis of cost of goods sold of each
product line. CALCULATE the operating income and operating income
as a % of revenues for each product line.
(ii) If Family Store allocates support costs (all costs other than cost of goods
sold) to product lines using and activity-based costing system,
CALCULATE the operating income and operating income as a % of
revenues for each product line.

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4. Alpha Limited has decided to analyse the profitability of its five new
customers. It buys bottled water at ` 90 per case and sells to retail customers
at a list price of ` 108 per case. The data pertaining to five customers are:

Customers

A B C D E

Cases sold 4,680 19,688 1,36,800 71,550 8,775

Listed Selling Price ` 108 ` 108 ` 108 ` 108 ` 108

Actual Selling Price ` 108 ` 106.20 ` 99 ` 104.40 ` 97.20
Number of 15 25 30 25 30
Purchase orders

Number of 2 3 6 2 3
Customer visits

Number of 10 30 60 40 20
deliveries

Kilometers 20 6 5 10 30
travelled per
delivery

Number of 0 0 0 0 1
expedited deliveries

Its five activities and their cost drivers are:

Activity Cost Driver Rate

Order taking ` 750 per purchase order

Customer visits ` 600 per customer visit

Deliveries ` 5.75 per delivery Km travelled

Product handling ` 3.75 per case sold

Expedited deliveries ` 2,250 per expedited delivery

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 a 5.40 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Required:
(i) COMPUTE the customer-level operating income of each of five retail
customers now being examined (A, B, C, D and E). Comment on the results.
(ii) STATE what insights are gained by reporting both the list selling price
and the actual selling price for each customer.
5. BABYSOFT is a global brand created by Bio-organic Ltd. The company
manufactures three ranges of beauty soaps i.e. BABYSOFT- Gold, BABYSOFT-
Pearl, and BABYSOFT- Diamond. The budgeted costs and production for the
month of December are as follows:

BABYSOFT- Gold BABYSOFT- Pearl BABYSOFT- Diamond

Production 4,000 3,000 2,000

of soaps
(Units)

Resources Qty Rate Qty Rate Qty Rate

per Unit:

Essential 60 ml ` 200 / 100 ml 55 ml ` 300 / 100 ml 65 ml ` 300 / 100 ml

Oils

Cocoa 20 g ` 200 / 100 g 20 g ` 200 / 100 g 20 g ` 200 / 100 g

Butter

Filtered 30 ml ` 15 / 100 ml 30 ml ` 15 / 100 ml 30 ml ` 15 / 100 ml

Water

Chemicals 10 g ` 30 / 100 g 12 g ` 50 / 100 g 15 g ` 60 / 100 g

Direct 30 ` 10 / hour 40 ` 10 / hour 60 ` 10 / hour

Labour minutes minutes minutes

Bio-organic Ltd. followed an Absorption Costing System and absorbed its

production overheads, to its products using direct labour hour rate, which
were budgeted at ` 1,98,000.
Now, Bio-organic Ltd. is considering adopting an Activity Based Costing
system. For this, additional information regarding budgeted overheads and
their cost drivers is provided below:

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.41
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Particulars (` ) Cost drivers

Forklifting cost 58,000 Weight of material lifted
Supervising cost 60,000 Direct labour hours
Utilities 80,000 Number of Machine operations
The number of machine operations per unit of production are 5, 5, and 6 for
BABYSOFT- Gold, BABYSOFT- Pearl, and BABYSOFT- Diamond respectively.
(Consider (i) Mass of 1 litre of Essential Oils and Filtered Water equivalent to
0.8 kg and 1 kg respectively (ii) Mass of output produced is equivalent to the
mass of input materials taken together.)
You are requested to:

(i) PREPARE a statement showing the unit costs and total costs of each
product using the absorption costing method.
(ii) PREPARE a statement showing the product costs of each product using
the ABC approach.
(iii) STATE what are the reasons for the different product costs under the
two approaches.

ANSWERS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (d)

7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (d)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 3
2. Please refer paragraph 1
3. Please refer paragraph 2, 5 and 7
4. Please refer paragraph 10
5. Please refer paragraph 6

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 a 5.42 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

6. Please refer paragraph 8

7. Please refer paragraph 9
8. Please refer paragraph 11
9. Please refer paragraph 11.2
10. Please refer paragraph 11.3

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. (i) Statement Showing “Cost per unit - Traditional Method”

Particulars of Costs P Q R
(`) (`) (`)

Direct Materials 90 80 120

Direct Labour [(4, 12, 8 hours)  ` 20] 80 240 160
Production Overheads [(10, 18, 14 hours)  ` 6] 60 108 84
Cost per unit 230 428 364
(ii) Statement Showing “Cost per unit - Activity Based Costing”

Products P Q R

Production (units) 3,000 5,000 20,000

(`) (`) (`)

Direct Materials (90, 80, 120) 2,70,000 4,00,000 24,00,000

Direct Labour (80, 240, 160) 2,40,000 12,00,000 32,00,000

Machine Related Costs @ ` 1.80 per

hour 54,000 1,62,000 5,04,000
(30,000, 90,000, 2,80,000)

Setup Costs @ ` 9,600 per setup

(20, 10, 20) 1,92,000 96,000 1,92,000

Inspection Costs @ ` 4,800 per

inspection 4,80,000 1,92,000 2,88,000

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 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.43
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Products P Q R

(100, 40, 60)

Purchase Related Costs @ ` 750 per

purchase (60, 100, 160) 45,000 75,000 1,20,000

Total Costs 12,81,000 21,25,000 67,04,000

Cost per unit (Total Cost  Units) 427.00 425.00 335.20

Workings
Number of Batches, Purchase Orders, and Inspections-

Particulars P Q R Total

A. Production (units) 3,000 5,000 20,000

B. Batch Size (units) 150 500 1,000
C. Number of Batches (A÷B) 20 10 20 50
D. Number of Purchase Order per
batch 3 10 8
E. Total Purchase Orders [C  D] 60 100 160 320
F. Number of Inspections per 5 4 3
batch
G. Total Inspections [C  F] 100 40 60 200
Total Machine Hours-

Particulars P Q R

A. Machine Hours per unit 10 18 14

B. Production (units) 3,000 5,000 20,000
C. Total Machine Hours [A  B] 30,000 90,000 2,80,000
Total Machine Hours = 4,00,000
Total Production Overheads-
= 4,00,000 hrs.  ` 6 = ` 24,00,000

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 a 5.44 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Cost Driver Rates-

Cost Pool % Overheads Cost Driver Cost Cost Driver

Basis Driver Rate
(`) (Units) (`)

Setup 20% 4,80,000 Number of 50 9,600 per

batches Setup

Inspection 40% 9,60,000 Number of 200 4,800 per

inspections Inspection

Purchases 10% 2,40,000 Number of 320 750 per

purchases Purchase

Machine 30% 7,20,000 Machine 4,00,000 1.80 per

Operation Hours Machine Hour

2. (i) RST Limited’s

Statement of operating income and gross margin percentage
for each of its three distribution channel

Particulars General Super Drugstore Chemist Shops Total

Market Chains
Chains

Revenues: (`) 2,80,41,750 2,38,21,875 1,49,73,750 6,68,37,375

(330 × ` 84,975) (825 × ` 28,875) (2,750 × ` 5,445)

Less: Cost of 2,72,25,000 2,26,87,500 1,36,12,500 635,25,000

goods sold: (330 × ` 82,500) (825 × ` 27,500) (2,750 × ` 4,950)
(`)

Gross Margin: 8,16,750 11,34,375 13,61,250 33,12,375

(`)

Less: Other
operating 8,27,970
costs: (`)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.45
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Operating 24,84,405
income: (`)

Gross Margin 2.91% 4.76 % 9.09% 4.96%

Operating 3.72
income %

(ii) Computation of rate per unit of the cost allocation base for
each of the five activity areas for the month of April

(`)

Customer purchase order processing 40 per order

(` 2,20,000/ 5,500 orders)
Line item ordering 3 per line item order
(` 1,75,560/ 58,520 line items)
Store delivery 50 per delivery
(` 1,95,250/ 3,905 store deliveries)
Cartons dispatched 1 per dispatch
(` 2,09,000/ 2,09,000 dispatches)
Shelf-stocking at customer store ( ` ) 16 Per hour
(` 28,160/ 1,760 hours)

(iii) Operating Income Statement of each distribution channel

in April (Using the Activity based Costing information)

General Drugstore Chemist

Super Chains Shops
Market
Chains
Gross margin (`) : (A) 8,16,750 11,34,375 13,61,250
(Refer to (i) part of the answer)
Operating cost (`): (B) 1,62,910 1,90,410 4,74,650
(Refer to working note)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 5.46 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Operating income (`): (A–B) 6,53,840 9,43,965 8,86,600

Operating income (in %) 2.33 3.96 5.92

(Operating income/ Revenue)
× 100

Comments and new insights: The activity-based cost information

highlights, how the ‘Chemist Shops’ uses a larger amount of RST Ltd.’s
resources per revenue than do the other two distribution channels.
Ratio of operating costs to revenues, across these markets is:

General supermarket chains 0.58%

(` 1,62,910/ ` 2,80,41,750) × 100
Drug store chains 0.80%
(` 1,90,410/ ` 2,38,21,875) × 100
Chemist shops 3.17%
(` 4,74,650/ ` 1,49,73,750) ×100

Working note:

Computation of operating cost of each distribution channel:

General Drugstore Chemist

Super Chains Shops
Market
(`) (`)
Chains (`)

Customer 15,400 39,600 1,65,000

purchase order (` 40 × 385 (` 40 × 990 (` 40 ×4125
processing orders) orders) orders)
Line item 16,170 35,640 1,23,750
ordering (` 3 × 14 x (` 3 × 12 x (` 3 × 10 ×
385) 990) 4125)
Store delivery 16,500 41,250 1,37,500
(` 50 × 330 (` 50 × 825 (` 50 × 2750
deliveries) deliveries) deliveries)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.47
5.47
a

Cartons 99,000 66,000 44,000

dispatched ( ` 1× 300 ( ` 1 × 80 ( ` 1 × 16
cartons × 300 cartons × cartons ×
deliveries) 825 2,750
deliveries) deliveries)
Shelf stocking 15,840 7,920 4,400
(` 16 × 330 (` 16 × 825 (` 16 × 2,750
deliveries × 3 deliveries × deliveries ×
Av. hrs.) 0.6 Av. hrs) 0.1 Av. hrs)
Operating cost 1,62,910 1,90,410 4,74,650

(iv) Challenges faced in assigning total operating cost of ` 8,27,970:

• Choosing an appropriate cost driver for activity area.
• Developing a reliable data base for the chosen cost driver.
• Deciding, how to handle costs that may be common across
several activities.
• Choice of the time period to compute cost rates per cost driver.
• Behavioural factors
3. Working notes:
1. Total support cost:

(`)

Bottles returns 60,000

Ordering 7,80,000

Delivery 12,60,000

Shelf stocking 8,64,000

Customer support 15,36,000

Total support cost 45,00,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 5.48 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2. Percentage of support cost to cost of goods sold (COGS):

Total support cost
= ×100
Total cost of goods sold
` 45,00,000
= ×100 = 30%
` 1,50,00,000

3. Cost for each activity cost driver:

Activity Total cost Cost Cost driver rate

(1) (`) allocation (4)=[(2)÷(3)]
(2) base
(3)
Ordering 7,80,000 1,560 purchase ` 500 per
orders purchase order
Delivery 12,60,000 3,150 ` 400 per delivery
deliveries
Shelf-stocking 8,64,000 8,640 hours ` 100 per stocking
hour
Customer 15,36,000 15,36,000 ` 1 per item sold
support items sold
(i) Statement of Operating income and Operating income as a
percentage of revenues for each product line
(When support costs are allocated to product lines on the basis of cost of
goods sold of each product)

Soft Fresh Packaged Total (`)

Drinks (`) Produce Foods (`)
(`)

Revenues: (A) 39,67,500 1,05,03,000 60,49,500 2,05,20,000

Cost of Goods sold 30,00,000 75,00,000 45,00,000 1,50,00,000

(COGS): (B)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.49
5.49
a

Support cost (30% of 9,00,000 22,50,000 13,50,000 45,00,000

COGS): (C)
(Refer working notes)

Total cost: (D) = {(B) + 39,00,000 97,50,000 58,50,000 1,95,00,000

(C)}

Operating income: E= 67,500 7,53,000 1,99,500 10,20,000

{(A)-(D)}

Operating income as a 1.70% 7.17% 3.30% 4.97%

percentage of revenues:
(E/A) × 100)

(ii) Statement of Operating income and Operating income as a

percentage of revenues for each product line
(When support costs are allocated to product lines using an activity-
based costing system)

Soft Fresh Packaged Total

drinks Produce Food (`)
(`) (`) (`)

Revenues: (A) 39,67,500 1,05,03,000 60,49,500 2,05,20,000

Cost & Goods sold 30,00,000 75,00,000 45,00,000 1,50,00,000

Bottle return costs 60,000 0 0 60,000

Ordering cost* 1,80,000 4,20,000 1,80,000 7,80,000

(360:840:360)

Delivery cost* 1,20,000 8,76,000 2,64,000 12,60,000

(300:2190:660)

Shelf stocking cost* 54,000 5,40,000 2,70,000 8,64,000

(540:5400:2700)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 5.50 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Customer Support cost* 1,26,000 11,04,000 3,06,000 15,36,000

(1,26,000:11,04,000:
3,06,000)
Total cost: (B) 35,40,000 1,04,40,000 55,20,000 1,95,00,000
Operating income C:{(A)- 4,27,500 63,000 5,29,500 10,20,000
(B)}
Operating income as a % 10.78% 0.60% 8.75% 4.97%
of revenues
* Refer to working note 3
4. Working note:
Computation of revenues (at listed price), discount, cost of goods sold
and customer level operating activities costs:

Customers

A B C D E

Cases sold: 4,680 19,688 1,36,800 71,550 8,775

(a)
Revenues 5,05,440 21,26,304 1,47,74,400 77,27,400 9,47,700
(at listed
price) (`):
(b)
{(a) × `
108)}
Discount - 35,438 12,31,200 2,57,580 94,770
( ` ): (c)
(19,688 (1,36,800 (71,550 (8,775
{(a) ×
cases × cases × cases × cases ×
Discount
` 1.80) ` 9) ` 3.60) ` 10.80)
per case}
Cost of 4,21,200 17,71,920 1,23,12,000 64,39,500 7,89,750
goods sold
(`) : (d)
{(a) × ` 90}

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.51
5.51
a

Customer level operating activities costs

Order 11,250 18,750 22,500 18,750 22,500
taking costs
(`):
(No. of
purchase ×
`750)
Customer 1,200 1,800 3,600 1,200 1,800
visits costs
(`)
(No. of
customer
visits ×
` 600)

Delivery 1,150 1,035 1,725 2,300 3,450

vehicles (5.75 x
(5.75 x 30 x (5.75 x 60x 5) (5.75 x 40 x (5.75 x 20
travel costs 10x20)
6) 10) x 30)
(`)

(` 5.75 per
km)

(Kms
travelled by
delivery
vehicles ×
` 5.75 per
km.)

Product 17,550 73,830 5,13,000 2,68,313 32,906

handling
costs (`)

{(a) ×` 3.75}

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 5.52 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Cost of - - - - 2,250
expediting
deliveries (`)

{No. of
expedited
deliveries ×
` 2,250}

Total cost of 31,150 95,415 5,40,825 2,90,563 62,906

customer
level
operating
activities (`)

(i) Computation of Customer level operating income

Customers
A (`) B (`) C (`) D (`) E (`)
Revenues 5,05,440 21,26,304 1,47,74,400 77,27,400 9,47,700
(At list price)
(Refer to
working note)
Less: Discount - 35,438 12,31,200 2,57,580 94,770
(Refer to
working note)
Revenue 5,05,440 20,90,866 1,35,43,200 74,69,820 8,52,930
(At actual
price)
Less: Cost of 4,21,200 17,71,920 1,23,12,000 64,39,500 7,89,750
goods sold
(Refer to
working note)
Gross margin 84,240 3,18,946 12,31,200 10,30,320 63,180

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.53
5.53
a

Less: 31,150 95,415 5,40,825 2,90,563 62,906

Customer
level
operating
activities costs
(Refer to
working note)

Customer 53,090 2,23,531 6,90,375 7,39,757 274

level
operating
income

Comment on the results:

Customer D is the most profitable customer. D’s profits are even

higher than C (whose revenue is the highest) despite having only
52.30% of the unit volume of customer C. The main reason is that C
receives a discount of ` 9 per case while customer D receives only a
` 3.60 discount per case.

Customer E is the least profitable. The profits of E is even less than A

(whose revenue is least) Customer E received a discount of ` 10.80 per
case, makes more frequent orders, requires more customer visits and
requires more delivery kms. in comparison with customer A.

(ii) Insight gained by reporting both the list selling price and the
actual selling price for each customer:

Separate reporting of both-the listed and actual selling prices enables

Alpha Ltd. to examine which customer has received what discount per
case, whether the discount received has any relationship with the sales
volume. The data given below provides us with the following
information;

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 5.54 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Sales volume Discount per case (`)

C (1,36,800 cases) 9.00

D (71,550 cases) 3.60

B (19,688 cases) 1.80

E (8,775 cases) 10.80

A (4,680 cases) 0
The above data clearly shows that the discount given to customers per
case has a direct relationship with sales volume, except in the case of
customer E. The reasons for ` 10.80 discount per case for customer E
should be explored.
5. (i) Traditional Absorption Costing

BABYSOFT- BABYSOFT- BABYSOFT- Total

Gold Pearl Diamond

(a) Production of soaps 4,000 3,000 2,000 9,000

(Units)

(b) Direct labour 30 40 60 -

(minutes)

(c) Direct labour hours 2,000 2,000 2,000 6,000

(a × b)/60 minutes
Overhead rate per direct labour hour:
= Budgeted overheads  Budgeted labour hours
= ` 1,98,000  6,000 hours
= ` 33 per direct labour hour

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.55
5.55
a

Unit Costs:

BABYSOFT- BABYSOFT- BABYSOFT-

Gold (`) Pearl (`) Diamond (`)

Direct Costs:

- Direct Labour 5.00 6.67 10.00

 10×30   10×40   10×60 
     
 60   60   60 

- Direct Material 167.50 215.50 248.50

(Refer working
note1)

Production Overhead 16.50 22.00 33.00

 33×30   33×40   33×60 
     
 60   60   60 

Total unit costs 189.00 244.17 291.50

Number of units 4,000 3,000 2,000

Total costs 7,56,000 7,32,510 5,83,000

Working note-1
Calculation of Direct material cost

BABYSOFT- BABYSOFT- BABYSOFT-

Gold (`) Pearl (`) Diamond (`)

120.00 165.00 195.00

Essential oils  200×60   300×55   300×65 
     
 100   100   100 

40.00 40.00 40.00

Cocoa Butter  200×20   200×20   200×20 
     
 100   100   100 

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 5.56 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Filtered 4.50 4.50 4.50

water  15×30   15×30   15×30 
     
 100   100   100 

Chemicals 3.00 6.00 9.00

 30×10   50×12   60×15 
     
 100   100   100 

Total costs 167.50 215.50 248.50

(ii) Activity Based Costing

BABYSOFT- BABYSOFT- BABYSOFT- Total

Gold Pearl Diamond

Quantity (units) 4,000 3,000 2,000 -

Weight per unit 108 106 117 -

(grams) {(60×0.8)+20+ {(55×0.8)+20 {(65×0.8)+20+
30+10} +30+12} 30+15}

Total weight 4,32,000 3,18,000 2,34,000 9,84,000

(grams)

Direct labour 30 40 60 -
(minutes)

Direct labour 2,000 2,000 2,000 6,000

hours  4,000×30   3,000×40   2,000×60 
     
 60   60   60 
Machine 5 5 6 -
operations per
unit

Total 20,000 15,000 12,000 47,000

operations
Forklifting rate per gram = ` 58,000  9,84,000 grams
= ` 0.06 per gram

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 ACTIVITY BASED COSTING 5.57
5.57
a

Supervising rate per direct = ` 60,000  6,000 hours

labour hour = ` 10 per labour hour

Utilities rate per machine

operations = ` 80,000  47,000 machine operations
= ` 1.70 per machine operations
Unit Costs under ABC:

BABYSOFT- BABYSOFT- BABYSOFT-

Gold (`) Pearl (`) Diamond (`)

Direct Costs:

- Direct Labour 5.00 6.67 10.00

- Direct material 167.50 215.50 248.50

Production Overheads:

- Forklifting cost 6.48 6.36 7.02

(0.06  108) (0.06  106) (0.06  117)

- Supervising cost 5.00 6.67 10.00

 10×30   10×40   10×60 
     
 60   60   60 

Utilities 8.50 8.50 10.20

(1.70  5) (1.70  5) (1.70  6)

Total unit costs 192.48 243.70 285.72

Number of units 4,000 3,000 2,000

Total costs 7,69,920 7,31,100 5,71,440

(iii) Comments: The difference in the total costs under the two systems is
due to the differences in the overheads borne by each of the products.
The Activity Based Costs appear to be more accurate

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India
 CHAPTER
6

COST SHEET
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you would be able to-
♦ Classify and ascertain Cost on the basis of function.
♦ Prepare Cost Sheet/statement for production of goods and
providing of services.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Cost Sheet

Functional Head of Costs in Format of Cost Advantages of

Classification Cost Sheet Sheet Cost Sheet

1. INTRODUCTION
One of the objectives of cost accounting system is ascertainment of cost for a
cost object. The cost objects may be a product, service or any cost centre.
Ascertainment of cost includes elementwise collection of costs, accumulation
of the costs so collected for a certain volume or period and then arrange all
these accumulated costs into a sheet to calculate total cost for the cost
object. In this chapter, a product or a service will be the cost object for cost
calculation and cost ascertainment.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

A Cost Sheet or Cost Statement is “a document which provides a detailed

cost information. In a typical cost sheet, cost information are presented on the
basis of functional classification. However, other classification may also be
adopted as per the requirements of users of the information.

2. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

OF COST
Under this classification, costs are divided according to the function for which
they have been incurred. The following are the classification of costs based on
functions:

(i) Production/ Manufacturing Cost

(ii) Administration Cost

(iii) Selling Cost

(iv) Distribution Cost

(v) Research and Development costs etc.

3. COST HEADS IN A COST SHEET

The costs as classified on the basis of functions are grouped into the following
cost heads in a cost sheet:

(i) Prime Cost

(ii) Cost of Production

(iii) Cost of Goods Sold

(iv) Cost of Sales

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.3

3.1 Prime Cost

Prime cost represents the total of direct materials costs, direct employee
(labour) costs and direct expenses. The total of cost for each element has to be
calculated separately.

Direct Material Cost xxx

Direct Employees (labour) Cost xxx
Direct Expenses xxx
Prime Cost: xxxx

(i) Direct Material Cost: It is the cost of direct material consumed. The cost of
direct material consumed is calculated as follows:

Opening Stock of Material xxx

Add: Additions/ Purchases xxx
Less: Closing stock of Material (xxx)
Direct materials consumed xxxx

The valuation of materials purchased and issued for production shall be

done as per methods discussed in the ‘Chapter- 2 Material Cost’. Few
examples are:
(a) Cost of material;
(b) Freight inwards;

(c) Insurance and other expenditure directly attributable to

procurement;
(d) Trade discounts or rebates (to be deducted);
(e) Duties & Taxes (if input tax credit is not available/ availed) etc.
(ii) Direct Employee (Labour) Cost: It is the total of payment made to the
employees who are engaged in the production of goods and provision of
services. Employee cost is also known as labour cost; it includes the
following:
(a) Wages and salary;

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.4 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(b) Allowances and incentives;

(c) Payment for overtimes;
(d) Bonus/ ex-gratia;
(e) Employer’s contribution to welfare funds such as Provident fund and
other similar funds;
(f) Other benefits (medical, leave with pay, free or subsidised food,
leave travel concession and provisions for retirement benefits) etc.
(iii) Direct Expenses: Expenses other than direct material cost and direct
employee cost, which are incurred to manufacture a product or for
provision of service and can be directly traced in an economically feasible
manner to a cost object. The following costs are examples for direct
expenses:
(a) Cost of utilities such as power & fuel, steam etc.;
(b) Royalty paid/ payable for production or provision of service;

(c) Hire charges paid for hiring specific equipment;

(d) Fee for technical assistance and know-how;
(e) Amortised cost of moulds, patterns, patents etc.;
(f) Cost for product/ service specific design or drawing;
(g) Cost of product/ service specific software;
(h) Other expenses which are directly related with the production of
goods or provision of service.

3.2 Cost of Production

In a conventional cost sheet, this item of cost can be seen. It is the total of
prime cost and factory related costs and overheads.

Prime Cost xxx

Add : Factory Overheads xxx
Gross Works Costs xxxx
Add: Opening stock of Work-in-process xxx

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.5

Less: Closing stock of Work-in-process (xxx)

Factory or Works Costs xxxx
Add: Quality Control Cost xxx
Add: Research & Development cost (Process related) xxx
Add: Administrative Overheads related with production xxx
Less: Credit for recoveries (miscellaneous income) (xxx)
Add: Packing Cost (Primary packing) xxx
Cost of Production xxxx

(i) Factory Overheads: It is also known as works/production/ manufacturing

overheads. It includes the following indirect costs:
(a) Consumable stores and spares;
(b) Depreciation of plant and machinery, factory building etc.
(c) Lease rent of production assets;
(d) Repair and maintenance of plant and machinery, factory building etc.
(e) Indirect employees cost related with production activities;
(f) Drawing and Designing department cost;
(g) Insurance of plant and machinery, factory building, stock of raw
material & WIP etc.
(h) Amortized cost of jigs, fixtures, tooling etc.
(i) Service department cost such as Tool Room, Engineering &
Maintenance, Pollution Control etc.
(ii) Stock of Work-in-process: The cost of opening and closing stock of work-
in-process (WIP) is adjusted to arrive at factory/ works cost. The WIP stock is
valued on the basis of percentage of completion in respect of each element
of cost. Students may refer the ‘Chapter- Process & Operation Costing’ to
know the WIP valuation methods.
(iii) Quality Control Cost: This is the cost of resources consumed towards
quality control procedures.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(iv) Research & Development Cost: It includes only those research and
development related cost which is incurred for the improvement of process,
system, product or services.

(v) Administrative Overheads: It includes only those administration overheads

which are related to production. The general administration overhead is
not included in production cost.

(vi) Credit for Recoveries: The realised or realisable value of scrap or waste is
deducted as it reduces the cost of production.

(vii) Packing Cost (primary): Packing material which is essential to hold and
preserve the product for its use by the customer.

(viii) Joint Products and By-Products: Joint costs are allocated between/among
the products on a rational and consistent basis. In case of by-products, the
net realisable value of by-products is deducted from the cost of production.

3.3 Cost of Goods Sold

It is the cost of production for goods sold. It is calculated after adjusting the
values of opening and closing stocks of finished goods. It can be calculated as below:

Cost of Production xxx

Add: Cost of Opening stock of finished goods xxx

Less: Cost of Closing stock of finished goods (xxx)

Cost of Goods Sold xxxx

3.4 Cost of Sales

It is the total cost of a product incurred to make the product available to the
customer or consumer. It includes Cost of goods sold, administration and
marketing expenses. It is calculated as below:

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.7

Cost of Goods Sold xxx

Add: Administrative Overheads (General) xxx

Add: Selling Overheads xxx

Add: Packing Cost (secondary) xxx

Add: Distribution Overheads xxx

Cost of Sales xxxx

(i) Administrative Overheads: It is the cost related with general

administration of the entity. It includes the followings:
(a) Depreciation and maintenance of, building, furniture etc. of corporate
or general management.
(b) Salary of administrative employees, accountants, directors, secretaries
etc.
(c) Rent, rates & taxes, insurance, lighting, office expenses etc.

(d) Indirect materials- printing and stationery, office supplies etc.

(e) Legal charges, audit fees, corporate office expenses like directors’
sitting fees, remuneration and commission, meeting expenses etc.
(ii) Selling Overheads: It is the cost related with sale of products or services.
It includes the following costs:
(a) Salary and wages related with sales department and employees
directly related with selling of goods.
(b) Rent, depreciation, maintenance and other cost related with sales
department.
(c) Cost of advertisement, maintenance of website for online sales,
market research etc.
(iii) Packing Cost (secondary): Packing material that enables to store,
transport, inform the customer, promote and otherwise make the product
marketable.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(iv) Distribution Overheads: It includes the cost related with making the
goods available to the customers. The costs are :

(a) Salary and wages of employees engaged in distribution of goods.

(b) Transportation and insurance costs related with distribution.
(c) Depreciation, hire charges, maintenance and other operating costs
related with distribution vehicles etc.

4. COST SHEET/STATEMENT
4.1 Presentation of Cost Information
The cost items in the cost statement shall be presented on ‘basis of relevant
classification’.

Specimen Format of Cost Sheet for a Manufacturing entity

Particulars Total Cost per

Cost (`) unit (`)
1. Direct materials consumed:
Opening Stock of Raw Material xxx
Add: Additions/ Purchases xxx
Less: Closing stock of Raw Material xxx
xxx
2. Direct employee (labour) cost xxx
3. Direct expenses xxx
4. Prime Cost (1+2+3) xxx
5. Add: Works/ Factory Overheads xxx
6. Gross Works Cost (4+5) xxx
7. Add: Opening Work in Process xxx
8. Less: Closing Work in Process (xxx)
9. Works/ Factory Cost (6+7-8) xxx
10. Add: Quality Control Cost xxx
11. Add: Research and Development Cost xxx

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.9

12. Add: Administrative Overheads (relating to xxx

production activity)
13. Less: Credit for Recoveries/Scrap/By-Products/ (xxx)
misc. income
14. Add: Packing cost (primary) xxx
15. Cost of Production (9+10+11+12-13+14) xxx
16. Add: Opening stock of finished goods xxx
17. Less: Closing stock of finished goods (xxx)
18. Cost of Goods Sold (15+16-17) xxx
19. Add: Administrative Overheads (General) xxx
20. Add: Marketing Overheads :
Selling Overheads xxx
Distribution Overheads xxx
21. Cost of Sales (18+19+20) xxx

Cost sheet/statement for services is also prepared but the format and
presentation may differ as per the information requirement. Format and
presentation has been discussed in “Service Costing” chapter.

4.2 Treatment of various items of Cost in Cost

Sheet/Statement
(i) Abnormal costs: Any abnormal cost, where it is material and quantifiable,
shall not form part of cost of production or acquisition or supply of goods
or provision of service. Examples of abnormal costs are:
(a) Cost pertaining to or arising out of a pandemic e.g. COVID-19
(b) Cost associated with employees due to sudden lockdown.
(ii) Subsidy/Grant/Incentives: Any such type of payment received/ receivable
are reduced from the cost objects to which such amount pertains.
(iii) Penalty, fine, damages, and demurrage: These types of expenses are not
form part of cost.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(iv) Interest and other finance costs: Interest, including any payment in the
nature of interest for use of non-equity funds and incidental cost that an
entity incurs in arranging those funds. Interest and finance charges are not
included in cost of production. Interest and Financing Charges shall be
presented in the cost statement as a separate item of cost of sales.

4.3 Advantages of Cost Sheet or Cost Statements

The main advantages of a Cost Sheet are as follows:

(i) It provides the total cost figure as well as cost per unit of production.
(ii) It helps in cost comparison.
(iii) It facilitates the preparation of cost estimates required for submitting
tenders.
(iv) It provides sufficient help in arriving at the figure of selling price.
(v) It facilitates cost control by disclosing operational efficiency.

ILLUSTRATION 1
The following data relates to the manufacture of a standard product during the
month of April:

Particulars (`)

Raw materials ` 1,80,000

Direct wages ` 90,000
Machine hours worked (hours) 10,000

Machine hour rate (per hour) `8

Administration overheads (general) ` 35,000
Selling overheads (per unit) `5
Units produced 4,000

Units sold 3,600

Selling price per unit ` 125

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.11

You are required to PREPARE a cost sheet in respect of the above showing:
(i) Cost per unit
(ii) Profit for the month

SOLUTION
(i) Cost Sheet Output: 4,000 units

Particulars Total Cost per

Cost (`) (unit) (`)

Raw materials 1,80,000 45.00

Direct wages 90,000 22.50

Prime cost 2,70,000 67.50

Add: Factory overheads (10,000 hrs × ` 8 per hour) 80,000 20.00

Cost of Production 3,50,000 87.50

Less: Closing Stock of finished goods (4,000 – (35,000) --

3,600 units)

Cost of Goods Sold 3,15,000 87.50

Add: Administration overheads (general) 35,000 9.72

Add: Selling Overheads (3,600 units × ` 5 unit) 18,000 5.00

Cost of sales (total Cost) 3,68,000 102.22

(ii) Statement of Profit

Particulars Total Cost (`)

Sales revenue (3,600 units @ ` 125) 4,50,000

Less: Cost of sales 3,68,000

Profit 82,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 2
The following information has been obtained from the records of ABC
Corporation for the period from June 1 to June 30.

On June 1 On June 30
(`) (`)

Cost of raw materials 60,000 50,000

Cost of work-in-process 12,000 15,000

Cost of stock of finished goods 90,000 1,10,000

Purchase of raw materials during June 2020 4,80,000

Wages paid 2,40,000

Factory overheads 1,00,000

Administration overheads (related to 50,000

production)

Selling & distribution overheads 25,000

Sales 10,00,000

PREPARE a statement giving the following information:

(a) Raw materials consumed;
(b) Prime cost;
(c) Factory cost;
(d) Cost of goods sold; and
(e) Net profit.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.13

SOLUTION
Statement of Cost & Profit
(for the month of June)

(`)

Opening stock of raw materials 60,000

Add: Purchase of raw materials during the month of June 4,80,000

Less: Closing stock of raw materials (50,000)

(a) Raw materials consumed 4,90,000

Add: Direct wages 2,40,000

(b) Prime cost 7,30,000

Add: Factory overheads 1,00,000

Works cost 8,30,000

Add: Opening work-in-process 12,000

Less: Closing work-in-process (15,000)

(c) Factory cost 8,27,000

Add: Administration overheads 50,000

Cost of production 8,77,000

Add: Opening stock of finished goods 90,000

Less: Closing stock of finished goods (1,10,000)

(d) Cost of goods sold 8,57,000

Add: Selling & distribution overheads 25,000

Cost of sales 8,82,000

(e) Net Profit 1,18,000

Sales 10,00,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 3
Arnav Inspat Udyog Ltd. has the following expenditures for the year ended 31st
March 2023:

Sl. (` ) (` )
No.

(i) Raw materials purchased 10,00,00,000

(ii) GST paid on the above purchases @18% 1,80,00,000

(eligible for input tax credit)

(iii) Freight inwards 11,20,600

(iv) Wages paid to factory workers 29,20,000

(v) Contribution made towards employees’

PF & ESIS 3,60,000

(vi) Production bonus paid to factory workers 2,90,000

(vii) Royalty paid for production 1,72,600

(viii) Amount paid for power & fuel 4,62,000

(ix) Amount paid for purchase of moulds and

patterns (life is equivalent to two years
production) 8,96,000

(x) Job charges paid to job workers 8,12,000

(xi) Stores and spares consumed 1,12,000

(xii) Depreciation on:

Factory building 84,000

Office building 56,000

Plant & Machinery 1,26,000

Delivery vehicles 86,000 3,52,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.15

(xiii) Salary paid to supervisors 1,26,000

(xiv) Repairs & Maintenance paid for:

Plant & Machinery 48,000

Sales office building 18,000

Vehicles used by directors 19,600 85,600

(xv) Insurance premium paid for:

Plant & Machinery 31,200

Factory building 18,100

Stock of raw materials & WIP 36,000 85,300

(xvi) Expenses paid for quality control check

activities 19,600

(xvii) Salary paid to quality control staffs 96,200

(xviii) Research & development cost paid for

improvement in production process 18,200

(xix) Expenses paid for pollution control and

engineering & maintenance 26,600

(xx) Expenses paid for administration of

factory work 1,18,600

(xxi) Salary paid to functional mangers:

Production control 9,60,000

Finance & Accounts 9,18,000

Sales & Marketing 10,12,000 28,90,000

(xxii) Salary paid to General Manager 12,56,000

(xxiii) Packing cost paid for:

Primary packing necessary to maintain

quality 96,000

For re-distribution of finished goods 1,12,000 2,08,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(xxiv) Interest and finance charges paid (for

usage of non- equity fund) 7,20,000
(xxv) Fee paid to auditors 1,80,000
(xxvi) Fee paid to legal advisors 1,20,000
(xxvii) Fee paid to independent directors 2,20,000
(xxviii) Performance bonus paid to sales staffs 1,80,000
(xxix) Value of stock as on 1st April, 2022:
Raw materials 18,00,000
Work-in-process 9,20,000
Finished goods 11,00,000 38,20,000
(xxx) Value of stock as on 31st March, 2023:
Raw materials 9,60,000
Work-in-process 8,70,000
Finished goods 18,00,000 36,30,000

Amount realized by selling of scrap and waste generated during manufacturing

process – ` 86,000/-
From the above data you are required to PREPARE Statement of cost for Arnav Ispat
Udyog Ltd. for the year ended 31st March, 2023, showing (i) Prime cost, (ii) Factory
cost, (iii) Cost of Production, (iv) Cost of goods sold and (v) Cost of sales.
SOLUTION
Statement of Cost of Arnav Ispat Udyog Ltd. for the year ended 31st March,
2023:

Sl. Particulars (`) (`)

No.
(i) Material Consumed:
Raw materials purchased 10,00,00,000
Freight inwards 11,20,600
Add: Opening stock of raw materials 18,00,000
Less: Closing stock of raw materials (9,60,000) 10,19,60,600

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.17

(ii) Direct employee (labour) cost:

Wages paid to factory workers 29,20,000
Contribution made towards employees’ PF
& ESIS 3,60,000
Production bonus paid to factory workers 2,90,000 35,70,000
(iii) Direct expenses:
Royalty paid for production 1,72,600
Amount paid for power & fuel 4,62,000
Amortised cost of moulds and patterns 4,48,000
Job charges paid to job workers 8,12,000 18,94,600
Prime Cost 10,74,25,200
(iv) Works/ Factory overheads:
Stores and spares consumed 1,12,000
Depreciation on factory building 84,000
Depreciation on plant & machinery 1,26,000
Repairs & Maintenance paid for plant &
machinery 48,000
Insurance premium paid for plant &
machinery 31,200
Insurance premium paid for factory
building 18,100
Insurance premium paid for stock of raw
materials & WIP 36,000
Salary paid to supervisors 1,26,000
Expenses paid for pollution control and
engineering & maintenance 26,600 6,07,900
Gross factory cost 10,80,33,100
Add: Opening value of W-I-P 9,20,000
Less: Closing value of W-I-P (8,70,000)
Factory Cost 10,80,83,100

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.18 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(v) Quality control cost:

Expenses paid for quality control check
activities 19,600
Salary paid to quality control staffs 96,200 1,15,800
(vi) Research & development cost paid for
improvement in production process 18,200
(vii) Administration cost related with
production:
-Expenses paid for administration of
factory work 1,18,600
-Salary paid to Production control manager 9,60,000 10,78,600
(viii) Less: Realisable value on sale of scrap and
waste (86,000)
(ix) Add: Primary packing cost 96,000
Cost of Production 10,93,05,700
Add: Opening stock of finished goods 11,00,000
Less: Closing stock of finished goods (18,00,000)
Cost of Goods Sold 10,86,05,700
(x) Administrative overheads:
Depreciation on office building 56,000
Repairs & Maintenance paid for vehicles
used by directors 19,600
Salary paid to Manager- Finance &
Accounts 9,18,000
Salary paid to General Manager 12,56,000
Fee paid to auditors 1,80,000
Fee paid to legal advisors 1,20,000
Fee paid to independent directors 2,20,000 27,69,600

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.19

(xi) Selling overheads:

Repairs & Maintenance paid for sales office
building 18,000
Salary paid to Manager- Sales & Marketing 10,12,000
Performance bonus paid to sales staffs 1,80,000 12,10,000
(xii) Distribution overheads:
Depreciation on delivery vehicles 86,000
(xiii) Packing cost paid for re-distribution of
finished goods 1,12,000 1,98,000
(xiv) Interest and finance charges paid 7,20,000
Cost of Sales 11,35,03,300

Note:
GST paid on purchase of raw materials would not be part of cost of materials as it
is eligible for input tax credit.

SUMMARY
♦ Cost Sheet: A Cost Sheet or Cost Statement is “a document which provides a
detailed cost information. In a typical cost sheet, cost information are
presented on the basis of functional classification. However, other classification
may also be adopted as per the requirements of users of the information.
♦ Direct Expenses: Expenses other than direct material cost and direct
employee cost, which are incurred to manufacture a product or for
provision of service and can be directly traced in an economically feasible
manner to a cost object.
♦ Prime Cost: Prime cost represents the total of direct materials costs, direct
employee (labour) costs and direct expenses.
♦ Cost of Production: Cost of production consists of cost of materials
consumed, direct employee (labour) costs, direct expenses, production
overheads, quality control costs, primary packing cost, R&D and
administration cost relating to production.

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 6.20 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

♦ Primary Packing Cost: Cost incurred on packing materials which are

essential to hold and preserve the product for further processing or its use
by consumer.
♦ Secondary Packing Cost: Cost incurred on packing materials which is used
to store, transport, and promote the product.
♦ Cost of Goods Sold: Cost of production adjusted with opening and closing
inventories of finished goods.
♦ Administrative overheads: Cost incurred of all activities relating to general
management and administration of an entity.
♦ Marketing overheads: Marketing overheads comprise of selling overheads
and distribution overheads.
♦ Selling Overheads: Expenses related to sale of products or services.
♦ Distribution overheads: Costs incurred in handling a product or service
from the time it is ready to dispatch or delivery until it reaches the ultimate
consumer.
♦ Cost of Sales: It is the total cost of a product incurred to make the product
available to the customer or consumer. It is the aggregate of cost of goods
sold, administrative costs, marketing costs and other separate line items of
cost which could not form part of cost of production.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Generally, for the purpose of cost sheet preparation, costs are classified on the
basis of:
(a) Functions
(b) Variability

(c) Relevance
(d) Nature

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.21

2. Which of the following does not form part of prime cost:

(a) Cost of packing
(b) Cost of transportation paid to bring materials to factory
(c) GST paid on raw materials (input credit cannot be claimed)
(d) Overtime premium paid to workers.
3. A Ltd. received an order, for which it purchased a special frame for
manufacturing, it is a part of:
(a) Direct Materials
(b) Direct expenses
(c) Factory Overheads
(d) Administration Overheads

4. Salary paid to plant supervisor is a part of

(a) Direct expenses
(b) Factory overheads
(c) Quality control cost
(d) Administration cost
5. Depreciation of director’s laptop is treated as a part of:
(a) Administration Overheads
(b) Factory Overheads
(c) Direct Expenses

(d) Research & Development cost.

6. A manufacture has set-up a lab for testing of products for compliance with
standards, salary of this lab staffs are part of:
(a) Works overheads
(b) Quality Control Cost
(c) Direct Expenses
(d) Research & Development Cost.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

7. Audit fees paid to auditors is part of:

(a) Administration Cost
(b) Production cost
(c) Selling & Distribution cost
(d) Not shown in cost sheet.
8. Salary paid to factory store staff is part of:
(a) Factory overheads
(b) Production Cost
(c) Direct Employee cost
(d) Direct Material Cost.
9. Canteen expenses for factory workers are part of:
(a) Factory overhead
(b) Administration Cost
(c) Marketing cost
(d) None of the above.
10. A company pays royalty to State Government on the basis of production, it is
treated as:

(a) Direct Material Cost

(b) Factory Overheads
(c) Direct Expenses
(d) Administration cost.

Theoretical Questions
1. DESCRIBE how costs are classified on the basis of function.
2. EXPLAIN the treatment of administration overheads.
3. STATE the advantages of a cost sheet.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.23

Practical Problems
1. The books of Adarsh Manufacturing Company present the following data for
the month of April:
Direct labour cost ` 17,500 being 175% of works overheads.
Cost of goods sold excluding administrative expenses ` 56,000.
Inventory accounts showed the following opening and closing balances:

April 1 (`) April 30 (`)

Raw materials 8,000 10,600
Work-in-progress 10,500 14,500
Finished goods 17,600 19,000

Other data are:

(` )

Selling expenses 3,500

General and administration expenses 2,500

Sales for the month 75,000

You are required to:

(i) FIND out the value of materials purchased.
(ii) PREPARE a cost statement showing the various elements of cost and
also the profit earned.
2. From the following particulars, you are required to PREPARE monthly cost
sheet of Aditya Industries:

(` )
Opening Inventories:
- Raw materials 12,00,000
- Work-in-process 18,00,000
- Finished goods (10,000 units) 9,60,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.24 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Closing Inventories:
- Raw materials 14,00,000
- Work-in-process 16,04,000
- Finished goods ?
Raw materials purchased 1,44,00,000
GST paid on raw materials purchased (ITC 7,20,000
available)
Wages paid to production workers 36,64,000
Expenses paid for utilities 1,45,600
Office and administration expenses paid 26,52,000
Travelling allowance paid to office staffs 1,21,000
Selling expenses 6,46,000

Machine hours worked- 21,600 hours

Machine hour rate- ` 8.00 per hour
Units sold- 1,60,000
Units produced- 1,94,000
Desired profit- 15% on sales
3. A Ltd. Co. has capacity to produce 1,00,000 units of a product every month. Its
works cost at varying levels of production is as under:

Level Works cost per unit (`)

10% 400
20% 390
30% 380
40% 370
50% 360
60% 350
70% 340
80% 330
90% 320
100% 310

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.25

Its fixed administration expenses amount to `1,50,000 and fixed marketing

expenses amount to `2,50,000 per month respectively. The variable
distribution cost amounts to ` 30 per unit.
It can sell 100% of its output at `500 per unit provided it incurs the following
further expenditure:
(a) it gives gift items costing ` 30 per unit of sale;
(b) it has lucky draws every month giving the first prize of ` 50,000; 2nd
prize of ` 25,000, 3rd prize of ` 10,000 and three consolation prizes of `
5,000 each to customers buying the product.
(c) it spends `1,00,000 on refreshments served every month to its
customers;

(d) it sponsors a television programme every week at a cost of ` 20,00,000

per month.
It can market 30% of its output at `550 per unit without incurring any of the
expenses referred to in (a) to (d) above.
PREPARE a cost sheet for the month showing total cost and profit at 30% and
100% capacity level.
4. The following figures are extracted from the Trial Balance of G.K Co. on 31st
March:

Dr. Cr.

(`) (`)
Inventories:

Finished Stock 80,000

Raw Materials 1,40,000

Work-in-Process 2,00,000

Office Appliances 17,400

Plant & Machinery 4,60,500

Building 2,00,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.26 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Sales 7,68,000
Sales Return and Rebates 14,000
Materials Purchased 3,20,000
Freight incurred on Materials 16,000
Purchase Returns 4,800
Direct employee cost 1,60,000
Indirect employee cost 18,000
Factory Supervision 10,000
Repairs and factory up-keeping expenses 14,000
Heat, Light and Power 65,000
Rates and Taxes 6,300
Miscellaneous Factory Expenses 18,700
Sales Commission 33,600
Sales Travelling 11,000
Sales Promotion 22,500
Distribution Deptt.—Salaries and Expenses 18,000
Office Salaries and Expenses 8,600
Interest on Borrowed Funds 2,000

Further details are available as follows:

(i) Closing Inventories:

Finished Goods 1,15,000
Raw Materials 1,80,000
Work-in-Process 1,92,000
(ii) Outstanding expenses on:
Direct employee cost 8,000
Indirect employee cost 1,200
Interest on Borrowed Funds 2,000

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 COST SHEET 6.27

(iii) Depreciation to be provided on:

Office Appliances 5%
Plant and Machinery 10%
Buildings 4%

(iv) Distribution of the following costs:

Heat, Light and Power to Factory, Office and Distribution in the ratio
8 : 1 : 1.

Rates and Taxes two-thirds to Factory and one-third to Office.

Depreciation on Buildings to Factory, Office and Selling in the ratio

8 : 1 : 1.

With the help of the above information, you are required to PREPARE a
condensed Profit and Loss Statement of G.K Co. for the year ended 31st March
along with supporting schedules of:
(i) Cost of Sales.
(ii) Selling and Distribution Expenses.

(iii) Administration Expenses

ANSWERS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b)

7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (c)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 2
2. Please refer paragraph 3.4
3. Please refer paragraph 4.3

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 6.28 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. (i) Computation of the value of materials purchased
To find out the value of materials purchased, reverse calculations from
the given data can be presented as below:

Particulars (`)

Cost of goods sold 56,000

Add: Closing stock of finished goods 19,000

Less: Opening stock of finished goods (17,600)

Cost of production 57,400

Add: Closing stock of work-in-progress 14,500

Less: Opening stock of work-in-progress (10,500)

Works cost 61,400

 `17,500 ×100  (10,000)

Less: Factory overheads:  
 175 

Prime cost 51,400

Less: Direct labour (17,500)

Raw material consumed 33,900

Add: Closing stock of raw materials 10,600

Raw materials available 44,500

Less: Opening stock of raw materials ( 8,000)

Value of materials purchased 36,500

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST SHEET 6.29

(ii) Cost statement

(`)
Raw material consumed [Refer to statement (i) above] 33,900
Add: Direct labour cost 17,500
Prime cost 51,400
Add: Factory overheads 10,000
Works cost 61,400
Add: Opening work-in-progress 10,500
Less: Closing work-in-progress (14,500)
Cost of production 57,400
Add: Opening stock of finished goods 17,600
Less: Closing stock of finished goods (19,000)
Cost of goods sold 56,000
Add: General and administration expenses 2,500
Add: Selling expenses 3,500
Cost of sales 62,000
Profit (Balance figure ` 75,000 – ` 62,000) 13,000
Sales 75,000

2. Cost sheet of Aditya Industries for month of……

Units produced- 1,94,000
Units sold- 1,60,000

Particulars (`) Cost per unit (`)

Raw materials purchased 1,44,00,000
Add: Opening value of raw materials 12,00,000
Less: Closing value of raw materials (14,00,000)
Materials consumed 1,42,00,000 73.19

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.30 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Wages paid to production workers 36,64,000 18.89

Expenses paid for utilities 1,45,600 0.75
Prime Cost 1,80,09,600 92.83
Factory overheads (` 8 × 21,600 hours) 1,72,800
Add: Opening value of W-I-P 18,00,000
Less: Closing value of W-I-P (16,04,000)
Cost of Production 1,83,78,400 94.73
Add: Value of opening finished stock 9,60,000
Less: Value of closing finished stock (` (41,68,120)
94.73 × 44,000)
Cost of Goods Sold 1,51,70,280 94.81
Office and administration expenses 26,52,000 16.58
paid
Travelling allowance paid to office 1,21,000 0.75
staffs
Selling expenses 6,46,000 4.04
Cost of Sales 1,85,89,280 116.18
Add: Profit 32,80,461 20.50
2,18,69,741 136.68

3. Cost Sheet (For the month)

Level of Capacity 30% 100%

30,000 units 1,00,000 units
Per Total Per Total
unit (`) unit (`)
(`) (`)
Works Cost 380.00 1,14,00,000 310.00 3,10,00,000
Add: Fixed 5.00 1,50,000 1.50 1,50,000
administration
expenses

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 COST SHEET 6.31

Add: Fixed marketing 8.33 2,50,000 2.50 2,50,000

expenses
Add: Variable 30.00 9,00,000 30.00 30,00,000
distribution
cost
Add: Special Costs:
- Gift items costs — — 30.00 30,00,000
- Customers’ prizes* — — 1.00 1,00,000
- Refreshments — — 1.00 1,00,000
- Television
programme — — 20.00 20,00,000
sponsorship cost
Cost of sales 423.33 1,27,00,000 396.00 3,96,00,000
Profit (Balancing figure) 126.67 38,00,000 104.00 1,04,00,000
Sales revenue 550.00 1,65,00,000 500.00 5,00,00,000

*Customers’ prize cost:

Amount (`)
1 Prize
st
50,000
2 nd
Prize 25,000
3rd Prize 10,000
Consolation Prizes (3 × `5,000) 15,000
Total 1,00,000

4. Profit and Loss Statement of G.K Co.

for the year ended 31st March
(`) (`)
Gross Sales 7,68,000
Less: Returns and rebates (14,000) 7,54,000
Less: Cost of Sales (excluding interest on (7,14,020)
borrowed funds) [Refer to Schedule (i)]
Net Operating Profit 39,980
Less: Interest on borrowed funds (4,000)
(2,000+2,000)
Net Profit 35,980

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 6.32 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(i) Schedule of Cost of Sales

(`) (`)
Raw Material (Inventory opening balance) 1,40,000

Add: Material Purchased 3,20,000

Add: Freight on Material 16,000

Less: Purchase Returns (4,800) 3,31,200

4,71,200

Less: Closing Raw Material Inventory (1,80,000)

Materials consumed in Production 2,91,200

Direct employee cost (`1,60,000 + `8,000) 1,68,000

Prime Cost 4,59,200

Factory Overheads:

Indirect employee cost (`18,000 + `1,200) 19,200

Factory Supervision 10,000

Repairs and factory up-keeping expenses 14,000

Heat, Light and Power (`65,000 × 8/10) 52,000

Rates and Taxes (`6,300 × 2/3rd) 4,200

Miscellaneous Factory Expenses 18,700

Depreciation of Plant (10% of `4,60,500) 46,050

Depreciation of Buildings (4% of `2,00,000 × 6,400 1,70,550

8/10)

Gross Works Cost 6,29,750

Add: Opening Work-in-Process inventory 2,00,000

Less: Closing Work-in-Process inventory (1,92,000)

Cost of production 6,37,750

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 COST SHEET 6.33

Add: Opening Finished Goods inventory 80,000

Less: Closing Finished Goods inventory (1,15,000)
Cost of Goods Sold 6,02,750
Add: Administration Expenses [See 18,870
Schedule (iii)]
Add: Selling and Distribution Expenses 92,400
[See Schedule (ii)]
Cost of Sales (excluding interest on 7,14,020
borrowed funds)

Alternatively, Interest on borrowed funds of ` 4,000 (` 2,000 + ` 2,000)

may be added to arrive at cost of sales.
(ii) Schedule of Selling and Distribution Expenses

(`)
Sales Commission 33,600
Sales Travelling 11,000
Sales Promotion 22,500
Distribution Deptt.—Salaries and Expenses 18,000
Heat, Light and Power 6,500
Depreciation of Buildings 800
92,400

(iii) Schedule of Administration Expenses

(`)
Office Salaries and Expenses 8,600
Depreciation of Office Appliances 870
Depreciation of Buildings 800
Heat, Light and Power 6,500
Rates and Taxes 2,100
18,870

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 CHAPTER a
7

COST ACCOUNTING
SYSTEMS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you would be able to-
 Discuss the Cost Accounting System.
 Differentiate between Integral and Non-Integral System of
Accounting.
 Identify the ledgers maintained under Integral and Non-
Integral Accounting System.
 Analyse the reasons for differences in profit under Financial
and Cost Accounting Systems.
 Prepare reconciliation statement for profit under Financial
and Cost Accounting Systems.
 Discuss the Accounting for Management Information and
Cost Control.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

1. INTRODUCTION
To operate business operations efficiently and successfully, it is necessary to make
use of an appropriate accounting system. Such a system should state in clear terms
whether cost and financial transactions should be integrated or kept separately
(Non-integrated). Where cost and financial accounting records are integrated,
the system so evolved is known as integrated or integral accounting system. In
case cost and financial transactions are kept separately, the system is called
Non-Integrated Accounting system or Cost Control System. While non-
integrated system of accounting necessitates reconciliation between financial and
cost accounts but no reconciliation is required under integrated accounting system.

2. NON-INTEGRATED ACCOUNTING SYSTEM

It is a system of accounting under which separate ledgers are maintained for both
cost and financial accounts. This system is also known as cost ledger accounting
system. Under this system the cost accounts restrict itself to recording only those
transactions which relate to the product or service being supplied. Items of
expenses which are related to sales, production or other matters of factory
management are the ones dealt with in such accounts. This leads to the exclusion
of certain expenses like interest, bad debts and revenue/income from ‘other than

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.3 a

the sale of product or service’.

Non-Integrated accounting systems contain fewer accounts as compared to

financial accounting system due to the exclusion of purchases, expenses and also
Balance Sheet items like fixed assets, debtors and creditors. Items of accounts
which are excluded are represented by an account known as Cost ledger
control account.
The important ledgers to be maintained under non-integrated accounting
system in the Cost Accounting are the followings:
(a) Cost Ledger - This is the principle ledger of the cost department in which
impersonal accounts are recorded. This ledger is made self-balancing by
maintaining therein a Control Account for each subsidiary ledger.
(b) Stores Ledger - It contains an account for each item of stores. The entries in
each account maintained in this ledger are made from the invoice, goods
received note, material requisitions, material received note etc. Accounts in
respect of each item of stores show receipt, issue and balance in physical as well
as in monetary terms.

(c) Work-in-Process Ledger - This ledger is also known as job ledger, it

contains accounts of unfinished jobs and processes. All material costs,
wages and overheads for each job in process are posted to the respective
job accounts in this ledger. The balance in a job account represents total
balance of job/work-in-process, as shown by the job account.
(d) Finished Goods Ledger - It contains an account for each item of finished
product manufactured or the completed job. If the finished product is
transferred to stock, a credit entry is made in the work-in-process ledger
and a corresponding debit entry is made in this ledger.

2.1 Principal Accounts

The main accounts which are usually prepared when a separate Cost Ledger is
maintained are as follows:
(1) Cost Ledger Control Account - This account is also known as General
Ledger Adjustment Account. This account is made to complete double
entry. All items of expenditure are credited to this account. Sales are
debited to this account and net profit/loss from Costing Profit & Loss

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.4 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Account is transferred to this account. The balance in this account at the

end of the particular period represents the net total of all the balances of
the impersonal accounts.
(2) Stores Ledger Control Account – This account is debited for the purchase
of material and credited for issue of materials from the stores. The
balance in this account indicates the total balance of all the individual stores
accounts. Abnormal losses or gains if any in this account are transferred to
Costing Profit & Loss Account. Entries are made on the basis of goods
received notes and stores requisitions etc.
(3) Wages Control Account - This account is debited with total wages paid
(direct and indirect). Direct wages are further transferred to Work-in-
Process Control Account and indirect wages to Production Overhead;
Administration Overhead or Selling & Distribution Overhead Control
Accounts, as the case may be. Wages paid for abnormal idle time are
transferred to Costing Profit & Loss Account either directly or through
Abnormal Loss Account.
(4) Manufacturing/Production/Works/ Factory Overhead Control Account -
This account is debited with indirect costs of production such as indirect
material, indirect employee, indirect expenses (carriage inward etc.).
Overhead recovered (absorbed) is credited to this Account. The
difference between overhead incurred and overhead recovered (i.e. Under
Absorption or Over Absorption of Overheads) is transferred to Overheads
Adjustment Account.
(5) Work-in-Process Control Account - This account is debited with the total
cost of production, which includes—direct materials, direct employee,
direct expenses, production overhead recovered, and is credited with the
amount of finished goods completed and transferred. The balance in this
account represents total balances of jobs/works-in-process, as shown by
several job accounts.
(6) Administrative Overhead Control Account - This account is debited with
overheads incurred and credited with overhead recovered. The overhead
recovered are debited to Finished Goods Control Account, if administrative
overhead is related with production activities otherwise to Cost of Sales A/c.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.5 a

The difference between administrative overheads incurred and recovered is

transferred to Overhead Adjustment Account.
(7) Finished Goods Control Accounts - This account is debited with the value
of goods transferred from Work-in-process Control Account and
administration costs recovered (if relates to production activities). This
account is credited with Cost of Sales Account. The balance of this account
represents the value of goods unsold at the end of the period.
(8) Selling and Distribution Overhead Control Account - This account is debited
with selling and distribution overheads incurred and credited with the selling and
distribution overheads recovered. The difference between overheads incurred and
recovered is transferred usually to Overhead Adjustment Account.
(9) Cost of Sales Account - This account is debited with the cost of finished
goods transferred from Finished Goods Control Account for sale,
General Administrative overhead recovered, Selling and distribution
overhead recovered. The balance of this account is ultimately transferred to
Sales Account or Costing Profit & Loss Account.
(10) Costing Profit & Loss Account – This account is debited with cost of sales,
under-absorbed overheads and abnormal losses and is credited with sales
value, over-absorbed overhead and abnormal gains. The net profit or loss in
this account is transferred to Cost Ledger Control Account.
(11) Overhead Adjustment Account - This account is to be debited for under-
recovery of overhead and credited with over-recovery of overhead
amount. The net balance in this account is transferred to Costing Profit &
Loss Account.

Note: Sometimes, Overhead Adjustment Account is dispensed with and

under/over absorbed overheads is directly transferred to Costing Profit & Loss
Account from the respective overhead accounts.

2.2 Scheme of Accounting Entries

The manner in which the Cost Ledger, when maintained on a double entry basis,
would operate is illustrated by the following statements of various journal entries
as would appear in the cost books.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Material: (`) (`)

(a) Purchase–` 5,000 (credit or cash)
(i) Material Control A/c …………………………….. Dr. 5,000
To Cost Ledger Control A/c 5,000
(ii) Stores Ledger Control A/c ……………………… Dr. 5,000
To Material Control A/c 5,000
Note: Sometimes Material Control Account is dispensed with and entries are
directly made into Stores Ledger Control A/c, giving a credit to Cost Ledger
Control A/c.
(b) Purchases worth ` 500 for special job
Work-in-Process Ledger Control A/c…………………. Dr. 500
To Cost Ledger Control A/c 500
(c) Material returned to vendor—` 500
Cost Ledger Control A/c …………………………………. Dr. 500
To Store Ledger Control A/c 500
(d) (i) Material (Direct) issued to production—` 1,000
Work-in-Process Control A/c……………………. Dr. 1,000
To Store Ledger Control A/c 1,000
(ii) Material (Indirect) issued to production—` 200
Production Overhead Control A/c…………………. Dr. 200
To Store Ledger Control A/c 200
(e) (i) Material worth ` 200 returned from shop to
stores
Stores Ledger Control A/c…………………. Dr. 200
To Work-in-Process Control A/c 200
(ii) Material worth ` 100 is transferred from Job-1 to Job- 2
Job- 2 A/c………………………………………… Dr. 100
To Job- 1 A/c 100

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.7 a

(f) Material worth ` 100 is issued from stores for re-

pairs
Production Overhead Control A/c………………………. Dr. 100
To Stores Ledger Control A/c 100
Labour:
(g) Direct wages paid to workers— ` 1,000
Wages Control A/c………………………………………… Dr. 1,000
To Cost Ledger Control A/c 1,000
(h) Indirect wages paid to workers in the production— ` 700
(i) Wages Control A/c……………………………………… Dr. 700
To Cost Ledger Control A/c 700
(ii) Production Overhead Control A/c…………………… Dr. 700
To Wages Control A/c 700
(i) Indirect wages paid to workers in administration— ` 500
(i) Wages Control A/c……………………………………… Dr. 500
To Cost Ledger Control A/c 500
(ii) Administration Overhead A/c………………………… Dr. 500
To Wages Control A/c 500
(j) Indirect wages paid to workers in Selling & Dist. department— ` 300
(i) Wages Control A/c……………………………………… Dr. 300
To Cost Ledger Control A/c 300
(ii) Selling & Dist. Overhead A/c…………………………. Dr. 300
To Wages Control A/c 300
Direct Expenses:
(k) Direct expenses incurred ` 500 for Job No. 12
Job No. 12 A/c (WIP Control A/c)………………………. Dr. 500
To Cost Ledger Control A/c 500

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Overheads:
(l) Overhead expenses incurred ` 500 (Production
`150; Administrative `150; Selling and Distribution
`200)
Production Overhead Control A/c……………………….. Dr. 150
Administrative Overhead Control A/c…………………… Dr. 150
Selling & Dist. Overhead Control A/c…………………… Dr. 200
To Cost Ledger Control A/c 500
(m) Carriage Inward (Direct to Factory) —` 100
Production Overhead Control A/c……………………….. Dr. 100
To Cost Ledger Control A/c 100
(n) Production overhead recovered—` 1,000
Work-in-Process Ledger Control A/c…………………... Dr. 1,000
To Production Overhead Control A/c 1,000
(o) Administrative Overhead recovered ` 500 from finished goods
Cost of Sales A/c………………………………………….. Dr. 500
To Administrative Overhead Control A/c 500
(p) Selling and Distribution Overhead ` 100 recovered from sales
Cost of Sales A/c………………………………………….. Dr. 100
To Selling & Dist. Overhead Control A/c 100
(q) Under recovery of overheads
Costing Profit & Loss A/c…………………………………. Dr. xxx
To Administrative Overhead Control A/c xxx
(r) Over recovery of overheads
Production Overheads Control A/c…………………….. Dr. xxx
To Costing Profit & Loss A/c xxx

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.9 a

Sales:
(s) Cost Ledger Control A/c………………………………….. Dr. xxx
To Costing Profit & Loss A/c xxx
Profit/ Loss:
(t) In case of Profit
(i) Costing Profit & Loss A/c…………………………… Dr. xxx
To Cost Ledger Control A/c xxx
(u) In case of Loss
(ii) Cost Ledger Control A/c…………………………… Dr. xxx
To Costing Profit & Loss A/c xxx

Non-Integrated Accounting System-flowchart

*In the diagram administrative overhead is assumed to be related with production

activity. In case of general administration expenses, it is treated as a part of Cost of
Sales.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 1
As on 31st March, the following balances existed in a firm’s Cost Ledger:

Dr. Cr.

(` ) (` )

Stores Ledger Control A/c 3,01,435

Work-in-Process Control A/c 1,22,365

Finished Stock Ledger Control A/c 2,51,945

Manufacturing Overhead Control A/c 10,525

Cost Ledger Control A/c 6,65,220

6,75,745 6,75,745
During the next three months the following items arose:

(` )

Finished product (at cost) 2,10,835

Manufacturing Overhead incurred 91,510

Raw Materials purchased 1,23,000

Factory Wages 50,530

Indirect Labour 21,665

Cost of Sales 1,85,890

Material issued to production 1,27,315

Sales returned at Cost 5,380

Material returned to suppliers 2,900

Manufacturing Overhead charged to production 77,200

You are required to PASS the Journal Entries; write up the accounts and schedule
the balances, stating what each balance represents.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.11 a

SOLUTION
Journal entries are as follows:

Dr. Cr.
(`) (`)

1. Finished stock ledger Control A/c Dr. 2,10,835

To Work-in-Process Control A/c 2,10,835

2. Manufacturing Overhead Control A/c Dr. 91,510

To Cost Ledger Control A/c 91,510

3. Stores Ledger Control A/c Dr. 1,23,000

To Cost Ledger Control A/c 1,23,000

4. (i) Wage Control A/c Dr. 72,195

To Cost Ledger Control A/c 72,195

(ii) Work-in-Process Control A/c Dr. 50,530

To Wages Control A/c 50,530

(iii) Manufacturing Overhead Control A/c Dr. 21,665

To Wages Control A/c 21,665

5. Cost of Sales A/c Dr. 1,85,890
To Finished Stock Ledger A/c 1,85,890
6. Work-in-Process Control A/c Dr. 1,27,315
To Stores Ledger Control A/c 1,27,315
7. Finished Stock Ledger Control A/c Dr. 5,380
To Cost of Sales A/c 5,380
8. Cost Ledger Control A/c Dr. 2,900
To Stores Ledger Control A/c 2,900
9. Work-in-Process Control A/c Dr. 77,200
To Manufacturing Overhead Control A/c 77,200

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

COST LEDGERS
Cost Ledger Control Account

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Stores Ledger Control By Balance b/d 6,65,220

A/c (return) 2,900

” Balance c/d 9,49,025 ” Manufacturing OH

Control A/c 91,510

” Stores Ledger Control

A/c 1,23,000

” Wages Control A/c 72,195

9,51,925 9,51,925

Stores Ledger Control Account

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Balance b/d 3,01,435 By Work in Process Control 1,27,315

A/c

” Cost Ledger Control A/c 1,23,000 ” Cost Ledger Control A/c 2,900

” Balance c/d 2,94,220

4,24,435 4,24,435

Wages Control Account

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Cost Ledger Control A/c 72,195 By Work in Process Control A/c 50,530

” Manufacturing OH Control 21,665

A/c

72,195 72,195

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.13 a

Manufacturing Overhead Control Account

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Cost Ledger Control A/c 91,510 By Balance b/d 10,525

” Wages Control A/c 21,665 ” Work in Process Control 77,200

A/c

” Balance c/d 25,450

1,13,175 1,13,175

Work-in-Process Control Account

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Balance b/d 1,22,365 By Finished Stock Ledger 2,10,835

Control A/c

” Wages Control A/c 50,530 ” Balance c/d 1,66,575

” Stores Ledger Control

A/c 1,27,315

” Manufacturing OH
Control A/c 77,200

3,77,410 3,77,410

Finished Stock Ledger Control Account

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Balance b/d 2,51,945 By Cost of Sales Control A/c 1,85,890

” Work in Process ” Balance c/d 2,82,270

Control A/c 2,10,835

” Cost of Sales Control

A/c (Return at cost) 5,380

4,68,160 4,68,160

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Cost of Sales Account

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Finished Stock Ledger By Finished Stock Ledger
Control 1,85,890 Control (Return) 5,380
” Balance c/d 1,80,510
1,85,890 1,85,890

Trial Balance

Particulars Dr. Cr.

(`) (`)
Stores Ledger Control A/c 2,94,220
Work-in-Process Control A/c 1,66,575
Finished Stock Ledger Control A/c 2,82,270
Manufacturing Overhead Control A/c 25,450
Cost of Sales A/c 1,80,510
Cost Ledger Control A/c 9,49,025
9,49,025 9,49,025

ILLUSTRATION 2
Acme Manufacturing Co. Ltd. opens the costing records, with the balances as on 1st
July as follows:

(`) (`)
Material Control A/c 1,24,000
Work-in-Process Control A/c 62,500
Finished Goods Control A/c 1,24,000
Production Overhead Control A/c 8,400
Administrative Overhead Control A/c 12,000
Selling & Distribution Overhead Control A/c 6,250
Cost Ledger Control A/c 3,13,150
3,25,150 3,25,150

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.15 a

The following are the transactions for the quarter ended 30th September :

(`)

Materials purchased 4,80,100

Materials issued to jobs 4,77,400

Materials to works maintenance 41,200

Materials to administrative office 3,400

Materials to sales department 7,200

Wages Direct 1,49,300

Wages Indirect 65,000

Transportation for Indirect Materials 8,400

Production Overheads incurred 2,42,250

Absorbed Production Overheads 3,59,100

Administrative Overheads incurred 74,000

Administrative Overheads allocated to production 52,900

Administrative Overheads allocated to sales department 14,800

Selling & Distribution overheads incurred 64,200

Selling & Distribution overheads absorbed 82,000

Finished goods produced 9,58,400

Finished goods sold 9,77,300

Sales 14,43,000

Make up the various accounts as you envisage in the Cost Ledger and PREPARE a
Trial Balance as at 30th September.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION
Cost Ledgers
Material Control A/c*

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Balance b/d 1,24,000 By Work-in-process Control 4,77,400
A/c
” Cost Ledger Control 4,80,100 ” Production OH Control 41,200
A/c (purchase) A/c
” Admn. OH Control A/c 3,400
” S&D OH Control A/c 7,200
” Balance c/d 74,900
6,04,100 6,04,100
*Material Control A/c may also be written as Stores Ledger Control A/c

Wages Control A/c

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Cost Ledger Control 2,14,300 By Work-in-process Control 1,49,300
A/c A/c
” Production OH Control 65,000
A/c
2,14,300 2,14,300

Production Overhead Control A/c

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Balance b/d 8,400 By Work-in-process 3,59,100
Control A/c
” Cost Ledger Control
A/c:
- Transportation 8,400
- Production OH 2,42,250
” Wages Control A/c 65,000
” Material Control A/c 41,200 ” Balance c/d 6,150
3,65,250 3,65,250

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.17 a

Administrative Overhead Control A/c

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Cost Ledger Control 74,000 By Balance b/d 12,000
A/c
” Material Control A/c: 3,400 ” Finished Goods 52,900
Control A/c
” Balance c/d 2,300 ” Cost of sales A/c 14,800
79,700 79,700

Work-in-Process Control A/c

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Balance b/d 62,500 By Finished goods Control 9,58,400
A/c
” Material Control A/c 4,77,400
” Wages Control A/c 1,49,300
” Production OH 3,59,100
Control A/c
” Balance c/d 89,900
10,48,300 10,48,300

Finished Goods Control A/c

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Balance b/d 1,24,000 By Cost of Sales A/c 9,77,300

” Administrative 52,900
Overhead Control A/c

” Work-in-process 9,58,400 ” Balance c/d 1,58,000

Control A/c

11,35,300 11,35,300

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.18 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Selling and Distribution Overhead Control A/c

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Balance b/d 6,250 By Cost of Sales A/c 82,000
” Cost Ledger Control 64,200
A/c:
” Material Control A/c 7,200
” Balance c/d 4,350
82,000 82,000

Cost of Sales A/c

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Finished Goods 9,77,300 By Costing P&L A/c 10,74,100
Control A/c
” Admn. OH Control 14,800
A/c
” S&D OH Control A/c 82,000
10,74,100 10,74,100

Cost Ledger Control A/c

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Costing P&L A/c (Sales) 14,43,000 By Balance b/d 3,13,150
” Material Control A/c 4,80,100
” Wages Control A/c 2,14,300
(`1,49,300+`65,000)
” Production OH Control A/c 2,50,650
(`8,400+`2,42,250)
” Administrative OH A/c 74,000
” S&D OH Control A/c 64,200
” Balance c/d 3,22,300 ” Costing P&L A/c 3,68,900
17,65,300 17,65,300

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.19 a

Costing Profit & Loss A/c

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Cost of sales A/c 10,74,100 By Cost Ledger Control 14,43,000
A/c (sales)
” Cost Ledger Control 3,68,900
A/c (profit) (balancing
figure)
14,43,000 14,43,000

Trial Balance as at 30th September

Dr. (`) Cr. (`)

Material Control A/c 74,900
Production OH Control A/c 6,150
Administrative OH Control A/c 2,300
Selling & Distribution OH Control A/c 4,350
Work-in-process Control A/c 89,900
Finished Goods Control A/c 1,58,000
Cost Ledger Control A/c 3,22,300
3,28,950 3,28,950

3. INTEGRATED (OR INTEGRAL) ACCOUNTING

SYSTEM
Integrated Accounts is the name given to a system of accounting, whereby cost
and financial accounts are kept in the same set of books. Obviously, then
there will be no separate sets of books for Costing and Financial records.
Integrated accounts provide or meet out fully the information requirement for
Costing as well as for Financial Accounts. For Costing it provides information
useful for ascertaining the cost of each product, job, process and operation of any
other identifiable activity and for carrying necessary analysis. Integrated
accounts provide relevant information which is necessary for preparing
profit and loss account and the balance sheet as per the requirement of law
and also helps in exercising effective control over the liabilities and assets of its
business.

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 a 7.20 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

3.1 Advantages
The main advantages of Integrated Accounts are as follows:
(a) No need for Reconciliation- The question of reconciling costing profit and
financial profit does not arise, as there is only one figure of profit.
(b) Less efforts- Due to use of one set of books, there is a significant saving in
efforts made.
(c) Less time consuming- No delay is caused in obtaining information as it is
provided from books of original entry.
(d) Economical process- It is economical also as it is based on the concept of
“Centralisation of Accounting function”.

3.2 Essential pre-requisites for Integrated Accounts

The essential pre-requisites for integrated accounts include the following steps:
1. The management’s decision about the extent of integration of the two sets
of books. Some concerns find it useful to integrate up to the stage of prime
cost or factory cost while other prefers full integration of the entire
accounting records.
2. A suitable coding system must be made available so as to serve the
accounting purposes of financial and cost accounts.
3. An agreed routine, with regard to the treatment of provision for accruals,
prepaid expenses, other adjustment necessary for preparation of interim
accounts.
4. Perfect coordination should exist between the staff responsible for the
financial and cost aspects of the accounts and an efficient processing of
accounting documents should be ensured.

Under this system there is no need for a separate cost ledger. Of course, there will
be a number of subsidiary ledgers; in addition to the useful Customers’ Ledger
and the Purchase Ledger, there will be: (a) Stores Ledger; (b) Stock Ledger and (c)
Job Ledger.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.21 a

3.3 Features of Integrated Accounting System

Following are the main points of integrated accounting:
(a) Complete analysis of cost and sales are kept.
(b) Complete details of all payments in cash are kept
(c) Complete details of all assets and liabilities are kept and this system does
not use a notional account to represent all impersonal accounts
In non-integrated system, a cost ledger control account or general ledger
adjustment account is used in cost ledger. But in the integrated accounting
system, general ledger adjustment account is eliminated and detailed accounts
for assets and liabilities are maintained. In other words, following accounts are
used for “General Ledger Adjustment Account/ Cost Ledger Control Account” of
non-integrated system:
(a) Bank account
(b) Receivables (Debtors) account
(c) Payables (Creditors) account

(d) Provision for depreciation account etc.

In integrated system, all accounts necessary for showing classification of cost will
be used but the cost ledger control account of non-integrated accounting is
replaced by use of following accounts:
(a) Bank account
(b) Receivables (Debtors) account
(c) Payables (Creditors) account
(d) Provision for depreciation account
(e) Fixed assets account
(f) Share capital account
If the illustration given below is to be worked out on integrated account basis, the
journal entries would be as follows:

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 3
JOURNALISE the following transactions assuming that cost and financial
transactions are integrated:

(`)
Raw materials purchased 2,00,000
Direct materials issued to production 1,50,000
Wages paid (30% indirect) 1,20,000
Wages charged to production 84,000
Manufacturing expenses incurred 84,000
Manufacturing overhead charged to production 92,000
Selling and Distribution costs 20,000
Finished products (at cost) 2,00,000
Sales 2,90,000
Closing stock Nil
Receipts from debtors 69,000
Payments to creditors 1,10,000

SOLUTION
Journal entries are as follows:

DR. (`) CR. (`)

Stores Ledger Control A/c……………………………… Dr. 2,00,000
To Payables (Creditors)/ Bank A/c 2,00,000
(Materials purchased)
Work-in-Process Control A/c…………………………… Dr. 1,50,000
To Stores Ledger Control A/c 1,50,000
(Materials issued to production)
Wages Control A/c………………………………………. Dr. 1,20,000
To Bank A/c 1,20,000
(Wages paid)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.23 a

Factory Overhead Control A/c…………………………. Dr. 36,000

To Wages Control A/c 36,000
(30% of wages paid being indirect charged to
overhead)
Work-in-Process Control A/c…………………………… Dr. 84,000
To Wages Control A/c 84,000
(Direct wages charged to production)
Factory Overhead Control A/c………………………… Dr. 84,000
To Bank A/c 84,000
(Manufacturing overhead incurred)
Work-in-Process Control A/c…………………………… Dr. 92,000
To Factory Overhead Control A/c 92,000
(Manufacturing overhead charged to production)
Selling & Distribution Overhead Control A/c………. Dr. 20,000
To Bank A/c 20,000
(Selling and Distribution costs incurred)
Finished Goods Control A/c……………………………. Dr. 2,00,000
To Work-in-Process Control A/c 2,00,000
(Cost of finished goods)
Cost of Sales A/c………………………………………… Dr. 2,20,000
To Finished Goods Control A/c 2,00,000
To Selling and Distribution Control A/c 20,000
(Costs of sales)
Receivables (Debtors)/ Bank A/c…………………………… Dr. 2,90,000
To Sales A/c 2,90,000
(Finished goods sold)
Bank A/c…………………………………………………... Dr. 69,000
To Receivables (Debtors) A/c 69,000
(Receipts from receivables)
Payables (Creditors) A/c………………………………... Dr. 1,10,000
To Bank A/c 1,10,000
(Payment made to payables)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.24 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 4
In the absence of the Chief Accountant, you have been asked to prepare a month’s
cost accounts for a company which operates a batch costing system fully integrated
with the financial accounts. The following relevant information is provided to you:

(`) (`)
Balances at the beginning of the month:
Stores Ledger Control Account 25,000
Work-in-Process Control Account 20,000
Finished Goods Control Account 35,000
Prepaid Production Overheads brought forward from 3,000
previous month
Transactions during the month:
Materials Purchased 75,000
Materials Issued:
To production 30,000
To factory maintenance 4,000 34,000
Materials transferred between batches 5,000
Total wages paid:
To direct workers 25,000
To indirect workers 5,000 30,000
Direct wages charged to batches 20,000
Recorded non-productive time of direct workers 5,000
Selling and Distribution Overheads Incurred 6,000
Other Production Overheads Incurred 12,000
Sales 1,00,000
Cost of Finished Goods Sold 80,000
Cost of Goods completed and transferred into finished 65,000
goods during the month
Physical value of work-in-Process at the end of the month 40,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.25 a

The production overhead absorption rate is 150% of direct wages charged to work-
in-Process.
Required:
PREPARE the following accounts for the month:
(a) Stores Ledger Control Account.
(b) Work-in-Process Control Account.
(c) Finished Goods Control Account.

(d) Production Overhead Control Account.

(e) Costing Profit and Loss Account.

SOLUTION
(a) Stores Ledger Control Account

(`) (`)

To Balance b/d 25,000 By Work in Process Control A/c 30,000

” Creditors/ Bank A/c 75,000 ” Production OH Control A/c 4,000

” Balance c/d 66,000

1,00,000 1,00,000

(b) Wages Control Account

(`) (`)
To Bank A/c (Paid to 25,000 By Work in Process Control A/c 20,000
direct workers) (Charged to batches)
” Bank A/c (Paid to 5,000 ,, Production OH Control A/c 5,000
indirect workers)
” Production OH Control A/c 5,000
(Non-productive wages)
30,000 30,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.26 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(c) Production Overhead Control Account

(`) (`)
To Balance b/d 3,000 By Work-in-Process 30,000
(Prepaid amount) Control A/c (150% of
direct wages)
” Stores Ledger 4,000
Control A/c
” Wages Control 10,000
A/c
(`5,000 + `5,000)

” Bank A/c 12,000

” Costing P&L A/c 1,000

(Over-absorption,
balancing figure)

30,000 30,000

(d) Work-in-Process Control Account

(`) (`)

To Balance b/d 20,000 By Finished Goods 65,000

Control A/c

” Store Ledger Control A/c 30,000 ” Balance c/d 40,000

(Physical value)

” Wages Control A/c 20,000

” Production OH Control A/c 30,000

(150% of direct wages)

” Costing P&L A/c 5,000

(Stock Gains)

1,05,000 1,05,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.27 a

(e) Finished Goods Control Account

(`) (`)

To Balance b/d 35,000 By Cost of Goods Sold* A/c 80,000

” Work-in-Process 65,000 ” Balance c/d 20,000

Control A/c

1,00,000 1,00,000
* Alternatively, Costing Profit & Loss Account

(f) Costing Profit & Loss Account

(`) (`)

To Finished Goods 80,000 By Sales A/c 1,00,000

Control A/c or Cost
of Goods Sold A/c

” Selling & Distribution 6,000 ” Production OH 1,000

OH A/c Control A/c

” Balance c/d 20,000 ” Work-in-Process 5,000

Control A/c
(Stock gain)

1,06,000 1,06,000

Notes:
(1) Materials transferred between batches will not affect the Control
Accounts.
(2) Non-production time of direct workers is a production overhead and
therefore will not be charged to work-in-Process Control A/c.
(3) Production overheads absorbed in work-in-Process Control A/c equals
to ` 30,000 (150% of ` 20,000).
(4) In the work-in-Process Control A/c the excess physical value of stock
is taken resulting in stock gain. Stock gain is transferred to Profit &
Loss A/c.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.28 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 5
A fire destroyed some accounting records of a company. You have been able to
collect the following from the spoilt papers/records and as a result of consultation
with accounting staff for the month of January:
(i) Incomplete Ledger Entries:
Materials Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Balance b/d 32,000

Work-in-Process Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Balance b/d 9,200 By Finished Goods 1,51,000
Control A/c

Payables (Creditors) A/c

(`) (`)
To Balance c/d 19,200 By Balance b/d 16,400

Manufacturing Overheads Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Bank A/c (Amount 29,600
spent)

Finished Goods Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Balance b/d 24,000 By Balance c/d 30,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.29 a

(ii) Additional Information:

(1) The bank-book showed that ` 89,200 have been paid to creditors for
raw-material.
(2) Ending inventory of work-in-process included materials of ` 5,000 on
which 300 direct labour hours have been booked against wages and
overheads.
(3) The job card showed that workers have worked for 7,000 hours. The
wage rate is ` 10 per labour hour.
(4) Overhead recovery rate was ` 4 per direct labour hour.
You are required to COMPLETE the above accounts in the cost ledger of the
company.

SOLUTION
Materials Control A/c

(`) (`)

To Balance b/d By Work-in-process

Cost Ledger Control A/c 32,000 control A/c 53,000

“ Payables (Creditors) A/c “ Balance c/d 71,000

(Purchases) 92,000

1,24,000 1,24,000

Manufacturing Overheads A/c

(`) (`)

To Bank A/c (amount 29,600 By Work-in-process

spent) control A/c (`4 × 7,000
hours) 28,000

“ Costing P/L A/c

(Under-absorbed OH) 1,600

29,600 29,600

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.30 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Work-in-Process Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Balance b/d 9,200 By Finished Goods Control 1,51,000
A/c
“ Wages Control A/c 70,000 “ Balance c/d:
(`10 × 7,000 hours)

“ Overheads Control A/c 28,000 -Material 5,000

(`4 × 7,000 hours)

-Wages (`10 × 3,000

300 hours)

“ Materials Control A/c 53,000 - Overheads (`4

(Balancing figure) × 300 hours) 1,200 9,200

1,60,200 1,60,200

Finished Goods Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Balance b/d 24,000 By Cost of sales A/c (Bal.
fig.) 1,45,000
“ Work-in-process “ Balance c/d 30,000
Control A/c (as above) 1,51,000
1,75,000 1,75,000

Payables (Creditors) A/c

(`) (`)
To Bank A/c 89,200 By Balance b/d 16,400
“ Balance c/d 19,200 “ Material Control
A/c (Purchases)
(Balancing fig.) 92,000
1,08,400 1,08,400

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.31 a

4. RECONCILIATION OF COST AND FINANCIAL

ACCOUNTS
When the cost and financial accounts are kept separately, it is imperative that
these should be reconciled to make the cost accounts reliable. It is necessary for
reconciliation of the two sets of accounts that sufficient details are available to
locate the differences and the reasons for the same. It is, therefore, important that
in the financial accounts, the expenses should be analysed in the same way as in
the cost accounts.
The General Ledger Adjustment Account in the Cost Ledger may be studied to
know the items which are included here and how differently these are presented
in the financial accounts. The reconciliation of the balances of two sets of
accounts is possible by preparing a Memorandum Reconciliation Account. In
this account, the items charged in one set of accounts but not in the other or
those charged in excess as compared to the other are identified and collected.
These items of differences are either added or subtracted from the profit as
shown by one of the accounts. Finally the profits from two sets of accounts are
reconciled. The procedure is similar to those which are followed for reconciling
bank balance as per bank ledger with the balance as shown in bank statement.
It is important, however, to know the causes which, generally, give rise to
differences in the Cost and Financial Accounts. These are briefly summarised
below:

4.1 Causes of differences in Financial and Cost Accounts

1. Items included in Financial Accounts only-
(a) Purely Financial Expenses:
(i) Interest on loans or bank mortgages.
(ii) Expenses and discounts on issue of shares, debentures etc.
(iii) Other capital losses i.e., loss by fire not covered by insurance etc.
(iv) Losses on the sales of fixed assets and investments
(v) Income tax, donations, subscriptions
(vi) Expenses of the company’s share transfer office, if any.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.32 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(b) Purely Financial Income

(i) Interest received on bank deposits, loans and investments

(ii) Dividends received

(iii) Profits on the sale of fixed assets and investments
(iv) Transfer fee received.

(v) Rent receivables

2. Item included in Cost Accounts only (notional expenses):

(i) Charges in lieu of rent where premises are owned

(ii) Interest on capital at notional figure though not incurred

(iii) Salary for the proprietor at notional figure though not incurred

(iv) Notional Depreciation on the assets fully depreciated for which book
value is nil.

3. Items whose treatment is different in the two sets of accounts: The

objective of cost accounting is to provide information to management for
decision making and control purposes while financial accounting conforms
to external reporting requirements. Hence there are chances that certain
items are treated differently in the two sets of accounts. For example, LIFO
method for inventory valuation is not recommended by Accounting
Standards for Financial Reporting purpose but this method may be adopted
for cost accounting purpose if management feels it suitable for making any
decision. Similarly cost accounting may use a different method of
depreciation than what is allowed under financial accounting.

4. Varying basis of valuation: It is another factor which sometimes is

responsible for the difference. It is well known that in financial accounts
stock are valued either at cost or market price, whichever is lower. But in
Cost Accounts, stocks are only valued at cost.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.33 a

4.2 Procedure for Reconciliation

There are 3 steps involved in the procedure for reconciliation.

1. Ascertainment of profit as per Financial Accounts

2. Ascertainment of profit as per Cost Accounts

3. Reconciliation of both the profits

Circumstances where reconciliation statement can be avoided: When the Cost and
Financial Accounts are integrated - there is no need to have a separate reconciliation
statement between the two sets of accounts. Integration means that the same set of
accounts fulfil the requirement of both i.e., Cost and Financial Accounts.

ILLUSTRATION 6
The following figures are available from the financial records of ABC Manufacturing
Co. Ltd. for the year ended 31 st March.

(`)

Sales (20,000 units) 25,00,000

Materials 10,00,000

Wages 5,00,000

Factory Overheads 4,50,000

Administrative Overhead (production related) 2,60,000

Selling and Distribution Overheads 1,80,000

Finished goods (1,230 units) 1,50,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.34 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(`) (`)
Work-in-Process:
Materials 30,000
Labour 20,000
Factory overheads 20,000 70,000
Goodwill written off 2,00,000
Interest on loan taken 20,000

In the Costing records, factory overhead is charged at 100% of wages,

administrative overhead 10% of factory cost and selling and distribution overhead
at the rate of ` 10 per unit sold.
PREPARE a statement reconciling the profit as per cost records with the profit as per
financial records.

SOLUTION
Profit & Loss Account of ABC Manufacturing Co. Ltd.
(for the year ended 31 st March)

(`) (`)
To Opening Stock - By Sales (20,000 units) 25,00,000
“ Materials 10,00,000 “ Closing Stock:
“ Wages 5,00,000 Finished goods 1,50,000
(1,230 units)
“ Factory Overheads 4,50,000 Work-in-Process 70,000
“ Admn. Overheads 2,60,000
“ S&D Overheads 1,80,000
“ Goodwill written off 2,00,000
“ Interest on loan 20,000
“ Net Profit 1,10,000

27,20,000 27,20,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.35 a

Cost Sheet

(` )
Materials 10,00,000
Wages 5,00,000
Direct Expenses Nil
Prime Cost 15,00,000
Add: Factory Overhead @ 100% of wages 5,00,000
Gross Factory Cost 20,00,000
Less: Closing WIP (70,000)
Factory Cost of (20,000 + 1,230) units 19,30,000
Add: Admn. Overhead @ 10% of Factory cost 1,93,000
21,23,000
Less: Closing Stock of finished goods (1,230 units) (1,23,000)*
Cost of Goods sold (20,000 units) 20,00,000
Add: Selling & Dist. Overhead @ ` 10 per unit 2,00,000
Cost of sales (20,000 units) 22,00,000
Sales of 20,000 units 25,00,000
Profit 3,00,000
* (`21,23,000 × 1,230 units/ 21,230 units)
Reconciliation Statement

(`) (`)
Profit as per Cost Accounts 3,00,000
Add: Factory overheads over-absorbed 50,000
(` 5,00,000 – ` 4,50,000)
Selling & Dist. Overhead over-absorbed 20,000
(` 2,00,000 – ` 1,80,000)
Difference in the valuation of closing stock of 27,000 97,000
finished goods (` 1,50,000 – ` 1,23,000)
3,97,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.36 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Less: Admn. overhead under-absorbed 67,000

(` 2,60,000 – ` 1,93,000)
Goodwill written off 2,00,000
Interest on loan 20,000 2,87,000
Profit as per financial accounts 1,10,000

ILLUSTRATION 7
Following are the figures extracted from the Cost Ledger of a manufacturing unit.

(` )
Stores:
Opening balance 15,000
Purchases 80,000
Transfer from WIP 40,000
Issue to WIP 80,000
Issue to repairs and maintenance 10,000
Sold as a special case at cost 5,000
Shortage in the year 3,000
Work-in-Process:
Opening inventory 30,000
Direct labour cost charged 30,000
Overhead cost charged 1,20,000
Closing Balance 20,000
Finished Products:
Entire output is sold at 10% profit on actual cost from Work-in-
Process.
Others:
Wages for the period 35,000
Overhead Expenses 1,25,000

ASCERTAIN the profit or loss as per financial account and cost accounts and
reconcile them.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.37 a

SOLUTION
Stores Ledger Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Balance b/d 15,000 By Work-in-Process Control 80,000
A/c (Issued to WIP)
“ Cost Ledger Control 80,000 “ Overhead Control A/c 10,000
A/c (Purchases) (Issued for repairs)
“ Work-in-Process 40,000 “ Cost Ledger Control A/c 5,000
Control A/c (Sold at cost)
(Return from WIP)
“ Overheads Control A/c* 3,000
(Shortages)
“ Balance c/d 37,000
1,35,000 1,35,000
* Assumed normal

Wages Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Cost Ledger Control A/c 35,000 By Work-in-process Control 30,000
A/c
“ Overhead Control A/c 5,000
35,000 35,000

Overhead Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Stores Ledger Control A/c 10,000 By Work-in-Process 1,20,000
Control A/c
“ Stores Ledger Control A/c 3,000
“ Cost Ledger Control A/c 1,25,000
“ Wages Control A/c 5,000 “ Balance c/d 23,000
1,43,000 1,43,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.38 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

WIP Control A/c

(`) (`)

To Balance b/d 30,000 By Stores Ledger

Control A/c 40,000

“ Stores Ledger Control A/c 80,000 “ Finished Goods

Control A/c 2,00,000*

“ Wages Control A/c 30,000

“ Overheads Control A/c 1,20,000 “ Balance c/d 20,000

2,60,000 2,60,000

* Finished output at cost 2,00,000

Profit at 10% on actual cost from WIP Sales 20,000
2,20,000

Statement of Profit as per Costing Records

(`)

Direct Material Cost (`80,000 – `40,000) 40,000

Direct wages 30,000

Prime Cost 70,000

Production Overheads 1,20,000

Works Cost 1,90,000

Add: Opening WIP 30,000

2,20,000

Less: Closing WIP (20,000)

Cost of finished goods 2,00,000

Profit (10% of cost) 20,000

Sales 2,20,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.39 a

Profit & Loss A/c

(`) (`)

To Material (Op. bal. + By Sales A/c 2,20,000

Purchases - Sale) 90,000

“ Opening WIP 30,000 “ Closing WIP 20,000

“ Wages for the period 35,000 “ Closing stock of

Raw Material 37,000

“ Overheads expenses 1,25,000 “ Net loss 3,000

2,80,000 2,80,000

Reconciliation Statement

(` )

Profit (loss) as per Financial Accounts (3,000)

Add: Overheads over absorbed (refer Overhead control A/c) 23,000

Net Profit as per Cost Accounts 20,000

ILLUSTRATION 8
The following figures have been extracted from the Financial Accounts of a
manufacturing firm for the first year of its operation:

(`)
Direct Material Consumption 50,00,000

Direct Wages 30,00,000

Factory Overheads 16,00,000

General Administrative Overheads 7,00,000

Selling and Distribution Overheads 9,60,000

Bad Debts 80,000

Preliminary expenses written off 40,000

Legal Charges 10,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.40 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Dividends Received 1,00,000

Interest received on Deposits 20,000

Sales (1,20,000 units) 1,20,00,000

Closing Stock:

Finished Goods (4,000 units) 3,20,000

Work-in-Process 2,40,000

The cost accounts for the same period reveal that the direct material consumption
was ` 56,00,000. Factory overhead is recovered at 20% on prime cost.
Administration overhead is recovered at ` 6 per unit of goods sold. Selling and
Distribution overheads are recovered at ` 8 per unit sold.
PREPARE the Profit and Loss Accounts both as per financial records and as per cost
records. RECONCILE the profits as per the two records.

SOLUTION
Profit and Loss Account
(As per financial records)

(`) (`)

To Direct Material 50,00,000 By Sales (1,20,000 1,20,00,000

units)

“ Direct Wages 30,00,000 “ Closing Stock

“ Factory Overheads 16,00,000 Work-in-process 2,40,000

“ Gross Profit c/d 29,60,000 Finished Goods 3,20,000

(4,000 units)

1,25,60,000 1,25,60,000

“ General 7,00,000 “ Gross Profit b/d 29,60,000

Administrative
Overheads

“ Selling and Dist. 9,60,000 “ Dividend 1,00,000

OH received

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.41 a

“ Bad debts 80,000 “ Interest received 20,000

“ Preliminary 40,000
Expenses written
off

“ Legal Charges 10,000

“ Net Profit 12,90,000

30,80,000 30,80,000

Statement of Cost and Profit

(As per Cost Records)

(`)

Direct Material 56,00,000

Direct Wages 30,00,000

Prime Cost 86,00,000

Factory Overhead (20% of `86,00,000) 17,20,000

1,03,20,000

Less: Closing Stock (WIP) (2,40,000)

Works Cost or Cost of production (1,24,000 units) 1,00,80,000

Less: Finished Goods (4,000 units @ `81.29) (3,25,160)

Cost of goods sold (1,20,000 units) 97,54,840

Administrative Overhead (1,20,000 units @ ` 6 p.u.) 7,20,000

Selling and Distribution Overhead (1,20,000 @ ` 8 p.u.) 9,60,000

Cost of Sales 1,14,34,840

Net profit (Balancing figure) 5,65,160

Sales Revenue 1,20,00,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.42 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Statement of Reconciliation of profit as obtained under Cost and Financial

Accounts

(`) (`)

Profit as per Cost Records 5,65,160

Add: Excess of Material Consumption 6,00,000

Factory Overhead 1,20,000

Administrative Overhead 20,000

Dividend Received 1,00,000

Interest Received 20,000 8,60,000

14,25,160

Less: Bad debts 80,000

Preliminary expenses written off 40,000

Legal Charges 10,000

Over-valuation of stock in cost book

(` 3,25,160 – ` 3,20,000) 5,160 (1,35,160)

Profit as per Financial Records 12,90,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.43 a

SUMMARY
 Cost Control Accounts: These are accounts maintained for the purpose of
exercising control over the costing ledgers and also to complete the double
entry in cost accounts.
 Integral System of Accounting: A system of accounting where both costing
and financial transactions are recorded in the same set of books.
 Non-Integral System of Accounting: A system of accounting where two sets
of books are maintained-(i) for Costing transactions; and (ii) for Financial
transactions
 Reconciliation: In the Non-Integral System of Accounting, since the cost and
financial accounts are kept separately, it is imperative that those should be
reconciled; otherwise the cost accounts would not be reliable. The reason for
differences in the cost & financial accounts can be of purely financial nature
(Income and expenses) and notional nature.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Under the Non-integrated accounting system
(a) Same ledger is maintained for cost and financial accounts by
accountants
(b) Separate ledgers are maintained for cost and financial accounts
(c) (a) and (b) both
(d) None of the above
2. Notional costs
(a) May be included in Integrated accounts
(b) May be included in Non- integrated accounts
(c) Cannot be included in Non-integrated accounts
(d) None of the above

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.44 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

3. Under Non-integrated accounting system, the account made to complete

double entry is

(a) Stores ledger control account

(b) Work in progress control account

(c) Finished goods control account

(d) General ledger adjustment account

4. Integrated systems of accounts are maintained

(a) In separate books of accounts for costing and financial accounting

purposes

(b) In same books of accounts

(c) Both (a) & (b)

(d) None of the above

5. Under Non-integrated system of accounting, purchase of raw material is

debited to which account

(a) Material control account / Stores ledger control account

(b) General ledger adjustment account

(c) Purchase account

(d) None of the above

6. Under Non-integrated accounts, if materials worth ` 1,500 are purchased for

a special job, then which account will be debited:

(a) Special job account / Work in Process account

(b) Material Control account

(c) Cost Control account

(d) None of the above

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.45 a

7. Which account is to be debited if materials worth ` 500 are returned to

vendor under Non-integrated accounts:
(a) Cost ledger control account
(b) Finished goods control account
(c) WIP control account
(d) None of the above
8. Which of the following items is included in cost accounts?

(a) Notional rent

(b) Donations
(c.) Transfer to general reserve

(d) Rent receivable

9. When costing loss is ` 5,600, administrative overhead under-absorbed being `
600, the loss as per financial accounts should be

(a) ` 5,600
(b) ` 6,200
(c) ` 5,000
(d) None of the above
10. Which of the following items should be added to costing profit to arrive at
financial profit?

(a) Over-absorption of works overhead

(b) Interest paid on debentures
(c) Income tax paid

(d) All of the above

Theoretical Questions
1. EXPLAIN what are the essential pre-requisites of Integrated Accounting
System.
2. STATE what are the advantages of Integrated Accounting.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.46 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

3. EXPLAIN why is it necessary to reconcile the Profits between the Cost

Accounts and Financial Accounts.
4. STATE what are the reasons for disagreement of profits as per Cost Accounts
and Financial Accounts. Discuss.
5. LIST the Financial expenses which are not included in Cost.
6. STATE when is the Reconciliation statement of Cost and Financial accounts
not required.

Practical Problems
1. The following incomplete accounts are furnished to you for the month ended
31st October, 2022.

Stores Ledger Control Account

1.10.2022 To Balance ` 54,000
Work in Process Control Account
1.10. 2022 To Balance ` 6,000
Finished Goods Control Account
1.10. 2022 To Balance ` 75,000
Factory Overheads Control Account
Total debits for October, 2022 ` 45,000
Factory Overheads Applied Account
Cost of Goods Sold Account
Creditors for Purchases Account
1.10. 2022 By Balance V` 30,000

Additional information:
(i) The factory overheads are applied by using a budgeted rate based on
direct labour hours. The budget for overheads for 2022 is ` 6,75,000 and
the budget of direct labour hours is 4,50,000.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.47 a

(ii) The balance in the account of creditors for purchases on 31.10.2022 is `

15,000 and the payments made to creditors in October, 2022 amount to
` 1,05,000.
(iii) The finished goods inventory as on 31st October, 2022 is ` 66,000.
(iv) The cost of goods sold during the month was ` 1,95,000.
(v) On 31st October, 2022 there was only one unfinished job in the factory.
The cost records show that ` 3,000 (1,200 direct labour hours) of direct
labour cost and ` 6,000 of direct material cost had been charged.
(vi) A total of 28,200 direct labour hours were worked in October, 2022. All
factory workers earn same rate of pay.
(vii) All actual factory overheads incurred in October, 2022 have been
posted.
You are required to FIND:
(a) Materials purchased during October, 2022.
(b) Cost of goods completed in October, 2022.
(c) Overheads applied to production in October, 2022.
(d) Balance of Work-in-Process Control A/c on 31st October, 2022.
(e) Direct Materials consumed during October, 2022.
(f) Balance of Stores Ledger Control Account on 31st October, 2022.
(g) Over absorbed or under absorbed overheads for October, 2022.
2. A company operates on historic job cost accounting system, which is not
integrated with the financial accounts. At the beginning of a month, the
opening balances in cost ledger were:

(` in lakhs)
Stores Ledger Control Account 80
Work-in-Process Control Account 20
Finished Goods Control Account 430
Building Construction Account 10
Cost Ledger Control Account 540

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 a 7.48 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

During the month, the following transactions took place:

(` in lakh)

Materials Purchased 40

Issued to production 50

Issued to factory maintenance 6

Issued to building construction 4

Wages Gross wages paid 150

Indirect wages 40

For building construction 10

Works Overheads Actual amount incurred 160

(excluding items shown above)

Absorbed in building construction 20

Under absorbed 8

Royalty paid (related to production) 5

Selling, Distribution and Administration overheads 25

Sales 450
At the end of the month, the stock of raw material and work-in-Process was
` 55 lakhs and ` 25 lakhs respectively. The loss arising in the raw material
accounts is treated as factory overheads. The building under construction was
completed during the month. Company’s gross profit margin is 20% on sales.
PREPARE the relevant control accounts to record the above transactions in the
cost ledger of the company.
3. Dutta Enterprises operates an Integral system of accounting. You are required
to PASS the Journal Entries for the following transactions that took place for
the year ended 31st March.
(Narrations are not required.)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.49 a

(`)
Raw Materials purchased (50% on Credit) 6,00,000
Materials issued to production 4,00,000
Wages paid (50% Direct) 2,00,000
Wages charged to production 1,00,000
Factory Overheads incurred 80,000
Factory Overheads charged to production 1,00,000
Selling and Distribution Overheads incurred 40,000
Finished Goods at cost 5,00,000
Sales (50% Credit) 7,50,000
Closing stock Nil
Receipts from debtors 2,00,000
Payments to creditors 2,00,000

4. The following information is available from the financial books of a company

having a normal production capacity of 60,000 units for the year ended 31st
March:

(i) Sales ` 10,00,000 (50,000 units).

(ii) There was no opening and closing stock of finished units.
(iii) Direct Material and Direct Wages cost were ` 5,00,000 and ` 2,50,000
respectively.
(iv) Actual factory expenses were ` 1,50,000 of which 60% are fixed.
(v) Actual Administrative expenses were ` 45,000 which are completely
fixed.
(vi) Actual Selling and Distribution expenses were ` 30,000 of which 40%
are fixed.
(vii) Interest and dividends received ` 15,000.
You are required to:
(a) FIND OUT profit as per financial books for the year ended 31st March;
(b) PREPARE the cost sheet and ascertain the profit as per cost accounts for
the year ended 31st March assuming that the indirect expenses are
absorbed on the basis of normal production capacity; and
(c) PREPARE a statement reconciling profits shown by financial and cost books.

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 a 7.50 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

5. M/s. H.K. Piano Company showed a net loss of ` 4,16,000 as per their
financial accounts for the year ended 31st March. The cost accounts, however,
disclosed a net loss of ` 3,28,000 for the same period. The following
information were revealed as a result of scrutiny of the figures of both the sets
of books:

(`)
(i) Factory Overheads under-recovered 6,000

(ii) Administration Overheads over-recovered 4,000

(iii) Depreciation charged in financial accounts 1,20,000

(iv) Depreciation recovered in costs 1,30,000

(v) Interest on investment not included in costs 20,000

(vi) Income-tax provided 1,20,000

(vii) Transfer fees (credit in financial books) 2,000

(viii) Stores adjustment (credit in financial books) 2,000

PREPARE a Memorandum reconciliation account.

ANSWERS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (a)
7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (a)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 3.2
2. Please refer paragraph 3.1
3. Please refer paragraph 4
4. Please refer paragraph 4.1
5. Please refer paragraph 4.1
6. Please refer paragraph 4.2

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.51 a

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. Working Notes:
(i) Overhead recovery rate per direct labour hour:
Budgeted Factory Overheads = ` 6,75,000
Budgeted Direct Labour hours = 4,50,000
Budgeted Factory Overheads
Overhead recovery rate =
Budgeted Direct Labour hours
` 6,75,000
=
4,50,000 hours
= ` 1.50 per direct labour
(ii) Direct Wage rate per hour:
Direct Labour cost of WIP = ` 3,000
(on 31st October 2022)
Direct labour hours of WIP = 1,200 hours
Direct labour cost on WIP
Direct wage rate per hour =
Direct labour hours on WIP
` 3,000
= = `2.50
1,200 hours

(iii) Total Direct Wages charged to production:

Total direct labour hours spent on production × Direct wage rate per
hour
= 28,200 hours × ` 2.50 = ` 70,500
(a) Material purchased during October, 2022

(`)
Payment made to creditors 1,05,000
Add: Closing balance in the account of creditors for 15,000
purchase
Less: Opening balance (30,000)
Material Purchased 90,000

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 a 7.52 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(b) Cost of Finished Goods in October, 2022

(`)

Cost of goods sold during the month 1,95,000

Add: Closing finished goods inventory 66,000

Less: Opening finished goods inventory (75,000)

Cost of goods completed during the month 1,86,000

(c) Overhead applied to production in October, 2022

= 28,200 hours × ` 1.50 = ` 42,300
(d) Balance of Work-in-Process on 31st October, 2022

(`)
Direct material cost 6,000

Direct labour cost 3,000

Overheads (` 1.50 × 1,200 hours) 1,800

10,800

(e) Direct material consumed during October, 2022 = ` 78,000

(Refer to following Accounts)
Work in Process Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Balance b/d 6,000 By Finished goods 1,86,000
control A/c
[Refer (b)
above]
“ Wages Control 70,500 “ Balance c/d 10,800
A/c [Refer [Refer (d)
working note (iii)] above]

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.53 a

“ Factory OH 42,300
Control A/c
[Refer (c) above]
“ Material 78,000
consumed
(Balancing fig.)

1,96,800 1,96,800

(f) Balance of Stores Control Account on 31st October, 2022 = ` 66,000

(Refer to following Account)
Stores Ledger Control Account

(`) (`)
“ Balance b/d 54,000 By Work-in-process 78,000
Control A/c
[Refer (e) above]
“ Payables 90,000 “ Balance c/d 66,000
(Creditors) A/c (Balancing fig.)
[Refer (a) above}
1,44,000 1,44,000

(g) Over-absorbed or under-absorbed overheads for October, 2022:

Balance in Factory Overhead Account below showing that ` 2,700 is
under-absorbed.
Factory Overhead Account

(`) (`)
To Bank A/c 45,000 By Work-in-process 42,300
Control A/c
(Factory OH
applied)
“ Costing P/L A/c 2,700
(Under-
absorbed)
45,000 45,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.54 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2. Cost Ledger Control A/c

Amount (` in lakhs)
(`) (`)
To Costing P&L A/c 450 By Balance b/d 540
“ Building Construction 44 “ Stores Ledger Control 40
A/c A/c
“ Balance c/d 483 “ Wages Control A/c 150
“ Works OH Control A/c 160
“ Royalty A/c 5
“ Admn. OH and S&D 25
OH A/c
“ Costing P&L A/c 57
977 977

Stores Ledger Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Balance b/d 80 By Work-in-Process A/c 50
“ Cost Ledger Control A/c 40 “ Works OH Control A/c 6
“ Building Const. A/c 4
“ Works OH Control A/c 5
(Bal. fig.) (loss)
“ Balance c/d 55
120 120

Wages Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Cost Ledger Control A/c 150 By Works OH Control A/c 40
“ Building Const. A/c 10
“ Work-in-process 100
Control A/c
(Balancing figure)
150 150

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.55 a

Works Overhead Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Stores Ledger Control 6 By Building Const. A/c 20
A/c
“ Wages Control A/c 40 “ Work-in-process 183
Control A/c
(Balancing figure)
“ Cost Ledger Control A/c 160 “ Costing P&L A/c (under- 8
absorption)
“ Store Ledger Control 5
A/c (loss)
211 211

Royalty A/c

(`) (`)
To Cost Ledger Control A/c 5 By Work-in-process 5
Control A/c

5 5

Work-in-Process Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Balance b/d 20 By Finished Goods Control 333
A/c
(Balancing figure)

“ Stores Ledger Control 50

A/c

“ Wages Control A/c 100

“ Works OH Control A/c 183

“ Royalty A/c 5 “ Balance c/d 25

358 358

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.56 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Finished Goods Control A/c

(`) (`)
To Balance b/d 430 By Cost of Goods Sold A/c 360
(80% of ` 450)
“ Work-in-process 333 “ Balance c/d 403
Control A/c
763 763

Cost of Goods Sold A/c

(`) (`)
To Finished Goods Control 360 By Cost of sales A/c 360
A/c

360 360

Selling, Distribution and Administration Overhead A/c

(`) (`)

To Cost Ledger Control A/c 25 By Cost of sales A/c 25

25 25

Cost of Sales A/c

(`) (`)
To Cost of Goods Sold 360 By Costing P&L A/c 385

“ Admn. OH and S&D OH 25

A/c

385 385

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.57 a

Costing P & L A/c

(`) (`)
To Cost of Sales A/c 385 By Cost Ledger 450
Control A/c (Sales)
“ Works Overhead Control 8
A/c
“ Cost Ledger Control A/c 57
(Profit) (Balancing figure)
450 450

Building Construction A/c

(`) (`)

To Balance b/d 10 By Cost Ledger 44

Control A/c

“ Stores Ledger Control 4

A/c

“ Wages Control A/c 10

“ Works OH Control A/c 20

44 44

Trial Balance (` in lakhs)

Dr. (`) Cr. (`)

Stores control A/c 55

Work-in-Process A/c 25

Finished Goods A/c 403

Cost Ledger Adjustment A/c 483

483 483

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.58 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

3. Journal entries are as follows:

Dr. (`) Cr. (`)

Stores Ledger Control A/c…………………………… Dr. 6,00,000
To Payables (Creditors) A/c 3,00,000
To Cash or Bank 3,00,000
Work-in-Process Control A/c…………………… Dr. 4,00,000
To Stores Ledger Control A/c 4,00,000
Wages Control A/c………………………………………. Dr. 2,00,000
To Bank A/c 2,00,000
Factory Overhead Control A/c…………………… Dr. 1,00,000
To Wages Control A/c 1,00,000
Work-in-Process Control A/c……………………… Dr. 1,00,000
To Wages Control A/c 1,00,000
Factory Overhead Control A/c………………… Dr. 80,000
To Bank A/c 80,000
Work-in-Process Control A/c…………………… Dr. 1,00,000
To Factory Overhead Control A/c 1,00,000
Selling and Dist. Overhead Control A/c Dr. 40,000
To Bank A/c 40,000
Finished Goods Control A/c…………………… Dr. 5,00,000
To Work-in-Process Control A/c 5,00,000
Cost of Sales A/c………………………………………… Dr. 5,40,000
To Finished Goods Control A/c 5,00,000
To Selling and Distribution Control A/c 40,000
Receivables (Debtors) A/c……………………………… Dr. 3,75,000
Bank or Cash A/c………………………………………… Dr. 3,75,000
To Sales A/c 7,50,000
Bank A/c…………………………………………………... Dr. 2,00,000
To Receivables (Debtors) A/c 2,00,000
Payables (Creditors) A/c………………………………... Dr. 2,00,000
To Bank A/c 2,00,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.59 a

4. (a) Profit & Loss Account

(for the year ended 31st March)

(`) (`)

To Direct Material 5,00,000 By Sales (50,000 10,00,000

units)

“ Direct Wages 2,50,000 “ Interest and 15,000

dividends

“ Factory 1,50,000
expenses

“ Administrative 45,000
expenses

“ Selling & Dist. 30,000

Expenses

“ Net Profit 40,000

10,15,000 10,15,000

(b) Cost Sheet

(for the year ended 31st March)

(`) (`)

Direct Material 5,00,000

Direct Wages 2,50,000

Prime cost 7,50,000

Factory expenses:

Variable (40% of ` 1,50,000) 60,000

Fixed (` 90,000 × 50,000/60,000) 75,000 1,35,000

Works cost/ Cost of production 8,85,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 a 7.60 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Administrative expenses: (` 45,000 × 37,500

50,000/60,000)

Selling & Distribution expenses:

Variable (60% of ` 30,000) 18,000

Fixed* (` 12,000 × 50,000/60,000) 10,000 28,000

Cost of Sales 9,50,500

Profit (Balancing figure) 49,500

Sales revenue 10,00,000

*It is assumed that the company sells what it generally produces i.e. normal
production.

(c) Statement of Reconciliation

(Reconciling profit shown by Financial and Cost Accounts)

(`) (`)

Profit as per Cost Account 49,500

Add : Income from interest and dividends 15,000

64,500

Less: Factory expenses under-charged in 15,000

Cost Accounts (` 1,50,000 – ` 1,35,000)

Administrative expenses under-charged in 7,500

Cost Accounts (` 45,000 – ` 37,500)

Selling & distribution expenses under—

charged in Cost Accounts (` 30,000 –
` 28,000) 2,000 (24,500)

Profit as per Financial Accounts 40,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 7.61 a

5. Memorandum Reconciliation Account

(`) (`)

To Net loss as per 3,28,000 By Administration 4,000

costing books Overhead- over-
recovered in costs

“ Factory 6,000 “ Depreciation 10,000

Overheads overcharged in
under-recovered costs
in costs

“ Income-tax not 1,20,000 “ Interest on invest- 20,000

provided in ments not
costs included in costs

“ Transfer fees in 2,000

financial books

“ Stores adjustment 2,000

“ Net loss as per

financial books 4,16,000

4,54,000 4,54,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India
© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India
CHAPTER
8

UNIT & BATCH COSTING

LEARNING OUTCOMES

♦ Describe Unit Costing method.

♦ Prepare and calculate the cost under Unit Costing.
♦ Describe Batch Costing methods.
♦ Explain the accounting entries for cost elements under the
method.
♦ Determine the cost for a batch
♦ Differentiate between Job Costing and Batch Costing.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Meaning
Unit Costing
Process of Cost Accumulation and Calculation

Methods of
Meaning
Costing

Process of Cost Accumulation and Calculation

Batch Costing
Determination of Economic Batch Quantity (EBQ)

Difference between Job and Batch Costing

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 8.2
av COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

1. INTRODUCTION
So far, we have discussed in earlier chapters, the element wise cost collection,
calculation and its accounting under integral and non- integral accounting systems.
Now we will discuss how the cost accounting information can be presented and
used according the needs of the management. To fulfil the need of the users of the
cost accounting information, different methods of costing are followed. Costing
methods enable the users to have customized information of any cost object
according to the need and suitability. Different methods of costing have been
developed according to the needs and nature of industries. For the sake of
simplicity, industries can be grouped into two basic types i.e. Industries doing job
work and industries engaged in mass production of a single product or identical
products.

1.1 For industry doing job work

An entity which is engaged in the execution of special orders, each order being
distinguishable from each other, such a concern is thought of involved in
performing job works. Jobs are worked strictly in accordance with the customer’s
specifications and requirements, thus, each job order is unique. Examples of job
order types of production are: ship building, construction of road and bridges,
manufacturing of heavy electrical machineries and tools, wood and furniture works
etc. Here, each job or unit of production is treated as a separate identity for the
purpose of costing. The methods of costing for ascertaining cost of each job are
known as a job costing, contract costing and batch costing.

1.2 For continuous or process type of industries

The continuous or process type of industries are characterised by the continuous
production of uniform products according to the standard specifications. In such a
case the successive lots are generally indistinguishable as to size and form and,
even if there is some variation in specifications, it is of a minor character. Examples
of continuous type of industries are chemical and pharmaceutical products,
paper/food products, canning, paints and varnish oil, rubber, textile etc. Here the
methods of costing used for the purpose of ascertaining costs are: process costing;
single output costing; operating costing etc.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 UNIT & BATCH COSTING 8.3

In this chapter two methods of costing are being discussed and distinguished from
each type. Other methods will also be discussed in subsequent chapters.

2. UNIT COSTING
Unit costing is that method of costing where the output produced is identical
and each unit of output requires identical cost. Unit costing is synonymously
known as single or output costing, but these are sub-division of unit costing
method. This method of costing is followed by industries which produce single
output or few variants of a single output. Under this method costs, are collected
and analysed element wise and then total cost per unit is ascertained by dividing
the total cost with the number of units produced. If we have to state it in the form
of a formula, then

Total Cost of Production

Cost per unit =
No. of units produced

This method of costing, therefore finds its application in industries like paper,
cement, steel works, mining, breweries etc. These types of industries produce
identical products and therefore have identical costs.

3. COST COLLECTION PROCEDURE IN UNIT

COSTING
The cost for production of output is collected element wise and posted in the cost
accounting system for cost ascertainment. The element-wise collection is done as
below:

Collection of Materials Cost

Cost of materials issued for production are collected from Material
Requisition notes and accumulated for a certain period or volume of activity. The
cost of material so accumulated is posted in cost accounting system. Through the
cost accounting system, cost sheet for the period or activity is prepared to know
cost for the period element-wise and functions-wise.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 8.4
av COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Collection of Employees (Labour) Cost

All direct employee (labour) cost is collected from job time cards or sheets and
accumulated for a certain period or volume of activity. The time booked or recorded
in the job time and idle time cards is valued at appropriate rates and entered in the
cost accounting system. Other items of indirect employee (labour) costs are
collected from the payrolls books for the purpose of posting against standing order
or expenses code numbers in the overhead expenses ledger.

Collection of Overheads
Overheads are collected under suitable standing orders numbers, and selling and
distribution overheads against cost accounts numbers. Total overhead expenses so
collected are apportioned to service and production departments on some suitable
basis. The expenses of service departments are finally transferred to production
departments. The total overhead of production departments is then applied to
products on some realistic basis, e.g. machine hour; labour hour; percentage of
direct wages; percentage of direct materials; etc.

3.1 Treatment of spoiled and defective work

Circumstances Treatment
(1) Loss due to When a normal rate of defectives has already been
normal reasons established and actual number of defectives is
within the normal limit, the cost of rectification or
loss will be charged to the entire output. If, on
the other hand, the number of defective units
substantially exceeds the normal limits, the cost of
rectification or loss beyond normal limits are written
off in Costing Profit and Loss Account.
(2) Loss due to In this case cost of rectification and loss is treated as
abnormal reasons abnormal cost and the cost of rectification or loss
is written off as loss in Costing Profit and Loss
Account.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 UNIT & BATCH COSTING 8.5

ILLUSTRATION 1
The following data relate to the manufacture of a standard product during the 4-
week ended 28th February:

Raw Materials Consumed ` 4,00,000

Direct Wages ` 2,40,000
Machine Hours Worked 3,200 hours
Machine Hour Rate ` 40
Office Overheads 10% of works cost
Selling Overheads ` 20 per unit
Units produced and sold 10,000 at ` 120 each

You are required to FIND OUT the cost per unit and profit for the 4-week ended 28th
February.
SOLUTION
Statement of Cost per Unit No. of units produced: 10,000 units
Particulars Cost per Amount
unit (`) (`)
Raw Materials Consumed 40.00 4,00,000
Direct Wages 24.00 2,40,000
Prime cost 64.00 6,40,000
Add: Manufacturing Overheads (3,200 hours × ` 40) 12.80 1,28,000
Works cost 76.80 7,68,000
Add: Office Overheads (10% of Works Cost) 7.68 76,800
Cost of goods sold 84.48 8,44,800
Add: Selling Overheads (10,000 units × ` 20) 20.00 2,00,000
Cost of sales / Total cost 104.48 10,44,800
Add: Profit (Bal Figure) 15.52 1,55,200
Sales 120.00 12,00,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 8.6
av COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 2
Atharva Pharmacare Limited produced a uniform type of product and has a
manufacturing capacity of 3,000 units per week of 48 hours. From the records of the
company, the following data are available relating to output and cost of 3 consecutive
weeks

Week Units Direct Direct Factory

Number Manufactured Material (`) Wages (`) Overheads (`)
1 1,200 9,000 3,600 31,000
2 1,600 12,000 4,800 33,000
3 1,800 13,500 5,400 34,000

Assuming that the company charges a profit of 20% on selling price, FIND OUT the
selling price per unit when the weekly output is 2,000 units
SOLUTION
Statement of Cost and Selling price for 2,000 units of output

Particulars Cost per unit Total Cost

(`) (`)
Direct Materials 7.50 15,000
Direct Labour 3.00 6,000
Prime cost 10.50 21,000
Add: Factory Overheads (Refer working note-2) 17.50 35,000
Total cost 28.00 56,000
Add: Profit (20% of Sales is equivalent to 25% of 7.00 14,000
Cost)
Sales 35.00 70,000

Working Notes:
(1) Direct Material and Direct Labour cost is varying directly in proportion to units
produced and shall remain same per unit of output. Thus, direct material cost
is equal to ` 9000 ÷ 1200 units = ` 7.50 per unit and labour cost is equal to
` 3600 ÷ 1200 units = ` 3 per unit.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 UNIT & BATCH COSTING 8.7

(2) Calculation of Factory Overheads- An observation of cost related to different

output levels for factory overheads shall reveal 2 things
a. Total cost increases from `31,000 to `34,000 along with increase in
output from 1,200 units to 1,800 units but cost per unit is not constant.
Thus it is not a variable cost.Cost per unit is reducing along with
increase in output from ` 25.83 (` 31,000 ÷ 1,200 units) to ` 18.89
(`34,000 ÷ 1,800 units)
b. Since the cost is varying with the output, it is also not a fixed cost.
Hence, we can see that the cost is a semi- variable cost and has to be
calculated for 2,000 units by analysing its fixed and variable components

Week Number Units Manufactured Factory Overheads

1 1,200 31,000
2 1,600 33,000
Difference 400 2,000

Therefore, Variable Cost per unit = Change in Factory Overheads ÷ Change

in output
= `2,000 ÷ 400 = `5
Now total factory overheads for week 2 = `33,000
Out of this, Variable Overheads = 1,600 units × `5 = ` 8,000
Thus, fixed component = ` 33,000 – ` 8,000 = ` 25,000
Therefore, Variable Cost for 2,000 units = 2,000 units × `5 = ` 10,000
Fixed Cost will not change and hence will be = `25,000
Therefore, Total Factory Cost = Variable Overheads + Fixed Overheads
Overheads for 2,000 units = `10,000 + `25,000 = ` 35,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 8.8
av COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

4. BATCH COSTING
Batch Costing is a type of specific order costing where articles are
manufactured in predetermined lots, known as batch. Under this costing
method, the cost object for cost determination is a batch for production rather
output as seen in unit costing method.
A batch consists of certain number of units which are processed simultaneously to
be for manufacturing operation. Under this method of manufacturing, the inputs
are accumulated in the assembly line till it reaches minimum batch size. Soon after
a batch size is reached, all inputs in a batch is processed for further operations.
Reasons for batch manufacturing may be either technical or economical or both.
For example, in pen manufacturing industry, it would be too costly to manufacture
one pen of a particular design at a time to meet the demand of one customer. On
the other hand, the production, of say 10,000 pens, of the same design will reduce
the cost to a sizeable extent.
To initiate production process, an entity has to incur expenditures on engaging
workers for production and supervision, setting-up of machine to run for
production etc. These are the minimum level of expenditures which have to be
incurred each time a batch is run irrespective of number of units produced.

5. Costing Procedure in Batch Costing

To facilitate convenient cost determination, one number is allotted for each batch.
Material cost for the batch is arrived at on the basis of material requisitions for the
batch and labour cost is arrived at by multiplying the time spent on the batch by
direct workers as ascertained from time cards or job tickets. Overheads are
absorbed on some suitable basis like machine hours, direct labour hours etc.
ILLUSTRATION 3
Arnav Confectioners (AC) owns a bakery which is used to make bakery items like
pastries, cakes and muffins. AC use to bake at most 50 units of any item at a time.
A customer has given an order for 600 muffins. To process a batch of 50 muffins,
the following cost would be incurred:
Direct materials- ` 500

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 UNIT & BATCH COSTING 8.9

Direct wages- ` 50
Oven set- up cost ` 150
AC absorbs production overheads at a rate of 20% of direct wages cost. 10% is
added to the total production cost of each batch to allow for selling, distribution
and administration overheads.
AC requires a profit margin of 25% of sales value.
DETERMINE the selling price for 600 muffins.
SOLUTION
Statement of cost per batch and per order
No. of batch = 600 units ÷ 50 units = 12 batches

Particulars Cost per Total

batch (`) Cost (`)
Direct Material Cost 500.00 6,000
Direct Wages 50.00 600
Oven set-up cost 150.00 1,800
Add: Production Overheads (20% of Direct wages) 10.00 120
Total Production cost 710.00 8,520
Add: S&D and Administration overheads 71.00 852
(10% of Total production cost)
Total Cost 781.00 9,372
Add: Profit (1/3rd of total cost) 260.33 3,124
Selling price 1,041.33 12,496
Selling Price per unit = 1041.33÷ 50 = ` 20.83

ILLUSTRATION 4
A jobbing factory has undertaken to supply 200 pieces of a component per month for
the ensuing six months. Every month a batch order is opened against which materials
and labour hours are booked at actual. Overheads are levied at a rate equal to per
labour hour. The selling price contracted for is ` 8 per piece. From the following data
CALCULATE the cost and profit per piece of each batch order and overall position of
the order for 1,200 pieces.

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Month Batch Output Material cost Direct wages Direct labour

(` ) (` ) hours
January 210 650 120 240
February 200 640 140 280
March 220 680 150 280
April 180 630 140 270
May 200 700 150 300
June 220 720 160 320
The other details are:

Month Overheads Direct labour

(` ) hours
January 12,000 4,800
February 10,560 4,400
March 12,000 5,000
April 10,580 4,600
May 13,000 5,000
June 12,000 4,800

SOLUTION

Particulars Jan. Feb. March April May June Total

Batch output 210 200 220 180 200 220 1,230
(in units)
Sale value (`) 1,680 1,600 1,760 1,440 1,600 1,760 9,840
Material cost (`) 650 640 680 630 700 720 4,020
Direct wages (`) 120 140 150 140 150 160 860
Overheads* (`) 600 672 672 621 780 800 4,145
Total cost (`) 1,370 1,452 1,502 1,391 1,630 1,680 9,025
Profit per batch (`) 310 148 258 49 (30) 80 815
Total cost per unit (`) 6.52 7.26 6.83 7.73 8.15 7.64 7.34
Profit per unit (`) 1.48 0.74 1.17 0.27 (0.15) 0.36 0.66

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 UNIT & BATCH COSTING 8.11

Overall position of the order for 1,200 units

Sales value of 1,200 units @ ` 8 per unit ` 9,600
Total cost of 1,200 units @ ` 7.34 per unit ` 8,808
Profit ` 792
Overheads
∗ × Direct labour hours for batch
Direct labour hour for the month

6. ECONOMIC BATCH QUANTITY (EBQ)

As the product is produced in batches or lots, the lot size chosen will be critical in
achieving least cost of operation. Primarily, the total production cost under batch
production comprises of two main costs, namely,
1. Machine Set Up Costs and
2. Inventory holding costs.

If the size is higher, the set up cost may decline due to lesser number of set ups
required; but units in inventory will go up leading to higher holding costs. If the lot
size is lower, lower inventory holding costs are accomplished but only with higher
set up costs. Economic batch quantity is the size of a batch where total cost of
set-up and holding costs are at minimum.
This relationship is explained with the help of following diagram

As can be seen in the above diagram, costs are shown on the Y axis and Batch size
or batch quantity is shown on the X axis. With the higher batch size, holding cost
shows a tendency to increase whereas set-up costs show a declining trend. The
point where both the cost lines intersect each other represents the lowest cost
combination.

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The economic batch size or Economic Batch Quantity may be determined by

calculating the total cost for a series of possible batch sizes and checking which
batch size gives the minimum cost. Alternatively, a formula can be derived which is
similar to determination of Economic Order Quantity (EOQ). The objective here
being to determine the production lot (Batch size) that optimizes on both set up
and inventory holding cots formula. The mathematical formula usually used for its
determination is as follows:

2DS
EBQ =
C
Where, D = Annual demand for the product
S = Setting up cost per batch
C = Carrying cost per unit of production
ILLUSTRATION 5
Monthly demand for a product 500 units
Setting-up cost per batch ` 60
Cost of manufacturing per unit ` 20
Rate of interest 10% p.a.
DETERMINE economic batch quantity.
SOLUTION

2DS 2 × 500 × 12 × 60
EBQ = = = 600 units.
C 0.1× 20
ILLUSTRATION 6
M/s. KBC Bearings Ltd. is committed to supply 48,000 bearings per annum to M/s.
KMR Fans on a steady daily basis. It is estimated that it costs ` 1 as inventory holding
cost per bearing per month and that the set up cost per run of bearing manufacture
is ` 3,200
(i) DETERMINE the optimum run size of bearing manufacture.
(ii) STATE what would be the interval between two consecutive optimum runs.
(iii) FIND OUT the minimum inventory holding cost.

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SOLUTION
(i) Optimum batch size or Economic Batch Quantity (EBQ):

2DS 2 × 48,000 × 3,200

EBQ = = = 5,060 units.
C 12
(ii) Number of Optimum runs = 48,000 ÷ 5,060 = 9.49 or 10 run
Interval between 2 runs (in days) = 365 days ÷ 10 = 36.5 days
(iii) Minimum Inventory Cost = Average Inventory × Inventory Carrying Cost per
unit per annum
Average Inventory = 5,060 units ÷ 2 = 2,530 units

Carrying Cost per unit per annum= `1 × 12 months = ` 12

Minimum Inventory Holding Costs = 2,530 units × ` 12 = ` 30,360
ILLUSTRATION 7
A Company has an annual demand from a single customer for 50,000 litres of a paint
product. The total demand can be made up of a range of colour to be produced in a
continuous production run after which a set-up of the machinery will be required to
accommodate the colour change. The total output of each colour will be stored and
then delivered to the customer as single load immediately before production of the
next colour commences.
The Set up costs are ` 100 per set up. The Service is supplied by an outside company
as required.
The Holding costs are incurred on rented storage space which costs ` 50 per sq. meter
per annum. Each square meter can hold 250 Litres suitably stacked.
You are required to:
(i) CALCULATE the total cost per year where batches may range from 4,000 to
10,000 litres in multiples of 1,000 litres and hence choose the production batch
size which will minimize the cost.
(ii) Use the economic batch size formula to CALCULATE the batch size which will
minimise total cost.

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SOLUTION
(i)

Production Batch Set-up costs Holding Costs Total Costs

Size (Lt.) per annum (`) per annum (`) per annum (`)
4,000 1,250 400 1,650
5,000 1,000 500 1,500
6,000 833 600 1,433
7,000 714 700 1,414
8,000 625 800 1,425
9,000 556 900 1,456
10,000 500 1000 1,500

As the total cost is minimum at 7,000 ltr. i.e. ` 1,414, thus economic production
lot would be 7,000 Litres
(ii) Economic Batch Quantity (EBQ):
2 DS
EBQ =
C

Where, D = Annual demand for the product = 50,000 Litres

S = Setting up cost per batch = `100 per set-up

C = Carrying cost per unit of production
= ` 50 / 250 litres = 0.20 per litre per annum

2 × 50,000 × 100
= = 7,071 Litres
0.2 × 1
Working Note:
1. For Production batch size of 7,000 litres
Number of set ups per year = 50,000 ÷ 7,000 = 7.14 or 8 set-ups
Hence, annual set up cost per year = 8 × `100 = `800
Average Quantity = 7,000 ÷ 2 = 3,500 litres
Holding Costs = 3,500 ltr. ÷250 × 50 = ` 700

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2. It can be seen that EBQ determined with mathematical formula (7,071

litres) slightly varies from the one determined by trial and error method
(7,000 Litres)

7. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN JOB AND BATCH

COSTING
Sr. No Job Costing Batch Costing
1 Method of costing used for Homogeneous products produced in
non- standard and non- a continuous production flow in lots.
repetitive products produced
as per customer specifications
and against specific orders.
2 Cost determined for each Job Cost determined in aggregate for the
entire Batch and then arrived at on
per unit basis.
3 Jobs are different from each Products produced in a batch are
other and independent of each homogeneous and lack of
other. Each Job is unique. individuality

SUMMARY
♦ Unit Costing: Unit costing is that method of costing where the output produced
by an entity is identical and each unit of output require identical cost.
♦ Job Costing: Job costing is the method of costing required to be done for
unique products manufacturing done against specific orders.
♦ Batch Costing: Batch Costing is a type of specific order costing where articles
are manufactured in predetermined lots, known as batch. Under this costing
method, the cost object for cost determination is a batch for production rather
output as seen in unit costing.
♦ Economic Batch Quantity (EBQ): Economic batch quantity is the size of a batch
where total cost of set-up and holding costs are at minimum.

2DS
EBQ =
C

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TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
1. Different businesses in order to determine cost of their product or service
offering follow:

(a) Different methods of Costing

(b) Uniform Costing
(c) Different techniques of costing
(d) None of the above
2. In order to determine cost of the product or service, following are used:
(a) Techniques of costing like Marginal, Standard etc.

(b) Methods of Costing

(c) Comparatives
(d) All of the above

3. Unit Costing is applicable where:

(a) Product produced are unique and no 2 products are same
(b) Dissimilar articles are produced as per customer specification
(c) homogeneous articles are produced on large scale
(d) Products made require different raw materials
4. In case product produced or jobs undertaken are of diverse nature, the system
of costing to be used should be:
(a) Process costing
(b) Operating costing
(c) Job costing
(d) None of the above

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5. Job Costing is:

(a) Applicable to all industries regardless of the products or services provided
(b) Technique of costing
(c) Suitable where similar products are produced on mass scale
(d) Method of costing used for non- standard and non- repetitive products.
6. The production planning department prepares a list of materials and stores
required for the completion of a specific job order, this list is known as:
(a) Bin card
(b) Bill of material
(c) Material requisition slip
(d) None of the above
7. Batch costing is a type of:
(a) Process costing
(b) Job Costing
(c) Differential costing
(d) Direct costing
8. Batch costing is similar to that under job costing except with the difference that
a:

(a) Job becomes a cost unit.

(b) Batch becomes the cost unit instead of a job
(c) Process becomes a cost unit

(d) None of the above

9. The main points of distinction between job and contract costing includes:
(a) Length of time to complete.

(b) Big jobs

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(c) Activities to be done outside the factory area

(d) All of the above

10. Economic batch quantity is that size of the batch of production where:
(a) Average cost is minimum

(b) Set-up cost of machine is minimum

(c) Carrying cost is minimum
(d) Both (b) and (c)

Theoretical Questions
1. DESCRIBE Unit Costing and Batch Costing giving example of industries where
these are used.
2. DISTINGUISH between Job Costing & Batch Costing.
3. In Batch Costing, STATE how is Economic Batch Quantity determined.
4. Z Ltd. produces product ZZ in batches, management of the Z Ltd. wants to know
the number of batches of product ZZ to be produced where the cost incurred
on batch setup and carrying cost of production is at optimum level. How will
they DETERMINE the optimum batch number?

Practical Problems
1. Wonder Ltd. has a capacity of 120,000 units per annum as its optimum
capacity. The production costs are as under:
Direct Material – ` 90 per unit
Direct Labour- ` 60 per unit
Overheads:
Fixed: ` 30,00,000 per annum

Variable: ` 100 per unit

Semi Variable: ` 20,00,000 per annum up to 50% capacity and an extra amount
of ` 4,00,000 for every 25% increase in capacity or part thereof
The production is made to order and not for stocks.

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If the production programme of the factory is as indicated below and the

management desires a profit of `20,00,000 for the year DETERMINE the
average selling price at which each unit should be quoted.
First 3 months: 50% capacity
Remaining 9 months: 80% capacity
Ignore Administration, Selling and Distribution overheads.
2. Rio Limited undertakes to supply 1000 units of a component per month for the
months of January, February and March. Every month a batch order is opened
against which materials and labour cost are booked at actual. Overheads are
levied at a rate per labour hour. The selling price is contracted at ` 15 per unit.
From the following data, CALCULATE the profit per unit of each batch order
and the overall position of the order for the 3,000 units.

Month Batch Output Material Cost Labour Cost

(Numbers) (` ) (` )
January 1,250 6,250 2,500
February 1,500 9,000 3,000
March 1,000 5,000 2,000

Labour is paid at the rate of ` 2 per hour. The other details are:

Month Overheads (`) Total Labour Hours

January 12,000 4,000
February 9,000 4,500
March 15,000 5,000

3. X Ltd. is committed to supply 24,000 bearings per annum to Y Ltd. on steady

basis. It is estimated that it costs 10 paise as inventory holding cost per bearing
per month and that the set-up cost per run of bearing manufacture is ` 324.
(a) COMPUTE what would be the optimum run size for bearing manufacture?
(b) Assuming that the company has a policy of manufacturing 6,000 bearings
per run, CALCULATE how much extra costs the company would be
incurring as compared to the optimum run suggested in (a) above?
(c) CALCULATE the holding cost at optimum inventory level?

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4. A customer has been ordering 90,000 special design metal columns at the rate
of 18,000 columns per order during the past years. The production cost per unit
comprises ` 2,120 for material, ` 60 for labour and ` 20 for fixed overheads. It
costs ` 1,500 to set up for one run of 18,000 column and inventory carrying cost
is 5%.
(i) FIND the most economic production run.
(ii) CALCULATE the extra cost that company incur due to processing of 18,000
columns in a batch.
5. XYZ Ltd. has obtained an order to supply 48000 bearings per year from a
concern. On a steady basis, it is estimated that it costs ` 0.20 as inventory
holding cost per bearing per month and the set-up cost per run of bearing
manufacture is ` 384.
You are required to:

(i) compute the optimum run size and number of runs for bearing
manufacture.
(ii) compute the interval between two consecutive runs.
(iii) find out the extra costs to be incurred, if company adopts a policy to
manufacture 8000 bearings per run as compared to optimum run Size.
(iv) give your opinion regarding run size of bearing manufacture.

Assume 365 days in a year.

ANSWERS/ SOLUTIONS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b)

7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (d)

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Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 2 & 4
2. Please refer paragraph 7
3. Please refer paragraph 6
4. Please refer paragraph 6

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. Statement of Cost and Total Sales Amount (`)

Particulars First 3 months Next 9 months Total

Capacity 120,000x3/12x50% 120,000x9/12x50% 87,000
Utilisation (No =15,000 =72,000
of units)
Direct Material 13,50,000 64,80,000 78,30,000
Direct Labour 9,00,000 43,20,000 52,20,000
Add:
Overheads:
- Fixed (1:3) 7,50,000 22,50,000 30,00,000
- Variable 15,00,000 72,00,000 87,00,000
Semi Variable 5,00,000 (For first 3 21,00,000 (at the 26,00,000
months at the rate rate of ` 28,00,000
of ` 20,00,000) for 9 months)
Total cost 50,00,000 2,23,50,000 2,73,50,000
Add: Profit 20,00,000
Sales 2,93,50,000

Average Selling Price = `2,93,50,000 ÷ 87,000 units = ` 337.356

2. Statement of Cost and Profit per unit of each batch

January February March Total

a) Batch Output (Nos.) 1,250 1,500 1,000 3,750
b) Sales Value (@ ` 15 per (`) (`) (`) (`)
unit) 18,750 22,500 15,000 56,250

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Cost
Material 6,250 9,000 5,000 20,250
Wages 2,500 3,000 2,000 7,500
Overheads 3,750 3,000 3,000 9,750
c) Total 12,500 15,000 10,000 37,500
d) Profit per batch (b) – (c) 6,250 7,500 5,000 18,750
e) Cost per unit (c) ÷ (a) 10 10 10
f) Profit per unit (d) ÷ (a) 5 5 5

Overall Position of the Order for 3,000 Units

Sales value (3,000 units × ` 15) `45,000
Less: Total cost (3,000 units × ` 10) 30,000
Profit 15,000

Calculation of overhead per hour:

January February March
i. Labour hours:
Labour cost `2,500 `3,000 `2,000
= = 1,250 = 1,500 = 1,000
Labour rates per hour 2 2 2
ii. Overhead per hour:
Total Overheads `12,000 `9,000 `15,000
= =`3 =`2 =`3
Total labour hour 4,000 4,500 5,000
iii. Overhead for batch ` 3,750 ` 3,000 ` 3,000
(i) × (ii)

2DS
3. (a) Optimum production run size (Q) =
C
where,
D = No. of units to be produced within one year.
S = Set-up cost per production run

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C = Carrying cost per unit per annum.

2DS 2×24,000×`324
= = = 3,600 bearings.
C 0.10×12

(b) Total Cost (of maintaining the inventories) when production run size (Q)
are 3,600 and 6,000 bearings respectively

Total cost = Total set-up cost + Total carrying cost.

When run size is 3,600 When run size is 6,000

bearings bearings
Total set up cost 24,000 24,000
= ×` 324 = `2,160 = × ` 324= ` 1,296
3,600 6,000
Or,
No. of setups = 6.67
(7 setups)
= 7 x 324 = ` 2,268
Total Carrying cost 1/2×3,600 × 0.10P × 12 1/2 × 6,000 × 0.10P × 12
= ` 2,160 = ` 3,600
Total Cost ` 4,320/ ` 4,428 ` 4,896

` 576/ ` 468 is the excess cost borne by the firm due to run size not
being economic batch quantity.

(c) Inventory holding cost at EBQ = 1/2 Q × C

(when Q = 3,600 bearings) = 1/2 × 3,600 bearings × 0.10P × 12
= ` 2,160
4. (i) Total Cost of production = ` 2,120 + 60 + 20 = ` 2,200
Calculation of Economic Batch Quantity (EBQ):

2×90,000×`1,500 27,00,00,000
EBQ = = = 1,567 columns.
5%of `2,200 `110

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(ii) Calculation of Extra Cost due to processing of 18,000 columns in a batch

When run size is 1,567 When run size is

columns 18,000 columns
Total set up cost No. of setups 90,000
= × ` 1,500
= 90,000/1567 = 57.43(58 18,000
setups) = ` 7,500
90,000
= × ` 1,500
1,567
= ` 87,000

Total Carrying cost ½ × 1,567 × ` 110 ½ × 18,000 × ` 110

= ` 86,185 = ` 9,90,000

Total Cost ` 1,73,185 ` 9,97,500

Thus, extra cost = ` 9,97,500 – ` 1,73,185 = ` 8,24,315

5. (i) Optimum batch size or Economic Batch Quantity (EBQ):

2DS 2 × 48,000 × 384

EBQ = = = 3919.18 or 3,920 units
C 2.4
Number of Optimum runs = 48,000 ÷ 3,920 = 12.245 or 13 run

(ii) Interval between 2 runs (in days) = 365 days ÷ 13 = 28 days

Or 365÷12.24=29.82 days
(iii) Statement showing Total Cost at Production Run size of 3,600 and 8,000
bearings

A. Annual requirement 48,000 48,000

B. Run Size 3,920 8,000
C. No. of runs (A/B) 12.245 6
D. Set up cost per run ` 384 ` 384
E. Total set up cost (CxD) `. 4,702 ` 2,304
F. Average inventory (B/2) 1,960 4,000

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G. Carrying cost per unit p.a. 2.40 2.40

H. Total Carrying cost (FxG) 4,704 9,600
I. Total cost (E+H) 9,406 11,904

Extra cost incurred, if run size is of 8,000=`11,904-9,406= `. 2,498

(iv) To save cost the company should run at optimum batch size ie 3,920
Units. It saves ` 2,498. Run size should match with the Economic
production run of bearing manufacture. When managers of a
manufacturing operation make decisions about the number of units to
produce for each production run, they must consider the costs related
to setting up the production process and the costs of holding inventory

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

CHAPTER
9

JOB COSTING

LEARNING OUTCOMES
♦ Describe Job Costing methods.
♦ Explain the accounting entries for cost elements under both
the methods.
♦ Determining cost for a job.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Methods of Costing

Specific Order Costing

Job Costing

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 9.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

1. JOB COSTING
1.1 Meaning of Job Costing
CIMA London defines Job Costing as “the category of basic costing methods
which is applicable where the work consists of separate contracts, jobs or
batches, each of which is authorised by specific order or contract.” According
to this method, costs are collected and accumulated according to jobs, contracts,
products or work orders. Each job or unit of production is treated as a separate
entity for the purpose of costing. Job Costing is carried out for the purpose of
ascertaining cost of each job and takes into account the cost of materials,
employees and overhead etc. The job costing method is also applicable to
industries in which production is carried out in batches. Batch production
basically is of the same character as the job order production, the difference
being mainly one in the size of different orders.

1.2 Principles of Job Costing

The job costing method may be regarded as the principal method of costing since
the basic object and purpose of all costing is to:
• Analysis and ascertainment of cost of each unit of production
• Control and regulate cost
• Determine the profitability
The basic principles enunciated for the job costing method are valid essentially for
all types of industry. For example, printing; furniture; hardware; ship-building; heavy
machinery; interior decoration, repairs and other similar work.

1.3 Process of Job Costing

• Prepare a separate cost sheet for each job
• Disclose cost of materials issued for the job
• Employee costs incurred (on the basis of bill of material and time cards
respectively)
• When job is completed, overhead charges are added for ascertaining total
expenditure

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1.4 Suitability of Job Costing

• When jobs are executed for different customers according to their
specifications.
• when no two orders are alike and each order/job needs special treatment.
• Where the work-in-progress differs from period to period on the basis of the
number of jobs in hand.

2. JOB COST CARD/ SHEET

Each job order is asymmetrical to other due to specific and customised
requirements. To ascertain cost of a particular job, it is necessary to record all the
expenditure related with a job separately. For this purpose, Job Cost card is used.
Job cost card is a cost sheet, where the quantity of materials issued, hours spent by
different class of employees, amount of other expenses and share of overheads are
recorded. This is helpful in knowing the total cost, profitability etc. of a job. The
following is an illustrative format of Job Cost card/ sheet.
Format of Job Cost Sheet:

JOB COST SHEET

Description: _______________________ Job No.: ________________________
Blue Print No.: ______________________ Quantity: _______________________
Material No.: _______________________ Date of delivery: __________________
Reference No.: ______________________ Date commenced: _________________
Date finished: _____________________
Date Reference Details Material Labour Overhead

Total

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Summary of costs Estimated Actual

(`) (`) For the job __________________
Direct material cost Units produced ______________
Direct wages Cost/unit ___________________
Production overhead Remarks ____________________
PRODUCTION COST Prepared by: ________________
Administration and Checked by: _________________
Selling & Distribution
Overheads

TOTAL COST
PROFIT/LOSS
SELLING PRICE

3. COLLECTION OF COSTS FOR A JOB

3.1 Collection of Materials Cost
An essential requirement of job cost accounting is that direct materials and their
cost must be traced to and identified with specific job or work order. This
segregation of materials cost by jobs or work order is brought by the use of
separate stores requisitions for each job or work order. Where a bill of material is
prepared, it provides the basis for the preparation of these stores requisitions. But
when the entire quantity of materials specified in the bill of materials is drawn in
one lot or in installments, the bill itself could be made to serve as a substitute for
the stores requisition.
After the materials have been issued and the stores requisitions have been priced,
it is usual to enter the value of the stores requisition in a material abstract or
analysis book. It serves to analyse and collect the cost of all direct materials
according to job or work orders and departmental standing orders or expense code
numbers. From the abstract book, the summary of materials cost of each job is
posted to individual job cost sheets or cards in the Work-in-Progress ledger.
The postings are usually made weekly or monthly. Similarly, at periodic intervals,
from the material abstract books, summary cost of indirect material is posted to

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 JOB COSTING 9.5

different standing orders or expense code numbers in the Overhead Expenses

ledger. If any special material has been purchased for a particular job, it is generally
the practice to charge such special material direct to the job concerned without
passing it through the Stores Ledger, as soon as it is purchased.
If any surplus material is left over in the case of any job, unless it can be immediately
and economically used on some other job, the same is returned to the stores with
a proper supporting document/stores Debit Note or Shop Credit, and the relevant
job account is credited with the value of excess material returned to the stores. If
the surplus material is utilised on some other job, instead of being returned
to the stores first, a material transfer note is prepared. The transfer note would
show the number of the transfer to job as well as transferee job (or jobs) so that,
on that basis, the cost thereof can be adjusted in the Work-in-Progress Ledger.

3.2 Collection of Labour Cost

All direct labour cost must be analysed according to individual jobs or work orders.
Similarly, different types of indirect labour cost also must be collected and accumu-
lated under appropriate standing order or expenses code number. The analysis of
labour according to jobs or work orders is, usually, made by means of job time
cards or sheets. All direct labour is booked against specific jobs in the job time
cards or sheets. All the idle time also is booked against appropriate standing order
expense code number either in the job time card for each job or on a separate idle
time card for each worker (where the job time card is issued job-wise). The time
booked or recorded in the job time and idle time cards is valued at appropriate
rates and entered in the labour abstract or analysis book. All direct employee cost
is accumulated under relevant job or work order numbers, and the total or the
periodical total of each job or work order is then posted to the appropriate
job cost card or sheet in Work-in-Progress ledger. The postings are usually made
at the end of each week or month.
The abstraction of idle time costs under suitable standing order or expenses code
numbers is likewise done and the amounts are posted to the relevant departmental
standing order or expense code number in the Overhead Expenses Ledger at
periodical intervals. As regards other items of indirect labour cost these are
collected from the payrolls books for the purpose of posting against standing order
or expenses code numbers in the Overhead Expenses ledger.

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 9.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

3.3 Collection of Overheads

Manufacturing overheads are collected under suitable standing order numbers and
selling and distribution overheads against cost accounts numbers. Total overhead
expenses so collected are apportioned to service and production departments on
some suitable basis. The expenses of service departments are finally transferred to
production departments. The total overhead of production departments is then
applied to products on some realistic basis, e.g. machine hour; labour hour;
percentage of direct wages; percentage of direct materials; etc. It should be
remembered that the use of different methods will lead to a different amount being
computed for the works overhead charged to a job hence to different total cost.
The problem of accurately absorbing, in each individual job or work order, the
overhead cost of different cost centres or departments involved in the manufacture
is difficult under the job costing method. It is because the cost or the expenses
thereof cannot be traced to or identified with any particular job or work order. In
such circumstances, the best that can be done is to apply a suitable overhead rate
to each individual article manufactured or to each production order. This is
essentially an arbitrary method.

3.4 Treatment of spoiled and defective work

Spoiled work is the quantity of production that has been totally rejected and
cannot be rectified.
Defective work refers to production that is not as perfect as the saleable
product but is capable of being rectified and brought to the required degree of
perfection provided some additional expenditure is incurred. Normally, all the
manufacturing operations are not fully successful; they result in turning out a
certain amount of defective work. Nonetheless, over a period of time it is possible
to work out a normal rate of defectives for each manufacturing process which
would represent the number of defective articles which a process shall produce in
spite of due care. Defects arise in the following circumstances:

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 JOB COSTING 9.7

Circumstances Treatment
(1) Where a percentage of When a normal rate of defectives has
defective work is allowed already been established, if the actual
in a particular batch as it number of defectives is within the normal
cannot be avoided. limit or is near thereto the cost of
rectification will be charged to the
whole job and spread over the entire
output of the batch. If, on the other hand,
the number of defective units substantially
exceeds the normal, the cost of
rectification of the number which exceeds
the normal will be written off as a loss in
the Costing Profit and Loss Account.
(2) Where defect is due to bad In this case cost of rectification will be
workmanship. abnormal cost, i.e., not a legitimate
element of the cost. Therefore, the cost of
rectification shall be written off as a
loss, unless by an arrangement, it is to be
recovered as a penalty from the workman
concerned. It is possible, however that the
management did provide for a certain
proportion of defectives on account of
bad workmanship as an unavoidable
feature of production. If that be the case,
the cost of rectifying to the extent
provided for by the management will be
treated as a normal cost and charged to
the batch.
(3) Where defect is due to the In this case the cost of rectification will
Inspection Department be charged to the department and will
wrongly accepting not be considered as cost of
incoming material of poor manufacture of the batch. Being an
quality. abnormal cost, it will be written off to the
Costing Profit and Loss Account.

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 9.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

4. ACCOUNTING OF COSTS FOR A JOB

4.1 Entries in Control Accounts
1. For purchase of materials-
Stores Ledger Control A/c Dr.
To Cost Ledger Control A/c*
2. For the value of direct materials issued to
jobs-
Work-in-Process Control A/c Dr.
To Stores Ledger Control A/c
3. For return of direct materials from jobs-
Stores Ledger Control A/c Dr.
To Work-in-Process Control A/c
4. For return of materials to suppliers –
Cost Ledger Control A/c Dr.
To Stores Ledger Control A/c
5. For indirect materials-
Factory Overhead Control A/c Dr.
To Stores Ledger Control A/c
6. For wages paid-
Wages Control A/c Dr.
To Cost Ledger Control A/c
7. For direct wages incurred on jobs-
Work-in-Process Control A/c Dr.
To Wages Control A/c
8. For indirect wages –
Factory Overhead Control A/c Dr.
To Wages Control A/c

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 JOB COSTING 9.9

9. For any indirect expense paid-

Factory Overhead Control A/c Dr.
To Cost Ledger Control A/c
10. For charging overhead to jobs-
Work-in-Process Control A/c Dr.
To Factory Overhead Control A/c
11. For the total cost of jobs completed-
Cost of Sales A/c Dr.
To Work-in-Progress Control A/c
12. The balance of Cost of Sales A/c is transferred
to Costing Profit and Loss a/c; For such
transfer –
Costing Profit and Loss A/c Dr.
To Cost of Sales A/c
13. For the sales value of jobs completed -
Cost Ledger Control A/c Dr.
To Costing Profit and Loss A/c**

*General ledger adjustment account is another name of Cost Ledger Control Account.
**The balance of Costing Profit and Loss Account shall now represent profit or loss. The balance
of Cost Ledger Control Account shall be carried forwarded. With the balance on all the accounts
trial balance can be drawn.

ILLUSTRATION 1
The manufacturing cost of a work order is ` 1,00,000; 8% of the production against
that order spoiled and the rejection is estimated to have a realisable value of
` 2,000 only. The normal rate of spoilage is 2%. RECORD this in the costing journal.

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 9.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION
Actual loss due to spoilage = 8% of ` 1,00,000 = `8,000 and Normal loss = 2% of
` 1,00,000 = `2,000, therefore abnormal loss = `6,000.
The rejection has a realisable value of ` 2,000, which is to be apportioned between
normal loss and abnormal loss in the ratio of 2 : 6.
The accounting entries necessary for recording the above facts would be:
(`) ( `)
Material Control Account Dr. 2,000

Overhead Control Account Dr. 1,500

Costing Profit and Loss Control Account Dr. 4,500
To Work-in-Progress Control Account 8,000
In the case of defectives being inherent in the manufacturing process, the
rectification cost may be charged to the specific jobs in which they have arisen. In
case detectives cannot be identified with jobs, the cost of rectification may be
treated as factory overheads. Abnormal defectives should be written off to the
Costing Profit and Loss Account.
ILLUSTRATION 2
A shop floor supervisor of a small factory presented the following cost for Job No.
303, to determine the selling price.

Per unit (`)

Materials 70
Direct wages 18 hours @ ` 2.50 45
(Deptt. X 8 hours; Deptt. Y 6 hours; Deptt. Z 4 hours)
Chargeable expenses 5
120
Add : 33-1/3 % for expenses cost 40
160

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 JOB COSTING 9.11

Analysis of the Profit/Loss Account

(for the current financial year)
(` ) (` )
Materials used 1,50,000 Sales less returns 2,50,000
Direct wages:
Deptt. X 10,000
Deptt. Y 12,000
Deptt. Z 8,000 30,000

Special stores items 4,000

Overheads:
Deptt. X 5,000
Deptt. Y 9,000
Deptt. Z 2,000 16,000
Works cost 2,00,000

Gross profit c/d 50,000 _______

2,50,000 2,50,000
Selling expenses 20,000 Gross profit b/d 50,000
Net profit 30,000 ______
50,000 50,000

It is also noted that average hourly rates for the three Departments X, Y and Z are similar.
You are required to:
(i) PREPARE a job cost sheet.

(ii) CALCULATE the entire revised cost using current financial year actual figures as
basis.
(iii) Add 20% to total cost to DETERMINE selling price.

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 9.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION
Job Cost Sheet
Customer Details ——— Job No._________________
Date of commencement —— Date of completion _________

Particulars Amount
(`)

Direct materials 70
Direct wages:
Deptt. X ` 2.50 × 8 hrs. = ` 20.00
Deptt. Y ` 2.50 × 6 hrs. = ` 15.00
Deptt. Z ` 2.50 × 4 hrs. = ` 10.00 45
Chargeable expenses 5

Prime cost 120

Overheads:
`5,000
Deptt. X = × 100 = 50% of ` 20 = ` 10.00
`10,000
`9,000
Deptt. Y = × 100 = 75% of ` 15 = ` 11.25
`12,000
`2,000
Deptt. Z = × 100 = 25% of ` 10 = ` 2.50 23.75
`8,000

Works cost 143.75

`20,000
Selling expenses= × 100 = 10% of work cost 14.38
`2,00,000

Total cost 158.13

Profit (20% of total cost) 31.63
Selling price 189.76

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 JOB COSTING 9.13

4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Job Costing

Some of the advantages and disadvantages of Job costing are summarised as
below:

Advantages Disadvantages
1. The details of Cost of material, labour 1. Job Costing is costly and
and overhead for all job is available laborious method.
to control.
2. Profitability of each job can be 2. As lot of clerical process is
derived. involved the chances of error is
more.
3. It facilitates production planning. 3. This method is not suitable in
inflationary condition.
4. Budgetary control and Standard 4. Previous records of costs will be
Costing can be applied in job costing. meaningless if there is any
change in market condition.
5. Spoilage and detective can be
identified and responsibilities can be
fixed accordingly.

4.3 Difference between Job Costing and Process Costing

The main points which distinguish job costing and process costing are as below:

Job Costing Process Costing

(i) A Job is carried out or a product is The process of producing the product has
produced by specific orders. a continuous flow and the product
produced is homogeneous.
(ii) Costs are determined for each Costs are compiled on time basis i.e., for
job. production of a given accounting period
for each process or department.
(iii) Each job is separate and Products lose their individual identity as
independent of other jobs. they are manufactured in a continuous
flow.

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 9.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(iv) Each job or order has a number The unit cost of process is an average cost
and costs are collected against the for the period.
same job number.
(v) Costs are computed when a job Costs are calculated at the end of the cost
is completed. The cost of a job period. The unit cost of a process may be
may be determined by adding all computed by dividing the total cost for the
costs against the job. period by the output of the process during
that period.
(vi) As production is not continuous Process of production is usually
and each job may be different, so standardized and is therefore, quite stable.
more managerial attention is Hence control here is comparatively
required for effective control. easier.

SUMMARY
♦ Job Costing: The category of basic costing methods which is applicable
where the work consists of separate contracts, jobs or batches, each of which
is authorised by specific order or contract.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. In case product produced or jobs undertaken are of diverse nature, the system
of costing to be used should be:
(a) Process costing
(b) Operating costing
(c) Job costing
(d) None of the above
2. The production planning department prepares a list of materials and stores
required for the completion of a specific job order, this list is known as:
(a) Bin card
(b) Bill of material

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 JOB COSTING 9.15

(c) Material requisition slip

(d) None of the above
3. Job costing is similar to that under Batch costing except with the difference that
a:
(a) Job becomes a cost unit.
(b) Batch becomes the cost unit instead of a job

(c) Process becomes a cost unit

(d) None of the above.
4. In job costing which of the following documents are used to record the issue of
direct material to a job’:
(a) Goods received note
(b) Material requisition

(c) Purchase order

(d) Purchase requisition
5. The most suitable cost system where the products differ in type of materials
and work performed is :
(a) Job Costing
(b) Process Costing

(c) Operating Costing

(d) None of these.
6. Which of the following statements is true:
(a) Job cost sheet may be used for estimating profit of jobs.
(b) Job costing cannot be used in conjunction with marginal costing.
(c) A production order is an order received from a customer for particular
jobs.
(d) None of these.

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 9.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

7. Which of the following statements is true:

(a) Job cost sheet may be prepared for facilitating routing and scheduling of
the job
(b) Job costing can be suitably used for concerns producing uniformly any
specific product
(c) Job costing cannot be used in companies using standard costing
(d) Neither (a) nor (b) nor (c)

Theoretical Questions
1. DESCRIBE Job Costing giving example of industries where it is used.
2. DISTINGUISH between Job Costing & Process Costing.

Practical Problems
1. In a factory following the Job Costing Method, an abstract from the work-in-
progress as on 30th September was prepared as under.

Job No. Materials Direct hrs. Labour (`) Factory Overheads

(` ) applied (` )
115 1325 400 hrs. 800 640
118 810 250 hrs. 500 400
120 765 300 hrs. 475 380
2,900 1,775 1,420

Materials used in October were as follows:

Materials Requisition No. Job No. Cost (`)

54 118 300
55 118 425
56 118 515
57 120 665
58 121 910

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 JOB COSTING 9.17

59 124 720
3,535

A summary for labour hours deployed during October is as under:

Job No. Number of Hours

Shop A Shop B
115 25 25
118 90 30
120 75 10
121 65 --
124 25 10
275 75
Indirect Labour: Waiting of material 20 10
Machine breakdown 10 5
Idle time 5 6
Overtime premium 6 5
316 101

A shop credit slip was issued in October, that material issued under Requisition
No. 54 was returned back to stores as being not suitable. A material transfer
note issued in October indicated that material issued under Requisition No. 55
for Job 118 was directed to Job 124.
The hourly rate in shop A per labour hour is ` 3 per hour while at shop B, it is
` 2 per hour. The factory overhead is applied at the same rate as in September.
Job 115, 118 and 120 were completed in October.
You are asked to COMPUTE the factory cost of the completed jobs. It is the
practice of the management to put a 10% on the factory cost to cover
administration and selling overheads and invoice the job to the customer on a
total cost plus 20% basis. DETERMINE the invoice price of these three jobs?

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 9.18 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2. Ares Plumbing and Fitting Ltd. (APFL) deals in plumbing materials and also
provides plumbing services to its customers. On 12th August, 2022, APFL received
a job order for a students’ hostel to supply and fitting of plumbing materials.
The work is to be done on the basis of specification provided by the hostel owner.
Hostel will be inaugurated on 5th September, 2022 and the work is to be
completed by 3rd September, 2022. Following are the details related with the
job work:
Direct Materials
APFL uses a weighted average method for the pricing of materials issues.
Opening stock of materials as on 12th August 2022:
- 15mm GI Pipe, 12 units of (15 feet size) @ ` 600 each
- 20mm GI Pipe, 10 units of (15 feet size) @ ` 660 each
- Other fitting materials, 60 units @ ` 26 each

- Stainless Steel Faucet, 6 units @ ` 204 each

- Valve, 8 units @ ` 404 each
Purchases:

On 16th August 2022:

- 20mm GI Pipe, 30 units of (15 feet size) @ ` 610 each
- 10 units of Valve @ ` 402 each

On 18th August 2022:

- Other fitting materials, 150 units @ ` 28 each
- Stainless Steel Faucet, 15 units @ ` 209 each

On 27th August 2022:

- 15mm GI Pipe, 35 units of (15 feet size) @ ` 628 each
- 20mm GI Pipe, 20 units of (15 feet size) @ ` 660 each

- Valve, 14 units @ ` 424 each

Issues for the hostel job:

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 JOB COSTING 9.19

On 12th August 2022:

- 20mm GI Pipe, 2 units of (15 feet size)
- Other fitting materials, 18 units

On 17th August 2022:

- 15mm GI Pipe, 8 units of (15 feet size)
- Other fitting materials, 30 units

On 28th August 2022:

- 20mm GI Pipe, 2 units of (15 feet size)
- 15mm GI Pipe, 10 units of (15 feet size)

- Other fitting materials, 34 units

- Valve, 6 units
On 30th August 2022:

- Other fitting materials, 60 units

- Stainless Steel Faucet, 15 units
Direct Labour:

Plumber: 180 hours @ ` 50 per hour (includes 12 hours overtime)

Helper: 192 hours @ `35 per hour (includes 24 hours overtime)
Overtimes are paid at 1.5 times of the normal wage rate.
Overheads:
Overheads are applied @ ` 13 per labour hour.
Pricing policy:
It is company’s policy to price all orders based on achieving a profit margin of
25% on sales price.
You are required to
(a) Calculate the total cost of the job.
(b) Calculate the price to be charged from the customer

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 9.20 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ANSWERS/ SOLUTIONS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (a)

7. (d)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 1
2. Please refer paragraph 4

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. Factory Cost Statement of Completed Job.

Month Job Materials Direct Factory Factory

No. labour overheads cost
(80% of direct
labour cost)
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
September 115 1,325 800 640 2765
October 115 -- 125 100 225
Total 1,325 925 740 2,990
September 118 810 500 400 1,710
October 118 515 330 264 1,109
Total 1,325 830 664 2,819
September 120 765 475 380 1,620
October 120 665 245 196 1,106
Total 1,430 720 576 2,726

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 JOB COSTING 9.21

Invoice Price of Complete Job

Job No. 115 118 120

(`) (`) (`)
Factory cost 2,990.00 2,819.00 2,726.00
Administration and selling
overheads @ 10% of factory cost 299.00 281.90 272.60
Total cost 3,289.00 3,100.90 2,998.60
Profit (20% of total cost) 657.80 620.18 599.72
Invoice Price 3,946.80 3,721.08 3,598.32

Assumption: - Indirect labour costs have been included in the factory overhead
which has been recovered as 80% of the labour cost.
2. (a) Calculation of Total Cost for the Hostel Job:

Particulars Amount Amount

(`) (`)
Direct Material Cost:
- 15mm GI Pipe (Working Note- 1) 11,051.28
- 20mm GI Pipe (Working Note- 2) 2,588.28
- Other fitting materials (Working Note-3) 3,866.07
- Stainless steel faucet 3,113.57
 6×` 204+15×` 209 
- 15 units ×  
 21units 
- Valve 2,472.75 23,091.95
 8×` 404+10×` 402+14×` 424 
6 units ×  
 32units 
Direct Labour:
- Plumber [(180 hours × ` 50) + (12 hours × 9,300.00
` 25)]
- Helper [(192 hours × ` 35) + (24 hours × 7,140.00 16,440.00
` 17.5)]

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 9.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

- Overheads [` 13 × (180 + 192) hours] 4,836.00

Total Cost 44,367.95

(b) Price to be charged for the job work:

Amount (`)
Total Cost incurred on the job 44,367.95

 44,367.95  14,789.32
Add: 25% Profit on Job Price  ×25% 
 75% 
59,157.27

Working Note:
1. Cost of 15mm GI Pipe
Date Amount (`)
17-08-2022 8 units × ` 600 4,800.00
28-08-2022  4×` 600+35×` 628  6,251.28
10 units ×  
 39units 
11,051.28

2. Cost of 20mm GI Pipe

Date Amount
(`)
12-08-2022 2 units × ` 660 1,320.00
28-08-2022  8×` 660+30×` 610+20×` 660 
2 units ×   1,268.28
 58units 

2,588.28

3. Cost of Other fitting materials

Date Amount
(`)
12-08-2022 18 units × ` 26 468.00
17-08-2022 30 units × ` 26 780.00

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 JOB COSTING 9.23

28-08-2022  12×` 26+150×` 28  946.96

34 units ×  
 162units 

30-08-2022  12×` 26+150×` 28 

60 units ×   1,671.11
 162units 
3,866.07

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

CHAPTER
10

PROCESS & OPERATION

COSTING

LEARNING OUTCOMES

♦ State the meaning of Process and Operation Costing.

♦ Discuss the treatment of process loss and gains in cost
accounts.
♦ Compute equivalent completed production units.
♦ Discuss the various methods of valuation of work in process.
♦ State the meaning and treatment of Inter-process profits.

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 10.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Meaning

Costing Procedure
Process & Operation Costing

Normal
Treatment of
Process loss/ gain
Abnormal

Process Costing
Methods
Valuation of WIP
Equivalent Units
Inter-process Profit

Operation Costing

1. MEANING OF PROCESS COSTING

Process Costing is a method of costing used in industries where the material
has to pass through two or more processes for being converted into a final
product. It is defined as “a method of Cost Accounting whereby costs are charged
to processes or operations and averaged over units produced”. A separate account
for each process is opened and all expenditure pertaining to a process is charged
to that process account. Such type of costing method is useful in the
manufacturing of products like steel, paper, medicines, soaps, chemicals, rubber,
vegetable oil, paints, varnish etc. where the production process is continuous and
the output of one process becomes the input of the following process till
completion.

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 PROCESS & OPERATION COSTING 10.3

This can be understood with the help of the following diagram:

Raw Finished
Process-I Process-II Process-III
Material Goods

1.1 Basic Features

Industries, where process costing can be applied, have normally one or more of the
following features:
1. Each plant or factory is divided into a number of processes, cost centres or
departments, and each such division is a stage of production or a process.
2. Manufacturing activity is carried on continuously by means of one or
more process run sequentially, selectively or simultaneously.
3. The output of one process becomes the input of another process.

4. The end product usually is of like units not distinguishable from one another.
5. It is not possible to trace the identity of any particular lot of output to
any lot of input materials. For example, in the sugar industry, it is impossible
to trace any lot of sugar bags to a particular lot of sugarcane fed or vice versa.
6. Production of a product may give rise to Joint and/or By-Products.

2. COSTING PROCEDURE IN PROCESS COSTING

The Cost of each process comprises the cost of:
(i) Materials (ii) Employee Cost (Labour)
(iii) Direct expenses, and (iv) Overheads of production.
Materials - Materials and supplies which are required for each process are drawn
against Material Requisitions Notes from the stores. Each process for which the
materials are used, are debited with the cost of materials consumed on the
basis of the information received from the Cost Accounting department. The
finished product of first process generally become the raw materials of second
process; under such a situation the account of second process is debited with the
cost of transfer from the first process and also with the cost of any additional
material used in process.

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 10.4 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Employee Cost (Labour) - Each process account should be debited with the
labour cost or wages paid to labour for carrying out the processing activities.
Sometimes the wages paid are apportioned over the different processes after
selecting appropriate basis.
Direct expenses - Each process account should be debited with direct expenses
like depreciation, repairs, maintenance, insurance etc. associated with it.
Production Overheads- Expenses like rent, power expenses, lighting bills, gas and
water bills etc. are known as production overheads. These expenses cannot be
allocated to a process. The suitable way out to recover them is to apportion them
over different processes by using suitable basis. Usually, these expenses are
estimated in advance and the processes debited with these expenses on a pre-
determined basis.
ILLUSTRATION 1
From the following data, PREPARE process accounts indicating the cost of each
process and the total cost. The total units that pass through each process were 240
for the period.

Process I (`) Process II (`) Process III (`)

Materials 1,50,000 50,000 20,000
Labour 80,000 2,00,000 60,000
Other expenses 26,000 72,000 25,000

Indirect expenses amounting to ` 85,000 may be apportioned on the basis of wages.

There was no opening or closing stock.
SOLUTION

Dr. Process- I Account Cr.

Particulars Per Total (`) Particulars Per Total
unit unit (`) (`)
(`)
To Material 625 1,50,000 By Process -II 1,150 2,76,000
A/c
” Labour 334 80,000 (Transfer to
Process-II)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS & OPERATION COSTING 10.5

” Other expenses 108 26,000

” Indirect expenses* 83 20,000
1,150 2,76,000 1,150 2,76,000

Dr. Process- II Account Cr.

Particulars Per Total (`) Particulars Per Total (`)
unit unit (`)
(`)
To Process-I A/c 1,150 2,76,000 By Process-III 2,700 6,48,000
A/c
” Material 208 50,000 (Transfer to
Process-III)
” Labour 834 2,00,000
” Other 300 72,000
expenses
” Indirect 208 50,000
expenses*
2,700 6,48,000 2,700 6,48,000

Dr. Process- III Account Cr.

Particulars Per Total Particulars Per Total (`)
unit (`) (`) unit (`)
To Process-II A/c 2,700 6,48,000 By Finished 3,200 7,68,000
Stock A/c
Material 83 20,000 (Transferred)
” Labour 250 60,000
” Other 104 25,000
expenses
” Indirect 63 15,000
expenses*
3,200 7,68,000 3,200 7,68,000

* Apportionment of Indirect expenses among Process-I, Process-II and Process-III

Total Wages to processes (I + II +III) = ` 80,000 + ` 2,00,000 + ` 60,000 =
` 3,40,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Apportionment to:
`85,000
Process- I = ×`80,000 = ` 20,000;
`3, 40,000
`85,000
Process- II = ×`2,00,000 = `50,000 and
`3, 40,000
`85,000
Process- III = ×`60,000 = `15,000
`3, 40,000

3. TREATMENT OF NORMAL, ABNORMAL LOSS

AND ABNORMAL GAIN
3.1 Normal and Abnormal Loss
Loss of material is inherent during processing operation. The loss of material under
different processes arises due to reasons like evaporation or a change in the
moisture content etc. Process loss is defined as the loss of material arising during
the course of a processing operation and is equal to the difference between the
input quantity of the material and its output.
There are two types of material losses viz. (i) Normal loss and (ii) Abnormal loss.
(i) Normal Process Loss: It is also known as normal wastage. It is defined as
the loss of material which is inherent in the nature of work. Such a loss can be
reasonably anticipated from the nature of the material, nature of operation, the
experience and technical data. It is unavoidable because of nature of the material
or the process. It also includes units withdrawn from the process for test or
sampling.
Treatment in Cost Accounts: The cost of normal process loss in practice is
absorbed by good units produced under the process. The amount realised by the
sale of normal process loss units should be credited to the process account.
Example-1 (Normal loss with no realisable value)
A product passes through Process- I and Process- II. Materials issued to Process- I
amounted to ` 40,000, Wages ` 30,000 and manufacturing overheads were
` 27,000. Normal loss anticipated was 5% of input. 4,750 units of output were

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS & OPERATION COSTING 10.7

produced and transferred-out from Process-I. There were no opening stocks. Input
raw material issued to Process I were 5,000 units. Scrap has no realisable value.
You are required to PREPARE Process- I account, value of normal loss and units
transferred to Process-II.
SOLUTION
Process- I Account

Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Material 5,000 40,000 By Normal loss 250 0

To Wages - 30,000
To Overhead - 27,000 By Process II 4,750 97,000
5,000 97,000 5,000 97,000

Value of Normal loss = Scrap realisable value less cost to sale

Since, scraps do not realise any value, hence, value of normal loss is zero.

Value of units transferred to Process-II:

Total Cost-Realisable value of normal loss
= × Units transferred
Total input units-Normal loss units

`97,000 − 0
= ×4,750 units = 97,000
5,000 units − 250 units

Example-2 (Normal loss with realisable value)

A product passes through Process- I and Process- II. Materials issued to Process- I
amounted to ` 40,000, Wages ` 30,000 and manufacturing overheads were
` 27,000. Normal loss anticipated was 5% of input. 4,750 units of output were
produced and transferred-out from Process-I. There were no opening stocks. Input
raw material issued to Process I were 5,000 units. Scrap has realisable value of
` 2 per unit.
You are required to PREPARE Process- I account, value of normal loss and units
transferred to Process-II.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION
Process- I Account

Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Material 5,000 40,000 By Normal loss 250 500

To Wages - 30,000
To Overhead - 27,000 By Process II 4,750 96,500
5,000 97,000 5,000 97,000

Value of Normal loss = Scrap realisable value less cost to sale

= 250 units × `2 = `500

Value of units transferred to Process-II:

Total Cost − Realisable value of normal loss
= ×Units transferred
Total input units − Normal loss units

`97,000 − `500
= ×4,750units = 96,500
5,000units − 250units

(ii) Abnormal Process Loss: It is also known as abnormal wastage. It is defined

as the loss in excess of the pre-determined loss (Normal process loss). This type
of loss may occur due to the carelessness of workers, a bad plant design or
operation, sabotage etc. Such a loss cannot obviously be estimated in advance. But
it can be kept under control by taking suitable measures.
Treatment in Cost Accounts: The cost of an abnormal process loss unit is equal
to the cost of a good unit. The total cost of abnormal process loss is credited to
the process account from which it arises. Cost of abnormal process loss is not
treated as a part of the cost of the product. In fact, the total cost of abnormal
process loss is debited to costing profit and loss account.
Example-3 (Abnormal loss with realisable value)
A product passes through Process- I and Process- II. Materials issued to Process- I
amounted to ` 40,000, Wages ` 30,000 and manufacturing overheads were
` 27,000. Normal loss anticipated was 5% of input. 4,550 units of output were
produced and transferred-out from Process-I. There were no opening stocks. Input

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS & OPERATION COSTING 10.9

raw material issued to Process I were 5,000 units. Scrap has realisable value of
` 2 per unit.
You are required to PREPARE Process- I account, value of normal loss, abnormal loss
and units transferred to Process-II.
SOLUTION
Process- I Account

Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Material 5,000 40,000 By Normal loss 250 500

To Wages - 30,000 By Abnormal Loss 200 4,063
To Overhead - 27,000 By Process II 4,550 92,437
5,000 97,000 5,000 97,000

Value of Normal loss = Scrap realisable value less cost to sale

= 250 units × `2 = `500
Value of Abnormal loss:

Total Cost − Realisable value of normal loss

= ×Abnormal loss units
Total input units − Normal loss units

` 97,000- `500
= ×200units = `4,063
5,000units-250units

Value of units transferred to Process-II:

Total Cost -Realisable value of normal loss

= ×Units transferred
Total input units − Normal loss units

`97,000- `500
= ×4,550units = ` 92,437
5,000units-250units

3.2 Abnormal Process Gain/ Yield

Sometimes, loss under a process is less than the anticipated normal figure. In other
words, the actual production exceeds the expected figures. Under such a
situation the difference between actual and expected loss or actual and expected

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

production is known as abnormal gain or yield. So, abnormal gain may be defined
as an unexpected gain in production under the normal conditions. This arises due
to over- estimation of process loss, improvements in work efficiency of workers,
use od better technology in production etc.
Treatment in Cost Accounts: The process account under which abnormal gain
arises is debited with the abnormal gain and credited to abnormal gain account
which will be closed by transferring to the Costing Profit and Loss account. The cost
of abnormal gain is computed on the basis of normal production.
Example-4 (Abnormal gain/ yield with realisable value)
A product passes through Process- I and Process- II. Materials issued to Process- I
amounted to ` 40,000, Wages ` 30,000 and manufacturing overheads were
` 27,000. Normal loss anticipated was 5% of input. 4,850 units of output were
produced and transferred-out from Process-I. There were no opening stocks. Input
raw material issued to Process I were 5,000 units. Scrap has realisable value of
` 2 per unit.
You are required to PREPARE Process- I account, value of normal loss, abnormal loss/
gain and units transferred to Process-II.
SOLUTION
Process- I Account

Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Material 5,000 40,000 By Normal loss 250 500

To Wages - 30,000
To Overhead - 27,000 By Process II 4,850 98,532
To Abnormal Gain A/c 100 2,032
5,100 99,032 5,100 99,032

Value of Normal loss = Scrap realisable value less cost to sale

= 250 units × `2 = `500
(even though the actual loss is less than the expected loss (Normal loss), value of the
normal loss is calculated on the estimated figure)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS & OPERATION COSTING 10.11

Value of Abnormal Gain:

Total Cost − Realisable value of normal loss

= ×Abnormal Gain units
Total input units − Normal loss units

`97,000 − `500
= ×100 units = `2,032
5,000 units − 250 units

Value of units transferred to Process-II:

Total Cost − Realisable value of normal loss

= ×Units transferred
Total input units − Normal loss units

`97,000 − `500
= ×4,850units = ` 98,532
5,000units − 250units

(Process A/c is debited with the value of abnormal gain as calculated above but the
Costing Profit & Loss Account will only be credited with actual amount of abnormal
gain only considering the actual realisable value through Abnormal Gain A/c, as
shown below)
Abnormal Gain A/c

Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Normal Loss A/c 100 200 By Process-I A/c 100 2,032
(100 units × `2)
To Costing P&L A/c - 1,832
100 2,032 100 2,032

(The Costing P&L Account is credited only for actual gain amount)
ILLUSTRATION 2
A product passes through three processes. The output of each process is treated as
the raw material of the next process to which it is transferred and output of the third
process is transferred to finished stock.

Process-I (`) Process-II (`) Process-III (`)

Materials issued 40,000 20,000 10,000
Labour 6,000 4,000 1,000
Manufacturing overhead 10,000 10,000 15,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

10,000 units have been issued to the Process-I and after processing, the output of
each process is as under:

Process Output Normal Loss

Process-I 9,750 units 2%
Process-II 9,400 units 5%
Process-III 8,000 units 10%

No stock of materials or of work-in-process was left at the end. CALCULATE the cost
of the finished articles.
SOLUTION

Dr. Process-I Account Cr.

Particulars Units Total Particulars Units Total
(`) (`)
To Material 10,000 40,000 By Normal Loss A/c 200 --
(2% of 10,000 units)
” Labour -- 6,000 ” Abnormal Loss A/c 50 286
(` 5.7142 × 50 units)
” Manufacturing -- 10,000 ” Process-II A/c 9,750 55,714
OH (` 5.7142 × 9,750
units)
10,000 56,000 10,000 56,000

Cost per unit of completed units and abnormal loss:

Total Cost ` 56,000

= = ` 5.7142
Inputs − Normal loss 10,000units − 200units

Dr. Process-II Account Cr.

Particulars Units Total Particulars Units Total
(`) (`)
To Process-I A/c 9,750 55,714 By Normal Loss A/c 488 --
(5% of 9,750 units)
” Material -- 20,000 ” Process-III A/c 9,400 91,051

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS & OPERATION COSTING 10.13

(` 9.6862 × 9,400
units)
” Labour -- 4,000
” Manufacturing -- 10,000
OH
” Abnormal Gain 138 1,337
A/c
(` 9.6862 × 138
units)
9,888 91,051 9,888 91,051

Cost per unit of completed units and abnormal gain:

Total Cost `89,714

= = ` 9.6862
Inputs − Normal loss 9,750units − 488units

Dr. Process-III Account Cr.

Particulars Units Total Particulars Units Total
(`) (`)
To Process-II A/c 9,400 91,051 By Normal Loss A/c 940 --
(10% of 9,400 units)
” Material -- 10,000 ” Abnormal Loss A/c 460 6,364
(`13.8358 × 460 units)
” Labour -- 1,000 ” Finished Stock A/c 8,000 1,10,687
(`13.8358 × 8,000
units)
” Manufacturing OH -- 15,000
9,400 1,17,051 9,400 1,17,051

Cost per unit of completed units and abnormal loss:

Total Cost ` 1,17,051

= = `13.8358
Inputs − Normal loss 9, 400units − 940units

ILLUSTRATION 3
RST Limited processes Product Z through two distinct processes – Process- I and Process-
II. On completion, it is transferred to finished stock. From the following information for the
current year, PREPARE Process- I, Process- II and Finished Stock A/c:

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Particulars Process- I Process- II

Raw materials used 7,500 units --
Raw materials cost per unit ` 60 --
Transfer to next process/finished 7,050 units 6,525 units
stock
Normal loss (on inputs) 5% 10%
Direct wages ` 1,35,750 ` 1,29,250
Direct Expenses 60% of Direct wages 65% of Direct wages
Manufacturing overheads 20% of Direct wages 15% of Direct wages
Realisable value of scrap per unit ` 12.50 ` 37.50

6,000 units of finished goods were sold at a profit of 15% on cost. Assume that there
was no opening or closing stock of work-in-process.

SOLUTION
Process- I A/c
Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)
To Raw material used 7,500 4,50,000 By Normal loss 375 4,688
(`60 × 7,500 units) (5% of 7,500 units) × `12.5
To Direct wages -- 1,35,750 By Process- II A/c 7,050 6,82,403
(`96.7947 × 7,050 units)
To Direct expenses -- 81,450 By Abnormal loss 75 7,259
(`96. 7947 × 75 units)
To Manufacturing 27,150
overhead
7,500 6,94,350 7,500 6,94,350

Cost per unit of completed units and abnormal loss:

Total Cost − Realisable value from normal loss

Inputs units − Normal loss units

`6,94,350 − ` 4,688 `6,89,662

= = = ` 96.7947
7,500units − 375 units 7,125 units

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS & OPERATION COSTING 10.15

Process- II A/c
Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Process- I A/c 7,050 6,82,403 By Normal loss 705 26,438

(10% of 7,050 units) ×
` 37.5

To Direct wages -- 1,29,250 By Finished Stock A/c 6,525 9,13,824

(` 140.0496 × 6,525
units)

To Direct expenses -- 84,013

To Manufacturing -- 19,387
overhead

To Abnormal gain 180 25,209

(` 140.0496 × 180
units)

7,230 9,40,262 7,230 9,40,262

Cost per unit of completed units and abnormal loss:

Total Cost-Realisable value from normal loss
Inputs units-Normal loss units

`9,15,053 - `26, 438 `8,88,615

= = = `140.0496
7,050 units - 705 units 6,345 units

Finished Goods Stock A/c

Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Process II A/c 6,525 9,13,824 By Cost of Sales 6,000 8,40,298

(`140.0496 × 6,000
units)

By Balance c/d 525 73,526

6,525 9,13,824 6,525 9,13,824

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Income Statement

Particulars (`) Particulars (`)

To Cost of sales 8,40,298 By Abnormal gain 18,459
(`140.0496 × 6,000 units) {180 units × (`140.0496 –
`37.50)}
To Abnormal loss 6,322 By Sales (`8,40,298 × 115%) 9,66,343
{75 units × (`96.7947 – `12.50)}
To Net Profit 1,38,182
9,84,802 9,84,802

4. VALUATION OF WORK-IN-PROCESS
In the case of process type of industries, it is possible to determine the average
cost per unit by dividing the total cost incurred during a given period of time by
the total number of units produced during the same period. But this is hardly the
case in most of the process type industries where manufacturing is a continuous
activity. The reason is that the cost incurred in such industries represents the cost
of work carried on opening work-in-process, closing work-in-process and
completed units. Thus to ascertain the cost of each completed unit, it is necessary
to ascertain the cost of work-in-process in the beginning and at the end of the
process.
The valuation of work-in-process presents a good deal of difficulty because it has
units under different stages of completion from those in which work has just begun
to those which are only a step short of completion. Work-in-process can be valued
on actual basis, i.e., materials used on the unfinished units and the actual amount
of labour expenses involved. However, the degree of accuracy in such a case cannot
be satisfactory. An alternative method is based on converting partly finished units
into equivalent finished units.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS & OPERATION COSTING 10.17

4.1 Equivalent Units

Equivalent units or equivalent production units, means converting the incomplete
production units into their equivalent completed units. Under each process, an
estimate is made of the percentage completion of work-in-process with regard to
different elements of costs, viz., material, labour and overheads. It is important that
the estimate of percentage of completion should be as accurate as possible. The
formula for computing equivalent completed units is:

 Actual number of units in   Percentage of 

Equivalent completed units =  × 
 the process of manufacture   Work completed 

For instance, if 25% of work has been done on the average of units still under
process, then 200 such units will be equal to 50 completed units and the cost of
work-in-process will be equal to the cost of 50 finished units.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 The following table may be used to compute the equivalent units:

Input Details Units Output Particulars Units Equivalent Units

10.18

Material Labour Overhead

% Units % Units % Units
a b c= a×b d e=a×d f g=a×f
Opening W-I-P xxx Opening W-I-P* xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
Unit Introduced xxx Finished output** xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
Normal loss*** xxx - - - - - -
Abnormal xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

loss/Gain****
Closing W-I-P xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx
Total xxx Total xxx xxx xxx xxx
* Equivalent units for Opening W-I-P is calculated only under FIFO method. Under the Average method, it is not shown
separately.
**Under the FIFO method, Finished Output = Units completed and transferred to next process less Opening WIP.
Under Average method, Finished Output = Units completed and transferred.
***For normal loss, no equivalent unit is calculated.
COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

****Abnormal Gain/ Yield is treated as 100% complete in respect of all cost elements irrespective of percentage of
completion.
 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.19

5. STEPS IN PROCESS COSTING

For each production process, a Production Cost Report is prepared at the end of
each accounting period. The objective of preparing the report is to know physical
units and equivalent units in process, element wise cost of goods produced and
transferred, goods in process (work-in-process), units lost due to abnormal reasons
i.e. abnormal loss etc. To prepare the report, the following steps are generally
followed:
Step-1: Analysis of physical flow of production units
The first step is to determine and analyse the number of physical units in the form
of inputs (introduced fresh or transferred from previous process, beginning work-
in-process) and outputs (completed and work-in-process).
Step-2: Calculation of equivalent units for each cost elements

The second step is to calculate equivalent units of production for each cost element
i.e. for material, labour and overheads. It is calculated by taking the extent of work
done in respect of each element. For example, if there are 1,000 units in work-in-
process at the end of the month. All materials are introduced at the beginning of
production process. For labour and overheads, 20% more work is required to get it
completed. In this example, the equivalent units of work-in-process in respect of
material would be 1,000 units (1,000 units × 100% complete) and for labour and
overheads 800 units (1,000 units × 80% complete).
Step-3: Determination of total cost for each cost element

Total cost for each cost element is collected and accumulated for the period. The
process of cost collection has already been discussed above.
Step-4: Computation of cost per equivalent unit for each cost element
In this step, the cost per equivalent unit for each cost element is calculated. The
total cost as calculated in Step-3 is divided by the equivalent units as determined
in Step-2.
Step-5: Assignment of total costs to units completed and ending WIP
In this step, the total cost for units completed, units transferred to next process,
ending work in process, abnormal loss etc. are calculated and posted in the process
account and production cost report.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.20 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

6. PROCESS COSTING METHODS

Mainly two methods for valuation of work-in-process are followed:
(i) First-in-First Out (FIFO) method.
(ii) Weighted Average(Average) method

(i) First-in-first-out (FIFO) method

Under this method the units completed and transferred are taken from both
opening work-in-process (WIP) and freshly introduced materials/inputs. The cost
to complete the opening WIP and other completed units are calculated
separately. The cost of opening WIP is added to cost incurred on completing the
incomplete (WIP) units into complete one. The total cost of units completed and
transferred is calculated by adding opening WIP cost to cost on freshly introduced
inputs. In this method the closing stock of work in process is valued at current
cost.

ILLUSTRATION 4
Opening work-in-process 1,000 units (60% complete); Cost ` 1,10,000. Units
introduced during the period 10,000 units; Cost ` 19,30,000. Transferred to next
process - 9,000 units.
Closing work-in-process - 800 units (75% complete). Normal loss is estimated at 10%
of total input including units in process at the beginning. Scraps realise ` 10 per unit.
Scraps are 100% complete.
Using FIFO method, COMPUTE equivalent production and cost per equivalent unit.
Also evaluate the output.
SOLUTION
Statement of Equivalent Production Units (Under FIFO Method)

Particulars Input Particulars Output Equivalent

units units Production
(%) Equivalent
units
Opening W-I-P 1,000 From opening W-I-P 1,000 40 400
Units introduced 10,000 From fresh inputs 8,000 100 8,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.21

Units completed 9,000

(Transferred to next
process)
Normal Loss 1,100 -- --
{10% (1,000 + 10,000
units)}
Closing W-I-P 800 75 600
Abnormal loss 100 100 100
(Balancing figure)
11,000 11,000 9,100

Computation of cost per equivalent production unit:

Cost of the Process (for the period) `19,30,000
Less: Scrap value of normal loss (` 10 × 1,100 units) (`11,000)
Total process cost ` 19,19,000

`19,19,000
Cost per equivalent unit = = ` 210.88
9,100units

Statement of Evaluation

Particulars Equivalent Cost per Amount

Units (EU) EU (`) (`)
(i) Opening W-I-P completed during 400 210.88 84,352
the period
Add: Cost of W-I-P at beginning -- -- 1,10,000
Complete cost of 1,000 units of 1,000 194.35 1,94,352
opening W-I-P
(ii) Completely processed units 8,000 210.88 16,87,040
(iii) Abnormal Loss 100 210.88 21,088
(iv) Closing W-I-P 600 210.88 1,26,528

(The difference in total amount may arise due to rounding off error)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Process Explained:

(i) Total Units completed and Transferred is 9,000 units. Out of these 9,000 units,
1,000 units has been taken from opening WIP and the rest is from the fresh units
introduced.

(ii) The opening WIP is 60% complete in respect of costs, hence, 40% more work is
to be done during the period.

(iii) Total cost for cost elements for the period (current period only) is accumulated.

(iv) The realisable value of scrap (i.e. normal loss) is deducted from the total cost as
accumulated above.

(v) Total cost less realisable value is divided by equivalent units to get cost per
equivalent unit.

(vi) The equivalent cost as calculated above is multiplied by the equivalent units of
completely processed goods, abnormal loss and closing WIP to get the value.

(vii) Cost of units completed and transferred is calculated separately for Opening
WIP and fresh inputs.

(ii) Weighted Average (Average) Method:

Under this method, the cost of opening work-in-process and cost of the current
period are aggregated and the aggregate cost is divided by output in terms
of completed units. The equivalent production in this case consists of work-load
already contained in opening work-in-process and work-load of current period.

The main difference between FIFO method and average method is that units of
opening work in process and their cost are taken in full under average method
while under FIFO method only the remaining work done now is considered.

ILLUSTRATION 5
Refer to information provided in Illustration 4 above and solve this by Weighted
Average Method:

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.23

SOLUTION
Statement of Equivalent Units (Under Weighted Average Method)

Particulars Input Particulars Output Equivalent

units units Production
(%) Equivalent
units
Opening W-I-P 1,000 Units completed 9,000 100 9,000
(Transferred to next
process)
Units introduced 10,000 Normal Loss 1,100 -- --
{10% (1,000 +
10,000 units)}
Closing W-I-P 800 75 600
Abnormal loss 100 100 100
(Balancing figure)
11,000 11,000 9,700

Computation of cost per equivalent production unit :

Cost of Opening W-I-P ` 1,10,000
Cost of the Process (for the period) `19,30,000
Less: Scrap value of normal loss (` 10 × 1,100 units) (`11,000)
Total process cost `20,29,000

`20,29,000
Cost per equivalent unit = = ` 209.18
9,700units

Statement of Evaluation

Particulars Equivalent Cost per Amount

Units (EU) EU (`) (`)
(i) Units Completed and 9,000 209.18 18,82,620
transferred to next process

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.24 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) Abnormal Loss 100 209.18 20,918

(iii) Closing W-I-P 600 209.18 1,25,508

(The difference in total amount may arise due to rounding off error)

Process Explained:
(i) Total Units completed and Transferred is 9,000 units. All the 9,000 units has
been considered as equally complete in respected of cost.

(ii) Total cost for cost elements for the period and opening WIP is accumulated.
(iii) The realisable value of scrap (i.e. normal loss) is deducted from the total cost as
accumulated above.
(iv) Total cost less realisable value is divided by equivalent units to get cost per
equivalent unit.

(v) The equivalent cost as calculated above is multiplied by the equivalent units of
completely processed goods, abnormal loss and closing WIP to get the value.

7. INTER-PROCESS PROFITS
To control cost and to measure performance, different processes within an
organization are designated as separate profit centres. In this type of
organizational structure, the output of one process is transferred to the next
process not at cost but at market value or cost plus a percentage of profit. The
difference between cost and the transfer price is known as inter-process profits.

The advantages and disadvantages of using inter-process profit, in the case of

process type industries are as follows:
Advantages:

1. Comparison between the cost of output and its market price at the stage of
completion is facilitated.
2. Each process is made to stand by itself as to the profitability.

Disadvantages:
1. The use of inter-process profits involves complication.
2. The system shows profits which are not realised because of stock not sold out.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.25

ILLUSTRATION 6
A Ltd. produces product ‘AXE’ which passes through two processes before it is
completed and transferred to finished stock. The following data relate for the month
of October:

Process- I Process- Finished Stock

(`) II (`) (`)
Opening stock 7,500 9,000 22,500
Direct materials 15,000 15,750 --
Direct wages 11,200 11,250 --
Factory overheads 10,500 4,500 --
Closing stock 3,700 4,500 11,250
Inter-process profit included in -- 1,500 8,250
opening stock

Output of Process- I is transferred to Process- II at 25% profit on the transfer price.

Output of Process- II is transferred to finished stock at 20% profit on the transfer
price. Stock in processes is valued at prime cost. Finished stock is valued at the price
at which it is received from process II. Sales during the period are ` 1,40,000.
PREPARE Process cost accounts and finished goods account showing the profit
element at each stage.

SOLUTION
Process- I Account

Particulars Total Cost Profit Particulars Total Cost Profit

(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
Opening 7,500 7,500 -- Process- II 54,000 40,500 13,500
stock A/c*
Direct 15,000 15,000 -- Closing Stock 3,700 3,700 --
materials
Direct wages 11,200 11,200 --

Prime Cost 33,700 33,700

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.26 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Overheads 10,500 10,500 --

Total Cost 44,200 44,200
Profit** 13,500 -- 13,500
57,700 44,200 13,500 57,700 44,200 13,500

Totalcost - Closingstock 44,200 - 3,700

*Transfer price = = =`54,000
75% 75%

**Profit on transfer = 54,000 × 25% = `13,500

Process- II Account
Particulars Total (`) Cost Profit Particulars Total Cost Profit
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
Opening 9,000 7,500 1,500 Finished 1,12,500 75,750 36,750
stock Stock A/c**
Transferred 54,000 40,500 13,500 Closing 4,500 3,750 750
from stock*
Process- I
Direct 15,750 15,750 --
materials
Direct wages 11,250 11,250 --

Prime cost 90,000 75,000 15,000

Overheads 4,500 4,500 --

Total cost 94,500 79,500 15,000

Profit*** 22,500 -- 22,500

1,17,000 79,500 37,500 1,17,000 79,500 37,500

`75,000
* Cost of Closing Stock = ×` 4,500 = `3,750
`90,000

Totalcost - Closingstock 94,500 - 4,500

**Transfer price = = =`1,12,500
80% 80%

***Profit on transfer = 1,12,500 × 20% = `22,500

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.27

Finished Stock Account

Particulars Total Cost Profit Particulars Total Cost Profit
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
Opening stock 22,500 14,250 8,250 Costing P&L A/c 1,40,000 82,425 57,575
Process- II 1,12,500 75,750 36,750 Closing stock* 11,250 7,575 3,675
Profit 16,250 -- 16,250
1,51,250 90,000 61,250 1,51,250 90,000 61,250

Cost of transfer from Process-II

* Cost of Closing Stock = ×Value of closing stock
Transfer price from Process-II

(As per instruction given in the question)

` 75,750
= × ` 11,250 = ` 7,575
`1,12,500

8. OPERATION COSTING
This product costing system is used when an entity produces more than one variant
of final product using different materials but with similar conversion activities.
Which means conversion activities are similar for all the product variants but
materials differ significantly. Operation Costing method is also known as Hybrid
product costing system as materials costs are accumulated by job order or batch
wise but conversion costs i.e. labour and overheads costs are accumulated by
department, and process costing methods are used to assign these costs to
products. Moreover, under operation costing, conversion costs are applied to
products using a predetermined application rate. This predetermined rate is based
on budgeted conversion costs.
For example, a company is manufacturing two grades of products, Product- Deluxe
and Product- Regular. Both the products pass through a similar production process
but require different quality and quantities of raw materials. The cost of raw
material is accumulated on the basis of job or batches or units of two variants of
products. But the costs for the conversion activities need not to be identified with
the product variants as both the Products requires similar activities for conversion.
Hence, conversion activity costs are accumulated on the basis of departments or
processes only. Example of industries are ready made garments, Shoe making,
jewelry etc.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.28 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SUMMARY
♦ Process Costing: Used in industries where the material has to pass through two
or more processes for being converted into a final product.
♦ Operation Costing: It is the refinement of process costing. It is concerned with
the determination of the cost of each operation rather than the process.
♦ Treatment of Losses in process costing: -
(i) Normal process loss - The cost of normal process loss is absorbed by
good units produced under the process. The amount realised by the sale
of normal process loss units should be credited to the process account.
(ii) Abnormal process loss - The total cost of abnormal process loss is
credited to the process account from which it arises. The total cost of
abnormal process loss is debited to costing profit and loss account.
♦ Abnormal gain - The process account under which abnormal gain arises is
debited with the abnormal gain and credited to Abnormal gain account which
will be closed by transferring to the Costing Profit and loss account.
♦ Equivalent production units: This concept is used in the industries where
manufacturing is a continuous activity. Converting partly finished units into
equivalent finished units.
Equivalent production means converting the incomplete production units into
their equivalent completed units.
Equivalent completed units ={Actual number of units in the process of
manufacture} × {Percentage of work completed}
♦ Valuation of work-in-process: two main methods:
(1) First-in-First Out (FIFO) method.
(2) Average Cost method (or weighted average cost method).
♦ Inter-Process Profits
The output of one process is transferred to the next process not at cost but at
market value or cost plus a percentage of profit. The difference between cost
and the transfer price is known as inter-process profits.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.29

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. The type of process loss that should not be allowed to affect the cost of good
units is:
(a) Abnormal loss
(b) Normal loss

(c) Seasonal loss

(d) Standard loss
2. 200 units were introduced in a process in which 20 units is the normal loss. If
the actual output is 150 units, then there is:
(a) No abnormal loss
(b) No abnormal gain
(c) Abnormal loss of 30 units
(d) Abnormal gain of 30 units
3. 100 units are processed at a total cost of ` 160, normal loss is 10%, & scrap
units are sold @ ` 0.25 each. If the output is 80 units, then the value of abnormal
loss is:
(a) ` 2.50
(b) ` 16
(c) ` 17.50
(d) ` 17.75
4. When average method is used in process costing, the opening inventory costs
are:
(a) Subtracted from the new costs
(b) Added to the new costs
(c) Kept separate from the costs of the new period
(d) Averaged with other costs to arrive at total cost

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.30 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

5. Spoilage that occurs under inefficient operating conditions and is ordinarily

controllable is called:
(a) Normal spoilage
(b) Abnormal spoilage
(c) Normal defectives
(d) None of the above
6. The cost of normal process loss is -

(a) Absorbed by good units produced and amount realised by the sale of loss
units should be debited to the process account.
(b) Debited to costing profit and loss account.

(c) Absorbed by good units produced.

(d) Debited to costing profit and loss account and amount realised by the sale
of loss units should be credited to the process account.
7. The value of abnormal loss is equal to:
(a) Total cost of materials
(b) Total process cost less realizable value of normal loss

(c) Total process cost less cost of scrap

(d) Total process cost less realizable value of normal loss less value of
transferred out goods.

8. Inter-process profit is calculated, because:

(a) a process is a cost centres
(b) each process has to report profit
(c) the efficiency of the process is measured
(d) the wages of employees are linked to the process profitability.
9. Under Weighted Average (Average) Method:
(a) The cost to complete the opening WIP is ignored.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.31

(b) The cost to complete the opening WIP and other completed units are
calculated separately.
(c) The cost of opening work-in-process and cost of the current period are
aggregated and the aggregate cost is divided by output in terms of
completed units.
(d) Closing stock of work in process is valued at current cost.
10. A process account is debited by abnormal gain, the value is determined as:
(a) Equal to the value of normal loss
(b) Cost of good units less realizable value of normal loss

(c) Cost of good units less realizable value of actual loss

(d) Equal to the value of good units less closing stock
11. Lean Labs develops 55mm film using a four-step process that moves progressively
through four departments. The company specializes in overnight service and has
the largest drug store chain as its primary customer. Currently, direct labor, direct
materials, and overhead are accumulated by departments.
The cost accumulation system that best describes the system Lean Labs is using is:
(a) Operation costing.
(b) Activity-based costing.
(c) Job-order costing.
(d) Process costing.
12. When compared with normal spoilage, abnormal spoilage:

(a) Arises more frequently from factors that are inherent in the manufacturing
process.
(b) Is given the same accounting treatment as normal spoilage.
(c) Is generally thought to be more controllable by purchase department than
production department.
(d) Is not typically influenced by the "tightness" of production standards.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.32 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

13. Assume 550 units were worked on during a period in which a total of 500 good
units were completed. Normal spoilage consisted of 30 units; abnormal spoilage,
20 units. Total production costs were ` 2,200. The company accounts for abnormal
spoilage separately on the income statement as loss due to abnormal spoilage.
Normal spoilage is not accounted for separately. What is the cost of the good units
produced?
(a) ` 2,080
(b) ` 2,115
(c) ` 2,200
(d) ` 2,332
14. IC Limited uses process costing systems and inspects its goods post manufacturing.
An engineer noticed on May 31st the following:

Good units completed 15,000

Normal spoilage (units) 300

Abnormal spoilage (units) 100

Unit costs were: Material ` 2.50 and conversion costs (Labour & overheads)
` 6.00. The number of units that company would transfer to its finished goods stock
and the related cost of these units are:
(a) 15,000 units transferred at a cost of ` 127,500
(b) 15,000 units transferred at a cost of ` 130,050

(c) 15,000 units transferred at a cost of ` 135,000

(d) 15,300 units transferred at a cost of ` 130,050

Theoretical Questions
1. EXPLAIN briefly the procedure for the valuation of Work-in-Process.
2. EXPLAIN equivalent units.
3. “Operation costing is defined as refinement of Process costing.” EXPLAIN it.
4. What is inter-process profit? STATE its advantages and disadvantages.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.33

Practical Problems
1. An English willow company who manufactures cricket bat buys wood as its direct
material. The Forming department processes the cricket bats and the cricket bats
are then transferred to the Finishing department where stickers are applied. The
Forming department began manufacturing 10,000 initial bats during the month
of December for the first time and their cost is as follows:
Direct material: ` 33,000
Conversion costs: ` 17,000
Total ` 50,000
A total of 8,000 cricket bats were completed and transferred to the Finishing
department, the rest 2,000 were still in the Forming process at the end of the
month. All of the forming departments direct material were placed, but, on
average, only 25% of the conversion costs was applied to the ending work in
progress inventory.
CALCULATE:
(i) Equivalent units of production for each cost.
(ii) The Conversion cost per Equivalent units.
(iii) Cost of closing work in process (WIP) and finished products.

2. Hill manufacturing Ltd uses process costing to manufacture Water density

sensors for hydro sector. The following information pertains to operations for
the month of May.

Particulars Units
Beginning WIP, May 1 16,000
Started in production during May 1,00,000
Completed production during May 92,000
Ending work in progress, May 31 24,000

The beginning work in progress was 60% complete for materials and 20%
complete for conversion costs. The ending inventory was 90% complete for
material and 40% complete for conversion costs.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.34 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Costs pertaining to the month of May are as follows:

Beginning inventory costs are material `27,670, direct labour `30,120 and factory
overhead ` 12,720.
Cost incurred during May are material used, ` 4,79,000, direct labour `1,82,880,
factory overheads ` 3,91,160.
CALCULATE:
(i) Using the FIFO method, the equivalent units of production for material.
(ii) Cost per equivalent unit for conversion cost.
3. Following information is available regarding Process-I for the month of
February:

Production Record:
Units in process as on 1st February 4,000
(All materials used, 25% complete for labour and overhead)
New units introduced 16,000
Units completed 14,000
Units in process as on 28th February 6,000
(All materials used, 33-1/3% complete for labour and overhead)
Cost Records:
Work-in-process as on 1st February (`)
Materials 6,000
Labour 1,000
Overhead 1,000
8,000
Cost during the month:
Materials 25,600
Labour 15,000
Overhead 15,000
55,600

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.35

Presuming that average method of inventory is used, PREPARE:

(i) Statement of equivalent production.
(ii) Statement showing cost for each element.

(iii) Statement of apportionment of cost.

(iv) Process cost account for Process-I.
4. Following details are related to the work done in Process-I by XYZ Company
during the month of March:

(`)
Opening work-in process (2,000 units)
Materials 80,000
Labour 15,000
Overheads 45,000
Materials introduced in Process-I (38,000 units) 14,80,000
Direct Labour 3,59,000
Overheads 10,77,000

Units scrapped: 3,000 units

Degree of completion:
Materials 100%
Labour and overheads 80%
Closing work-in process: 2,000 units
Degree of completion:
Materials 100%
Labour and overheads 80%
Units finished and transferred to Process-II: 35,000 units

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.36 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Normal Loss:

5% of total input including opening work-in-process.

Scrapped units fetch ` 20 per piece.
You are required to PREPARE using average method:
(i) Statement of equivalent production
(ii) Statement of cost
(iii) Statement of distribution cost, and

(iv) Process-I Account, Normal Loss Account and Abnormal Loss Account.
5. A company produces a component, which passes through two processes. During
the month of April, materials for 40,000 components were put into Process I of
which 30,000 were completed and transferred to Process II. Those not
transferred to Process II were 100% complete as to materials cost and 50%
complete as to labour and overheads cost. The Process I costs incurred were as
follows:
Direct material `15,000
Direct wages `18,000
Factory overheads `12,000
Of those transferred to Process II, 28,000 units were completed and transferred to
finished goods stores. There was a normal loss with no salvage value of 200 units in
Process II. There were 1,800 units, remained unfinished in the process with 100%
complete as to materials and 25% complete as regard to wages and overheads.
No further process material costs occur after introduction at the first process
until the end of the second process, when protective packing is applied to the
completed components. The process and packing costs incurred at the end of
the Process II were:

Packing materials `4,000

Direct wages `3,500
Factory overheads `4,500

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.37

Required:
(i) PREPARE Statement of Equivalent Production, Cost per unit and Process
I A/c.
(ii) PREPARE Statement of Equivalent Production, Cost per unit and Process
II A/c.
6. ‘Healthy Sweets’ is engaged in the manufacturing of jaggery. Its process involve
sugarcane crushing for juice extraction, then filtration and boiling of juice
along with some chemicals and then letting it cool to cut solidified jaggery
blocks.
The main process of juice extraction (Process – I) is done in conventional
crusher, which is then filtered and boiled (Process – II) in iron pots. The solidified
jaggery blocks are then cut, packed and dispatched. For manufacturing 10 kg
of jaggery, 100 kg of sugarcane is required, which extracts only 45 litre of juice.
Following information regarding Process – I has been obtained from the
manufacturing department of Healthy Sweets for the month of January:

(`)
Opening work-in process (4,500 litre)

Sugarcane 50,000
Labour 15,000
Overheads 45,000

Sugarcane introduced for juice extraction (1,00,000 kg) 5,00,000

Direct Labour 2,00,000
Overheads 6,00,000
Abnormal Loss: 1,000 kg
Degree of completion:
Sugarcane 100%
Labour and overheads 80%
Closing work-in process: 9,000 litre

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.38 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Degree of completion:
Sugarcane 100%
Labour and overheads 80%

Extracted juice transferred for filtering and boiling: 39,500 litre

(Consider mass of 1 litre of juice equivalent to 1 kg)
You are required to PREPARE using average method:
(i) Statement of equivalent production,
(ii) Statement of cost,
(iii) Statement of distribution cost, and
(iv) Process-I Account.

ANSWERS/ SOLUTIONS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (c)

7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (d) 12. (d)

13. (b) 14. (b)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 4
2. Please refer paragraph 4.1
3. Please refer paragraph 8
4. Please refer paragraph 7

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.39

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. (i) Calculation of equivalent units of production:

Input Units Output Units Equivalent Units

Details Particulars
Material Conversion
cost
% Units % Units
Unit 10,000 Finished output 8,000 100 8,000 100 8,000
Introduced
Closing W-I-P 2,000 100 2,000 25 500
Total 10,000 Total 10,000 10,000 8,500

(ii) Calculation of cost per equivalent unit

Direct Material Conversion costs

Total cost (`) 33,000 17,000
Equivalent units 10,000 8,500
Cost per equivalent unit (`) 3.30 2.00

(iii) The cost of closing work in process (WIP):

COSTS EQUIVALENT UNITS RATE (`) TOTAL COST (`)

Direct Material 2,000 3.30 6,600
Conversion Costs 500 2.00 1,000
Total 7,600

The cost of finished products:

COSTS EQUIVALENT UNITS RATE (`) TOTAL COST

(`)
Direct Material 8,000 3.30 26,400
Conversion Costs 8,000 2.00 16,000
Total 42,400

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.40 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2. (i) Calculation of equivalent units of production:

Input Details Units Output Units Equivalent Units

Particulars
Material Conversion
cost

% Units % Units

Beginning WIP 16,000 Completed 16,000 40 6,400 80 12,800

Output: From
beginning WIP

Unit Introduced 1,00,000 Completed 76,000 100 76,000 100 76,000

output: From unit
introduced

Closing W-I-P 24,000 90 21,600 40 9,600

Total 1,16,000 Total 1,16,000 1,04,000 98,400

(ii) Calculation of cost per equivalent unit for conversion costs

Particulars Amount (`)

Direct Labour 1,82,880
Factory Overheads 3,91,160
5,74,040
Equivalent Units 98,400
Cost Per Equivalent Unit (`) 5.83

3. (i) Statement of equivalent production (Average cost method)

Particulars Input Particulars Output Equivalent Production

Units Units
Material Labour & O.H.
% Units % Units
Opening 4,000 Completed 14,000 100 14,000 100 14,000
WIP and
transferred
Units 16,000 Closing WIP 6,000 100 6,000 33-1/3 2,000
introduced
20,000 20,000 20,000 16,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.41

(ii) Statement showing cost for each element

Particulars Materials Labour Overhead Total

(`) (`) (`) (`)
Cost of opening work-in- 6,000 1,000 1,000 8,000
process
Cost incurred during the 25,600 15,000 15,000 55,600
month
Total cost: (A) 31,600 16,000 16,000 63,600
Equivalent units: (B) 20,000 16,000 16,000
Cost per equivalent unit: (C) = 1.58 1 1 3.58
(A ÷ B)

(iii) Statement of apportionment of cost

Amount Amount
(`) (`)
1. Value of units completed and transferred 50,120
(14,000 units × ` 3.58)
2. Value of Closing W-I-P:
- Materials (6,000 units × ` 1.58) 9,480
- Labour (2,000 units × ` 1) 2,000
- Overheads (2,000 units × ` 1) 2,000 13,480

(iv) Process-I Cost Account

Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Opening 4,000 8,000 By Completed 14,000 50,120

W-I-P units
To Materials 16,000 25,600 By Closing W-I-P 6,000 13,480
To Labour -- 15,000
To Overhead -- 15,000
20,000 63,600 20,000 63,600

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.42 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

4. (i) Statement of Equivalent Production

Particulars Input Particulars Output Equivalent Production

Units Units
Material Labour &
O.H.
% Units % Units
Opening WIP 2,000 Completed and 35,000 100 35,000 100 35,000
transferred to
Process-II
Units 38,000 Normal Loss 2,000 -- -- -- --
introduced (5% of 40,000)
Abnormal loss 1,000 100 1,000 80 800
(Balancing
figure)
Closing WIP 2,000 100 2,000 80 1,600
40,000 40,000 38,000 37,400

(ii) Statement showing cost for each element

Particulars Materials Labour Overhead Total

(`) (`) (`) (`)
Cost of opening work- 80,000 15,000 45,000 1,40,000
in-process
Cost incurred during 14,80,000 3,59,000 10,77,000 29,16,000
the month
Less: Realisable Value (40,000) -- -- (40,000)
of normal scrap
(` 20 × 2,000 units)

Total cost: (A) 15,20,000 3,74,000 11,22,000 30,16,000

Equivalent units: (B) 38,000 37,400 37,400
Cost per equivalent 40.00 10.00 30.00 80.00
unit: (C) = (A ÷ B)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.43

(iii) Statement of Distribution of cost

Amount (`) Amount (`)

1. Value of units completed and 28,00,000
transferred
(35,000 units × ` 80)

2. Value of Abnormal Loss:

- Materials (1,000 units × ` 40) 40,000
- Labour (800 units × ` 10) 8,000
- Overheads (800 units × ` 30) 24,000 72,000
3. Value of Closing W-I-P:
- Materials (2,000 units × ` 40) 80,000
- Labour (1,600 units × ` 10) 16,000
- Overheads (1,600 units × ` 30) 48,000 1,44,000

(iv) Process-I A/c

Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Opening W.I.P: By Normal Loss 2,000 40,000

(`20 × 2,000
units)
- Materials 2,000 80,000 By Abnormal 1,000 72,000
loss
- Labour -- 15,000 By Process-I A/c 35,000 28,00,000
- Overheads -- 45,000 By Closing WIP 2,000 1,44,000
To Materials 38,000 14,80,000
introduced
To Direct Labour 3,59,000
To Overheads 10,77,000
40,000 30,56,000 40,000 30,56,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.44 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Normal Loss A/c

Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Process-I 2,000 40,000 By Cost Ledger 2,000 40,000

A/c Control A/c
2,000 40,000 2,000 40,000

Abnormal Loss A/c

Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Process-I 1,000 72,000 By Cost Ledger 1,000 20,000

A/c Control A/c
By Costing Profit & 52,000
Loss A/c
1,000 72,000 1,000 72,000

5. (i) Process I – Statement of Equivalent Production

Particulars Completed Closing stock of WIP Equivalent

Units Units % of Equivalent Production
units
Completion Units
(1) (2) (1) + (2)
Material 30,000 10,000 100% 10,000 40,000
Wages 30,000 10,000 50% 5,000 35,000
Overhead 30,000 10,000 50% 5,000 35,000

Process I

Particulars Process Equivalent Process WIP stock Cost of Transfer

Cost Production Cost p.u. Equivalent WIP to
(units) (2)/(3) Stock (`) Process
(`) units
(4) x (5) II (2)-(6)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Material 15,000 40,000 0.375 10,000 3,750 11,250
Wages 18,000 35,000 0.514 5,000 2,570 15,430

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.45

Overhead 12,000 35,000 0.343 5,000 1,715 10,285

45,000 8,035 36,965

Process I A/c

Particulars Unit (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Direct material 40,000 15,000 By Process II A/c 30,000 36,965

To Direct wages -- 18,000 By Closing W-I-P 10,000 8,035
To Factory overhead -- 12,000 -- --
40,000 45,000 40,000 45,000

(ii) Process II – Statement of Equivalent Production

Particulars Completed Closing stock of WIP Equivalent

Units Units % of Equivalent Production
units
Completion Units
(1) (2) (1) + (2)
Material 28,000 1,800 100% 1,800 29,800
Wages 28,000 1,800 25% 450 28,450
Overhead 28,000 1,800 25% 450 28,450

Process II
Particulars Process EquivalentProcess WIP stock Cost of Transfer
Cost Production Cost Equivalent WIP to
(`) (units) p.u. units Stock Finished
(2)/(3) (`) Stock
(4) x (5) (2)-(6)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Material 36,965 29,800 1.240 1,800 2,232 34,733
Wages 3,500 28,450 0.123 450 55 3,445
Overhead 4,500 28,450 0.158 450 71 4,429
44,965 2,358 42,607
Add: Packing Material Cost 4,000
Cost of Finished Stock 46,607

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.46 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Process II A/c

Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Process I 30,000 36,965 By Finished Stock 28,000 46,607

To Direct wages -- 3,500 By Normal loss 200 --
To Factory -- 4,500 By WIP stock 1,800 2,358
overhead
To Packing -- 4,000
charges
30,000 48,965 30,000 48,965

6. (i) Statement of Equivalent Production

Particulars Input Particulars Output Equivalent Production

Units Units
Sugarcane Labour &
O.H.
% Units % Units
Opening 4,500 Completed 39,500 100 39,500 100 39,500
WIP and
transferred
to Process
- II
Units 1,00,000 Normal 55,000 -- -- -- --
introduced Loss (55%*
of
1,00,000)
Abnormal 1,000 100 1,000 80 800
loss
Closing 9,000 100 9,000 80 7,200
WIP
1,04,500 1,04,500 49,500 47,500

* 100 kg of sugarcane extracts only 45 litre of juice.

Thus, normal loss = 100 – 45 = 55%

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 PROCESS AND OPERATION COSTING 10.47

(ii) Statement showing cost for each element

Particulars Sugarcane Labour Overhead Total

(`) (`) (`) (`)
Cost of opening work-in- 50,000 15,000 45,000 1,10,000
process
Cost incurred during the 5,00,000 2,00,000 6,00,000 13,00,000
month
Total cost: (A) 5,50,000 2,15,000 6,45,000 14,10,000
Equivalent units: (B) 49,500 47,500 47,500
Cost per equivalent unit: (C) = 11.111 4.526 13.579 29.216
(A ÷ B)

(iii) Statement of Distribution of cost

Amount Amount
(`) (`)
1. Value of units completed and transferred 11,54,032
(39,500 units × ` 29.216)
2. Value of Abnormal Loss:
- Sugarcane (1,000 units × ` 11.111) 11,111
- Labour (800 units × ` 4.526) 3,621
- Overheads (800 units × ` 13.579) 10,863 25,595
3. Value of Closing W-I-P:
- Sugarcane (9,000 units × ` 11.111) 99,999
- Labour (7,200 units × ` 4.526) 32,587
- Overheads (7,200 units × ` 13.579) 97,769 2,30,355

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 10.48 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(iv) Process-I A/c

Particulars Units (`) Particulars Units (`)

To Opening W.I.P: By Normal 55,000 --

Loss
- Sugarcane 4,500 50,000 By Abnormal 1,000 25,613
loss [` 25,595
+ ` 18
(difference
due to
approxi-
mation)]
- Labour -- 15,000 By Process-II 39,500 11,54,032
A/c
- Overheads -- 45,000 By Closing 9,000 2,30,355
WIP
To Sugarcane 100,000 5,00,000
introduced
To Direct Labour 2,00,000
To Overheads 6,00,000
104,500 14,10,000 104,500 14,10,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

CHAPTER 11

JOINT PRODUCTS AND

BY PRODUCTS
LEARNING OUTCOMES

♦ Discuss the meaning of Joint products and By products.

♦ Differentiate between joint products and by products.
♦ Discuss the various methods of apportionment of joint
costs to joint products and to by products.
♦ State the treatment of by product’s cost in cost accounting.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Joint Products & By-

Products

Meaning of Joint Treatment of By-

Apportionment of
Products and By- Product Cost in Cost
Joint Costs
Products Accounting

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 11.2 11.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

1. MEANING OF JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY

PRODUCTS
Agricultural product industries, chemical process industries, sugar industries,
and extractive industries are some of the industries where two or more products
of equal or unequal importance are produced either simultaneously or in the
course of processing operation of a main product.
In all such industries, the management is faced with the problems such as,
valuation of inventory, pricing of product and income determination, problem
of taking decision in matters of further processing of by-products and/or joint
products after a certain stage etc. In fact, the various problems relate to
(i) apportionment of common costs incurred for various products and
(ii) aspects other than mere apportionment of costs incurred upto the point
of separation.
Before taking up the above problems, we first define the various necessary
concepts.
(i) Joint Products - Joint products represent “two or more products
separated in the course of the same processing operation usually requiring
further processing, each product being in such proportion that no single
product can be designated as a major product”.
In other words, two or more products of equal importance, produced,
simultaneously from the same process, with each having a significant relative
sale value are known as joint products. For example, in the oil industry, gasoline,
fuel oil, lubricants, paraffin, coal tar, asphalt and kerosene are all produced from
crude petroleum. These are known as joint products.
(ii) By-Products - These are defined as “products recovered from material
discarded in a main process, or from the production of some major products,
where the material value is to be considered at the time of severance from the
main product.” So in a nutshell By product is a product which is recovered
incidentally from the material used in the manufacture of main or desired
products, such a by-product having either a net realisable value or a usable
value which is relatively insignificant in comparison with the saleable value
of the main or desired products. By-product may be further processed to

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS 11.3
11.3

increase their realisable value Thus by-products emerge as a result of

processing operation of another product or they are produced from the scrap
or waste of materials of a process. In short a by-product is a secondary or
subsidiary product which emanates as a result of manufacture of the main
product.
The point at which they are separated from the main product or products is known
as split-off point. The expenses of processing are joint till the split –off point.
Split of Point – this is a point in a production process where joint products
emerging from the process gets separately identifiable.
Split of Point has its importance in the joint product costing as joint cost
incurred up to this point only and needs to be borne jointly by the products
emerging from the common process.
Any cost incurred after Split of Point is a product specific cost and to be
borne by the product concerned.
Examples of by-products are molasses in the manufacture of sugar, tar,
ammonia and benzole obtained on carbonisation of coal and glycerin obtained
in the manufacture of soap.
Distinction between Joint-Product and By-Product - The main points of
distinction as apparent from the definitions of Joint Products and By-Products are:
(a) Joint products are of equal importance whereas by-products are of small
economic value.
(b) Joint products are produced simultaneously but the by-products are
produced incidentally in addition to the main products.

(iii) Co-Products - Joint products and co-products are used synonymously in

common parlance, but strictly speaking a distinction can be made between two.
Co-products may be defined as two or more products which are
contemporary but do not emerge necessarily from the same material in the
same process. For instance, wheat and gram produced in two separate farms
with separate processing of cultivation are the co-products. Similarly, timber
boards made from different trees are co-products.

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 11.4 11.4 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2. APPORTIONMENT OF JOINT COSTS

Joint product costs occur in many industries such as petroleum, oil refinery, textiles,
dairy, food processing and many other process industries. The management of
business concerns require accurate and reliable cost information related with the
joint products to make managerial decisions such as to process further or to sell at
split-off stage. To arrive at either decision, it is necessary to know the share of joint
costs to be apportioned to the different joint products.
Joint costs are the expenditures incurred upto the point of separation i.e.
split-off pointJoint Cost is the resources spent by a manufacturer\producer
for producing more than one product from processing a common input.
These costs include raw material, labour, power, fuel, depreciation and
overhead costs towards the production of the joint products.
The main problem faced in the case of joint products/ by-products is the
apportionment of this joint costs to joint products/ or by products. For costs
incurred after the split off point there is no problem, as these costs can be directly
allocated to individual joint products or by-products.

3. METHODS OF APPORTIONMENT OF
JOINT COST TO JOINT PRODUCTS
Proper apportionment of joint cost over the joint products is of considerable
importance, as this affects (a) Valuation of closing inventory; (b) Pricing of
products; and (c) Profit or loss on the sale of different products. As the relations
between materials, processes and joint products are complex and
unobservable, there is no way to determine the cost of the different
production factors used in the processes for the production of each of the
joint products. Therefore, the costs incurred in the manufacture of each of
the joint products cannot be correctly identified.
It can only be apportioned to the joint products by using some rational
methods
The commonly used methods for apportioning total process costs upto the
point of separation over the joint products are as follows:

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS 11.5
11.5

(i) Physical Units Method

(ii) Net Realisable Value at split-off point
(iii) Using Technical Estimates
Some other methods, which managers may also use for making decisions are:
(i) Market value at the point of separation
(ii) Market value after further processing
(iii) Average unit cost method
(iv) Contribution margin method
(i) Physical Unit Method: This method is based on the assumption that the
joint products are capable of being measured in the same units. Accordingly,
joint costs here are apportioned on the basis of some physical base, such
as weight, numbers etc. In other words, the basis used for apportioning joint
cost over the joint products is the physical volume the joint products at the
point of separation. Any loss arises during the joint production process is also
apportioned over the products on the same basis.. In situation where physical
units are different, the joint products must be converted to a common unit
of measurement. In case, the same cannot be converted to a common unit
of measurement, this method cannot be applied. The main defect of this
method is that it gives equal importance and value to all the joint products.
This method of apportioning is mostly followed when sale price of all the
products is uniform.
ILLUSTRATION 1
A coke manufacturing company produces the following products by using 5,000
tonnes of coal @ ` 1,100 per tonne into a common process.
Coke 3,500 tonnes
Tar 1,200 tonnes
Sulphate of ammonia 52 tonnes
Benzol 48 tonnes
PREPARE a statement apportioning the joint cost amongst the products on the
basis of the physical unit method.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 11.6 11.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION

Products
Coke Tar Sulphate Benzole Wastage Total
of
ammonia
Output (in 3,500 1,200 52 48 200 5,000
tonne)
Wastage (in 146 50 2 2 (200)
tonne)
(Refer Note-1)
Input (in tonne) 3,646 1,250 54 50 - 5,000
Share of Joint 40,10,600 13,75,000 59,400 55,000 - 55,00,000
Cost @ `1,100
per tonne (in `)

Note-1: Apportionment of wastage of 200 tonnes over the four products on

the basis of physical weights (3,500:1,200:52:48) is as follows:
200
Coke: × 3,500 tonnes = 146 tonnes
4,800
200
Tar : × 1,200 tonnes = 50 tonnes
4,800
200
Sulphate of ammonia: × 52 tonnes = 2 tonnes
4,800
200
Benzole : × 48 tonnes = 2 tonnes
4,800

(ii) Net Realisable Value at Split-off Point Method: To arrive at the sales
value at the split-off point, following are deducted from the sales value of
joint products at final stage i.e. after processing:
(i) directly attributable Selling and distribution expenses like freight,
royalty, commission, etc. and
(ii) Post split- off processing cost.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS 11.7
11.7

This method has advantage as relative sales value serves as a proxy for relative
benefit received by each product from the joint cost. When selling prices for all
products exist at split off, the sales value at split off method is the preferred
technique. It is a relatively simple technique that depends on a common basis for
cost allocation – revenues
The resultant figure so obtained is known as net realisable value of joint
products. Joint costs are apportioned in the ratio of net realisable value.

Product- A Product- B Product- C

Amount (`) Amount (`) Amount
(`)
Sales Value (Units after xxx xxx xxx
processing × Selling Price)
Less: Profit Margin (xxx) (xxx) (xxx)
Less: Selling & Distribution (xxx) (xxx) (xxx)
costs
Less: Post split-off cost (xxx) (xxx) (xxx)
Net Realisable Value xxx xxx xxx

Example -1: An entity incurs a joint cost of ` 64,500 in producing two products
A (200 units) and B (200 units) and earns a sales revenue of ` 86,000 by selling
@ ` 170 per unit of product A and product B @ ` 260 per unit. Further processing
costs for products A and B are ` 4,000 and ` 32,000 respectively the Joint cost
can be apportioned to products A and B as follows:

Product- A Product- B
Amount (`) Amount (`)
Sales Value 34,000 52,000
(`170 × 200 units) (`260 × 200 units)
Less: Post split-off cost (4,000) (32,000)
(Further processing cost)
Net Realisable Value 30,000 20,000
Apportionment of Joint Cost 38,700 25,800
of `64,500 in ratio of 3:2

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 11.8 11.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The net realisable value at split-off point method is widely used in the industries.
This method is used when the realisable value of joint products at split-off
is not known.
(iii) Using Technical Estimates: This method uses technical estimates to
apportion the joint costs over the joint products. This method is used when the
result obtained by the above methods does not match with the resources
consumed by joint products or the realisable value of the joint products are not
readily available.

Other Methods
The followings are the methods which are used by management for taking
managerial decisions:
(i) Market value at the point of separation: This method is used for the
apportionment of joint costs to joint products upto the split off point. It is
difficult to apply this method if the market value of the products at the point of
separation is not available. It is a useful method when the realisable value of
joint products at split-off (point of separation) is known and where further
processing costs are incurred disproportionately.
To determine the apportionment of joint costs over joint products, a factor
known as multiplying factor is determined. This multiplying factor on
multiplication with the sales values of each joint product gives rise to the
proportion of joint cost.

Joint Cost
Multipy in factor : ×100
Total Sales Revenue

Total Sales Revenue is sum of production quantity multiplied by the market

price for each of the joint products.
Example – 2: An entity incurs a joint cost of ` 64,500 in producing two products
A (200 units) and B (200 units) and earns a sales revenue of ` 86,000 by selling
@ ` 170 per unit of product A and product B @ ` 260 per unit.
The multiplying factor in this case is obtained by dividing the total joint cost by
total sales revenue and finally multiplying the figure so obtained by 100. The
multiplying factor based on the data can be computed as follows:

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS 11.9
11.9

` 64,500
Multiplying Factor: × 100 = 75%
` 86,000

Joint cost apportioned over product A = Sales revenue of product A × 75%

= ` 34,000 × 75% = ` 25,500

Joint cost apportioned over product B = Sales revenue of product B × 75%

= ` 52,000 × 75% = ` 39,000

Alternatively - This joint cost may be apportioned in the ratio of sales values of
different joint products.
(ii) Market value after further processing: Here the basis of apportionment
of joint cost is the total sales value of finished products and involves the same
principle as discussed above.
Example – 3: Suppose that in the example – 2 given above, if sales prices of
products A and B after further processing are ` 200 and ` 300 respectively the
joint cost apportioned over Products A and B is as follows:
The pre-separation costs of ` 64,500 will be apportioned in the ratio of (2: 3) as
follows:
Market sales value after further processing
( `)
A : 200 units × ` 200 = 40,000
B : 200 units × ` 300 = 60,000
1,00,000
Joint cost apportionment:

` 40,000
A = ` 64,500 × = ` 25,800
` 1,00,000

` 60,000
B = ` 64,500 × = ` 38,700
` 1,00,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 11.1011.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The use of this method is unfair where further processing costs after the
point of separation are disproportionate or when all the joint products are
not subjected to further processing. The net realisable value method which is
discussed as above overcomes the shortcoming of this method.
(iii) Average Unit Cost Method: Under this method, total process cost (upto
the point of separation) is divided by total units of joint products produced. On
division average cost per unit of production is obtained.

Average unit cost = Total process cost (upto the point of separation) ÷ Total
units of joint product produced.

This is a simple method. The effect of application of this method is that all joint
products will have uniform cost per unit. If this method is used as the basis
for price fixation, then all the products may have more or less the same price.
Under this method customers of high quality items are benefitted as they have
to pay less price on their purchase.

[Note: Students may note that the physical unit method also follows the same
steps of calculation as followed under Average unit cost method, ultimately
giving the same outcome.]
ILLUSTRATION 2
FIND OUT the cost of joint products A, B and C using average unit cost method
from the following data:
(a) Pre-separation Joint Cost ` 60,000
(b) Production data:
Products Units produced
A 500
B 200
C 300
1,000
SOLUTION
Total joint costs ` 60,000
Average cost per unit = = = ` 60
Units produced 1,000 units

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS 11.11
11.11

The joint costs apportioned @ ` 60 are as follows:

Products Units Cost per unit (`) Value (`)

A 500 60 30,000
B 200 60 12,000
C 300 60 18,000
60,000

(iv) Contribution Margin Method: According to this method, joint costs are
segregated into two parts - variable and fixed. The variable costs are apportioned
over the joint products on the basis of units produced (average method) or physical
quantities. In case the products are further processed after the point of separation,
then all variable cost incurred be added to the variable costs determined earlier. In
this way total variable cost is arrived which is deducted from their respective sales
values to ascertain their contribution. The fixed costs are then apportioned over the
joint products on the basis of the contribution ratios.
Summary of different types of method of apportioning joint costs that can
be used under certain circumstances:

Physical Unit When sale price of all the products is uniform.

Method

Net Realisable Value

(NRV) at Split-off When the realisable value of joint products at split-off is not known.
Point Method

When the result obtained by Net Realisable Value (NRV) at Split-off

Technical Estimates Point Method does not match with the resources consumed by joint
products
products.

Market value at the Where further processing costs are incurred disproportionately.
point of separation

Where further processing costs after the point of separation are

Market value after proportionate and all the joint products are subject to further
further processing processing.
processing

Average Unit Cost

Method
When units produced have same unit.

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 11.1211.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 3
FIND OUT the cost of joint products A and B using contribution margin method
from the following data :
Sales
A : 100 kg @ ` 60 per kg.
B : 120 kg @ ` 30 per kg.
Joint costs
Marginal cost ` 4,400
Fixed cost ` 3,900
SOLUTION
The marginal cost (variable cost) of ` 4,400 is apportioned over the joint
products A and B in the ratio of their physical quantity i.e 100 : 120
100
Marginal cost for Product A : ` 4,400 × = ` 2,000
220
120
Marginal cost for Product B : ` 4,400 × = ` 2,400
220
The fixed cost of ` 3,900 is apportioned over the joint products A and B in the
ratio of their contribution margin i.e. 40 : 12
(Refer to working note)
Product A : ` 3,900 × 40/52 = ` 3,000
Product B : ` 3,900 × 12/52 = ` 900
Working Note:
Computation of contribution margin ratio

Products Sales revenue Marginal cost Contribution

(`) (`) (`)
A 6,000 2,000 4,000
B 3,600 2,400 1,200
(Refer to above)

Contribution ratio is 40 : 12

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS 11.13
11.13

ILLUSTRATION 4
Inorganic Chemicals purchases salt and processes it into more refined products
such as Caustic Soda, Chlorine and PVC. In the month of July, Inorganic Chemicals
purchased Salt for ` 40,000. Conversion cost of ` 60,000 were incurred upto the
split off point, at which time two sealable products were produced. Chlorine can
be further processed into PVC.
The July production and sales information is as follows:

Production Sales Quantity Selling price

(in tonne) (in tonne) per tonne (`)
Caustic Soda 1,200 1,200 50
Chlorine 800 — —
PVC 500 500 200

All 800 tonnes of Chlorine were further processed, at an incremental cost of

` 20,000 to yield 500 tonnes of PVC. There was no beginning or ending inventories
of Caustic Soda, Chlorine or PVC in July.
There is active market for Chlorine. Inorganic Chemicals could have sold all its
July production of Chlorine at ` 75 per tonne.
Required :
(1) SHOW how joint cost of ` 1,00,000 would be apportioned between Caustic
Soda and Chlorine under each of following methods:
(a) sales value at split- off point ;
(b) physical unit method, and

(c) estimated net realisable value.

(2) Lifetime Swimming Pool Products offers to purchase 800 tonnes of Chlorine
in August at ` 75 per tonne. This sale of Chlorine would mean that no PVC
would be produced in August. EXPLAIN how the acceptance of this offer for
the month of August would affect operating income?

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 11.1411.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION
1. (a) Sales value at split- off point method

Products Sales Selling Sales Joint Cost

(in Price per Revenue Apportioned
Tonne) Tonne (`) (`) (`)
Caustic Soda 1,200 50 60,000 50,000
Chlorine 800 75 60,000 50,000
1,20,000 1,00,000

Apportionment of joint cost

Total joint cost
= × Sale revenue of each product
Total sale value
` 1,00,000
Joint cost apportioned to Caustic Soda = × ` 60,000
` 1,20,000

= `50,000
` 1,00,000
Joint cost apportioned to Chlorine = × ` 60,000
` 1,20,000

= `50,000
(b) Physical measure method

Products Sales (in Tonne) Joint Cost Apportioned (`)

Caustic Soda 1,200 60,000
Chlorine 800 40,000
1,00,000

Apportioned joint cost

Total joint cost
= × Physical units of each product
Total physical value

Joint cost apportioned to Caustic Soda

` 1,00,000
= × 1,200 tonnes
2,000 tonnes
= `60,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS 11.15
11.15

` 1,00,000
Joint cost apportioned to chlorine = × 800 tonnes
2,000 tonnes

= `40,000
(c) Estimated net realisable value method:
Caustic Soda Chlorine
Amount ( ` ) Amount ( ` )
Sales Value 60,000 1,00,000
( ` 50 × 1,200 ( ` 200 × 500
tonnes) tonnes)
Less: Post split-off cost
(Further processing cost) - (20,000)
Net Realisable Value 60,000 80,000
Apportionment of Joint Cost 42,857 57,143
of ₹1,00,000 in ratio of 3:4

2. Incremental revenue from further processing of Chlorine into PVC

(500 tonnes × `200 – 800 tonnes × `75) `40,000
Less : Incremental cost of further processing
of Chlorine into PVC `20,000
Incremental operating income from further processing `20,000
The operating income of Inorganic Chemicals will be reduced by `20,000
in August if it sells 800 tonnes of Chlorine to Lifetime Swimming Pool
Products, instead of further processing of Chlorine into PVC for sale.

4. METHODS OF APPORTIONMENT OF
JOINT COST TO BY PRODUCTS
The following methods may be adopted for the accounting of by-products and
arriving at the cost of production of the main product:

(i) Net Realisable Value method: The realisation on the disposal of the by-
product may be deducted from the total cost of production so as to arrive at the
cost of the main product. For example, the amount realised by the sale of molasses in
a sugar factory goes to reduce the cost of sugar produced in the factory.

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 11.1611.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

When the by-product requires some additional processing and expenses are
incurred in making it saleable to the best advantage of the concern, the
expenses so incurred should be deducted from the total value realised from the
sale of the by-product and only the net realisations should be deducted from
the total cost of production to arrive at the cost of production of the main
product. Separate accounts should be maintained for collecting additional
expenses incurred on:
(a) further processing of the by-product, and

(b) selling, distribution and administration expenses attributable to the by-

product.
(ii) Standard cost in Technical Estimates: By-products may be valued at
standard costs. The standard may be determined by averaging costs recorded
in the past and making technical estimates of the number of units of original
raw material going into the main product and the number forming the by-
product or by adopting some other consistent basis.
This method may be adopted where the by-product is not saleable in the
condition in which it emerges or comparative prices of similar products are not
available.
(iii) Comparative price: Under this method, the value of the by-product is
ascertained with reference to the price of a similar or an alternative material.

Suppose in a large automobile plant, a blast furnace not only produces the steel
required for the car bodies but also produces gas which is utilised in the factory.
This gas can be valued at the price which would have been paid to a gas
company if the factory were to buy it from outside sources.
(iv) Re-use basis: In some cases, the by-product may be of such a nature that
it can be reprocessed in the same process as part of the input of the process. In
that case the value put on the by-product should be same as that of the
materials introduced into the process. If, however, the by-product can be put
into an earlier process only, the value should be the same as for the materials
introduced into the process.

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 JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS 11.17
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5. TREATMENT OF BY-PRODUCT COST IN

COST ACCOUNTING
By-product cost can be dealt in cost accounting in the following ways:
(a) When they are of small total value: When the by-products are of small
total value, the amount realised from their sale may be dealt in any one the
following two ways:
1. The sales value of the by-products may be credited to the Costing Profit
and Loss Account and no credit be given in the Cost Accounts. The credit
to the Costing Profit and Loss Account here is treated either as
miscellaneous income or as additional sales revenue.
2. The sale proceeds of the by-product may be treated as deductions from
the total costs. The sale proceeds in fact should be deducted either from
the production cost or from the cost of sales.
(b) When the by-products are of considerable total value: Where by-products
are of considerable total value, they may be regarded as joint products rather
than as by-products. To determine exact cost of by-products the costs incurred
upto the point of separation, should be apportioned over by-products and joint
products by using a logical basis. In this case, the joint costs may be divided over
joint products and by-products by using relative market values; physical output
method (at the point of split off) or ultimate selling prices (if sold).

(c) Where they require further processing: In this case, the net realisable
value of the by-product at the split-off point may be arrived at by subtracting
the further processing cost from the realisable value of by-products.
If total sales value of by-products at split-off point is small, it may be treated as
per the provisions discussed above under (a).
In the contrary case, the amount realised from the sale of by-products will be
considerable and thus it may be treated as discussed under (b).

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 11.1811.18 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SUMMARY
♦ Joint Products. Two or more products of equal importance, produced,
simultaneously from the same process, with each having a significant
relative sale value are known as joint products.
♦ Co-Products. Two or more products which are contemporary but do not
emerge necessarily from the same material in the same process.

♦ By-Products. Products recovered from material discarded in a main

process, or from the production of some major products.
♦ Methods of apportioning joint cost over joint products:

The commonly used methods for apportioning total process costs upto the
point of separation over the joint products are as follows:
(i) Physical Units Method
(ii) Net Realisable Value at split-off point
(iii) Using Technical Estimates
Some other methods, which managers may also use for making decisions
are:
(i) Market value at the point of separation
(ii) Market value after further processing
(iii) Average unit cost method
(iv) Contribution margin method
♦ Methods of apportioning joint cost over by-products:
(i) Net Realisable Value Method- The realisation on the disposal of the
by-product may be deducted from the total cost of production so as
to arrive at the cost of the main product.
(ii) Standard cost in technical estimates- The standard may be
determined by averaging costs recorded in the past and making
technical estimates of the number of units of original raw material
going into the main product and the number forming the by-product
or by adopting some other consistent basis.

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This method may be adopted where the by-product is not saleable

in the condition in which it emerges or comparative prices of similar
products are not available.
(iii) Comparative price- Value of the by-product is ascertained with
reference to the price of a similar or an alternative material.
(iv) Re-use basis- The value put on the by-product should be same as
that of the materials introduced into the process.
♦ Treatment of By-Product Cost in Cost-Accounting

(i) When they are of small total value:

1. The sales value of the by-products may be credited to the
Profit and Loss Account and no credit be given in the Cost
Accounts. The credit to the Profit and Loss Account here is
treated either as miscellaneous income or as additional sales
revenue.

2. The sale proceeds of the by-product may be treated as

deductions from the total costs. The sale proceeds in fact
should be deducted either from the production cost or from
the cost of sales.
(ii) When the by-products are of considerable total value - The joint
costs may be divided over joint products and by-products by
using relative market values; physical output method (at the point of
split off) or ultimate selling prices (if sold).
(iii) Where they require further processing -The net realisable value of
the by-product at the split-off point may be arrived at by subtracting
the further processing cost from the realisable value of by-products.
If total sales value of by-products at split-off point is small, it may be
treated as per the provisions discussed above under (i).
In the contrary case, the amount realised from the sale of by-products will
be considerable and thus it may be treated as discussed under (ii).

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 11.2011.20 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. In sugar manufacturing industries molasses is also produced along with
sugar. Molasses may be of smaller value as compared with the value of sugar
and is known as:
(a) Common product
(b) By- product
(c) Joint product
(d) None of them
2. Method of apportioning joint costs on the basis of output of each joint
product at the point of split off is:
(a) Sales value method
(b) Physical unit method
(c) Average cost method
(d) Marginal cost and contribution method
3. In the Net realisable value method, for apportioning joint costs over the joint
products, the basis of apportionment would be:
(a) Selling price per unit of each of the joint products
(b) Selling price multiplied by units sold of each of the joint products
(c) Sales value of each joint product less further processing costs of
individual products
(d) Both (b) and (c)
4. The main purpose of accounting of joint products and by- products is to:
(a) Determine the opportunity cost
(b) Determine the replacement cost
(c) Determine profit or loss on each product line

(d) None of the above

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5. Under net realizable value method of apportioning joint costs to joint

products, the selling & distribution cost is:

(a) Added to joint cost

(b) Deducted from further processing cost
(c) Deducted from sales value

(d) Ignored
6. Which of the following is a co-product:
(a) Diesel and Petrol in an oil refinery

(b) Edible oils and oil cakes

(c) Curd and butter in a dairy
(d) Mustard oil and Sunflower oil in an oil processing company.

7. Which of the following is an example of by-product

(a) Diesel and Petrol in an oil refinery
(b) Edible oils and oil cakes

(c) Curd and butter in a dairy

(d) Mustard seeds and mustard oil.
8. Which of following method can be used when the joint products are of
unequal quantity and used for captive consumption:
(a) Technical estimates, using market value of similar goods
(b) Net Realisable value method

(c) Physical Units method

(d) Market value at split-off method.
9. Which of the following statement is not correct in relation to Co-products:
(a) Co-products may also have joint products
(b) Costing for co-products are done according to process costing method

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 11.2211.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(c) Co-products do not have any by-products

(d) Co-products are treated as a separate cost object for costing purpose.
10. When a by-product does not have any realisable value, the cost of by-
product is:
(a) Transferred to Costing Profit & Loss A/c

(b) By-product cost is borne by the good units

(c) By-product cost is ignored
(d) By-product cost is determined taking value of similar goods

11. SG Ltd manufactures two products from a joint milling process. The two
products developed are Mine support (MS) and Commercial building (CB). A
standard production run incurs joint costs of ` 1,00,000 and results in 60,000
units of MS and 90,000 units of CB. Each MS sells for ` 200 per unit, and
each CB sells for ` 450 per unit.
Assuming no further processing work is done after the split-off point, the
amount of joint cost allocated to Commercial building (CB) on a physical
quantity allocation basis would be:
(a) ` 60,000.
(b) ` 180,000.
(c) ` 225,000.
(d) ` 120,000.
12. Kay Company manufactures two hair care lotions, Livi and Sili, out of a joint
process. The joint (common) costs incurred are ` 6,30,000 for a standard
production run that generates 1,80,000 gallons of Livi and 1,20,000 gallons
of Sili. Livi sells for ` 240 per gallon, and Sili sells for ` 390 per gallon.
If additional processing costs beyond the split-off point are ` 140 per gallon
for Livi and ` 90 per gallon for Sili, the amount of joint cost of each
production run allocated to Livi on a physical-quantity basis is:
(a) ` 340,000.
(b) ` 378,000.

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 JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS 11.23
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(c) ` 232,000.
(d) ` 580,000.
13. For the purpose of allocating joint costs to joint products, the sales price at
point of sale, reduced by cost to complete after split-off, is assumed to be
equal to the:

(a) Joint costs

(b) Sales price less a normal profit margin at point of sale
(c) Net sales value at split off
(d) Total costs.

Theoretical Questions
1. DISTINGUISH between Joint products and By-products.
2. DISCUSS the treatment of byproduct cost in Cost Accounting.
3. How apportionment of joint costs upto the point of separation amongst the
joint products using net realizable value method is done? DISCUSS.
4. DESCRIBE briefly, how joint costs upto the point of separation may be
apportioned amongst the joint products under the following methods:

(i) Average unit cost method

(ii) Contribution margin method
(iii) Market value at the point of separation
(iv) Market value after further processing
(v) Net realizable value method.

Practical Problems
1. Smile company produces two main products and a by-product out of a joint
process. The ratio of output quantities to input quantities of direct material
used in the joint process remains consistent on yearly basis. Company has
employed the physical volume method to allocate joint production costs to
the main products. The net realizable value of the by-product is used to
reduce the joint production costs before the joint costs are allocated to the

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 11.2411.24 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

main products. Details of company’s operation are given in the table below.
During the month, company incurred joint production costs of ` 10,00,000/-
The main products are not marketable at the split off point and thus have
to be processed further.

Particulars Product-A Product-B By product

Monthly output in kg. 60,000 1,20,000 50,000
Selling price per kg. ` 50 ` 30 `5
Process costs ` 2,00,000 ` 3,00,000

FIND OUT the amount of joint product cost that Smile company would
allocate to the product-B by using the physical volume method to allocate
joint production costs?
2. Sun-moon Ltd. produces and sells the following products:

Products Units Selling price at Selling price after

split-off point ( ` ) further processing ( ` )
A 2,00,000 17 25
B 30,000 13 17
C 25,000 8 12
D 20,000 10 -
E 75,000 14 20

Raw material costs ` 35,90,000 and other manufacturing expenses cost

` 5,47,000 in the manufacturing process which are absorbed on the products
on the basis of their ‘Net realisable value’. The further processing costs of A,
B, C and E are ` 12,50,000; ` 1,50,000; ` 50,000 and ` 1,50,000 respectively.
Fixed costs are ` 4,73,000.
You are required to PREPARE the following in respect of the coming year:
(a) Statement showing income forecast of the company assuming that
none of its products are to be further processed.
(b) Statement showing income forecast of the company assuming that
products A, B, C and E are to be processed further.

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 JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS 11.25
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Can you suggest any other production plan whereby the company can
maximise its profits? If yes, then submit a statement showing income
forecast arising out of adoption of that plan.
3. ‘Buttery Butter’ is engaged in the production of Buttermilk, Butter and Ghee.
It purchases processed cream and let it through the process of churning until
it separates into buttermilk and butter. For the month of January, ‘Buttery
Butter’ purchased 50 Kilolitre processed cream @ ` 100 per 1000 ml.
Conversion cost of ` 1,00,000 were incurred up-to the split off point, where
two saleable products were produced i.e. buttermilk and butter. Butter can
be further processed into Ghee.
The January production and sales information is as follows:

Products Production (in Sales Quantity Selling price

Kilolitre/tonne) (in per Litre/Kg
Kilolitre/tonne) (` )
Buttermilk 28 28 30
Butter 20 — —
Ghee 16 16 480

All 20 tonne of butter were further processed at an incremental cost of

` 1,20,000 to yield 16 Kilolitre of Ghee. There was no opening or closing
inventories of buttermilk, butter or ghee in the month of January.
Required:
(i) SHOW how joint cost would be apportioned between Buttermilk and
Butter under Estimated Net Realisable Value method.
(ii) ‘Healthy Bones’ offers to purchase 20 tonne of butter in February at `
360 per kg. In case ‘Buttery Butter’ accepts this offer, no Ghee would
be produced in February. SUGGEST whether ‘Buttery Butter’ shall
accept the offer affecting its operating income or further process butter
to make Ghee itself?
4. NN Manufacturing company uses joint production process that produces three
products at the split off point. Joint productions costs during September were
` 8,40,000. Product information for September was as follows:

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 11.2611.26 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Particulars Product A Product B Product C

Units produced 1,500 3,000 4,500
Units sold 2,000 6,000 7,500
Sales prices:
At the split-off ` 100
After further processing ` 150 ` 175 ` 50
Costs to process after split-off ` 1,50,000 ` 1,50,000 ` 1,50,000

Assume that product C is treated as a by-product and the company accounts

for the by-product at net realizable value as a reduction of joint cost. Assume
also that Product B&C must be processed further before they can be sold.
FIND OUT the total cost of Product A in September if joint cost allocation is
based on net realizable values?
5. RST Limited produces three joint products X, Y and Z. The products are processed
further. Pre-separation costs are apportioned on the basis of weight of output of
each joint product. The following data are provided for a particular month:
Cost incurred up to separation point: ` 10,000
Product X Product Y Product Z
Output (in Litre) 100 70 80

` ` `
Cost incurred after separation point 2,000 1,200 800
Selling Price per Litre:
After further processing 50 80 60
At pre-separation point (estimated) 25 70 45
You are required to:
(i) Prepare a statement showing profit or loss made by each product after
further processing using the presently adopted method of
apportionment of pre-separation cost.
(ii) Advise the management whether, on purely financial consideration,
the three products are to be processed further or not.

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6. OPR Ltd. purchases crude vegetable oil. It does refining of the same. The
refining process results in four products at the spilt-off point - S, P, N and
A. Product 'A’ is fully processed at the split-off point. Product S, P and N
can be individually further refined into SK, PM, and NL respectively. The joint
cost of purchasing the crude vegetable oil and processing it were
` 40,000 which is apportioned on the basis of Sales Value at split-off point.
Other details are as follows:

Product Further processing Sales at split- Sales after further

costs ( ` ) off point ( ` ) processing ( ` )
S 80,000 20,000 1,20,000
P 32,000 12,000 40,000
N 36,000 28,000 48,000
A - 20,000 -

You are required to identify the products which can be further processed for
maximizing profits and make suitable suggestions.

ANSWERS/ SOLUTIONS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (d)

7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (b)

13. (c)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 1
2. Please refer paragraph 5
3. Please refer paragraph 3
4. Please refer paragraph 3

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 11.2811.28 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. Calculation of Net joint costs to be allocated:

Particulars Amount (`)

Joint Costs 10,00,000
Less: Net Realizable value of by-product 2,50,000
(50,000×5)
Net joint costs to be allocated 7,50,000

Therefore, amount of joint product cost that Smile company would

allocate to the product-B by using the physical volume method to allocate
joint production costs:
Physical quantity of Product -B
= × Net joint costs to be allocated
Total Quantity

1,20,000units
= × `7,50,000 = `5,00,000
1,80,000units

2. Working Note:
Apportionment of joint costs on the basis of Net Realisable Value method

Products Sales Value (`) Post Net Apportioned

separation Realisable Cost (`)
Cost (`) Value (`)
A 50,00,000 12,50,000 37,50,000 26,25,000
(2,00,000 units × ` 25)
B 5,10,000 1,50,000 3,60,000 2,52,000
(30,000 units × ` 17)
C 3,00,000 50,000 2,50,000 1,75,000
(25,000 units × ` 12)
D 2,00,000 — 2,00,000 1,40,000
(20,000 units × ` 10)
E 15,00,000 1,50,000 13,50,000 9,45,000
(75,000 units × ` 20)
59,10,000 41,37,000

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Total joint cost = Raw material costs + Manufacturing expenses

= ` 35,90,000 + ` 5,47,000 = ` 41,37,000
Apportioned joint cost

Total joint cost

= ×Net realisable value of each product
Total net realisable value
Apportioned joint cost for Product A

` 41,37,000
= × ` 37,50,000 = ` 26,25,000
` 59,10,000

Similarly, the apportioned joint cost for products B, C, D and E are

` 2,52,000, ` 1,75,000, ` 1,40,000 and ` 9,45,000 respectively.
(a) Statement showing income forecast of the company assuming
that none of its products are further processed

Products
A (`) B (`) C (`) D (`) E (`) Total (`)
Sales 34,00,000 3,90,000 2,00,000 2,00,000 10,50,000 52,40,000
revenue (`17 × (`13 × (`8 × (`10 × (`14 ×
2,00,000) 30,000) 25,000) 20,000) 75,000)
Less:
Apportioned
Costs (Refer 26,25,000 2,52,000 1,75,000 1,40,000 9,45,000 41,37,000
Working
note)
7,75,000 1,38,000 25,000 60,000 1,05,000 11,03,000
Less: Fixed 4,73,000
Cost
Profit 6,30,000

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 11.3011.30 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(b) Statement showing income forecast of the company: assuming

that products A, B, C and E are further processed (Refer to
working note)

Products
A (`) B (`) C (`) D (`) E (`) Total (`)
A. Sales 50,00,000 5,10,000 3,00,000 2,00,000 15,00,000 75,10,000
revenue
B. Appor- 26,25,000 2,52,000 1,75,000 1,40,000 9,45,000 41,37,000
tioned Costs
C. Further 12,50,000 1,50,000 50,000 - 1,50,000 16,00,000
processing
cost
D. Total 38,75,000 4,02,000 2,25,000 1,40,000 10,95,000 57,37,000
processing
cost (B+ C)
E. Excess of 11,25,000 1,08,000 75,000 60,000 4,05,000 17,73,000
sales revenue
(A-D)
F. Fixed Cost 4,73,000
G. Profit (E - 13,00,000
F)

Suggested production plan for maximising profits:

On comparing the figures of excess of revenue over cost of manufacturing
in the above statements one observes that the concern is earning more
after further processing of A, C and E products but is loosing a sum of
` 30,000 in the case of product B (if it is processed further). Hence the
best production plan will be to sell A, C and E after further processing and
B and D at the point of split off. The profit statement based on this
suggested production plan is as below :

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Profit statement based on suggested production plan

Products
A (`) B (`) C (`) D (`) E (`) Total (`)
A. Sales revenue 50,00,000 3,90,000 3,00,000 2,00,000 15,00,000 73,90,000
B. Apportioned 26,25,000 2,52,000 1,75,000 1,40,000 9,45,000 41,37,000
Costs
C. Further 12,50,000 - 50,000 - 1,50,000 14,50,000
processing cost
D. Total 38,75,000 2,52,000 2,25,000 1,40,000 10,95,000 55,87,000
processing cost
(B+ C)
E. Excess of sales 11,25,000 1,38,000 75,000 60,000 4,05,000 18,03,000
revenue (A-D)
F. Fixed Cost 4,73,000
G. Profit (E - F) 13,30,000

Hence the profit of the company has increased by ` 30,000.

3. (i) Estimated Net Realisable Value Method:

Buttermilk Butter
Amount (`) Amount (`)
Sales Value 8,40,000 76,80,000
(` 30 × 28 × 1000) (` 480 × 16 × 1000)
Less: Post split-off cost
(Further processing cost) - (1,20,000)
Net Realisable Value 8,40,000 75,60,000
Apportionment of Joint 5,10,000 45,90,000
Cost of ` 51,00,000* in
ratio of 1:9

* [(` 100 × 50 × 1000) + ` 1,00,000] = ` 51,00,000

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 11.3211.32 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) Incremental revenue from further processing of Butter into Ghee

(` 480 × 16 × 1000 - ` 360 × 20 × 1000) ` 4,80,000
Less: Incremental cost of further processing
of Butter into Ghee ` 1,20,000
Incremental operating income from further processing ` 3,60,000
The operating income of ‘Buttery Butter’ will be reduced by
` 3,60,000 in February if it sells 20 tonne of Butter to ‘Healthy Bones’, instead of
further processing of Butter into Ghee for sale. Thus, ‘Buttery Butter’ is advised
not to accept the offer and further process butter to make Ghee itself.
4. Product A can be sold at the split-off point, because the question says that
"Products B and C must be processed further before they can be sold." Since
product A is not included in that, we know that Product A can be sold at the split-
off point. Furthermore, the cost to process Product A after the split-off point is
` 150,000, whereas the additional revenue to be earned by processing it further
is only `75,000 (`50 increase in selling price per unit multiplied by the 1,500 units
produced during September). Therefore, Product A will not be processed further,
and we use the sales value at split-off for A for allocating the joint costs. The sales
value at the split-off for A is ` 100 × 1,500 units, or `1,50,000.
Since Product B must be processed further, we use its net realizable value
for the joint cost allocation. The net realizable value of Product B is
`3,75,000 [(`175 selling price after further processing × 3,000 units
produced) – `1,50,000 in further processing costs].
Product C, the by-product, must also be processed further to be sold. The net
realizable value of Product C is ` 75,000 [(` 50 sales price after further processing
× 4,500 units produced) – ` 1,50,000 in further processing costs].
Joint production costs total ` 8,40,000. Since the by-product C is
accounted for as a reduction to the joint costs, the joint costs to be
allocated are ` 7,65,000 (` 8,40,000 minus the ` 75,000 NRV of Product C),
to be allocated between Product A (sales value ` 1,50,000) and Product B
(net realizable value ` 3,75,000). So, the total on which the allocation of
the joint costs is basId is ` 1,50,000 + 3,75,000 = ` 5,25,000. Product A
represents 28.571% of the total (` 1,50,000 ÷ ` 5,25,000).
Since Product A has no further processing costs, the total cost of Product
A is equal to its allocated joint costs, which are 28.571% of the net joint
costs of ` 7,65,000, or ` 2,18,568.

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 JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY PRODUCTS 11.33
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5. (i) Statement showing profit/loss by each product after further

processing products

Product Product Product

X (in `) Y (in `) Z (in `)
Sales value after further processing 5,000 5,600 4,800
Less: Further processing cost 2,000 1,200 800
Less: Joint Cost* (as apportioned) 4,000 2,800 3,200
Profit/(loss) (1,000) 1,600 800

* Statement showing apportionment of joint cost on the basis of physical

units

Product Product Product Total

X (in `) Y (in `) Z (in `) (`)
Output (in litre) 100 70 80 250
Weight 0.4 0.28 0.32
(100/250) (70/250) (80/250)
Joint cost apportioned 4,000 2,800 3,200

(ii) Decision whether to process further or not

Product X Product Y Product Z

(in `) (in `) (in `)
Incremental Revenue 2,500 700 1,200
[(50-25) × 100] [(80-70) × 70] [(60-45) × 80]
Less: Further 2,000 1,200 800
processing cost
Incremental profit 500 (500) 400
/(loss)

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 11.3411.34 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Product Product Product Z Total

X (in `) Y (in `) (in `)
Sales 2500 4900 3600 11000
Pre separation costs 4000 2800 3200 10000
Profit/(Loss) (1500) 2100 400 1000
It is advisable to further process only product X and Z and to sale product
Y at the point of separation.
6. Statement of Comparison of Profits before and after further
processing

S (`) P (`) N (`) A (`) Total (`)

A. Sales at split off point 20,000 12,000 28,000 20,000 80,000
B. Apportioned Joint Costs 10,000 6,000 14,000 10,000 40,000
(Refer Working Note)
C. Profit at split-off point 10,000 6,000 14,000 10,000 40,000
D. Sales after further 1,20,00 40,000 48,000 - 2,08,000
processing 0
E. Further processing cost 80,000 32,000 36,000 - 1,48,000
F. Apportioned Joint Costs 10,000 6,000 14,000 - -
(Refer Working Note)
G. Profit if further 30000 2,000 (-) - -
processing (D – E + F) 2,000
H. Increase/ decrease in 20,000 - 4000 - 16,000 - -
profit after further
processing (G-C)

Suggested Product to be further processed for maximising profits:

On comparing the figures of "Profit if no further processing" and "Profits
if further processing", one observes that OPR Ltd. is earning more after
further processing of Product S only i.e. ` 20,000. Hence, for maximizing
profits, only Product S should be further processed and Product P, N and
A should be sold at split-off point.

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Working Note:
Apportionment of joint costs on the basis of Sales Value at split-off point
Total Joint Cost
Apportioned joint cost= × Sales value of each product
Total Sales value at split - off point

Where,
Total Joint cost = ` 40,000
Total sales at split off point (S, P, N and A) = 20,000 + 12,000 + 28,000 +
20,000 = ` 80,000

Share of S in joint cost = ` 40,000 x ` 20,000 = ` 10,000

` 80,000

Share of P in joint cost = ` 40,000 x ` 12,000 = ` 6,000

` 80,000

Share of N in joint cost = ` 40,000 x ` 28,000 = ` 14,000

` 80,000

Share of A in joint cost = ` 40,000 x ` 20,000 = ` 10,000

` 80,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

CHAPTER
12

SERVICE COSTING

LEARNING OUTCOMES
♦ Discuss the cost accounting method for service sectors.
♦ State the units used in different service sectors.
♦ State the KPIs used in different service sectors.
♦ Calculate the costs for different service industries.

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 12.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Application of Service
Costing

Service Costing vs
Product Costing
Composite Unit
Methods of Ascertaining
Service cost unit
Equivalent Unit

Service Cost Statement

Service Costing

Costing of Services:
(i)Transport
(ii) Hotels & Lodges
(iii) Hospitals
(iv) IT & ITES
(v) Toll Roads
(vi) Educational Institutes
(vii) Insurance
viii) Financial Institutes
(ix) Others

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.3

1. INTRODUCTION
Service sector, being a fastest growing sector and having a significant contribution
towards the GDP in India, is a very important sector where the role of the cost and
management accounting is inevitable. The competitiveness of a service entity is
very much dependent on a robust cost and management accounting system for
competitive pricing and identification of value adding activities. Providers of
services like transportation, hotels, financial services & banking, insurance,
electricity generation, transmission and distribution etc. are very much cost
conscious and thrive to provide services in a cost-effective manner. Irrespective of
regulatory requirements to maintain cost records and get the records audited,
service costing becomes integral and inseparable part of each service entity. In this
chapter we will be discussing how costing is done in service sectors like
Transportation, Toll roads, Electricity generation, transmission and distribution,
Hospitals, Canteen & Restaurants, Hotels & Lodges, Educational institutes, Financial
institutions, Insurance, Information Technology (IT) & Information Technology
Enabled Services (ITES) etc.
Service costing is also known as operating costing.

1.1 Application of Service Costing

Internal: The service costing is required for in-house services provided by a service
cost centre to other responsibility centres as support services. Examples of support
services are Canteen and hospital for staff, Boiler house for supplying steam to
production departments, Captive Power generation unit, operation of fleet of
vehicles for transport of raw material to factory or distribution of finished goods to
the market outlets, IT department services used by other departments, research &
development, quality assurance, laboratory etc.
External: When services are offered to outside customers as a profit centre in
consonance with organisational objectives as an output like goods or passenger
transport service provided by a transporter, hospitality services provided by a hotel,
provision of services by financial institutions, insurance and IT companies etc.

In both the situation, all costs incurred are collected, accumulated for a certain
period or volume, recorded in the cost accounting system and then expressed in
terms of a cost unit of service.

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 12.4 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

1.2 Service Costing vs Product Costing

Service costing differs from product costing (such as job or process costing) in the
following ways due to some basic and peculiar nature.
(i) Tangibility: Unlike products, services are intangible and cannot be stored,
hence, there is no inventory for the services.
(ii) Cost units: Use of Composite cost units for cost measurement and to express
the volume of outputs.
(iii) Material vs Employee cost: Unlike a product manufacturing, employee
(labour) cost constitutes a major cost element than material cost.
(iv) Traceability of costs: Indirect costs like administration overheads are
generally have a significant proportion in total cost of a service as unlike
manufacturing sector, service sector heavily depends on support services and
traceability of costs to a service may not economically feasible.

2. SERVICE COST UNIT AND KPI

To compute the Service cost, it is necessary to understand the unit for which the
cost is to be computed. All the costs incurred during a period are collected and
analyzed and then expressed in terms of a cost per unit of service.
One specific issue with service costing is the difficulty in defining a realistic cost
unit that represents a suitable measure of the service provided. The cost unit to be
applied needs to be defined carefully and frequently, a composite cost unit may be
deemed more appropriate.

For example, Hotels may use the ‘Occupied Room Days’ as an appropriate unit for
cost ascertainment and control.
Other typical cost unit that may be used include:

Service industry Unit of cost (examples)

Transport Services Passenger- km., (In public transportation)
Quintal- km., or Tonne- km. (In goods carriage)
Electricity Supply service Kilowatt- hour (kWh)

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.5

Hospital Patient per day, room per day or per bed, per opera-
tion etc.
Canteen Per item, per meal etc.
Cinema Per ticket.
Hotels Guest Days or Room Days
Bank or Financial Per transaction, per services (e.g. per letter of credit,
Institutions per application, per project etc.)
Educational Institutes Per course, per student, per batch, per lecture etc.
IT & ITES Cost per project, per module etc.
Insurance Per policy, Per claim, Per TPA etc.

The costing should be comprehensive enough to show the effects like off-season
and peak-season demand, full time, part time, etc.

Key Performance Indicator (KPI)

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) are the quantitative and qualitative factors which
are commonly used to assess the performance of an organization which are
important to achieve its goal. Like calculation of cost for a cost unit, calculation of
cost or revenue per KPI helps to the performance against industry standards. For
example, in case of Telecom industry Average Return per User (ARPU) is a key
indicator, shows average revenue generated from a user of its services. The list
below shows few important KPIs for some Service Industries:

Industry KPI Meaning

Number of Shipments, This logistics metric monitors the
number of orders that are shipped out
of the warehouse.
Truck Turnaround Rate The time from when a delivery truck
(Truck Turning), enters the warehouse to collect or
Transportation
deliver products to when it exits the
facility.
Lead Time (Order Cycle The amount of time in between order
Time) placement by customer and receipt of
order.

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 12.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

On-Time and In-Full The number of orders delivered

(OTIF) according to the schedule and quantity
specified.
Cost per Occupied The average cost per occupied room.
Room (CPOR)
Occupancy Rate The ratio of rented or used rooms to
Hotel Industry
the total amount of available rooms.
Revenue per available The average revenue per available
room (RevPAR) room days.
Bed Occupancy Rate The proportion of hospital beds in use
at any one time.
Hospitals/ Staff-To-Patient Ratio The number of staff resources present
Health care to attend to the patients in a hospital
Industry over a certain period of time.
Average Treatment The average amount that a facility
Charge charges a patient for a treatment.
Gross Burn Rate The rate at which the company uses up
its available cash to cover operating
expenses.
Customer Acquisition The amount it takes to attract new
Cost (CAC) customers.
Customer Lifetime The typical net profit a company
Value (CLV) generates over the entire life cycle of a
single customer.

IT & ITES sector Monthly Recurring The amount earned each month
Revenue (MRR) through subscription renewals, new
sales, upsells, and fluctuations on a
monthly basis.
Churn Rate The percentage of customers that
cancel their recurring subscriptions
over a given time period.
Cost Per Feature How much a specific feature costs your
business, based on usage and cloud
costs.

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.7

Average return per user How much money a company is

(ARPU) making for each person using its
service.
Subscriber acquisition Costs involved with gaining new
cost (SAC) subscribers.
Telecom Network Operating Cost Expenditure incurred on continual
upkeep to telecom’s network.
Gross Revenue How well a company is retaining its
Retention (GRR) customers based on factors such as
sales price increases, organic customer
growth, and more.
Instructional Costs The cost of part-time and full-time
faculty members
Administrative Costs Per How much an institution is spending
Student. on administrative services on a per-
Education student basis.
Sector Tuition Costs Costs accrued by students on a
semester or annual basis.
Student-to-Faculty The number of students per faculty
Ratio member, on a campus-wide basis or by
department.
Average Cost Per Claim The average cost of each claim made.
Components of Claim Costs which are associated with a claim
Costs (CCC) like legal fees, time to settle,
administration costs, and report delays.
Cost Per Quote The costs that the company incurs in
order to get a quote in front of a
Insurance Sector
potential client.
Administrative Costs Per The cost of the policy administration to
Policy number of policies outstanding.
Average Policy Size The total amount of premium collected
by the number of policies issued for a
given time period.

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 12.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2.1 Methods for ascertaining Service Cost Unit

Composite Cost Unit

Sometime two measurement units are combined together to know the cost of
service or operation. These are called composite cost units. For example, a public
transportation undertaking would measure the operating cost per passenger per
kilometer.
Examples of Composite units are Tonne- km., Quintal- km, Passenger-km., Patient-
day etc. Composite unit may be computed in two ways.
(i) Absolute (Weighted Average) basis.
(ii) Commercial (Simple Average) basis.
In both bases of computation of service cost unit, weightage is also given to
qualitative factors rather quantitative (which are directly related with variable cost
elements) factors alone.

(i) Weighted Average or Absolute basis – It is a summation of the products

of qualitative and quantitative factors. For example, to calculate absolute Tonne-
Km for a goods transport is calculated as follows.:

∑(Weight Carried × Distance)1 + (Weight Carried × Distance)2 +….+(Weight Carried

× Distance)n

Similarly, in case of Cinema theatres, price for various classes of seats is fixed
differently. For example–
First class seat may be provided with higher quality service and hence charged at a
higher rate, whereas Second Class seat may be priced less. In this case, appropriate
weight to be given effect for First Class seat and Second Class seat – to ensure
proper cost per composite unit.
(ii) Simple Average or Commercial Basis – It is the product of average
qualitative and total quantitative factors. For example, in case of goods transport,
Commercial Tonne-Km is arrived at by multiplying total distance km., by average
load quantity.

 W1+ W2 +....+ Wn 
∑(Distance1 + Distance2 + …………...…+ Distancen) ×  
 n 

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.9

In both the example, variable cost is dependent of distance and is a quantitative

factor. Since, the weight carried does not affect the variable cost hence and is a
qualitative factor.
To understand the concept of absolute tonne-km., and commercial tonne-km., the
following illustration may be referred.
ILLUSTRATION 1
A lorry starts with a load of 20 MT of goods from Station ‘A’. It unloads 8 MT in Station
‘B’ and balance goods in Station ‘C’. On return trip, it reaches Station ‘A’ with a load of
16 MT, loaded at Station ‘C’. The distance between A to B, B to C and C to A are 80 Kms,
120 Kms and 160 Kms, respectively. COMPUTE “Absolute MT-Kilometer” and
“Commercial MT – Kilometer”.

(MT = Metric Ton or Ton).

SOLUTION
Weighted Average or Absolute basis – MT – Kilometer:

= (20 MT × 80 Kms) + (12 MT × 120 Kms) + (16 MT × 160 Kms)

= 1,600 + 1,440 + 2,560 = 5,600 MT - Kilometer
Simple Average or Commercial basis – MT – Kilometer:
= [{(20+12+16) / 3} MT × {(80+120+160) Kms]
= 16 MT × 360 Kms = 5,760 MT – Kilometer

Equivalent Cost Unit/ Equivalent Service Unit:

To calculate cost or pricing of two more different grade of services which uses
common resources, each grade of service is assigned a weight and converted
into equivalent units. Converting services into equivalent units make different
grade of services equivalent and comparable.
For Example:
A hotel has three types of suites for its customers, viz., Standard, Deluxe and
Luxurious.

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 12.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Following information is given:

Type of suite Number of rooms Room Tariff

Standard 100 --
Deluxe 50 2.5 times of the Standard suites
Luxurious 30 Twice of the Deluxe suites

The rent of Deluxe suite is to be fixed at 2.5 times of the Standard suite and that of
Luxurious suite as twice of the Deluxe suite.
Since, all three types of suites use same amount of overheads, but to attach qualitative
weight, these rooms are required to be converted into equivalent units. This can be
done in two ways
(i) Making all suites equivalent to Standard suites:

Nature of suite Occupancy (Room-days) Equivalent single room

suites (Room-days)
Standard 36,000 36,000
(100 rooms × 360 days) (36,000 × 1)
Deluxe 18,000 45,000
(50 rooms × 360 days) (18,000 × 2.5)
Luxurious 10,800 54,000
(30 rooms × 360 days) (10,800 × 5)
1,35,000

Or
(ii) Making all suites equivalent to Luxurious suites:

Nature of suite Occupancy (Room-days) Equivalent Luxurious

suites (Room-days)
Standard 36,000 7,200
(100 rooms × 360 days) (36,000 × 1/5)
Deluxe 18,000 9,000
(50 rooms × 360 days) (18,000 × ½)

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.11

Luxurious 10,800 10,800

(30 rooms × 360 days) (10,800 × 1)
27,000

3. STATEMENT OF COSTS FOR SERVICE

SECTORS
For preparing a statement of cost or a cost sheet for service sector, costs are usually
collected and accumulated for a specified period viz. A month, quarter or a year,
etc.
The cost statement for services may be prepared either on the basis of functional
classification as done for product costing or on the basis of variability. Cost sheet
on the basis of variability is prepared classifying all the costs into three different
heads:

1. Fixed costs or Standing charges

2. Variable costs or Operating expenses
3. Semi-variable costs or Maintenance expenses

Note: In the absence of information about semi-variable costs, the costs would be
shown under fixed and variable heads only.

Treatment of Depreciation- Fixed or Variable?

If related to effluxion of time or calculated on time basis, will be treated as fixed.
However, if the depreciation is calculated on the basis of activity level or usage, it
will be treated as variable cost.

Treatment of Interest
Interest and finance charges shall be presented in the cost statement as a separate
item of cost of sales. In general, interest is treated as fixed cost, unless otherwise
given.

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 12.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

4. APPLICATIONS OF COSTING METHODS IN

SERVICE COSTING
Costing techniques vis-a vis Service sector: So far in previous chapters we have
learnt how to collect, accumulate and calculate cost for each cost elements like
Material, Employee (labour), Direct expenses and Overheads. We also learnt the
various methods of costing like Job & Contract costing, Process & operation
costing, Joint products & By products costing. Then again Cost Management
techniques like Standard Costing, Budget and budgetary control Marginal costing
are also equally applied in service sector.
In general, the service sectors are either labour or capital intensive or both, that is
the reason the proportion of costs of cost elements differs from manufacturing
sectors. A manufacturing sector may have higher material cost than the labour, but
in case of service sector the situation reverses.
The system and techniques for cost collection, accumulation and valuation is similar
as that has been learnt in previous chapters for each cost elements. The overhead
allocation, apportionment and absorption techniques are also very similar.
Method of costing vis-à-vis Service sector: The choice of method of costing
depends on nature of service provided. For example, Job costing method may be
suitable for a business which is engaged in development of customized software,
healthcare etc. Process costing may be suitable for utility business like power, water
supplies etc., Joint products costing may be suitable for businesses which are
providing bundled service like telecom, event management, educational institutes
etc.

5 COSTING OF TRANSPORT SERVICES

Transport organizations can be divided into two categories viz. Goods transport
and Passenger transport.
The cost unit for Goods transport organization is Tonne– Kilometer – that means
cost of carrying one Tonne of goods over a distance of one kilometer.
Cost unit for Passenger transport organization is Passenger– Kilometer – that
means cost of carrying one Passenger over a distance of one kilometer.

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.13

The costs are shown under the suggestive following heads:

(i) Standing Charges or Fixed costs: These are the fixed costs that remain
constant irrespective of the distance travelled. These costs include the
following:
• Insurance
• License fees
• Salary to Driver, Conductor, Cleaners, etc if paid on monthly basis
• Garage costs, including garage rent
• Depreciation (if related to efflux of time)
• Taxes
• Administration expenses, etc.
(ii) Variable costs or Running costs: These costs are generally associated with
the distance travelled. These costs include the following:
• Petrol and Diesel
• Lubricant oils,
• Wages to Driver, Conductor, Cleaners, etc. if it is related to operations
• Depreciation (if related to activity)
• Any other variable costs identified.
(iii) Semi-Variable Costs or Maintenance Costs: These costs include the
following:
• Repairs and maintenance
• Tyres
• Spares, etc.
The heads for a cost may change as per the situation or condition. For an example
salary of driver may be treated as standing charges or running cost depending on
the situation and nature of his employment.

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 12.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 2
AXA Passenger Transport Company is running 5 buses between two towns, which are
40 kms apart. Seating capacity of each bus is 40 passengers. Following details are
available from their books, for the month of April:

Particulars Amount (`)

Salary of Drivers, Cleaners and Conductors 24,000
Salary to Supervisor 10,000
Diesel and other Oil 40,000
Repairs and Maintenance 8,000
Tax and Insurance 16,000
Depreciation 26,000
Interest 20,000
1,44,000

Actual passengers carried were 75% of the seating capacity. All the five buses run on all
days for the month. Each bus made one round trip per day. CALCULATE cost per
passenger – Kilometer.

SOLUTION
Working Note:
Total Passenger Kilometres =
Number of Buses × Distance × Seating Capacity × Used Capacity × Number of days
in the month × Number of trips
= 5 Buses × 40 kms. × 40 Seats × 75% × 30 Days × 2 Single trips (1 Round Trip)
= 3,60,000 Passenger-Kms.
Cost per Passenger-Km = Total costs ÷ Total Passenger Kilometers

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.15

Statement of Cost per Passenger – Km

Particulars Cost Per Cost per

Month Passenger – Km
A. Standing Charges:
Wages of Drivers, Cleaners and Conductors 24,000
Salary to Supervisor 10,000
Tax and Insurance 16,000
Depreciation 26,000
Interest 20,000
Total Standing Charges 96,000 0.267
B. Running Charges
Diesel and other Oil 40,000 0.111
C. Maintenance Charges
Repairs and Maintenance 8,000 0.022
Total 1,44,000 0.400

Cost per Passenger-Km = ` 0.40

ILLUSTRATION 3
ABC Transport Company has given a route 40 kilometers long to run bus.
(a) The bus costs the company a sum of ` 10,00,000
(b) It has been insured at 3% p.a. and

(c) The annual tax will amount to ` 20,000

(d) Garage rent is ` 20,000 per month.
(e) Annual repairs will be ` 2,04,000

(f) The bus is likely to last for 2.5 years

(g) The driver’s salary will be ` 30,000 per month and the conductor’s salary will be
` 25,000 per month in addition to 10% of takings as commission [To be shared
by the driver and conductor equally].

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 12.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(h) Cost of stationery will be ` 1,000 per month.

(i) Manager-cum-accountant’s salary is ` 17,000 per month.

(j) Petrol and oil will be ` 500 per 100 kilometers.
(k) The bus will make 3 up and down trips carrying on an average 40 passengers
on each trip.
(l) The bus will run on an average 25 days in a month.
Assuming 15% profit on takings, CALCULATE the bus fare to be charged per
passenger-kilometer.
SOLUTION
Working Note:

(1) Total Kilometers run per annum:

= Number of Buses × Distance × Number of days in the Month × Number of
trips × 12 months
= 1 Bus × 40 kms × 25 Days × 6 Single trips (3 Round Trips) × 12 months =
72,000 kms.
(2) Total Passenger Kilometers per annum:
Total Kilometers run per annum × Seating Capacity
= 72,000 Kms × 40 Seats = 28,80,000 Passenger-Kms.
(3) Petrol & oil Consumption per annum:
Total Kilometers run per annum × Petrol Consumption per KM
= 72,000 Kms × (`500 / 100 Kms) = ` 3,60,000
Statement of Cost per Passenger – Km

Particulars Per Annum Per Passenger -

Kilometer
A. Standing Charges:
Insurance @ 3% on `10,00,000 30,000
Annual Tax 20,000
Garage rent (`20,000 × 12) 2,40,000

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.17

Depreciation 4,00,000
Salary of Driver (fixed part) 3,60,000
Salary of Conductor (fixed part) 3,00,000
Stationary 12,000
Manager-cum-accountant’s salary 2,04,000
Total Standing Charges 15,66,000 0.5438
B. Running Charges:
Diesel and other Oil (WN-3) 3,60,000
Commission to Driver* 1,42,000
(10%×`28,40,000×1/2)
Commission to Conductor* 1,42,000
(10%×`28,40,000×1/2)
Total Running Charges 6,44,000 0.2236
C. Maintenance Charges:
Repairs 2,04,000 0.0708
Grand Total (A+B+C) 24,14,000 0.8382
Profit (15%×`28,40,000) 4,26,000 0.1479
Fare per Passenger Kilometer 0.9861

*Total takings = Standing Charges + (Running cost + Commission on takings)

+ Maintenance cost + Profit
Let Takings = X
Or, X = 15,66,000 + (3,60,000 + 0.1X) + 2,04,000 + 0.15X
Or, X – 0.25X = 21,30,000
Or, X = 28,40,000

ILLUSTRATION 4
SMC is a public school having five buses each plying in different directions for the
transport of its school students. In view of a larger number of students availing of the bus
service the buses work two shifts daily both in the morning and in the afternoon. The
buses are garaged in the school. The work-load of the students has been so arranged

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 12.18 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

that in the morning the first trip picks up senior students and the second trip plying an
hour later picks up the junior students. Similarly, in the afternoon the first trip takes the
junior students and an hour later the second trip takes the senior students’ home.
The distance travelled by each bus one way is 8 km. The school works 25 days in a month
and remains closed for vacation in May, June and December. Bus fee, however, is payable
by the students for all 12 months in a year.
The details of expenses for a year are as under:

Driver’s salary ` 4,500 per month per driver

Cleaner’s salary ` 3,500 per month
(Salary payable for all 12 months)
(One cleaner employed for all the five buses)
License fee, taxes, etc. ` 8,600 per bus per annum
Insurance ` 10,000 per bus per annum
Repairs & maintenance ` 35,000 per bus per annum
Purchase price of the bus ` 15,00,000 each
Life of each bus 12 years
Scrap value of buses at the end of life ` 3,00,000
Diesel cost ` 45.00 per litre
Each bus gives an average mileage of 4 km. per litre of diesel.
Seating capacity of each bus is 50 students.

The seating capacity is fully occupied during the whole year.

Students picked up and dropped within a range up to 4 km. of distance from the school
are charged half fare and fifty per cent of the students travelling in each trip are in this
category. Ignore interest. Since the charges are to be based on average cost you are
required to:
(i) PREPARE a statement showing the expenses of operating a single bus and the
fleet of five buses for a year.
(ii) WORK OUT the average cost per student per month in respect of –
(A) students coming from a distance of upto 4 km. from the school and
(B) students coming from a distance beyond 4 km. from the school.

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.19

SOLUTION
(i) Statement of Expenses of operating bus/ buses for a year

Particulars Rate (`) Per Bus Fleet of 5

per annum buses p.a.
(`) (`)
(i) Standing Charges:
Driver’s salary 4,500 p.m 54,000 2,70,000
Cleaner’s salary 3,500 p.m 8,400 42,000
Licence fee, taxes etc. 8,600 p.a. 8,600 43,000
Insurance 10,000 p.a. 10,000 50,000
Depreciation 1,00,000 p.a. 1,00,000 5,00,000
(15,00,000 – 3,00,000) ÷ 12 yrs
(ii) Maintenance Charges:
Repairs & maintenance 35,000 p.a. 35,000 1,75,000
(iii) Operating Charges:
Diesel (Working Note 1) 1,62,000 8,10,000
Total Cost [(i) + (ii) + (iii)] 3,78,000 18,90,000
Cost per month 31,500 1,57,500
Total no. of equivalent students 150 750
Total Cost per half fare ` 210 ` 210
equivalent student

(ii) Average cost per student per month:

A. Students coming from distance of upto 4 km. from school
Total cost per month ` 31,500
= = = ` 210
Total no.of equivalent students 150 students

B. Students coming from a distance beyond 4 km. from school

= Cost of per half fare student × 2 = ` 210 × 2 = ` 420

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 12.20 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Working Notes:

1. Calculation of Diesel cost per bus :

Distance travelled in a year:
(8 round trip × 8 km. × 25 days × 9 months)
Distance travelled p.a.: 14,400 km.
14, 400km.
Cost of diesel (per bus p.a.): ×` 45 = `1,62,000
4kmpl

2. Calculation of equivalent number of students per bus :

Seating capacity of a bus 50 students

Half fare students (50% of 50 students) 25 students
Full fare students (50% of 50 students) 25 students
Total number of students equivalent to half fare
students
Full fare students (25 students × 2) 50 students
Add: Half fare students 25 students
Total Equivalent number of students in a trip 75 students
Total number of equivalent students in two trips 150 students
(Senior + Junior)

ILLUSTRATION 5
GTC has a lorry of 6-tonne carrying capacity. It operates lorry service from city A to city
B for a particular vendor. It charges ` 2,400 per tonne from city ‘A’ to city ‘B’ and ` 2,200
per tonne for the return journey from city ‘B’ to city ‘A’. Goods are also delivered to an
intermediate city ‘C’ but no extra changes are billed for unloading goods in-between
destination city and no concession in rates is given for reduced load after unloading at
intermediate city. Distance between the city ‘A’ to ‘B’ is 300 km and distance from city
‘A’ to ‘C’ is 140 km.

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.21

In the month of January, the truck made 12 journeys between city ‘A’ and city ‘B’. The
details of journeys are as follows:

Outward journey No. of journeys Load (in tonne)

‘A’ to ‘B’ 10 6
‘A’ to ‘C’ 2 6
‘C’ to ‘B’ 2 4
Return journey No. of journeys Load (in tonne)
‘B’ to ‘A’ 5 8
‘B’ to ‘A’ 6 6
‘B’ to ‘C’ 1 6
‘C’ to ‘A’ 1 0

Annual fixed costs and maintenance charges are ` 6,00,000 and ` 1,20,000 respectively.
Running charges spent during the month of January are ` 2,94,400 (includes ` 12,400
paid as penalty for overloading).
You are required to:

(i) CALCULATE the cost as per (a) Commercial tonne-kilometer. (b) Absolute tonne-
kilometer.
(ii) CALCULATE Net Profit/ loss for the month of January.

SOLUTION
(i) Calculation of total monthly cost for running truck:

Particulars Amount per Amount per

annum (`) month (`)
(i) Standing Charges:
Annual fixed costs 6,00,000 50,000
(ii) Maintenance Charges: 1,20,000 10,000
(iii) Running Cost:
Running charges 2,94,400
Less: Penalty paid for overloading (12,400) 2,82,000
Total monthly cost 3,42,000

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 12.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

`3, 42,000
(a) Cost per commercial tonne-km. = = ` 7.62
44,856ton-km.

(Refer to working note-1)

`3, 42,000
(b) Cost per absolute tonne-km. = = ` 7.65
44,720ton-km.

(Refer to working note-2)

(ii) Calculation of Net Profit/Loss for the month of January:

Particulars (`) (`)

Truck hire charges received during the month:
From Outward journey [(10 + 2) trips × 6 tonne × 1,72,800
` 2,400]
From return journey 1,80,400 3,53,200
{(5 trips × 8 tonne × ` 2,200) + [(6 + 1) trips × 6 tonne
× ` 2,200]}
Less: Monthly running cost {as per (i) above} (3,42,000)
Operating profit 11,200
Less:Penalty paid for overloading (12,400)
Net Loss for the month (1,200)

Working Notes:
1. Calculation of Commercial Tonne-km:

Particulars Tonne-
km.
A. Total Distance travelled
To and fro (300 km × 2× 12 trips) (in km) 7,200
B. Average weight carried:
Outward (12 journeys × 6 tonne + 2 journeys × 4 80
tonne)
Return (5 journeys × 8 tonne + 6 journeys × 6 tonne 82
+ 1 journey × 6 tonne)

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.23

Total weight 162

No. of journeys 26
Average weight (in tonne) (162÷26) 6.23
Total Commercial Tonne-km (A×B) 44,856

2. Calculation of Absolute Tonne-km:

Particulars Tonne- Tonne-

km. km.
Outward journeys:
From city A to city B (10 journey × 300 km. × 6 18,000
tonne)
From city A to city C (2 journeys × 140 km. × 6 1,680
tonne)
From city C to city B (2 journeys × 160 km. × 4 1,280 20,960
tonne)
Return journeys:
From city B to city A (5 journeys × 300 km. × 8 22,800
tonne) + (6 journeys × 300 km. × 6 tonne)
From city B to city C (1 journey × 160 km. × 6 tonne) 960 23,760
Total Absolute Tonne-km 44,720

Note: (i) While calculating absolute/commercial tonne-km., actual load carried are
considered irrespective of the fact it attracts fines or penalty. (ii) Penalty paid for
overloading is an abnormal expenditure and is not included in the operating cost
of the lorry. This amount will be debited to Costing Profit and Loss A/c and hence
deducted from operating profit to arrive at net profit/loss.

6. COSTING OF HOTELS AND LODGES

Service costing is an effective tool in respect if hotel industry. Hotels are run on
commercial basis. Hence it is necessary to compute the cost - to fix the price of
various services provided by the hotel and to find out the profit or loss at the end
of a particular period.

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 12.24 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

In this case, the costs associated with different services offered should be identified
and cost per unit should be worked out. The cost unit may be Guest-day or Room
Day. For calculation of cost per Guest Day or Room Day, estimated occupancy rate
– at different point of time, for example – Peak season or lien season, are taken in
to account.
ILLUSTRATION 6
A company runs a holiday home. For this purpose, it has hired a building at a rent of `
10,000 per month along with 5% of total taking. It has three types of suites for its
customers, viz., single room, double rooms and triple rooms.
Following information is given:

Type of suite Number Occupancy percentage

Single room 100 100%
Double rooms 50 80%
Triple rooms 30 60%

The rent of double rooms suite is to be fixed at 2.5 times of the single room suite and
that of triple rooms suite as twice of the double room’s suite.
The other expenses for the year 2022-23 are as follows:
(`)
Staff salaries 14,25,000
Room attendants’ wages 4,50,000
Lighting, heating and power 2,15,000
Repairs and renovation 1,23,500
Laundry charges 80,500
Interior decoration 74,000
Sundries 1,53,000

Provide profit @ 20% on total taking and assume 360 days in a year.
You are required to CALCULATE the rent to be charged for each type of suite.

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.25

SOLUTION
Working Notes:
(i) Total equivalent single room suites

Nature of suite Occupancy (Room-days) Equivalent single

room suites
(Room-days)
Single room suites 36,000 36,000
(100 rooms × 360 days × (36,000 × 1)
100%)
Double rooms suites 14,400 36,000
(50 rooms × 360 days × 80%) (14,400 × 2.5)
Triple rooms suites 6,480 32,400
(30 rooms × 360 days × 60%) (6,480 × 5)
1,04,400

(ii) Statement of total cost:

(`)

Staff salaries 14,25,000

Room attendant’s wages 4,50,000
Lighting, heating and power 2,15,000
Repairs and renovation 1,23,500
Laundry charges 80,500
Interior decoration 74,000
Sundries 1,53,000
25,21,000
Building rent {(`10,000 × 12 months) + 5% on total 1,20,000+ 5% on
taking} total takings
Total cost 26,41,000 + 5% on
total takings

Profit is 20% of total takings

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 12.26 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

∴ Total takings = ` 26,41,000 + 25% (5% +20%) of total takings

Let R be rent for single room suite

Then 1,04,400 R = 26,41,000 + (0.25 × 1,04,400 R)
Or, 1,04,400 R = 26,41,000 + 26,100 R

Or, 78,300 R = 26,41,000

Or, R = `33.73
Alternatively
Let total takings be x
∴ X= 26,41,000 + .25X ( 5% + 20% )
∴ X = 35,21,333

Let the rent of single room be R

Then 1,04,400 R = 35,21,333
Or, R = `33.73

Rent to be charged:
Rent to be charged for single room suite = `33.73
Rent for double rooms suites ` 33.73 × 2.5 = `84.33
Rent for triple rooms suites `33.73 × 5 = `168.65

ILLUSTRATION 7
A lodging home is being run in a small hill station with 100 single rooms. The home
offers concessional rates during six off- season months in a year when numbers of visitor
are limited. During this period, half of the full room rent is charged. The management’s
profit margin is targeted at 20% of the room rent. The following are the cost estimates
and other details for the year ending on 31st March. [Assume a month to be of 30 days].
(i) Occupancy during the season is 80% while in the off- season it is 40% only.
(ii) Total investment in the home is ` 200 lakhs of which 80% relate to buildings
and balance for furniture and equipment.

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.27

(iii) Expenses:
o Staff salary [Excluding room attendants] : ` 5,50,000
o Repairs to building : ` 2,61,000
o Laundry charges : ` 80, 000
o Interior : ` 1,75,000
o Miscellaneous expenses : ` 1,90,800
(iv) Annual depreciation is to be provided for buildings @ 5% and on furniture and
equipment @ 15% on straight-line basis.
(v) Room attendants are paid ` 10 per room day on the basis of occupancy of the
rooms in a month.
(vi) Monthly lighting charges are ` 120 per room, except in four months in winter
when it is ` 30 per room.
You are required to WORK OUT the room rent chargeable per day both during the season
and the off-season months on the basis of the foregoing information.
SOLUTION
Working Notes:
(i) Total Room days in a year

Season Occupancy (Room-days) Equivalent Full Room

charge days
Season – 80% 100 Rooms × 80% × 6 months 14,400 Room Days ×
Occupancy × 30 days in a month = 14,400 100% = 14,400
Room Days
Off-season – 40% 100 Rooms × 40% × 6 months 7,200 Room Days ×
Occupancy × 30 days in a month = 7,200 50% = 3,600
Room Days
Total Room Days 14,400 + 7,200 = 21,600 Room 18,000 Full Room days
Days

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 12.28 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) Lighting Charges:

It is given in the question that lighting charges for 8 months is `120 per month
and during winter season of 4 months it is `30 per month. Further it is also
given that peak season is 6 months and off season is 6 months.

It should be noted that – being Hill station, winter season is to be considered

as part of Off season. Hence, the non-winter season of 8 months include –
Peak season of 6 months and Off season of 2 months.

Accordingly, the lighting charges are calculated as follows:

Season Occupancy (Room-days)

Season & Non-winter – 80% 100 Rooms × 80% × 6 months × `120 per
Occupancy month = ` 57,600
Off- season & non-winter – 40% 100 Rooms × 40% × 2 months × `120 per
Occupancy (8 – 6 months) month = ` 9,600
Off- season & -winter – 40% 100 Rooms × 40% × 4 months × ` 30 per
Occupancy months) month = ` 4,800
Total Lighting charges ` 57,600+ 9,600 + 4,800 = ` 72,000

Statement of total cost:

(`)
Staff salary 5,50,000
Repairs to building 2,61,000
Laundry & Linen 80,000
Interior 1,75,000
Sundries Expenses 1,90,800
Depreciation on Building (` 200 Lakhs × 80% × 5%) 8,00,000
Depreciation on Furniture & Equipment (` 200 Lakhs × 20% 6,00,000
× 15%)
Room attendant’s wages (` 10 per Room Day for 21,600 2,16,000
Room Days)
Lighting charges 72,000

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.29

Total cost 29,44,800

Add: Profit Margin (20% on Room rent or 25% on Cost) 7,36,200
Total Rent to be charged 36,81,000

Calculation of Room Rent per day:

Total Cost / Equivalent Full Room days = ` 36,81,000/ 18,000 = `204.50
Room Rent during Season – `204.50
Room Rent during Off season = `204.50 × 50% = ` 102.25

7. COSTING OF HOSPITALS
A Hospital is providing various types of medical services to the patients. Hospital
costing is applied to decide the cost of these services.
A hospital may have different departments catering to varied services to the
patients – such as
• Out Patient
• In Patient
• Medical services like X-Ray, Scanning, etc.
• General services like Catering, Laundry, Power house, etc.
• Miscellaneous services like Transport, Dispensary, etc.

7.1 Unit of Cost

Common unit of costs of various departments are as follows:
• Out Patient – Per Out-patient
• In Patient – Per Room Day
• Scanning – Per Case
• Laundry – Per 100 items laundered

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 12.30 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

7.2 Cost Segregation

The cost of hospital can be divided in to fixed costs and variable costs
Fixed costs are based on timelines and irrespective of services provided. For
example, Staff salaries, Depreciation on Building and Equipment, etc.
Variable costs vary with the level of services rendered. For example, laundry
charges, Cost of food supplied to patients, Power, etc.

ILLUSTRATION 8
ABC Hospital runs a Critical Care Unit (CCU) in a hired building. CCU consists of 35 beds
and 5 more beds can be added, if required.

Rent per month - ` 75,000

Supervisors – 2 persons – ` 25,000 Per month – each
Nurses – 4 persons – ` 20,000 per month – each

Ward Boys – 4 persons – ` 5,000 per month – each

Doctors paid ` 2,50,000 per month – paid on the basis of number of patients attended
and the time spent by them

Other expenses for the year are as follows:

Repairs (Fixed) – ` 81,000
Food to Patients (Variable) – ` 8,80,000

Other services to patients (Variable) – ` 3,00,000

Laundry charges (Variable) – ` 6,00,000
Medicines (Variable) – ` 7,50,000

Other fixed expenses – ` 10,80,000

Administration expenses allocated – ` 10,00,000
It was estimated that for 150 days in a year 35 beds are occupied and for 80 days only
25 beds are occupied.
The hospital hired 750 beds at a charge of ` 100 per bed per day, to accommodate the
flow of patients. However, this does not exceed more than 5 extra beds over and above
the normal capacity of 35 beds on any day.

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.31

You are required to –

(a) CALCULATE profit per Patient day, if the hospital recovers on an average
` 2,000 per day from each patient
(b) FIND OUT Breakeven point for the hospital.
SOLUTION
Working Notes:

(1) Calculation of number of patient days

35 Beds × 150 days = 5,250
25 Beds × 80 days = 2,000

Extra beds = 750

Total = 8,000
Statement of Profitability

Particulars Amount Amount

Income for the year (` 2,000 per patient per 1,60,00,000
day × 8,000 patient days)
Variable Costs:
Doctor Fees (` 2,50,000 per month × 12) 30,00,000
Food to Patients (Variable) 8,80,000
Other services to patients (Variable) 3,00,000
Laundry charges (Variable) – (`) 6,00,000
Medicines (Variable) – (`) 7,50,000
Bed Hire Charges (`100 × 750 Beds) 75,000
Total Variable costs 56,05,000
Contribution 1,03,95,000
Fixed Costs:
Rent (` 75,000 per month × 12) 9,00,000
Supervisor (2 persons × `25,000 × 12) 6,00,000

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 12.32 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Nurses (4 persons × ` 20,000 × 12) 9,60,000

Ward Boys (4 persons × ` 5,000 × 12) 2,40,000
Repairs (Fixed) 81,000
Other fixed expenses – (`) 10,80,000
Administration expenses allocated – (`) 10,00,000
Total Fixed Costs 48,61,000
Profit 55,34,000

(1) Calculation of Contribution per Patient day

Total Contribution – ` 1,03,95,000
Total Patient days – 8,000
Contribution per Patient day – ` 1,03,95,000 / 8,000 = ` 1,299.375
(2) Breakeven Point = Fixed Cost / Contribution per Patient day
= ` 48,61,000 / `1,299.375
= 3,741 patient days

8. COSTING OF IT & ITES

Information Technology (IT) and Information Technology Enabled Services (ITES)
organizations provide their customers with services or intangible products. These
organizations are highly labour intensive.
The services of IT and ITES organizations may be used for – provision of services to
outside customers or provision of services internally (captive consumption)
In this sector employee (labour) cost constitutes a significant portion of the total
operating costs. The direct employee cost is traceable to services rendered.
In addition to employee cost, significant overhead costs for offering the services
are incurred and are classified as service overhead. To arrive at the cost incurred
for rendering the services, it is necessary to allocate / apportion such overheads to
cost units.

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.33

8.1 Concept of Project

In general – IT & ITES industries, the jobs undertaken are considered as Project.
Each project is unique in nature and varies in size, functionality requirements,
duration and staffing requirements.
When a project is taken up, a detailed planning is done – by breaking down the
project into number of activities and their dependencies. Based on the above,
project scheduling are developed.
Then the skill level requirement for carrying out each of the activities is identified
and the duration of each and every activity would be ascertained. This process is
known as effort estimation.
Once the skill level and duration is identified, then required man-power is identified
for carrying out the activities.
Normally, project scheduling and effort estimation is carried out together. The costs
of development are primarily the costs of the effort involved, so the effort
computation is used in both the cost and the schedule estimate

8.2 Effort Involved

Direct Manpower
In a typical software implementation project, three to four levels of man-power
would be directly engaged, as mentioned below: -
- Software Engineers / Functional Consultants / Business Analysts
- Project Leaders
- Project Manager
- Program Manager, etc
Depending on the nature and complexities of the projects being implemented, the
number of persons engaged, their levels and duration of the engagement varies.
For example, in a multi-continental, multi-time zone software implementation
projects, in addition to the above manpower, Customer Account Manager, Portfolio
Manager, etc may be involved.

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 12.34 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The costs incurred on the above listed manpower are traceable with a project and
hence forming part of direct costs of the project.

Support Manpower
In addition to the above persons, who are directly engaged in project, there could
be support persons or indirect manpower, who are indirectly involved in the
project.
For example, Quality Assurance Team, Testing Team, Version Control team, Staffing
Manager, etc who are indirectly support the projects by providing required level of
support services over the life of the projects.
It is possible that the indirect manpower may be involved in more than one project,
simultaneously. Their time spent, may or may not be traced on any particular
project and will be used across multiple projects.
If their time can be identified with a project, they will be treated as direct
manpower. Accordingly, the cost incurred on them will be treated as direct cost.
However, if their time is not traceable with a single project, then it may either be
allocated or apportioned to various projects on some suitable basis. Accordingly,
the cost incurred on them will be treated as overhead and the same will be
apportioned to various projects on some suitable basis.
Effort Cost in these types of organizations are calculated on the basis of cost per
Person Day or cost per Person week or cost per Person month. That means cost
incurred for a person for rendering services per day or per week or per month.
Depending on the requirement of the customer, the periodicity will be defined. For
example, implementation of new software may require eight to twelve person
months. In such a case, the cost will be calculated on Per Person month basis. On
the other hand, implementation of one or two new functionality in already
implemented (existing) software may require one- or two-week’s efforts. In such a
case, the cost will be calculated on per Person week basis.

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8.3 Parameters in Computation of Total Cost

A. Hardware and software costs involved
- If they are identifiable with a project, then they are directly allocated to
the project
- If they are not directly identifiable with a project or not fully allocable to
a project, then they are treated as service overhead
B. Travel and training costs
- If they are incurred for a project, then they are directly allocated to the
project
- If they are not directly identifiable with a project or allocable over a
number of projects, then they are treated as service overhead. For
example, Java (software language) training provided to the software
engineers, may useful in multiple Java based projects. Hence treated as
overhead costs
C. Effort costs

- Effort costs are basically identified with a project. They can be classified
as direct cost, unless otherwise specified.
- Effort costs are not just the salaries of the software engineers or
programmers who are involved in the project. Organisations compute
effort costs in terms of overhead costs where they take the total cost of
running the organisation and divide this by the number of productive
staff. Therefore, the following costs are all part of the total effort cost:
1. Costs of providing, heating and lighting office space
2. Costs of support staff such as accountants, administrators, system
managers, cleaners and technicians
3. Costs of networking and communications
4. Costs of central facilities such as a library or recreational facilities
5. Costs of Social Security and employee benefits such as pensions
and health insurance, etc.

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 12.36 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

In short, effort cost includes Salary of the staff concerned and part of
common overhead.
ILLUSTRATION 9
Following are the data pertaining to Infotech Pvt. Ltd, for the year 2022-23:

Amount (`)
Salary to Software Engineers (5 persons) 15,00,000
Salary to Project Leaders (2 persons) 9,00,000
Salary to Project Manager 6,00,000
Repairs & maintenance 3,00,000
Administration overheads 12,00,000

The company executes a Project XYZ, the details of the same as are as follows:
Project duration – 6 months
One Project Leader and three Software Engineers were involved for the entire duration
of the project, whereas Project Manager spends 2 months’ efforts, during the execution
of the project.
Travel expenses incurred for the project – ` 1,87,500
Two Laptops were purchased at a cost of ` 50,000 each, for use in the project and the life
of the same is estimated to be 2 years
PREPARE Project cost sheet.
SOLUTION
Working Notes:
(1) Calculation of Cost per month and Overhead absorption rate

Particulars Total Per Per Person Per Person

Annum Per Annum Per Month
Salary to Software Engineer `15,00,000 ` 3,00,000 `25,000
(5 Persons)
Salary to Project Leaders ` 9,00,000 ` 4,50,000 ` 37,500
(2 persons)

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.37

Salary to Project Manager ` 6,00,000 ` 6,00,000 ` 50,000

Total ` 30,00,000 ` 1,12,500

(2) Total Overhead = Repairs & maintenance + Administration overheads

= ` 3,00,000 + `12,00,000 = `15,00,000

(3) Calculation of Overhead absorption rate

= Total Overhead / Total Salary = `15,00,000 / `30,00,000 = 50%
Project Cost Sheet
(`)

Salary Cost:
Salary of Software Engineers (3 × ` 25,000 × 6 months) 4,50,000
Salary of Project Leader (` 37,500 × 6 months) 2,25,000
Salary of Project Manager (` 50,000 × 2 months) 1,00,000
Total Salary 7,75,000
Overheads (50% of Salary) 3,87,500
Travel Expenses 1,87,500
Depreciation on Laptops (`1,00,000 / 2 years × 6 months) 25,000
Total Project Cost 13,75,000

9. COSTING OF TOLL ROADS

The Construction of roads brings about a variety of benefits that are enjoyed
practically by all sectors of the economy. Highway economic analysis is a technique
whereby the cost and benefit from a scheme are quantified over a selected time
horizon and evaluated by a common yardstick.
The economic analysis involves comparison of project costs and benefits under the
"with" and "without" project conditions.
The project is further subjected to sensitivity analysis by assessing the effects of
adverse changes in the key variables. In addition, the combined effect of these

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 12.38 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

changes is also assessed. This helps to gauge the economic strength of the project
to withstand future risks and uncertainties.

9.1 Cost Involved

The project cost consists of following two main components:

9.1.1 Capital Costs

The capital cost consists of cost incurred during the construction period. Generally,
this sort of road construction projects run across multiple financial years. The total
expenditure to be incurred during the construction period is termed as capital cost.
The total cost includes the cost of construction of road and other structures and
consultancy charges. In addition to this cost, it also includes the cost of
construction of tollbooths.
Construction expenses can be broadly classified as follows:
• Preliminary and pre-operative expenses

• Land Acquisition
• Materials
• Labour

• Overheads incurred in the course of actual construction

• Contingency allowance
• Interest during construction period

9.1.2 Operating and Maintenance Costs

Routine maintenance cost would be incurred once the Toll road is operational.
Routine maintenance involves Patching of potholes, sealing of cracks, Edge Repair,
Surface Renewal, Periodic maintenance for new highways would be met with in
accordance with the analysis of the life cycle model carried out for the project.
Annual operating cost includes the cost of operating tollbooths, administrative
expenses, emergency services, communications and security services and other
costs of operation.

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.39

Maintenance cost includes the cost of annual maintenance (routine) and periodic
maintenance.
• Annual maintenance cost includes primary maintenance of wearing surface,
railings, roadside furniture, etc.
• Periodic maintenance cost includes the cost of overlays (wearing coats),
painting of railings, etc.
Operating and Maintenance expenses can be broadly classified as follows:
• Toll collection expenses
• Administrative expenses for day-to-day operation.

• Maintenance expenses, which include routing and periodic maintenance.

• Interest expenses incurred for servicing term loans.

9.2 Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) Approach

In recent years a growing trend emerged among Governments in many countries
to solicit investments for public projects from the private sector under BOT scheme.
BOT is an option for the Government to outsource public projects to the private
sector.
With BOT, the private sector designs, finances, constructs and operate the facility
and eventually, after specified concession period, the ownership is transferred to
the Government. Therefore, BOT can be seen as a developing technique for
infrastructure projects by making them amenable to private sector participation.
The fundamental principle in determining user levy is, 'if the price for a transport
facility is set at a level that reflects the benefit, each user gains from improvements
in the facility, it will result in traffic flow levels that equate social costs with user
benefits.'

9.3 Toll Rate

In general, the toll rate should have a direct relation with the benefits that the road
users would gain from its improvements. The benefits to road users are likely to be
in terms of fuel savings, improvement in travel time and good riding quality.

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 12.40 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

To compute the toll rate following formula with rounding off to nearest multiple of
five has been adopted:
User Fee = Total Distance × Toll Rate per km
ILLUSTRATION 10
BHG Toll Plaza Ltd built a 60 km. long highway and now operates a toll plaza to collect
tolls from passing vehicles using the highway. The company has estimated that a total
of 12 crore vehicles (only single type of vehicle) will be using the highway during the 10
years toll collection tenure.
Toll Operating and Maintenance cost for the month of April are as follows:
(i) Salary to –
 Collection Personnel (3 Shifts and 4 persons per shift) - ` 550 per day per
person
 Supervisor (2 Shifts and 1 person per shift) - ` 750 per day per person
 Security Personnel (3 Shifts and 6 persons per shift) - ` 450 per day per
person
 Toll Booth Manager (2 Shifts and 1 person per shift) - ` 900 per day per
person
(ii) Electricity – ` 8,00,000

(iii) Telephone – ` 1,40,000

(iv) Maintenance cost – ` 30 Lakh
Monthly depreciation and amortisation expenses will be ` 1.50 crore. Further, the
company needs 25% profit over total cost to cover interest and other costs.
Required:
(i) CALCULATE cost per kilometer per month.
(ii) CALCULATE the toll rate per vehicle.

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.41

SOLUTION
Calculation of cost for the month of April

Particulars (`)

Salary to Collection (3 Shifts × 4 persons per shift × 1,98,000

Personnel 30 days × ` 550 per day)
Salary to Supervisor (2 Shifts × 1 persons per shift × 45,000
30 days × ` 750 per day)
Salary to Security Personnel (3 Shifts × 6 persons per shift × 2,43,000
30 days × ` 450 per day)
Salary to Toll Booth (2 Shifts × 1 persons per shift × 54,000
Manager 30 days × ` 900 per day)
Electricity 8,00,000
Telephone 1,40,000
Maintenance cost 30,00,000
Total operating cost (A) 44,80,000
Depreciation and amortisation expenses (B) 1,50,00,000
Total Cost (A + B) 1,94,80,000

(i) Calculation of cost per kilometer per month:

Total Cost ` 1,94,80,000

= = = ` 3,24,666.67
Total km. 60 km.

(ii) Calculation of toll rate per vehicle:

Total Cost+25% profit ` 1,94,80,000 + ` 48,70,000

= = = ` 24.35
Vehicles per month 10,00,000 vehicles

Working:
No. of vehicles using the highway per month

Total estimated vehicles 1 month = 12 crore × 1 month = 10 lakhs

×
10 years 12 months 10 years 12 months

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 12.42 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

10. COSTING OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Educational institutions like schools, colleges, technical institutes for education and
training, are run to impart education and training to students. The objective of
running these institutions may be ‘Not-for profit’ or ‘For profit’. Like other business
entities, cost and management accounting is also inevitable for this sector. The
Government, Local body of any other organisation which provides education and
training to students with an objective to benefit and upliftment of the society, are
also need cost and management accounting system for cost-social benefit analysis,
allocation of funds and budgeting (zero-based budgeting), performance
measurement and evaluation etc.

10.1 Income of the Educational Institutions

The source of income of an institute may be classified on the basis of recurrence as
follows:
One-time fees: These are the fees which are collected once in a course period or
for a definite period like Admission fee, Development fee, Annual fee etc.
Recurring fees: Tuition fee, laboratory, computer and internet fee, library fee,
training fee, amenities fee, sports fee, extracurricular activities fee etc.
The Government and other aided institutes may not be permitted to collect various
fees like capitation fee and development fees etc. Further, unlike the trading and
manufacturing organizations, these are not free to determine fees beyond a
prescribed limit.
Other incomes: The indirect income like transport, hostel, mess and canteen for
the students and staff are provided by the educational institutions normally on no
profit no loss basis.

10.2 Expenditure of the Educational Institutions

(i) Operational Cost:
Following are the major operational costs incurred by an educational institution:
• The salary of the teaching and non-teaching staff
• Laboratory maintenance charges

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• Computer maintenance and internet charges,

• Building maintenance,
• Repairs and maintenance of equipment,

• Administrative expenses,
• Finance charges etc.
Cost Centres and basis of cost allocation
Cost centres in educational institutions are classified as follows:
• Primary or Direct cost centres (like Civil Engineering department, Mechanical
Engineering department, etc.)
• Service cost centres (like Laboratory, Library, Sports, etc.)
• Student’s Self-Supporting Services (like Transport, Hostel & Mess, etc.)
• Administration Cost centres (like Research & Improvement, Examination)
Costs incurred are allocated to the respective cost centres, if they are identifiable with
a cost centre and apportioned to service and administration cost centres on suitable
basis.
(ii) Research and Development Cost
Educational institutions undertake academic research on various fields of
specializations. The costs of such research including personal costs, books etc. are
to be collected through a cost centre approach. All costs incurred in that cost centre
are collected and set off against the revenue generated from such research
projects.
If any balance is left out as undistributed, then such balance costs can be
collectively distributed to all other course cost centre as a separate cost element
namely “Research costs“.
(iii) Cost of Publication of research and other materials
In an educational institution, there will be a separate department for conducting
research publication related exercise. The cost incurred would be directly allocated
to that department.

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ILLUSTRATION 11
AD Higher Secondary School (AHSS) offers courses for 11th & 12th standard in three
streams i.e. Arts, Commerce and Science. AHSS runs higher secondary classes along with
primary and secondary classes, but for accounting purpose it treats higher secondary as
a separate responsibility centre. The Managing committee of the school wants to revise
its fee structure for higher secondary students. The accountant of the school has provided
the following details for a year:

Amount (`)
Teachers’ salary (25 teachers × ` 35,000 × 12 months) 1,05,00,000
Principal’s salary 14,40,000
Lab attendants’ salary (2 attendants × ` 15,000 × 12 months) 3,60,000
Salary to library staff 1,44,000
Salary to peons (4 peons × ` 10,000 × 12 months) 4,80,000
Salary to other staffs 4,80,000
Examinations expenditure 10,80,000
Office & Administration cost 15,20,000
Annual day expenses 4,50,000
Sports expenses 1,20,000

Other information:
(i)
Standard 11 & 12 Primary &
Secondary
Arts Commerce Science

No. of students 120 360 180 840

Lab classes in a year 0 0 144 156
No. of examinations 2 2 2 2
in a year
Time spent at library 180 hours 120 hours 240 hours 60 hours
by students per year

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Time spent by 208 hours 312 hours 480 hours 1,400 hours
principal for
administration
Teachers for 11 & 12 4 5 6 10
standard

(ii) One teacher who teaches economics for Arts stream students also teaches
commerce stream students. The teacher takes 1,040 classes in a year, it includes
208 classes for commerce students.
(iii) There is another teacher who teaches mathematics for Science stream students
also teaches business mathematics to commerce stream students. She takes
1,100 classes a year, it includes 160 classes for commerce students.

(iv) One peon is fully dedicated for higher secondary section. Other peons dedicate
their 15% time for higher secondary section.
(v) All school students irrespective of section and age participates in annual
functions and sports activities.
Required:
(a) CALCULATE cost per student per annum for all three streams.
(b) If the management decides to take uniform fee of ` 1,000 per month from all
higher secondary students, CALCULATE stream wise profitability.
(c) If management decides to take 10% profit on cost, COMPUTE fee to be charged
from the students of all three streams respectively.
SOLUTION
Calculation of Cost per annum

Particulars Arts (`) Commerce Science Total (`)

(`) (`)

Teachers’ salary (W.N-1) 16,80,000 21,00,000 25,20,000 63,00,000

Re-apportionment of (84,000) 1,45,091 (61,091) -
Economics & Mathematics
teachers’ salary (W.N- 2)
Principal’s salary (W.N-3) 1,24,800 1,87,200 2,88,000 6,00,000

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Lab assistants’ salary (W.N-4) - - 1,72,800 1,72,800

Salary to library staff (W.N-5) 43,200 28,800 57,600 1,29,600
Salary to peons (W.N-6) 31,636 94,909 47,455 1,74,000
Salary to other staffs (W.N-7) 38,400 1,15,200 57,600 2,11,200
Examination expenses (W.N- 8) 86,400 2,59,200 1,29,600 4,75,200
Office & Administration 1,21,600 3,64,800 1,82,400 6,68,800
expenses (W.N- 7)
Annual Day expenses (W.N-7) 36,000 1,08,000 54,000 1,98,000
Sports expenses (W.N- 7) 9,600 28,800 14,400 52,800
Total Cost per annum 20,87,636 34,32,000 34,62,764 89,82,400

(i) Calculation of cost per student per annum

Particulars Arts (`) Commerce Science Total (`)

(`) (`)
Total Cost per annum 20,87,636 34,32,000 34,62,764 89,82,400
No. of students 120 360 180 660
Cost per student per 17,397 9,533 19,238 13,610
annum

(ii) Calculation of profitability

Particulars Arts Commer Science Total

(`) ce (`) (`) (`)

Total Fees per annum 12,000 12,000 12,000

Cost per student per 17,397 9,533 19,238
annum
Profit/ (Loss) per (5,397) 2,467 (7,238)
student per annum
No. of students 120 360 180
Total Profit/ (Loss) (6,47,640) 8,88,120 (13,02,840) (10,62,360)

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(iii) Computation of fees to be charged to earn a 10% profit on cost

Particulars Arts Commerce Science

(`) (`) (`)

Cost per student per annum 17,397 9,533 19,238

Add: Profit @10% 1,740 953 1,924
Fees per annum 19,137 10,486 21,162
Fees per month 1,595 874 1,764

Working Notes:
(1) Teachers’ salary

Particulars Arts Commerce Science

No. of teachers 4 5 6
Salary per annum (`) 4,20,000 4,20,000 4,20,000
(` 35,000 x 12)
Total salary 16,80,000 21,00,000 25,20,000

(2) Re-apportionment of Economics and Mathematics teachers’ salary

Economics Mathematics
Particulars Arts Commerce Science Commerce
No. of classes 832 208 940 160
Salary re- (84,000) 84,000 (61,091) 61,091
apportionment (`)
 `4,20,000   `4,20,000 
 ×208   ×160 
 1,040   1,100 

(3) Principal’s salary has been apportioned on the basis of time spent by
him for administration of classes.
(4) Lab attendants’ salary has been apportioned on the basis of lab classes
attended by the students.
(5) Salary of library staffs are apportioned on the basis of time spent by the
students in library.

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(6) Salary of Peons are apportioned on the basis of number of students. The
peons’ salary allocable to higher secondary classes is calculated as
below:

Amount (`)

Peon dedicated for higher secondary 1,20,000

(1 peon × `10,000 × 12 months)

Add: 15% of other peons’ salary 54,000

{15% of (3 peons × `10,000 × 12 months)}

1,74,000

(7) Salary to other staffs, office & administration cost, Annual day expenses
and sports expenses are apportioned on the basis of number of
students.
(8) Examination expenses has been apportioned taking number of students
into account (It may also be apportioned on the basis of number of
examinations).

11. COSTING IN INSURANCE COMPANIES

Insurance or assurance industry operates in providing social security to the persons
who subscribe for the policy. The Insurance companies are broadly classified as Life
insurer and Non-Life Insurer (General Insurance providers). Life insurers provide
assurance to the policy holders’ life for the insured value. The Non-life insurers are
providing insurance to the policyholder for actual loss upto insured value for the
policy.
The insurance companies are need to analyse it various insurance product for
profitability. The product offered by insurance companies may include:
(i) Life Insurance policies- with or without maturity benefits

(ii) General insurance- Health, Fire, Property, Travel Insurance etc.

(iii) Others services- Re-insurance, Fund management- Pension, Gratuity and
other etc.

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11.1 Income of Insurance Companies

Income of insurance companies may include
(i) Premium on policy (periodic or onetime)
(ii) Commission on re-insurance
(iii) Fund administration fee and return on investment of funds etc.

11.2 Expenditure of Insurance Companies

The Expenditure of an insurance company can be classified as direct and indirect
to a policy or product.

Direct- Commission paid to agents, claim settlement, cost of valuation, premium

for re-insurance, legal and other costs etc.
Indirect Cost- Actuarial fees, market and product development costs,
administration cost, asset management cost etc.

11.3 Method of Costing in an Insurance Company

The cost object in an insurance company may be a product, a policy, a department
or region, an agent etc.

Activity Based Costing in Insurance Companies

Activity based costing (ABC) is used for analysis of cost-benefit of a product (Direct
Product Profitability), policy profitability (Customer Profitability Analysis) etc.
Costs that occur in insurance companies are to be identified with appropriate
activities that have caused its occurrence. Then costs must be reassigned from
activities to cost objects (insurance contracts and policies, customers, delivery
channels) based on identified cost drivers.
Identification of activities and assignment of costs are the most critical for the
implementation of activity-based costing. The activities can be divided into two
parts i.e. (i) Pre-product development activities and (ii) Post product development
activities.
(i) Pre-product development activities: These are the activities which are
carried out before a product is made. It includes market research, product

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 12.50 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

development like specification of coverage, conditions, amount of premium,

insurance contract, policy forms and provision for sales channel etc.
(ii) Post product development activities: This activity is further divided into
parts i.e. (a) Selling of policy and (b) Processing of claims. (a) Selling of policy refers
to appointment of distribution of sales channel (direct selling or through agencies),
soliciting for policy, processing of applications etc. (b) Processing of claim includes
claim inception, claim estimation, claim settlement and legal actions.
The activities costs are assigned to the products on the basis of appropriate cost
drivers. The cost drivers may include no. of hours spent on processing of an
application and claim processing, no. of application, no. of policy, no. of claim etc.

ILLUSTATION 12
Sanziet Lifecare Ltd. operates in life insurance business. Last year it launched a new
term insurance policy for practicing professionals ‘Professionals Protection Plus’. The
company has incurred the following expenditures during the last year for the policy:

`
Policy development cost 11,25,000
Cost of marketing of the policy 45,20,000
Sales support expenses 11,45,000
Policy issuance cost 10,05,900
Policy servicing cost 35,20,700
Claims management cost 1,25,600
IT cost 74,32,000
Postage and logistics 10,25,000
Facilities cost 15,24,000
Employees cost 5,60,000
Office administration cost 16,20,400

Number of policies sold- 528

Total insured value of policies- ` 1,320 crore

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Required:
(i) CALCULATE total cost for Professionals Protection Plus policy segregating the
costs into four main activities namely (a) Marketing and Sales support, (b)
Operations, (c) IT and (d) Support functions.
(ii) CALCULATE cost per policy.
(iii) CALCULATE cost per rupee of insured value.

SOLUTION
(i) Calculation of total cost for ‘Professionals Protection Plus policy

Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`)

1. Marketing and Sales support:
- Policy development cost 11,25,000
- Cost of marketing 45,20,000
- Sales support expenses 11,45,000 67,90,000
2. Operations:
- Policy issuance cost 10,05,900
- Policy servicing cost 35,20,700
- Claims management cost 1,25,600 46,52,200
3. IT Cost 74,32,000
4. Support functions
- Postage and logistics 10,25,000
- Facilities cost 15,24,000
- Employees cost 5,60,000
- Office administration cost 16,20,400 47,29,400
Total Cost 2,36,03,600

(ii) Calculation of cost per policy = Total cost = `2,36,03,600 = ` 44,703.79

No. of policies 528

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 12.52 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(iii) Cost per rupee of insured value = Total cost = ` 2.36 crore
Total insured value ` 1,320 crore

= ` 0.0018

12. COSTING IN FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS

In the past two-decade financial institutions have undergone major changes – in
terms to increased regulations, competition from new entrants from both locally
and globally, innovation of new products and services, technological advancement
and increased expectations of new generation customers, etc.
Over and above the challenges posed by the prevailing environment as described
above, financial institutions underwent considerable changes in terms of its high
quality, sensitive staffing requirements and its productivity.
Manpower cost, other than interest cost and finance charges, is one of the largest
single cost components in financial institutions. Hence, it is needless to say, that
financial institutions are more interested in understanding and discovering the
ways to more accurately allocate such costs to various product ranges offered by
them and its customers.
If the financial institution is to survive under the present challenging economic
conditions, it will have to add value to its products and services. It is imperative to
note that the financial institution needs to know the contribution of its products,
services and customers to value creation.

12.1 Cost Measurement in Financial Institutions

The objectives of cost measurement include –
- Understand the profitability by products offered and by customers
- Establishing a mechanism for pricing the products, by identifying the product
level and activity level unit costs
- Understanding productivity issues and their relationship with strategic goals
of the organization

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In nutshell, financial institutions need to understand their position in various

product lines and to find out how they can stay in competing edge or becomes a
leader.

12.2 Activity Based Costing in Financial Institutions

Activity based costing can be a useful tool in allocating the cost elements to various
products offered and the customers being serviced.
Activity based costing can help financial institutions to –
• Identify and analyze the profitability by product
• Analyze the profitability by customer
• Identify the activity level unit costs and build up product level costs, which in
turn forms basis for product level pricing / customer level pricing
Financial institutions can improve their profitability by –

• Concentrating on products that are more profitable

• Focus on high margin customers
Costs that occur in financial institutions are to be identified with appropriate
activities that have caused its occurrence. Then costs must be reassigned from
activities to cost objects (various loan products offered by the organization,
customers, etc.) based on identified cost drivers.

The concepts on activity-based costing as discussed under Costing of Insurance

Companies also applicable to financial institutions. Please refer the same.
ILLUSTRATION 13
The loan department of a bank performs several functions in addition to home loan
application processing task. It is estimated that 25% of the overhead costs of loan
department are applicable to the processing of home-loan application. The following
information is given concerning the processing of a loan application:

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 12.54 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Direct professional labor:

(`)
Loan processor monthly salary: 2,40,000
(4 employees @ ` 60,000 each)
Loan department overhead costs (monthly)
Chief loan officer’s salary 75,000
Telephone expenses 7,500
Depreciation Building 28,000
Legal advice 24,000
Advertising 40,000
Miscellaneous 6,500
Total overhead costs 1,81,000

You are required to COMPUTE the cost of processing home loan application on the
assumption that five hundred home loan applications are processed each month.

SOLUTION
Statement showing computation of the cost of processing
a typical home loan application

(`)

Direct professional labour cost 2,40,000

(4 employees @ ` 60,000 each)
Service overhead cost (25% of ` 1,81,000) 45,250
Total processing cost per month 2,85,250
No. of applications processed per month 500
Total processing cost per home loan application 570.5

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13. OTHER SERVICES- COSTING FOR POWER

HOUSES
Power houses are engaged either in electricity generation or steam generation use
the concepts of service costing i.e., ‘Powerhouse Costing.’ Service cost statement
can be prepared by identifying the costs associated with the power generation or
steam generation.
Cost unit is different for electricity generation and steam generation.
The cost unit for electricity generation organization is cost per kilowatt-hour (kWh)
– that means cost of generating one kilowatt of power per hour. Please note that
kWh is commonly known as a “Unit”.

The costs are shown under the following heads:

(i) Standing Charges or Fixed costs: These are the fixed costs that remain
constant irrespective of the power or stream generated. These costs include
the following:
 Rent, Rates & Taxes
 Insurance
 Depreciation
 Salaries, if paid on Time (Monthly) basis
 Administration expenses, etc.
(ii) Variable costs or Running costs: These costs are generally associated with
the power or stream generated. These costs include the following:
 Fuel Charges
 Water Charges
 Wages / Labour charges, if paid on the basis of production
 Any other variable costs identified.

(iii) Semi-variable costs or Maintenance costs: These costs include the

following:
 Meters

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 Furnaces

 Service materials
 Tools, etc.

ILLUSTRATION 14
PREPARE the cost statement of Ignus Thermal Power Station showing the cost of
electricity generated per kWh, from the data provided below pertaining to the
year 2022-23.

Total units generated 20,00,000 kWh

Amount (`)
Operating labour 30,00,000
Repairs & maintenance 10,00,000
Lubricants, spares and stores 8,00,000
Plant supervision 6,00,000
Administration overheads 40,00,000

5 kWh. of electricity generated per kg of coal consumed @ ` 4.25 per kg. Depreciation
charges @ 5% on capital cost of ` 5,00,00,000.
SOLUTION
Cost Statement of Ignus Thermal Power Station

Total units generated 20,00,000 kwh.

Per annum (`) Per kWh (`)
Fixed costs:
Plant supervision 6,00,000
Administration overheads 40,00,000
Depreciation (5% of ` 5,00,00,000 p.a.) 25,00,000
Total fixed cost: (A) 71,00,000 3.55
Variable costs:
Operating labour 30,00,000
Lubricants, spares and stores 8,00,000

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Repairs & maintenance 10,00,000

Coal cost (Refer to working note) 17,00,000
Total variable cost: (B) 65,00,000 3.25
Total cost [(A) + (B)] 1,36,00,000 6.80

Working Note:
Coal cost (20,00,000 kwh. ÷ 5 kwh) × ` 4.25 per kg. = ` 17,00,000
ILLUSTRATION 15
Solar Power Ltd. has a power generation capacity of 1000 Megawatt per day. On an
average it operates at 85% of its installed capacity. The cost structure of the plant is as
under:

Cost particulars Amount (` in Lakh)

1. Employee cost per year 2500
2. Solar panel maintenance cost per year 250
3. Site maintenance cost per year 150
4. Depreciation per year 5940

CALCULATE cost of generating 1kW of power.

[ 1 Megawatt = 1,000 kW]

SOLUTION
Working:
1. Estimated power generated in a year
= 1000 Megawatt × 85% × 365 days
= 3,10,250 Megawatt
Calculation of 1 kW power generation cost:

Cost particulars Amount (` in Lakh)

A. Employee cost per year 2500
B. Solar panel maintenance cost per year 250
C. Site maintenance cost per year 150

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D. Depreciation per year 5940

E. Total Cost [A+B+C+D] 8840
F. Estimated power generated (in Megawatt) 3,10,250
(Refer working note-1)
G. Cost of generating 1 Megawatt (`) 2,849.31
[(E÷F)×1,00,000]
H. Cost of 1 kW (`) [G÷1,000] 2.849

SUMMARY
♦ Service Costing: It is application of cost concepts in ascertainment of cost or
providing services. It is also known as operating costing as relates to operating
of a service.

♦ Composite Cost Unit: Unit of service cost consists of two different units.
♦ Key Performance Indicators (KPIs): KPIs are the quantitative and qualitative
factors which are commonly used to assess the performance of an organization
which are important to achieve its goal.
♦ Equivalent Service unit: To calculate cost or pricing of two more different grade
of services which uses common resources, each grade of service is assigned a
weight and converted into equivalent units. Converting services into equivalent
units make different grade of services equivalent and comparable.
♦ Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT): With BOT, the private sector designs, finances,
constructs and operate the facility and eventually, after specified concession
period, the ownership is transferred to the Government. Therefore, BOT can be
seen as a developing technique for infrastructure projects by making them
amenable to private sector participation.

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TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Composite cost unit for a hospital is:
(a) Per patient
(b) Per patient-day
(c) Per day
(d) Per bed
2. Cost of diesel and lubricant is an example of:
(a) Operating cost

(b) Fixed charges

(c) Semi-variable cost
(d) None of the above

3. Cost units used in power sector is:

(a) Kilo meter (K.M)
(b) Kilowatt-hour (kWh)

(c) Number of electric points

(d) Number of hours
4. Absolute Tonne-km. is an example of:

(a) Composite units in power sector

(b) Composite unit of transport sector
(c) Composite unit for bus operation

(d) Composite unit for oil and natural gas

5. Depreciation is treated as fixed cost if it is related to:
(a) Activity level
(b) Related with machine hours

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(c) Efflux of time

(d) None of the above

6. Jobs undertaken by IT & ITES organizations are considered as:
(a) Project

(b) Batch work

(c) Contract
(d) All the above
7. In Toll Road costing, the repetitive costs include:
(a) Maintenance cost
(b) Annual operating costs

(c) None of the above

(d) Both (a) and (b)
8. BOT approach means:

(a) Build, Operate and Transfer

(b) Buy, Operate and Transfer
(c) Build, Operate and Trash
(d) Build, Own and Trash
9. Pre-product development activities in insurance companies, include:
(a) Processing of Claim
(b) Selling of policy
(c) Provision of conditions
(d) Policy application processing

10. Which of the following costing method is not appropriate for costing of
educational institutes:
(a) Batch Costing

(b) Activity Based Costing

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(c) Absorption Costing

(d) Process Costing

Theoretical Questions
1. EXPLAIN briefly, what do you understand by Service Costing.
2. STATE how are composite units computed.
3. STATE the features of service costing.

Practical Problems
1. SLS Infrastructure built and operates 110 k.m. highway on the basis of Built-
Operate-Transfer (BOT) for a period of 25 years. A traffic assessment carried
out to estimate the traffic flow per day shows the following figures:

Sl. No. Type of vehicle Daily traffic

volume
1. Two wheelers 44,500
2. Car and SUVs 3,450
3. Bus and LCV 1,800
4. Heavy commercial vehicles 816

The following is the estimated cost of the project:

Sl. Activities Amount

No. (` in lakh)
1 Site clearance 170.70
2 Land development and filling work 9,080.35
3 Sub base and base courses 10,260.70
4 Bituminous work 35,070.80
5 Bridge, flyovers, underpasses, Pedestrian subway, 29,055.60
footbridge, etc
6 Drainage and protection work 9,040.50

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7 Traffic sign, marking and road appurtenance 8,405.00

8 Maintenance, repairing and rehabilitation 12,429.60
9 Environmental management 982.00
Total Project cost 114,495.25

An estimated cost of `1,120 lakh has to be incurred on administration and toll

plaza operation.
On the basis of the vehicle specifications (i.e. weight, size, time saving etc.), the
following weights has been assigned to the passing vehicles:

Sl. No. Type of vehicle

1. Two wheelers 5%
2. Car and SUVs 20%
3. Bus and LCV 30%
4. Heavy commercial vehicles 45%

Required:
(i) CACULATE the total project cost per day of concession period.

(ii) COMPUTE toll fee to be charged for per vehicle of each type, if the
company wants to earn a profit of 15% on total cost.
[Note: Concession period is a period for which an infrastructure is allowed to
operate and recovers its investment]
2. Mr. X owns a bus which runs according to the following schedule:

(i) Delhi to Chandigarh and back, the same day.

Distance covered: 250 km. one way.
Number of days run each month: 8
Seating capacity occupied 90%.
(ii) Delhi to Agra and back, the same day.
Distance covered: 210 km. one way
Number of days run each month: 10

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Seating capacity occupied 85%

(iii) Delhi to Jaipur and back, the same day.
Distance covered: 270 km. one way
Number of days run each month: 6
Seating capacity occupied 100%
(iv) Following are the other details:
Cost of the bus ` 12,00,000
Salary of the Driver ` 24,000 p.m.
Salary of the Conductor ` 21,000 p.m.
Salary of the part-time Accountant ` 5,000 p.m.
Insurance of the bus ` 4,800 p.a.
Diesel consumption 4 km. per litre at ` 56 per litre
Road tax ` 15,915 p.a.
Lubricant oil ` 10 per 100 km.
Permit fee ` 315 p.m.
Repairs and maintenance ` 1,000 p.m.
Depreciation of the bus @ 20% p.a.
Seating capacity of the bus 50 persons.

Passenger tax is 20% of the total takings.

CALCULATE the bus fare to be charged from each passenger to earn a profit of
30% on total takings. The fares are to be indicated per passenger for the
journeys:

(i) Delhi to Chandigarh (ii) Delhi to Agra and (iii) Delhi to Jaipur.
3. A company is considering three alternative proposals for conveyance facilities
for its sales personnel who has to do considerable traveling, approximately
20,000 kilometers every year. The proposals are as follows:
(i) Purchase and maintain its own fleet of cars. The average cost of a car is
` 6,00,000.

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(ii) Allow the Executive use his own car and reimburse expenses at the rate of
` 10 per kilometre and also bear insurance costs.
(iii) Hire cars from an agency at ` 1,80,000 per year per car. The company will
have to bear costs of petrol, taxes and tyres.
The following further details are available:

Petrol ` 6 per km. Repairs and maintenance ` 0.20 per km.

Tyre ` 0.12 per km. Insurance ` 1,200 per car per annum
Taxes ` 800 per car per Life of the car: 5 years with annual mileage of
annum 20,000 km.

Resale value: ` 80,000 at the end of the fifth year.

WORK OUT the relative costs of three proposals and rank them.
4. From the following data pertaining to the year 2022-23 PREPARE a cost
statement showing the cost of electricity generated per kwh by Chambal
Thermal Power Station.
Total units generated 10,00,000 kWh
(`)
Operating labour 15,00,000
Repairs & maintenance 5,00,000
Lubricants, spares and stores 4,00,000
Plant supervision 3,00,000
Administration overheads 20,00,000
5 kWh. of electricity generated per kg. of coal consumed @ ` 4.25 per kg.
Depreciation charges @ 5% on capital cost of ` 2,00,00,000.

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.65

ANSWERS/ SOLUTIONS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (a)

7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (d)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 1
2. Please refer paragraph 2

3. Please refer paragraph 1

Answer to the Practical Problems

1. (i) Calculation of total project cost per day of concession period:

Activities Amount
(` in lakh)
Site clearance 170.70
Land development and filling work 9,080.35
Sub base and base courses 10,260.70
Bituminous work 35,070.80
Bridge, flyovers, underpasses, Pedestrian subway, 29,055.60
footbridge, etc
Drainage and protection work 9,040.50
Traffic sign, marking and road appurtenance 8,405.00
Maintenance, repairing and rehabilitation 12,429.60
Environmental management 982.00
Total Project cost 114,495.25

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 12.66 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Administration and toll plaza operation cost 1,120.00

Total Cost 115,615.25
Concession period in days (25 years × 365 days) 9,125
Cost per day of concession period (` in lakh) 12.67

(ii) Computation of toll fee:

Cost to be recovered per day = Cost per day of concession period + 15%
profit on cost
= `12,67,000 + `1,90,050
= `14,57,050

Cost per equivalent vehicle = `14,57,050

76, 444units(Refer workingnote)

= `19.06 per equivalent vehicle

Vehicle type-wise toll fee:

Sl. Type of vehicle Equivalent Weight Toll fee

No. cost [B] per
[A] vehicle
[A×B]
1. Two wheelers ` 19.06 1 19.06
2. Car and SUVs ` 19.06 4 76.24
3. Bus and LCV ` 19.06 6 114.36
4. Heavy commercial vehicles ` 19.06 9 171.54

Working Note:
The cost per day has to be recovered from the daily traffic. The each type
of vehicle is to be converted into equivalent unit. Let’s convert all vehicle
types equivalent to Two-wheelers.

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.67

Sl. Type of vehicle Daily Weight Ratio Equivalent

No. traffic [B] Two-
volume wheeler
[A] [A×B]
1. Two wheelers 44,500 0.05 1 44,500
2. Car and SUVs 3,450 0.20 4 13,800
3. Bus and LCV 1,800 0.30 6 10,800
4. Heavy commercial 816 0.45 9 7,344
vehicles
Total 76,444

2. Working Notes:
Total Distance (in km.) covered per month

Bus route Km. per Trips per Days per Km. per
trip day month month
Delhi to Chandigarh 250 2 8 4,000

Delhi to Agra 210 2 10 4,200

Delhi to Jaipur 270 2 6 3,240
11,440

Passenger- km. per month

Total seats Capacity Km. Passenger-

available per utilised per Km. per
month (at trip month
100% capacity)
(%) Seats
Delhi to Chandigarh 800 90 720 250 1,80,000
& Back (50 seats × 2 (720 seats ×
trips × 8 days) 250 km.)
Delhi to Agra & Back 1,000 85 850 210 1,78,500

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 12.68 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(50 seats × 2 (850 seats ×

trips × 10 days) 210 km.)
Delhi to Jaipur & 600 100 600 270 1,62,000
Back (50 seats × 2 (600 seats ×
trips × 6 days) 270 km.)
Total 5,20,500

Monthly Operating Cost Statement

(`) (`)
(i) Running Costs
Diesel {(11,440 km ÷ 4 km) × ` 56} 1,60,160
Lubricant oil {(11,440 km ÷ 100) × ` 10} 1,144 1,61,304
(ii) Maintenance Costs
Repairs & Maintenance 1,000
(iii) Standing charges
Salary to driver 24,000
Salary to conductor 21,000
Salary of part-time accountant 5,000
Insurance (` 4,800 ÷12) 400
Road tax (` 15,915 ÷12) 1,326.25
Permit fee 315
Depreciation {(` 12,00,000 × 20%) ÷ 12} 20,000 72,041.25
Total costs per month before Passenger Tax 2,34,345.25
(i)+(ii)+(iii)
Passenger Tax* 93,738.10
Total Cost 3,28,083.35
Add: Profit* 1,40,607.15
Total takings per month 4,68,690.50

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 SERVICE COSTING 12.69

*Let, total takings be X then

X = Total costs per month before passenger tax + 0.2 X (passenger tax) + 0.3
X (profit)
X = ` 2,34,345.25 + 0.2 X + 0.3 X
0.5 X = ` 2,34,345.25 or, X = `4,68,690.50
Passenger Tax = 20% of `4,68,690.50 = ` 93,738.10

Profit = 30% of `4,68,690.50 = ` 1,40,607.15

Calculation of Rate per passenger km. and fares to be charged for
different routes

Rate per Passenger-Km. = Total takings per month

Total Passenger -Km. per month

= ` 4,68,690.50 = ` 0.90
5,20,500 Passenger -Km.

Bus fare to be charged per passenger.

Delhi to Chandigarh = ` 0.90 × 250 km = ` 225.00

Delhi to Agra = ` 0.90 × 210 km = ` 189.00
Delhi to Jaipur = ` 0.90 × 270 km = ` 243.00

3. Calculation of relative costs of three proposals and their ranking

I II III
Use of Use of Use of
company’s own hired
car car car
per per km. (`) per km. per km.
annum (`) (`) (`)
Reimbursement -- 10.00 9.00*
Fixed cost:
Insurance 1,200 0.06 0.06 --
Taxes 800 0.04 -- 0.04
Depreciation 1,04,000 5.20 -- --
(` 6,00,000 - `80,000) ÷ 5 year

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 12.70 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Running and Maintenance

Cost:
Petrol -- 6.00 -- 6.00
Repairs and Maintenance -- 0.20 -- --
Tyre -- 0.12 -- 0.12
Total cost per km. -- 11.62 10.06 15.16
Cost for 20,000 km. 2,32,400 2,01,200 3,03,200
Ranking of proposals II I III

* (` 1,80,000 ÷ 20,000 km.)

The Second alternative i.e., use of own car by the executive and reimbursement
of expenses by the company is the best alternative from company’s point of view.
4. Cost Statement of Chambal Thermal Power Station
Total units generated 10,00,000 kWh.
Per annum (`) Per kWh. (`)
Fixed costs:
Plant supervision 3,00,000
Administration overheads 20,00,000
Depreciation (5% of ` 2,00,00,000 p.a.) 10,00,000
Total fixed cost: (A) 33,00,000 3.30
Variable costs:
Operating labour 15,00,000
Lubricants, spares and stores 4,00,000
Repairs & maintenance 5,00,000
Coal cost (Refer to working note) 8,50,000
Total variable cost: (B) 32,50,000 3.25
Total cost [(A) + (B)] 65,50,000 6.55

Working Note:
Coal cost (10,00,000 kWh. ÷ 5 kWh) × ` 4.25 per kg. = ` 8,50,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

CHAPTER
13

STANDARD COSTING

LEARNING OUTCOMES

♦ Discuss the meaning of standard cost and variances.

♦ Differentiate between controllable and uncontrollable
variances.
♦ Analyse and compute variances related to material, labour
and overheads.

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 13.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Meaning of Standard cost
and Standard Costing

Types of Standards

The Process of Standard

Costing

Setting-up of Standard
Cost
Standard Costing

Types of Variances

Classification of Variances

Computation of Variance

Advantages and Criticism

of Standard Costing

1. INTRODUCTION
Cost control is one of the objectives of cost management. Management of an
organisation setups predetermined cost to compare the actual cost with the
predetermined cost. Predetermined costs are standardcosts used for cost control
and performance evaluation. Standard costing is a method of cost and
management accounting which starts with setting of standards and ends with
reporting of variances to management for taking corrective actions. The Official
Terminology of CIMA, London defines standard costing as “Control technique that

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.3

reports variances by comparing actual costs to pre-set standards so facilitating

action through management by exception.”
In this chapter we will learn how standards are set for each cost component i.e.
material, labour and overheads of a cost object.

1.1 What is a Standard or Standard Cost?

Standard cost is defined in the CIMA Official Terminology as “'the planned unit cost
of the product, component or service produced in a period. The standard cost may
be determined on a number of bases. The main use of standard costs is in
performance measurement, control, stock valuation and in the establishment of
selling prices.” From the above definition Standard costs can be said as
• Planned cost
• Determined on a base or number of bases.

1.2 Why Standard Costing is Needed?

Standards or Standard costs are established to evaluate performance of a
responsibility centre. Apart from performance evaluation and cost control, standard
costs are also used to value inventory where actual figures are not reliably available
and to determine selling prices particularly while preparing quotations.
Standard costing system is widely accepted as it serves different needs of an
organisation. The standard costing is preferred for the following reasons:
(a) Prediction of future cost for decision making: Standard costs are set after
taking all present conditions and future possibilities into consideration. Hence,
standard cost is future cost for the purpose of cost estimation and profitability
from a proposed project/ order/ activity.
(b) Provide target to be achieved: Standard costs are the target cost which
should not be crossed by the responsibility centres. Performance of a
responsibility centre is continuously monitored and measured against the set
standards. Any variance from the standard is noted and reported for
appropriate action.
(c) Used in budgeting and performance evaluation: Standard costs are used
to set budgets and based on these budgets managerial performance is

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 13.4 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

evaluated. This is of two benefits, one managers of a responsibility centre will

not compromise with the quality to fulfill the budgeted quantity and second,
variances can be traced with the responsible department or person.
(d) Interim profit measurement and inventory valuation: Actual profit can only
be known after the closure of the accounts. But an organisation may need to
prepare profitability statement for interim periods for managerial reporting
and decision making. To arrive at profit figure, standard costs are deducted
from the revenue.

2. TYPES OF STANDARDS
Types of standards are as below:
(i) Ideal Standards: These represent the level of performance attainable when
prices for material and labour are most favourable, when the highest output is
achieved with the best equipment and layout and when the maximum efficiency in
utilisation of resources results in maximum output with minimum cost.
These types of standards are criticised on three grounds:
(a) Since such standards would be unattainable, no one would take these
seriously.
(b) The variances disclosed would be variances from the ideal standards. These
would not, therefore, indicate the extent to which they could have been reasonably
and practically avoided.
(c) There would be no logical method of disposing of these variances.
(ii) Normal Standards: These are standards that may be achieved under normal
operating conditions. The normal activity has been defined as “the number of
standard hours which will produce at normal efficiency sufficient good to meet the
average sales demand over a term of years”.
These standards are, however, difficult to set because they require a degree of
forecasting. The variances thrown out under this system are deviations from normal
efficiency, normal sales volume, or normal production volume.
If the actual performance is found to be abnormal, large variances may result and
necessitate revision of standards.

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.5

(iii) Basic or Bogey Standards: These standards are used only when they are
likely to remain constant or unaltered over a long period. According to this
standard, a base year is chosen for comparison purposes in the same way as
statisticians use price indices. Since basic standards do not represent what should
be attained in the present period, current standards should also be prepared if
basic standards are used. Basic standards are, however, well suited to businesses
having a small range of products and long production runs. Basic standards are set,
on a long-term basis and are seldom revised. When basic standards are in use,
variances are not calculated. Instead, the actual cost is expressed as a percentage
of basic cost. The current cost is also similarly expressed and the two percentages
are compared to find out how much the actual cost has deviated from the current
standard. The percentages are next compared with those of the previous periods
to establish the trend of actual and current standard from basic cost.
(iv) Current Standards : These standards reflect the management’s
anticipation of what actual costs will be for the current period. These are the
costs which the business will incur if the anticipated prices are paid for the goods
and services and the usage corresponds to that believed to be necessary to produce
the planned output.

The variances arising from expected standards represent the degree of efficiency
in usage of the factors of production, variation in prices paid for materials and
services and difference in the volume of production.

3. THE PROCESS OF STANDARD COSTING

The process of standard cost is as below:
(i) Setting of Standards: The first step is to set standards which are to be
achieved, the process of standard setting is explained below.
(ii) Ascertainment of actual costs: Actual cost for each component of cost is
ascertained. Actual costs are ascertained from books of account, material invoices,
wage sheet, charge slip etc.
(iii) Comparison of actual cost with standard cost: Actual costs are compared
with the standards costs and variances are determined.

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 13.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(iv) Investigate the reasons for variances: Variances arises are investigated for
further action. Based on this, performance is evaluated and appropriate actions are
taken.
(v) Disposition of variances: Variances arise are disposed-off by transferring it
the relevant accounts (costing profit and loss account) as per the accounting
method (plan) adopted.

4. SETTING-UP OF STANDARD COST

Standard cost is set on the basis of management’s estimation. Cost is estimated on
the basis of technical specification provided by the engineering department or
other expert such as production engineer. Generally, while setting standards,
consideration is given to historical data, current production plan and expected
conditions of future. For the sake of detailed analysis and control, standard cost is
set for each element of cost i.e. material, labour, variable overheads and fixed
overheads. Standard are also set for the sales quantity and sales value; this is
generally known as budgeted sales.
Standards are set in both quantity (units or hours) and in cost (price or rate). It is
thus measure in quantities, hours and value of the factors of production.
Standard costs are divided into three main cost components, such as
(a) Direct Material Cost
(b) Direct Employee (Labour) Cost and
(c) Overheads

Standards are set in both physical and monetary terms for each cost components.
Details are as follows:

4.1 Physical Standards

Physical standards refer to expression of standards in units or hours. At this
stage standard quantity and standard hours are determined for a particular product
or service. The purpose of setting standards is to secure economies in scale of
production and to set selling price for quotation purpose.

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.7

In manufacturing organisations, the task of setting physical standards is assigned

to the industrial engineering department. While setting standards consideration is
given to :

• Company’s operating plan i.e. budgets

• Final output to be produced
• Material specification, in both quantity and quality provided by the
engineering department.
• Proportion of material to be used in case of multiple inputs.
• Method of production i.e. fully automated, semi-automated or manual.
• Skill set of workers and availability of workers.
• Working conditions and internal factors.
• External factors (such as Labour Law, Factories Act, Govt. policy etc.).

PROCEDURE OF SETTING MATERIAL QUANTITY STANDARDS

The following procedure is usually followed for setting material quantity standards.
(a) Standardisation of products: At this phase, products to be produced are
decided based on production plan and customer’s order. Generally following
questions are answered at this stage: (i) What to be produced? (ii) Which type
to be produced and (iii) How much to be produced?
(b) Product study: Product to be produced is analysed and studied for
developments and production. Product study is carried out by the engineering
department or product consultants. At this phase answers to the following
questions are satisfied: (i) How can it be produced? (ii) What are the pre-
requisites? (iii) Which type of materials to be used? (iv) How products can be
accepted in the market? etc.
(c) Preparation of specification list: After the product study a list of material is
prepared. It specifies types (quality) and quantity of materials to be used,
substitute of the materials, quantity and proportion of materials to be used,
process to be followed, pre-requisites and condition required etc. While
preparing specification list consideration to expected amount of wastage is
given. It must be customised to adopt changes in the product.

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 13.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(d) Test runs: Sample or test runs under specified conditions are carried out and
sample products are tested for the desired quality and quantity. Any deviation
from the specification is noted down and specification list is updated.

PROCEDURE OF SETTING LABOUR TIME STANDARDS

The following are the steps involved in setting labour standards:
(a) Standardisation of product and product study is carried out as explained
above.
(b) Labour specification: Types of labour and labour time is specified. Labour
time specification is based on past records and it takes into account normal
wastage of time.
(c) Standardisation of methods: Selection of proper machines to use proper
sequence and method of operations.
(d) Manufacturing layout: A plan of operation for each product listing the
operations to be performed is prepared.

(e) Time and motion study: It is conducted for selecting the best way of
completing the job or motions to be performed by workers and the standard
time which an average worker will take for each job. This also takes into
account the learning efficiency and learning effect.
(f) Training and trial: Workers are trained to do the work and time spent at the
time of trial run is noted down.

PROCEDURE OF SETTING OVERHEADS TIME/ QUANTITY STANDARDS

Variable overhead time/ quantity is estimated based on specification made by the
engineering departments. Variable overheads may either be based on direct
material quantity or labour hour. Generally, it is based on labour time worked.
Fixed overhead time is based on budgeted production volume.

4.1.1 Problems faced while setting physical standards

The problems involved while setting physical standards will vary from industry to
industry and may be illustrated as under:

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.9

(a) A situation may arise where the company is introducing the manufacture of a
new line of product. In such case, it may be necessary to employ workers who
have no experience in the job. This creates a problem of setting standard time
because it is necessary to make adjustment for the inexperience of workers.
(b) Changes in technology may necessitate installation of sophisticated machines.
When such machines are installed, the precise estimation of output and
standard of efficiency achievable will pose a problem until after a long time
when the working conditions are settled. Thus, setting standards for these
machines and estimating the standard costs will need considerable amount of
work.
(c) Often manufacturers prefer to product diversification to improve profitability.
One of the most important problems that arise with the proposed change in
product is re-setting of production facilities. For example, when an old copper
part is to be changed into one made of bronze to suit the new product, special
care has to be taken to order new tools which in turn, pose the problem of
setting up of standard time in respect of the new tools.
(d) Standards of material specifications are established and if the materials are
not available as per specifications, the standards may not be achievable.

(e) Very often the cost accountant is confronted with the problem of choosing
the type of standards to be adopted. For example, the industrial engineer has
furnished the standard time for all direct labour operations as under:
1. Standard time attainable by the best operations is 2 hours per unit
of product including allowances for personal fatigue and delay.
2. Attainable good performance for the average trained operator is 2.10
hours per unit of product.
3. Average past performance is 2.60 hours per unit.
The problem is, should direct labour standard hour be based on maximum
efficiency or attainable good performance or average past performance? If costs
are to represent maximum efficiency, the unit cost used in selling price will relatively
be low but a high debit variance may arise if the standard efficiency is not achieved.
If, however, the standard cost is based on attainable good performance, the
variances may tend to be nil. If efficiency is to be gauged, maximum efficiency

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 13.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

standard will reflect the off standard performance, thereby enabling the
departmental head to exercise control.
Similar problems as those mentioned above, may also arise in setting of waste
standards. For example, the question may arise as to whether only absolutely
unavoidable wastage should be provided or the past average level of wastage may
be provided. This will again have different impact on the standard cost of
production.

4.2 Price or Rate Standards

Broadly, the price or rate standards can be set on either of the following bases:
(a) Actual average or mean price expected to prevail during the coming
period, say one year; or
(b) Normal prices expected to prevail during a cycle of seasons which may be
of a number of years.

PROCEDURES OF SETTING MATERIAL PRICE STANDARDS

Material prices are not altogether within the control of the manufacturer; but
the purchasing department, on being apprised of production quantities
required, should be able, from its knowledge of current market conditions and
trends, to state with reasonable accuracy price for the constituent items. The
standards for prices of materials should be based on the following factors, if
price fluctuations are small and are not serious.

(a) Stock of materials on hand and the prices at which they are held;

(b) The prices at which orders for future deliveries of materials (agreement
entered into) have already been placed,

(c) Minimum support price fixed by the appropriate authority and

(d) Anticipated fluctuation in price levels

In case there are unsystematic fluctuations in the market price, it may be difficult
to determine standard costs of materials; fluctuations in the market price may
be of different sorts; prices may be different from month to month, from one
season to another or from one year to another. There may be a secular trend

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.11

which, on the whole, is pushing price upwards or downwards. The nature of

difficulties encountered in fixing standard costs of materials will naturally be
different in each case. In addition, the purchasing policy of the company and
the objective to be achieved (from cost accounting) will make a difference.

The difficulty in determining the standard cost of material in such a situation

can be resolved as follows:

(a) In case prices fluctuate from month to month, the average of prices of a
year corrected for the known secular changes and any other expected
change can very well serve as the standard price for the next year.

(b) If the fluctuations are seasonal, but the whole year’s requirements are
purchased at one time, the weighted average of the likely prices to be paid
should be treated as the standard price. But, if buying is also spread over
the whole year, the weighted average of the prices for the whole year
should be the standard price.

(c) If prices fluctuate from one year to another, a careful estimate of the price
likely to prevail next year, based on a statistical study, should be adopted
as the standard price.

PROCEDURES OF SETTING WAGE RATE STANDARD

The type of labour required for performing a specific job would be the most
important factor for deciding the rate of wage to be paid to workers. Standard
wage rate for skilled and unskilled workers are set based on the following basis:

 Time taken by the workers to complete a unit of production.

 Time or piece rate prevailing in the industry. It can be known from the
peers.

 Wage agreement entered into between the management and workers’

union.

 Law prevailing in the area of operation, law like Payment of minimum

wages Act, Payment of bonus Act etc.

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 13.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

PROCEDURES OF SETTING OVERHEAD EXPENSE STANDARDS

In computing the overhead expense standards, consideration should be given to
the level of output and the budgeted expenses. A budgeted output is fixed
considering practical manufacturing capacity and anticipated sales demand.
Expenditures can be budgeted under different heads for the level of output chosen.
These expenditures are classified as fixed and variable. Thus, the overhead expense
standards are set by computing the optimum level of output for a production
departments followed by budgets for fixed and variable overheads. If production is
seasonal or it fluctuates during the year, a flexible budget may be prepared to
facilitate comparison between the set target and actual expenditure for the period.

5. TYPES OF VARIANCES
Controllable and un-controllable variances: For effective cost control it is
necessary to investigate into the reasons for cost variances and to take corrective
actions. For this purpose variances are classified as controllable and uncontrollable
variances. Controllable variances are those which can be controlled under the
normal operating conditions if a responsibility centre takes preventive measures
and acts prudently. Uncontrollable variances are those which occurs due to
conditions which are beyond the control of a responsibility centre and cannot
be controlled even though all preventive measures are in place. Responsibility
centres are answerable for all adverse variances which could have been controlled.
Controllability is a subjective matter and varies from situation to situation. If the
uncontrollable variances are of significant nature and are persistent, the standard
may need revision.
Favourable and Adverse variance: Favourable variances are those which
are profitable for the company and adverse variances are those which causes
loss to the company. While computing cost variances favourable variance means
actual cost is less than standard cost. On the other hand, adverse variance means
actual cost is exceeding standard cost. The situation will be reversed for sales
variance. Favourable variances mean actual is more than budgeted and adverse
when actual is less than budgeted. Favourable variance in short denoted by capital
‘F’ and adverse variances by capital ‘A’.
Students may note that signs of favourable and adverse variance may or may not match
exactly with mathematical signs i.e. (+) or (-).

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6. CLASSIFICATION OF VARIANCES
Variances are broadly classified into two parts namely Revenue variance and Cost
variance. At Revenue side variances is calculated by comparing actual sales from
budgeted (standard) sales. On the other hand, Cost side reflects variances in cost
components. Cost variance classification is shown below with the help of a
structured diagram.

Total Cost Variance

Material Cost Variance Labour Cost Variance Overhead Cost Variance

Material Price Material Labour

Labour Rate Idle Time
Variance Usage Efficiency
Variance Variance
Variance Variance

Labour Mix Labour Yield

Material Mix Material Yield
Variance Variance
Variance Variance

Variable Overhead Cost Variance Fixed Overhead Cost Variance

Expenditure or Budget Volume

Expenditure or Efficiency Variance
Variance Variance
Budget Variance

Efficiency Capacity Calendar

Variance Variance Variance

Fig 13.1. Classification of Variances

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 13.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

7. COMPUTATION OF VARIANCES
As discussed earlier variances are classified into two parts. Here we will start from
cost side and discuss all cost components one by one with the help of appropriate
example and illustrations.

7.1 Material Cost Variance

Material cost variance is the difference between standard cost of materials
used and the actual cost of materials. Mathematically it is written as.

Material Cost Variance = [Standard Cost – Actual Cost]

Or
[(Std. Quantity × Std. Price) – (Actual Quantity × Actual Price)]

(The difference between the Standard Material Cost of the actual production
volume and the Actual Cost of Material)

Reasons for variance: Material cost variance arises mainly because of either
difference in material price from the standard price or difference in material
consumption from standard consumption or both the reasons. Analysis of material
cost variance is done dividing it into two parts namely Material Price variance and
Material Usage variance.

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.15

(A) Material Price Variance

It measures variance arises in the material cost due to difference in actual
material purchase price from standard material price. Mathematically it is
written as:

Material Price Variance = [Standard Cost of Actual Quantity* – Actual Cost]

Or
Actual Quantity (AQ) × {Std. Price (SP) – Actual Price(A)}
Or
[(SP × AQ) – (AP × AQ)]
(The difference between the Standard Price and Actual Price for the Actual
Quantity Purchased)

*Here actual quantity means actual quantity of material purchased. If in the

question material purchase is not given, it is taken as equal to material
consumed.

Explanation: Material price variance can also be calculated taking material

used as actual quantity instead of material purchased. This method is also
correct but does not serve the purpose of variance computation. Material price
variance may arise from variety of reasons out of which some may be
controllable and some may be beyond the control of the purchase department.
If price variance arises due to inefficiency of purchase department or any other
reason within the control of the company, then it is very important to report
variance as early as possible and this can be done by taking purchase quantity
as actual quantity for price variance computation.

Responsibility for Material Price Variance: Generally, purchase department

purchases materials from the market. Purchase department is expected to perform
its function very prudently so that company never suffers loss due to its inefficiency.
Purchase department is held responsible for adverse price variance arises due to
the factors controllable by the department.

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 13.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(B) Material Usage Variance

It measures variance in material cost due to usage/ consumption of materials. It
is computed as below:

Material Usage Variance = [Standard Cost of Standard Quantity for Actual

Production – Standard Cost of Actual Quantity*]
Or
Std. Price (SP)× {Std. Quantity (SQ) - Actual Quantity (AQ)}
Or
[(SQ × SP) – (AQ × SP)]
(The difference between the Standard Quantity specified for actual production and
the Actual Quantity used, at Standard Price)

*Here actual quantity means actual quantity of material used.

Responsibility for material usage variance: Material usage is the responsibility

of production department and it is held responsible for adverse usage variance.
Reasons for variance: Actual material consumption may differ from the standard
quantity either due to difference in proportion used from standard proportion or
due to difference in actual yield from standard yield.
Material usage variance is divided into two parts (a) Material usage mix variance
and (b) Material yield variance.
(a) Material Mix Variance
Variance in material consumption may arise due to difference in proportion
actually used from the standard mix/ proportion. It only arises when two or
more inputs are used to produce a product. Mathematically,

Material Mix Variance = [Standard Cost of Actual Quantity in Standard

Proportion – Standard Cost of Actual Quantity]
Or
Std. Price (SP) × {Revised Std. Quantity (RSQ) – Actual Quantity (AQ)}
Or
[(RSQ × SP) – (AQ × SP)]
(The difference between the Actual Quantity in standard proportion and Actual
Quantity in actual proportion, at Standard Price)

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.17

(b) Material Yield Variance (Material Sub-usage Variance)

Variance in material consumption which arises due to yield or productivity of
the inputs. It may arise due to use of sub- standard quality of materials, inefficiency
of workers or due to wrong processing.

Material Yield Variance = [Standard Cost of Standard Quantity for Actual

Production – Standard Cost of Actual Quantity in
standard proportion]
Or
Std. Price (SP) × {Std. Quantity (SQ) – Revised Standard Quantity (RSQ)}
Or
[(SQ × SP) – (RSQ × SP)]
(The difference between the Standard Quantity specified for actual production and
Actual Quantity in standard proportion, at Standard Purchase Price)

Verification of the formulae:

Material Cost Variance= Material Usage Variance + Material Price Variance*
Or, Material Cost Variance= (Material Mix Variance + Material Revised usage
Variance) + Material price variance

*If material purchased quantity and material consumed quantity is same

Meaning of the terms used in the formulae:

Term Meaning
Standard Quantity (SQ) Quantity of inputs to be used to produce
actual output.
Actual Quantity (AQ) Quantity of inputs actually used to produce
actual output.
Revised Standard Quantity (RSQ) If Actual total quantity of inputs were used
in standard proportion.

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 13.18 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 1
The standard and actual figures of product ‘Z’ are as under:
Standard Actual
Material quantity 50 units 45 units

Material price per unit ` 1.00 ` 0.80

CALCULATE material cost variances.

SOLUTION
The variances may be calculated as under:
(a) Standard cost = Std. Qty × Std. price = 50 units ×`1.00 = `50
(b) Actual cost = Actual qty. × Actual price = 45 units ×`0.80 = ` 36

Variances:
(i) Price variance = Actual qty (Std. price – Actual price)
= 45 units (`1.00 – `0.80) = ` 9 (F)
(ii) Usage variance = Std. price (Std. qty – Actual qty.)
= `1 (50 units – 45 units) = ` 5 (F)
(iii) Material cost variance = Standard cost – Actual cost
(Total variance) = ` 50 – ` 36 = ` 14 (F)

ILLUSTRATION 2
NXE Manufacturing Concern furnishes the following information:

Standard: Material for 70 kg finished products 100 kg

Price of material ` 1 per kg
Actual: Output 2,10,000 kg
Material used 2,80,000 kg
Cost of Materials ` 2,52,000

CALCULATE: (a) Material usage variance, (b) Material price variance, (c) Material cost
variance.

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.19

SOLUTION
100 kg
Standard Quantity of input for actual output (SQ) = 2,10,000 kg ×
70 kg
= 3, 00,000 kg.
Actual Price (AP) = (`2,52,000 ÷ 2, 80,000 kg) = ` 0.90 per kg.
(a) Material Usage Variance = (SQ – AQ) × SP
= (3,00,000 – 2,80,000) × 1= ` 20,000 (F)
(b) Material Price Variance = (SP – AP) × AQ
= (1 – 0.90) × 2,80,000= ` 28, 000 (F)
(c) Material Cost Variance = (SQ × SP) – (AQ × AP)
= (3, 00,000 × 1) – (2, 80,000 × 0.90)
= ` 48, 000 (F)
Check MCV = MPV + MUV
` 48, 000 (F) = ` 28, 000 (F) + `20, 000 (F)

ILLUSTRATION 3
The standard cost of a chemical mixture is as follows:
40% material A at ` 20 per kg
60% material B at ` 30 per kg

A standard loss of 10% of input is expected in production. The cost records for a
period showed the following usage:
90 kg material A at a cost of ` 18 per kg
110 kg material B at a cost of ` 34 per kg
The quantity produced was 182 kg of good product.
CALCULATE (a) Material cost variance, (b) Material price variance, (c) Material usage
variance.

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 13.20 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION
Basic Calculation
Material Standard for 180 kg. output Actual for 182 kg. output
Qty. Rate Amount Qty Rate Amount
Kg. (`) (`) Kg. (`) (`)
A 80 20 1,600 90 18 1,620
B 120 30 3,600 110 34 3,740
Total 200 5,200 200 5,360
Less: Loss 20 − − 18 − −
180 5,200 182 5,360
182
Std. cost of actual output = `5,200 × = ` 5, 257.78
180
Calculation of Variances

1. Material Cost Variance = (Std. cost of actual output – Actual cost)

= (5,257.78 – 5,360) = ` 102.22 (A)
2. Material Price Variance = (SP – AP) × AQ
Material A = (20 – 18) × 90 = ` 180.00 (F)
Material B = (30 – 34)) × 110 = ` 440.00 (A)
MPV = ` 260.00 (A)

3. Material Usage Variance = (Std. Quantity for actual output – Actual

Quantity) × Std. Price
 182 
Material A =  80 × − 90  × 20 = ` 182.22 (A)
 180 
 182 
Material B = 120 × − 110  × 30 = `340.00 (F)
 180 

MUV = `157.78 (F)

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.21

Check
MCV ` 102.22 (A)

MPV `260 (A) MUV `157.78 (F)

ILLUSTRATION 4
ABC Ltd. produces an article by lending two basic raw materials. It operates a standard
costing system and the following standards have been set for raw materials:

Material Standard mix Standard price (` per kg)

A 40% 4
B 60% 3

The standard loss in processing is 15%. During April, the company produced 1,700 kgs.
of finished output.
The position of stock and purchases for the month of April are as under:

Material Stock on Stock on Purchased during

01.04.2021 30.04.2021 April 2021
(Kg.) (Kg.) (Kg.) (`)
A 35 5 800 3,400
B 40 50 1,200 3,000

Opening stock of material is valued at standard price.

CALCULATE the following variances:
(i) Material price variance
(ii) Material usage variance
(iii) Material yield variance

Material mix variance

Total Material cost variance

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 13.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION

Types of material Standard Actual

Qty. Rate Amount Qty. Rate Amount
(Kg.) (`) (`) (Kg.) (`) (`)
A 800 4 3,200 35 4 140.00
795 4.25 3,378.75
B 1200 3 3,600 40 3 120.00
1,150 2.50 2,875.00
Total 2,000 6,800 2,020 6,513.75

(i) Material price variance

= Actual qty. (Std. price – Actual price)

Material A: Since the actual price and standard price in respect of 35 kg. of
raw materials A are same i.e. ` 4, there will be no price variance in respect of
this quantity. Price variance will be in respect of only 795 kg. as given below:

= 795 kg. (` 4 – ` 4.25) = ` 198.75 (A)

Material B: For Material B also, price variance will only be in respect of 1,150
kg. as given below:

= 1,150 kg. (` 3 – ` 2.50) = ` 575 (F)

Total = ` 198.75 (A) + 575 (F) = ` 376.25(F)
(ii) Material usage variance
= (Std. qty. for actual output – Actual qty.) × Std. price

Material A = (800 – 830) × 4 = 120 (A)

Material B = (1,200 – 1,190) × 3 = 30 (F)
` 90 (A)

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.23

(iii) Material yield variance

= (Std. qty. - Revised Std. qty.) × Std. Price
Material A = (800 – 808) × 4 = 32 (A)

Material B = (1,200 – 1,212) ×3 = 36 (A)

` 68 (A)

(iv) Material mix variance

= (Revised std. qty. – Actual qty.) × Std. Price
Material A = (808 – 830) × 4 = 88 (A)

Material B = (1,212 – 1,190) × 3= 66 (F)

` 22 (A)

Check
MUV = MMV + MYV
90 (A) = 22 (A) + 68 (A)
(v) Total material cost variance
= Std. cost for actual output – Actual cost = 6,800 – 6,513.75 = 286.25 (F)
Check
MCV = MPV + MUV
286.25 (F) = 376.25 (F) + 90 (A)
Working Notes:
1. Standard quantity for actual output
The standard loss being 15%. It means to produce, 1,700 kg. of the article,
standard quantity of material required is:
100
= ×1,700 kgs. = 2,000 kg.
85

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 13.24 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Out of 2,000 kg. of material used, 40% is of type A and 60% is of type B, i.e.,

Standard quantity for actual output for:

40
Material A = 2,000× = 800 kg.
100
60
Material B = 2,000× = 1,200 kg.
100

2. Actual quantity of material

= Opening stock + Purchases – Closing stock
Material A = 35 + 800 – 5 = 830 kg.

Material B = 40 + 1,200 – 50 = 1,190 kg.

3. Standard cost per unit

Total standard cost
=
Total standard output of std. mix
` 6, 800
= = ` 4 per kg.
1, 700 kg.

4. Revised Standard Quantity

2, 020
Material A = × 800 = 808 kg.
2, 000

2, 020
Material B = ×1, 200 = 1,212 kg.
2, 000

7.2 Labour Cost Variance

Amount paid to employees for their labour is generally known as employee or
labour cost. In this chapter labour cost is used to denote employees cost. Labour
(employee) cost variance is the difference between actual labour cost and
standard cost. Mathematically it can be written as:

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.25

Labour Cost Variance = [Standard Cost – Actual Cost]

Or
[(SH × SR) – (AH* × AR)]
(The difference between the Standard Labour Cost and the Actual Labour Cost
incurred for the production achieved)
* Actual hours paid.

Reasons for variance: Difference in labour cost arises either due to difference in
the actual labour rate from the standard rate or difference in numbers of hours
worked from standard hours. Labour cost variance can be divided into three parts
namely (i) Labour Rate Variance (ii) Labour Efficiency Variance and (iii) Labour Idle
time Variance.

Labour Cost Variance

Labour Rate Labour Efficiency Labour Idle Time

Variance Variance Variance

Labour Mix
Variance

Labour Yield
Variance

(A) Labour Rate Variance:

Labour rate variance arises due to difference in actual rate paid from standard
rate. It is very similar to material price variance. It is calculated as below:

Labour Rate Variance = [Standard Cost of Actual Time – Actual Cost]

Or
Actual Hours (AH*) × {Std. Rate (SR) – Actual Rate (AR)}
Or
[(SR×AH*) – (AR × AH*)]
(The difference between the Standard Rate per hour and Actual Rate per hour for
the Actual Hours paid)
* Actual hours paid.

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 13.26 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Responsibility for labour rate variance: Generally labour rates are influenced by
the external factors which are beyond the control of the organisation. However,
personnel manager is responsible for labour rate negotiation.

(B) Labour Efficiency Variance:

Labour efficiency variance arises due to deviation in the working hours from
the standard working hours.

Labour Efficiency Variance =

[Standard Cost of Standard Time for Actual Production – Standard Cost of Actual
Time]
Or
Std. Rate (SR) × {Std. Hours (SH) – Actual Hours (AH*)}
Or
[(SH × SR) – (AH# × SR)]
(The difference between the Standard Hours specified for actual production and
Actual Hours worked at Standard Rate).
# Actual Hours worked

Responsibility for labour efficiency variance: Efficiency variance may arise due
to ability of the workers, inappropriate team of workers, inefficiency of production
manager or foreman etc. However, production manager or foreman can be held
responsible for the adverse variance which otherwise can be controlled.
Labour efficiency variance is further divided into the following variances:
(a) Labour Mix Variance or Gang variance
(b) Labour Yield Variance (or Labour Revised-efficiency Variance)

(a) Labour Mix Variance:

Labour efficiency variance which arises due to change in the mix or
combination of different skill set i.e. number of skilled workers, semi-skilled
workers and un-skilled workers. Mathematically,

Labour Mix Variance Or Gang Variance =

[Standard Cost of Actual Time Worked in Standard Proportion – Standard Cost of
Actual Time Worked]
Or

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.27

Std. Rate (SR) × {Revised Std. Hours (RSH) – Actual Hours Worked (AH)}
Or
[(RSH × SR) – (AH# × SR)]
(The difference between the Actual Hours worked in standard proportion and
Actual Hours worked in actual proportion, at Standard Rate).
# Actual Hours worked

(b) Labour Yield Variance:

Labour efficiency variance which arises due to productivity of workers.

Labour Yield Variance Or Sub-Efficiency Variance =

[Standard Cost of Standard Time for Actual Production – Standard Cost of Actual
Time Worked in Standard Proportion]
Or
Std. Rate (SR) × {Std. Hours (SH) – Revised Std. Hours (RSH)}
Or
[(SH × SR) – (RSH × SR)]
(The difference between the Standard Hours specified for actual production and
Actual Hours worked in standard proportion, at Standard Rate).

(C) Idle Time Variance:

It is calculated for the idle hours. It is difference between paid and worked hours.
It is calculated as below:

Labour Idle Time Variance = [Standard Rate per Hour × Actual Idle Hours]
Or
Std. Rate (SR) {Actual HoursPaid – Actual HoursWorked}
Or
[(AH × SR) – (AH# ×SR)]
*

(The difference between the Actual Hours paid and Actual Hours worked at
Standard Rate)

* Actual hours paid; # Actual Hours worked

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 13.28 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Verification of formulae:
Labour Cost Variance = Labour Rate Variance + Labour Efficiency Variance (if hours
paid and hours worked is same)
OR
Labour Cost Variance = Labour Rate Variance + Idle Time Variance + Labour
Efficiency Variance
OR
Labour Efficiency Variance = Labour Mix Variance + Labour Yield Variance
ILLUSTRATION 5
The standard and actual figures of a firm are as under
Standard time for the job 1,000 hours
Standard rate per hour ` 50
Actual time taken 900 hours
Actual wages paid ` 36,000
CALCULATE variances.
SOLUTION
(a) Std. labour cost (`)

(1,000 hours × `50) 50,000

(b) Actual wages paid 36,000
(c) Actual rate per hour: ` 36,000/900 hours = `40
Variances
(i) Labour Rate variance = Actual time (Std. rate – Actual rate)
= 900 hours (`50 – `40) = `9,000 (F)
(ii) Efficiency variance = Std. rate per hr. (Std. time – Actual time)
= `50 (1,000 hrs. – 900 hrs.) = `5,000 (F)
(iii) Total labour cost variance = Std. labour cost – Actual labour cost
= {(`50 × 1,000 hours) – `36,000}
= (`50,000 – `36,000) = `14,000 (F)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 STANDARD COSTING 13.29

ILLUSTRATION 6
The standard output of product ‘EXE’ is 25 units per hour in manufacturing
department of a company employing 100 workers. The standard wage rate per labour
hour is ` 6.
In a 42 hours week, the department produced 1,040 units of ‘EXE’ despite 5% of the
time paid being lost due to an abnormal reason. The hourly wages actually paid were
` 6.20, ` 6 and ` 5.70 respectively to 10, 30 and 60 of the workers.
CALCULATE relevant labour variances.

SOLUTION
Working Notes:
1. Calculation of standard man hours
When 100 worker works for 1 hr., then the std. output is 25 units.

Std. man hour per unit = 100 hrs. = 4 hrs.

25 units

2. Calculation of std. man hours for actual output

Total std. man hours = 1,040 units × 4 hrs. = 4,160 hrs.

Standard for actual Actual

Hours Rate Amount No. of Actual Idle Production Rate Amount

(`) (`) workers hours time hours (`) paid
paid hrs. (`)
4,160 6 24,960 10 420 21 399 6.20 2,604

30 1,260 63 1,197 6.00 7,560

60 2,520 126 2,394 5.70 14,364

4,160 6 24,960 100 4,200 210 3,990 24,528

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 13.30 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

1. Labour cost variance

= Std. labour cost – Actual labour cost

= 24,960 – 24,528 = ` 432 (F)
2. Labour rate variance
= (SR – AR) × AHPaid
= (6 – 6.20) × 420 = 84 (A)
= (6 - 6) × 1260 = NIL
= (6 - 5.70) × 2,520 = 756 (F)
= 672 (F)
3. Labour efficiency variance
= (SH – AH) × SR
= (4,160 – 3,990) × 6 = 1,020 (F)
4. Labour Idle time variance
= Idle Hours × SR
= 210 × 6 = 1,260 (A)
ILLUSTRATION 7
NPX Ltd. uses standard costing system for manufacturing of its product X. Following
is the budget data given in relation to labour hours for manufacture of 1 unit of
Product X :

Labour Hours Rate (`)

Skilled 2 6
Semi-Skilled 3 4
Un- Skilled 5 3
Total 10

In the month of January, total 10,000 units were produced following are the details:

Labour Hours Rate (`) Amount (`)

Skilled 18,000 7 1,26,000
Semi-Skilled 33,000 3.5 1,15,500
Un-Skilled 58,000 4 2,32,000
Total 1,09,000 4,73,500

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.31

Actual Idle hours (abnormal) during the month:

Skilled: 500
Semi- Skilled: 700
Unskilled: 800
Total 2,000
CALCULATE:
(a) Labour Variances.
(b) Also show the effect on Labour Rate Variance if 5,000 hours of Skilled Labour
are paid @ ` 5.5 per hour and balance were paid @ ` 7 per hour.

SOLUTION
Working Notes:

Budget Standard for actual Actual

Hours Rate Amount Hours Rate Amount Hours Rate Amount

(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
Skilled 2 6 12 20,000 6 1,20,000 18,000 7 1,26,000
Semi- 3 4 12 30,000 4 1,20,000 33,000 3.5 1,15,500
skilled
Unskilled 5 3 15 50,000 3 1,50,000 58,000 4 2,32,000
10 39 1,00,000 3,90,000 1,09,000 4,73,500

Idle Hours Hours worked

Skilled 500 17,500
Semi-skilled 700 32,300
Unskilled 800 57,200
2,000 1,07,000

(a) (i) Labour Cost Variance= (SH×SR – AH×AR)

Skilled 20,000 × 6 – 18,000× 7 = ` 6,000 (A)
Semi-Skilled 30,000 ×4 – 33,000 × 3.5 = ` 4,500 (F)

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 13.32 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Unskilled 50,000× 3 – 58,000 × 4 = ` 82,000 (A)

Total ` 83,500 (A)

(ii) Labour Rate Variance = (SR – AR )×AHPaid
Skilled (6 – 7) × 18,000 = ` 18,000 (A)
Semi-Skilled (4 – 3.5) × 33,000 = ` 16,500 (F)
Unskilled (3 – 4) × 58,000 = ` 58,000 (A)
Total ` 59,500 (A)

(iii) Labour Efficiency Variance = (SH – AH) × SR

Skilled (20,000 –17,500) ×6 = ` 15,000 (F)
Semi- Skilled (30,000 –32,300) ×4 = ` 9,200 (A)
Unskilled (50,000 –57,200)×3 = ` 21,600 (A)
Total ` 15,800 (A)
(iv) Labour Idle Time Variance = (Idle Hours × SR)

Skilled 500 × 6 = ` 3,000 (A)

Semi- Skilled 700 × 4 = ` 2,800 (A)
Unskilled 800 × 3 = ` 2,400 (A)

Total ` 8,200 (A)

(v) Labour Mix Variance = (RSH – AHWorked )×SR
Std.Hours
Revised Std. hours (RSH) = ×TotalActual Hours
TotalStd.hours

20,000
Skilled ( ×1,07,000 – 17,500) × 6 = ` 23,400 (F)
1,00,000
30,000
Semi- Skilled ( ×1,07,000 – 32,300) × 4 = ` 800 (A)
1,00,000
50,000
Unskilled ( ×1,07,000 - 57,200) × 3 = ` 11,100 (A)
1,00,000

Total ` 11,500 (F)

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.33

(vi) Labour Yield Variance = (SH – RSH) × SR

20,000
Skilled (20,000 – ×1,07,000 ) × 6 =` 8,400 (A)
1,00,000
30,000
Semi- Skilled (30,000 – ×1,07,000 ) × 4 = ` 8,400 (A)
1,00,000
50,000
Unskilled (50,000 - ×1,07,000 ) × 3 = ` 10,500 (A)
1,00,000

Total ` 27,300 (A)

(b) Labour Rate Variance = (SR – AR) ×AHPaid

Skilled (6 – 5.5) ×5,000

(6 – 7) ×13,000 = ` 10,500 (A)
Semi- Skilled (4 – 3.5) ×33,000 = ` 16,500 (F)
Unskilled (3 – 4) × 58,000 = ` 58,000 (A)
Total ` 52,000 (A)

ILLUSTRATION 8
The standard labour employment and the actual labour engaged in a week for a job
are as under:
Skilled Semi-skilled Unskilled
workers workers workers

Standard no. of workers in the gang 32 12 6

Actual no. of workers employed 28 18 4
Standard wage rate per hour 3 2 1
Actual wage rate per hour 4 3 2

During the 40 hours working week, the gang produced 1,800 standard labour hours
of work. CALCULATE:
(a) Labour Cost Variance (b) Labour Rate Variance
(c) Labour Efficiency Variance (d) Labour Mix Variance
(e) Labour Yield Variance

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 13.34 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION
Workings:
1. Standard hours (SH)for actual hours produced are calculated as below:
1,800
Skilled = × 1,280 = 1,152 hrs.
2,000
1,800
Semi-skilled = × 480 = 432 hrs.
2,000
1,800
Unskilled = × 240 = 216 hrs.
2,000

2. Actual hours (AH) paid are calculated as below:

Category No. of Worker Hours in a week Total Hours

Skilled 28 40 1,120
Semi-skilled 18 40 720
Unskilled 4 40 160
2,000

3. For 40 hours week total Revised standard hours (RSH) will be calculated as
below:

Category No. of Worker Hours in a week Total Hours

Skilled 32 40 1,280
Semi-skilled 12 40 480
Unskilled 6 40 240
2,000

Calculations

Category SH × SR AH × SR AH × AR RSH × SR
of workers
Skilled 1,152 × 3 1,120 × 3 1,120 × 4 1,280 × 3
= 3,456 = 3,360 = 4,480 = 3,840
Semi-skilled 432 × 2 = 864 720 × 2 = 1,440 720 × 3 = 2,160 480 × 2 = 960
Unskilled 216 × 1 = 216 160 × 1 = 160 160 × 2 = 320 240 × 1 = 240
Total ` 4,536 ` 4,960 ` 6,960 ` 5,040

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.35

(i) Labour Cost Variance = Std. Cost for hours worked – Actual cost paid
= (SH × SR) – (AH × AR)
= `4,536 – 6,960 = `2,424 (A)
(ii) Labour Rate Variance = AH (SR – AR) or (AH × SR) – (AH × AR)
Skilled = 3,360 – 4,480 = `1,120 (A)
Semi-skilled = 1,440 – 2,160 = `720 (A)

Unskilled = 160 - 320 = `160 (A) 2,000 (A)

(iii) Labour Efficiency Variance= SR (SH – AH) or (SR × SH) – (SR × AH)
Skilled = 3,456 – 3,360 = `96 (F)

Semi-skilled = 864 – 1,440 = `576 (A)

Unskilled = 216 – 160 = `56 (F) `424 (A)
(iv) Labour Mix Variance = SR (RSH – AH) or (SR × RSH) – (SR × AH)
Skilled = 3,840 – 3,360 = `480 (F)
Semi-skilled = 960 – 1,440 = `480 (A)
Unskilled = 240 - 160 = ` 80 (F) `80 (F)

(v) Labour Yield Variance = SR (SH – RSH) or (SR × SH – SR × RSH)

Skilled = 3,456 - 3,840 = `384 (A)
Semi-skilled = 864 - 960 = `96 (A)
Unskilled = 216 - 240 = ` 24 (A) `504 (A)
Check
(i) LCV = LRV + LEV
`2,424 (A) = `2,000 (A) + `424 (A)
(ii) LEV = LMV + LYV
`424 (A) = `80 (F) + `504 (A)

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7.3 Variable Overhead Cost Variance

Variable Overhead Cost Variance

Variable Overhead Expenditure Variable Overhead Efficiency

Variance Variance

Variable overheads consist of expenses other than direct material and direct labour
which vary with the level of production. If variable overhead consist of indirect
materials, then in this case it varies with the direct material used. On the other hand,
if variable overhead is depending on number of hours worked then in this case it
will vary with labour hour or machine hours. If nothing is mentioned specifically
then we take labour hour as basis. Variable overhead cost variance calculation is
similar to labour cost variance. Variable overhead cost variance is divided into two
parts (i) Variable Overhead Expenditure Variance and (ii) Variable Overhead
Efficiency Variance.

Variable Overhead Cost Variance

(Standard Variable Overheads for Actual Production – Actual Variable Overheads)

Variable Overhead Variable Overhead

Expenditure (Spending) Variance Efficiency Variance
(Standard Variable Overheads for (Standard Variable Overheads for
Actual Hours#) Production)
Less Less
(Actual Variable Overheads) (Standard Variable Overheads for
Actual Hours#)
[(SR – AR) × AH#]
[(SH – AH#) × SR]
Or
Or
[(SR × AH#) – (AR × AH#)]
[(SH × SR) – (AH# × SR)]
#
Actual Hours (Worked)

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Meaning of the terms used in the formulae:

Term Meaning

Standard Hours (SH) Hours required producing actual output.

Actual Hours (AH) Actual Hours taken to produce actual output.
Revised Standard Hours (RSH) If actual labour hours worked were worked by
standard mix (combination) of labour.
Actual Yield (AY) Actual Hours worked
Standard Yield (SY) Actual hours if labour worked in standard
ratio
Standard Labour Cost (SLC) Standard labour cost for actual output

ILLUSTRATION 9
From the following information of G Ltd., calculate (i) Variable Overhead Cost
Variance; (ii) Variable Overhead Expenditure Variance and (iii) Variable Overhead
Efficiency Variance:

Budgeted Production 6,000 units

Budgeted Variable Overhead ` 1,20,000
Standard time for one Unit of output 2 hours
Actual Production 5,900 units
Actual Overhead Incurred ` 1,22,000
Actual Hours Worked 11,600 hours

SOLUTION
Workings:
`1,20,000
1. Standard cost per unit = = `20
6,000units

`1,20,000
2. Standard cost per hour = = `10
6,000units×2hours

(i) Variable Overhead Cost Variance:

= Std. Overhead for actual production – Actual overhead incurred
= `20 × 5,900 units – `1,22,000 = `4,000 (A)

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(ii) Variable Overhead Expenditure Variance:

= Std. overhead for Actual hours – Actual Overhead

= `10 ×11,600 hours - `1,22,000 = `6,000 (A)
(iii) Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance:

= Std.rate per hour × (Std. hours for actual production – Actual hours)
= `10 (2 hours × 5,900 units – 11,600 hours) = `2,000 (F)

7.4 Fixed Overhead Cost Variance

The recovery of the fixed components of the estimated overheads depends upon
capacity utilization.

In case a company produces less than the projected utilization it shall not be able
to recover all the budgeted fixed overheads. This unrecovered portion is known as
production volume variance.
The other variance is because of variations in actual spending when compared with
both estimated fixed and estimated variable overheads. Such a variance is known
as Overhead expenses variance.
The following detailed discussion shall help you have a clear understanding of these
two variances.
(1) Production Volume Variance: The term fixed overheads implies that the
element of cost does not vary directly in proportion to the output. In other words,
fixed overheads do not change within a given range of activity.
However, the unit cost changes even though the fixed overheads are constant in
total within the given range of output. So, higher the level of activity, the lower will
be the unit cost or vice versa.
The management is, therefore, faced with a costing difficulty because it requires a
representative rate for charging fixed overheads irrespective of changes in volume
of output. For example, if the fixed overheads are ` 10,000 and the output varies
from 8,000 to 11,000 units, the cost per unit of output would be as under:

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Fixed Overheads Output in units Cost per unit of output (`)

10,000 8,000 1.25
10,000 9,000 1.11
10,000 10,000 1.00
10,000 11,000 0.91

We have, however, seen that in standard costing, a predetermined rate of overhead

recovery is established for costing purposes. This involves the establishment of a
predetermined capacity.
If we take, for example; 10,000 units as predetermine volume/capacity, the pre-
determined rate will be `1 per unit. If the factory produces only 8,000 units, there
will be a loss due to under-recovery which can be explained in two-ways:

(a) The actual cost will be `10,000 ÷ 8,000 units = `1.25 per unit whereas the
absorbed cost is `1 per hour. Since the cost is more by `0.25 per unit, the
total loss is 8,000 units × ` 0.25 or ` 2,000.
(b) Since the factory has produced only 8,000 units, the amount of overheads
recovered is 8,000 units × `1 or ` 8,000. Since fixed overheads are constant,
the amount which should have been ideally incurred for the department is
`10,000. Hence there is a difference of `2,000 between the overheads
recovered and the overheads estimated. This variance is known as production
volume variance.
This shows the cost of failure on the part of the factory to produce at the planned
activity of 10,000 units. If the company produces 11,000 units, the variance will
show the benefits of operating at a level above the budgeted activity. If, however,
the factory has produced 10,000 units, there will be no production volume variance
because the actual activity equals what was budgeted i.e. the production of 10,000
units.

(2) Overhead Expenses Variance: As discussed above, the Production Volume

Variance analyses the unrecovered fixed overheads. Apart from this, there can be
variations in the actual spending of both fixed and variable overheads when
compared to what was established as a standard. Such variations can be accounted
for by analyzing an overhead expenses variance.

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The analysis of overhead variances is different from that of material and labour
variances. As overhead is the aggregate of indirect materials, indirect labour and
indirect expenses, this variance is considered to be a difficult part of variance
analysis. It is important to understand that overhead variance is nothing but under
or over-absorption of overhead.
Fixed Overhead Cost Variance: Fixed overhead cost variance is the difference
between actual fixed overhead and absorbed fixed overhead. Fixed overhead
variance is divided into two parts (A) Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance and (B)
Fixed Overhead Volume Variance.
(A) Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance: This is the difference between the
actual fixed overhead incurred and budgeted fixed overhead.
(B) Fixed Overhead Volume Variance: Variance in fixed overhead which arise
due to the volume of production is called fixed overhead volume variance.
Fixed overhead volume variance is further divided into the three variances:
(a) Efficiency Variance
(b) Capacity Variance and

(c) Calendar Variance

Fixed Overhead
Cost Variance

Fixed OH
Fixed OH Volume
Expenditure
Variance
Variance

FOH Efficiency FOH Capacity FOH Calender

Variance Variance Variance

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Mathematically these can be written as follows:

Fixed Overhead Cost Variance

(Absorbed Fixed Overheads) Less (Actual Fixed Overheads)
(SH × SR) –(AH × AR)

Fixed Overhead Expenditure Fixed Overhead Volume

Variance Variance
(Budgeted Fixed Overheads) (Absorbed Fixed Overheads)
Less Less
(Actual Fixed Overheads) (Budgeted Fixed Overheads)
Or Or
(BH × SR) – (AH × AR) (SH × SR) – (BH × SR)

Fixed Overhead Fixed Overhead Fixed Overhead

Capacity Variance Calendar Variance Efficiency Variance
SR (AH – BH) Std. Fixed Overhead rate SR (SH – AH)
Or per day (Actual no. of Or
(AH × SR) – (BH × SR) Working days – Budgeted (SH × SR) – (AH × SR)
Working days)

(a) Fixed Overhead Efficiency Variance: This is the difference between fixed
overhead absorbed and standard fixed overhead.
(b) Fixed Overhead Capacity Variance: This is the difference between standard
fixed overhead and budgeted overhead.
(c) Fixed Overhead Calendar Variance: This variance arises due to difference in
number of actual working days and the standard working days.

Note: When calendar variance is computed, there will be a modification in the

capacity variance. In that case revised capacity variance will be calculated and the
formula is:
Revised Capacity Variance = (Actual hours – Revised budgeted hours) × Std. fixed
rate per hour

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Verification of formulae:

F.O. Cost Variance = F.O. Expenditure Variance + F.O. Volume Variance

F.O. Volume Variance = Efficiency Variance + Capacity Variance + Calendar
Variance
Basic terms used in the computation of overhead variance
Budgeted Overhead
Standard overhead rate (per hour) =
Budgeted hours

Or
Budgeted Overhead
Standard overhead rate (per unit) =
Budgeted output in units

Note: Separate overhead rates will be computed for fixed and variable overheads.
Basic calculations before the computation of overhead variances:
The following basic calculation should be made before computing variances.

(i) When overhead rate per hour is used:

(a) Standard hours for actual output (SHAO)

Budgeted Hours
SHAO = ×Actual Output
Budgeted Output

(b) Absorbed (or Recovered) overhead = Std. hours for actual output × Std.
overhead rate per hour
(c) Standard overhead = Actual hours × Std. overhead rate per hour
(d) Budgeted overhead = Budgeted hours × Std. overhead rate per hour

(e) Actual overhead = Actual hours × Actual overhead rate per hour
(ii) When overhead rate per unit is used
(a) Standard output for actual hours (SOAH)

Budgeted Output
SOAH = ×Actual Hours
Budgeted Hours

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(b) Absorbed overhead = Actual output × Std. overhead rate per unit
(c) Standard overhead = Std. output for actual time × Std. overhead
rate per unit
(d) Budgeted overhead = Budgeted output × Std. overhead rate per unit
(e) Actual overhead = Actual output × Actual overhead rate per unit
(f) Overhead cost variance = Absorbed overhead – Actual overhead
(g) OCV = (Std. hours for actual output × Std. overhead
rate) – Actual overhead
ILLUSTRATION 10
The cost detail of J&G Ltd. for the month of September is as follows:

Budgeted Actual
Fixed overhead ` 15,00,000 ` 15,60,000
Units of production 7,500 7,800
Standard time for one unit 2 hours -
Actual hours worked - 16,000 hours

Required:
CALCULATE (i) Fixed Overhead Cost Variance (ii) Fixed Overhead Expenditure
Variance (iii) Fixed Overhead Volume Variance (iv) Fixed Overhead Efficiency
Variance and (v) Fixed Overhead Capacity Variance.

SOLUTION
(i) Fixed Overhead Cost Variance:
= Overhead absorbed for actual production – Actual overhead incurred
 `15,00,000 
=  ×7,800  - `15,60,000 = 0
 7,500 
(ii) Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance:
= Budgeted overhead – Actual overhead
= `15,00,000 - `15,60,000 = `60,000 (A)

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(iii) Fixed Overhead Volume Variance:

= Absorbed overhead – Budgeted overhead

 `15,00,000 
=  ×7,800  - `15,00,000 = `60,000 (F)
 7,500 
(iv) Fixed Overhead Efficiency Variance:
= Std. Rate (Std. hours for actual production - Actual hours)
`15,00,000
= × {(2 hours × 7,800 hours) -16,000 hours}
7,500×2

= `100 (15,600 -16,000) = `40,000 (A)

(v) Fixed Overhead Capacity Variance:
= Std. Rate (Actual hours - Budgeted hours)
`15,00,000
= × (16,000 hours -15,000 hours}
7,500×2

= `100 (16,000- 15,000) = `1,00,000 (F)

ILLUSTRATION 11
A company has a normal capacity of 120 machines, working 8 hours per day of 25
days in a month. The fixed overheads are budgeted at ` 1,44,000 per month. The
standard time required to manufacture one unit of product is 4 hours.
In April 2021, the company worked 24 days of 840 machine hours per day and
produced 5,305 units of output. The actual fixed overheads were ` 1,42,000.
COMPUTE the following Fixed Overhead variance:
1. Efficiency variance
2. Capacity variance
3. Calendar variance
4. Expenditure variance
5. Volume variance
6. Total Fixed overhead variance

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SOLUTION
Working Notes:
Budget Actual
(1) Fixed overheads for the month 1,44,000 1,42,000
(2) Working days per month 25 24
(3) Working hours per month (120 machines × 8 (840 machines
hrs. × 25 days) hours × 24 days)
= 24,000 = 20,160

(4) Production units per month 24,000 hrs. = 6,000 5,305

4 hrs.

(5) Standard hours for actual production

= Actual production units × Std. hours per unit
= 5,305 × 4 = 21,220 hrs.
` 1, 44,000
(6) Standard fixed overhead rate per unit = = ` 24
6000 units
` 1, 44, 000
(7) Standard fixed overhead rate per hour = =`6
24, 000 hrs.

(8) Standard fixed overhead per day = ` 1, 44,000 = ` 5,760

25 days

1. Efficiency variance
= Std. rate per hr. (Std. hrs. for actual production – Actual hrs.)
= 6 × (21,220 – 20,160) = ` 6,360 (F)
2. Capacity variance
= Std. Rate (Actual hours - Budgeted hours)
= 6 × {20,160 – (24 days × 120 machine × 8 hrs.)} = ` 17,280 (A)
3. Calendar variance
= (Actual No. of days – Budgeted No. of days) × Std. rate per day
= (24 – 25) × 5,760 = ` 5,760 (A)

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4. Expenditure variance
= Budgeted overhead – Actual overhead
= 1,44,000 – 1,42,000 = ` 2,000 (F)
5. Volume variance
= Absorbed overhead – Budgeted overhead
= (5,305 × 24) – 1,44,000 = ` 16,680 (A)
6. Total fixed overhead Variance
= Absorbed overhead – Actual overhead incurred
= (5,305 × 24) – 1,42,000 = ` 14,680 (A)
ILLUSTRATION 12
The overhead expense budget for a factory producing to a capacity of 200 units per
month is as follows:

Description of overhead Fixed cost Variable cost per Total cost

per unit in ` unit in ` per unit in `
Power and fuel 1,000 500 1,500
Repair and maintenance 500 250 750
Printing and stationary 500 250 750
Other overheads 1,000 500 1,500
` 3,000 ` 1,500 4,500

The factory has actually produced only 100 units in a particular month. Details of
overheads actually incurred have been provided by the accounts department and are
as follows:

Description of overhead Actual cost

Power and fuel ` 4,00,000
Repair and maintenance ` 2,00,000
Printing and stationary ` 1,75,000
Other overheads ` 3,75,000

You are required to CALCULATE the Overhead volume variance and the overhead
expense variances.

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SOLUTION
Overheads volume variance (in case of fixed overhead):
Standard fixed overheads per unit (SR): `3,000 (Given)

Actual production : 100 units

Standard production (capacity) : 200 units
Fixed Overhead Volume Variance:
= Absorbed overhead – Budgeted Overhead
= (`3,000× 100 units) – (`3,000× 200 units)
= `3,00,000 - `6,00,000 = `3,00,000 (Adverse)
Overhead expense variances
= Budgeted Overhead – Actual Overhead
= (`3,000 × 200 units) – (Total overhead – Variable overhead)
= (`3,000 × 200 units) – (`11,50,000 - `1,500×100 units)

= `6,00,000 – (`11,50,000 - `1,50,000)

= `6,00,000 –`10,00,000 = `4,00,000 (Adverse)

ILLUSTRATION 13
The following information was obtained from the records of a manufacturing unit
using standard costing system.
Standard Actual
Production 4,000 units 3,800 units
Working days 20 21
Machine hours 8,000 hours 7,800 hours
Fixed Overhead ` 4,00,000 ` 3,90,000
Variable Overhead `1,20,000 `1,20,000

You are required to CALCULATE the following overhead variance:

(a) Variable overhead variances
(b) Fixed overhead variances

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SOLUTION
(a) Variable Overhead Variances
(i) Variable Overhead Variance:
= Std. overhead for actual production – Actual overhead

�4,000 units ×3,800 units� - `1,20,000

`1,20,000
=

= `1,14,000 – `1,20,000 = `6,000 (A)

(ii) Variable Overhead Expenditure Variance:
= Std. overhead for actual hours – Actual overhead
` 1,20,000
= �8,000 hours ×7,800 hours�- `1,20,000
= `15 × 7,800 hours - `1,20,000 = `3,000 (A)
(iii) Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance:
= Std. Rate per hour (Std. hours for actual production – Actual hours)

` 1,20,000  8,000hours  
= ×  ×3,800units  -7,800hours 
8,000 hours  4,000units  

= `15 × (7,600 hours – 7,800 hours) = `3,000 (A)

(b) Fixed Overhead Variance:
(i) Fixed Overhead Variance:
= Absorbed overhead – Actual overhead
 ` 4,00,000 
=  ×3,800units  - `3,90,000
 4,000units 

= `3,80,000 - `3,90,000 = 10,000 (A)

(ii) Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance:
= Budgeted Overhead – Actual Overhead
= `4,00,000 - `3,90,000 = `10,000 (F)

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(iii) Fixed Overhead Volume Variance:

= Absorbed overhead – Budgeted Overhead
 ` 4,00,000 
=  ×3,800 units  - `4,00,000
 4,000 units 

= ` 3,80,000 - `4,00,000 = `20,000 (A)

(iv) Fixed Overhead Efficiency Variance:
= SR × (Std. hours for actual production – Actual hours)
= `50 × {(2 hours × 3,800 units) – 7,800 hours}
= `3,80,000 - `3,90,000 = `10,000 (A)

(v) Fixed Overhead Capacity Variance:

= SR × (Actual hours – Revised budgeted hours)
 8,000 
= `50 × 7,800 hours - ×21 days 
 20 days 

= `50 × (7,800 hours – 8,400 hours) = `30,000 (A)

(vi) Fixed Overhead Calendar Variance:

= Rate per day (Budgeted days – Actual days)
`4,00,000
= ×(20 days – 21 days) = 20,000 (F)
20 days

8. ADVANTAGES AND CRITICISM OF

STANDARD COSTING
8.1 Advantages of Standard Costing
Following are the advantages of standard costing.
(i) It serves as a basis for measuring operating performance and cost
control. It is possible by setting standards, proper classification and
determination of variances. It serves as a signal for prompt corrective action.
It helps to report exceptional variances i.e. the only matters which are not

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proceeding according to plan are reported. This enables the managers to

concentrate on essential matters only.
(ii) It aids price fixing. Standard costing can be used to predict costs. Although
actual cost may vary from day to day, standard costs will remain stable over
a period of time and, where demand for a product is elastic, this information
can be used as a basis for fixing the selling price.
(iii) Introduction of standard costing facilitates evaluation of jobs and
introduction of incentives. Job values can be determined by the use of
evaluation and scale of wages fixed according to the responsibility involved
in each job.
(iv) Standard costing facilitates the estimation of the cost of new products
with greater accuracy.
(v) It serves as a basis for inventory valuation. Standard costs are used for
inventory valuation. A further advantage of this procedure is that material
stock can be recorded in terms of quantities only.
(vi) Standard costing is also used for the measurement of profit. The question
of correct approach of calculating profit is very much related to methods of
stock valuation and absorption of fixed overheads. Standard costing
eliminates any variations in profit due to changes in stock values from one
period to another thus provides a basis for the measurement of profit.
(vii) Standard costing is used in planning, budgeting and decision making.
Standard costs being the pre-determined costs, are particularly useful in
planning and budgeting.
(viii) Standard costing is used in standardisation of products, operations and
processes, it improves the overall production efficiency and reduces costs.
(ix) It provides objectives and targets to be achieved by each level of
management and defines the responsibilities of departmental managers.
Thus, the system serves as an incentive to the departmental head to
achieve the targets set by the company.
(x) Standard costing sets a uniform basis for comparison of all elements of costs.
Since care is taken in setting standards, the standards become unchanging
units of comparison. The standard hour may be used as a basic unit to
compare dissimilar products or processes.

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(xi) The maximum use of working capital, plant facilities and current assets is
assured because wastage of materials and loss due to idle time are closely
controlled.

8.2 Criticism of Standard Costing

The following are some of the criticism which may be leveled against the
standard costing system. The arguments have been suitably answered as stated
against each by advocates of the standard costing and hence they do not
invalidate the usefulness of the system to business enterprises.
(i) Variation in price: One of the chief problem faced in the operation of the
standard costing system is the precise estimation of likely prices or rate to be paid.
The variability of prices is so great that even actual prices are not necessarily
adequately representative of cost. But the use of sophisticated forecasting
techniques should be able to cover the price fluctuation to some extent. Besides
this, the system provides for isolating uncontrollable variances arising from
variations to be dealt with separately.
(ii) Varying levels of output: If the standard level of output set for pre-
determination of standard costs is not achieved, the standard costs are said to be
not realised. However, the statement that the capacity utilisation cannot be
precisely estimated for absorption of overheads may be true only in some
industries of jobbing type. In vast majority of industries, use of forecasting
techniques, market research, etc., help to estimate the output with reasonable
accuracy and thus the variation is unlikely to be very large. Prime cost will not be
affected by such variation and, moreover, variance analysis helps to measure the
effects of idle time.
(iii) Changing standard of technology: In case of industries that have frequent
technological changes affecting the conditions of production, standard costing
may not be suitable. This criticism does not affect the system of standard costing.
Cost reduction and cost control is a cardinal feature of standard costing because
standards once set do not always remain stable. They have to be revised.
(iv) Attitude of technical people: Technical people are accustomed to think of
standards as physical standards and, therefore, they will be misled by standard

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costs. Since technical people can be educated to adopt themselves to the system
through orientation courses, it is not an insurmountable difficulty.
(v) Mix of products: Standard costing presupposes a pre-determined
combination of products both in variety and quantity. The mixture of materials used
to manufacture the products may vary in the long run but since standard costs are
set normally for a short period, such changes can be taken care of by revision of
standards.
(vi) Level of Performance: Standards may be either too strict or too liberal
because they may be based on (a) theoretical maximum efficiency, (b) attainable
good performance or (c) average past performance. To overcome this difficulty, the
management should give thought to the selection of a suitable type of standard.
The type of standard most effective in the control of costs is one which represents
an attainable level of good performance.
(vii) Standard costs cannot possibly reflect the true value in exchange. If
previous historical costs are amended roughly to arrive at estimates for ad hoc
purposes, they are not standard costs in the strict sense of the term and hence they
cannot also reflect true value in exchange. In arriving at standard costs, however,
the economic and technical factors, internal and external, are brought together and
analysed to arrive at quantities and prices which reflect optimum operations. The
resulting costs, therefore, become realistic measures of the sacrifices involved.
(viii) Fixation of standards may be costly: It may require high order of skill and
competency. Small concerns, therefore, feel difficulty in the operation of such
system.

SUMMARY
♦ Standard Costing: A technique which uses standards for costs and revenues
for the purposes of control through variance analysis.
♦ Standard Price: A predetermined price fixed on the basis of a specification
of a product or service and of all factors affecting that price.
♦ Standard Time: The total time in which task should be completed at standard
performance.

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♦ Variance: A divergence from the predetermined rates, expressed ultimately

in money value, generally used in standard costing and budgetary control
systems.
♦ Variance Analysis: The analysis of variances arising in standard costing
system into their constituent parts.
♦ Revision Variance: It is the difference between the original standard cost and
the revised standard cost of actual production.
♦ Basic Standard: A standard fixed for a fairly long period.
♦ Current Standard: A standard fixed for a short period.

♦ Estimated Cost: An estimate of what the cost is likely to be during a given

period of time.
♦ Ideal Cost: A cost which should be incurred during a period under ideal
conditions.
Important Formulas
♦ Material Variance:

Material Costs Variance = (Std. qty × Std. Price) – (Actual qty × Actual price)
Material Usage Variance = Std. price (Std. Qty. – Actual qty.)
Material Price Variance = Actual qty. (Std. price – Actual price)
Material Cost Variance = Material usage variance + Material price variance
Material Mix Variance = SP (RSQ – AQ)
Material Yield Variance = SP (SQ – RSQ)
♦ Labour Variance:
Labour Cost Variance = (Std. time × Std. Rate) – (Actual time × Actual rate)
Labour Efficiency Variance = Std. rate (Std. time – Actual time)
Labour Rate Variance = Actual time (Std. rate – Actual rate)
Labour Idle Time Variance = Idle time x Std. rate
Labour Cost Variance = Labour Efficiency Variance + Labour Rate Variance

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Labour Mix Variance = SR (RSH – AH)

Labour Yield Variance = SR (SH – RSH)

♦ Fixed Overhead Variances:
F.O. Cost Variance = Recovered Overhead – Actual Overhead

F.O. Expenditure Variance = Budgeted Overhead – Actual Overhead

F.O. Volume Variance = Recovered Overhead – Budgeted Overhead
F.O. Efficiency Variance = Recovered Overhead – Standard Overhead

F.O. Capacity Variance = Standard Overhead – Budgeted Overhead

F.O. Calendar Variance = SR (Actual no. of working days – Std. no. working days)
♦ Variable Overhead Variances

V.O. Cost variance = Recovered Overhead – Actual Overhead

V.O. Expenditure Variance = Standard Overhead – Actual Overhead
V.O. Efficiency Variance = Recovered Overhead – Standard Overhead

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Under standard cost system the cost of the product determined at the beginning
of production is its:
(a) Direct cost
(b) Pre-determined cost

(c) Historical cost

(d) Actual cost
2. The deviations between actual and standard cost is known as:

(a) Multiple analysis

(b) Variable cost analysis

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.55

(c) Variance analysis

(d) Linear trend analysis
3. The standard which is attainable under favourable conditions is:
(a) Theoretical standard
(b) Expected standard
(c) Normal standard
(d) Basic standard
4. The standard most suitable from cost control point of view is:
(a) Normal standard

(b) Theoretical standard

(c) Expected standard
(d) Basic standard

5. Overhead cost variances is:

(a) The difference between overheads recovered on actual output - actual
overhead incurred.

(b) The difference between budgeted overhead cost and actual overhead cost.
(c) Obtained by multiplying standard overhead absorption rate with the
difference between standard hours for actual output and actual hours
worked.
(d) None of the above
6. Which of the following variance arises when more than one material is used
in the manufacture of a product:
(a) Material price variance
(b) Material usage variance

(c) Material yield variance

(d) Material mix variance

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7. If standard hours for 100 units of output are 400 @ ` 2 per hour and actual
hours take are 380 @ ` 2.25 per, then the labour rate variance is:
(a) ` 95 (adverse)
(b) ` 100 (adverse)
(c) ` 25 (favourable)
(d) ` 120 (adverse)
8. Controllable variances are best disposed-off by transferring to:

(a) Cost of goods sold

(b) Cost of goods sold and inventories
(c) Inventories of work–in–progress and finished goods
(d) Costing profit and loss account
9. Idle time variance is obtained by multiplying:
(a) The difference between standard and actual hours by the actual rate of
labour per hour
(b) The difference between actual labour hours paid and actual labour hours
worked by the standard rate

(c) The difference between standard and actual hours by the standard rate of
labour per hour
(d) None of the above.

10. Basic standards are:

(a) Those standards, which require high degree of efficiency and performance.
(b) Average standards and are useful in long term planning.
(c) Standards, which can be attained or achieved
(d) Assuming to remain unchanged for a long time.

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Theoretical Questions
1. DISCUSS the process of setting standards.
2. DISCUSS the types of standards.
3. HOW material usage standard is set
4. DISCUSS the various types of fixed overhead variances.

Practical Problems
1. For making 10 kg. of CEMCO, the standard material requirements is:

Material Quantity Rate per kg. (`)

A 8 kg 6.00
B 4 kg 4.00

During April, 1,000 kg of CEMCO were produced. The actual consumption of

materials is as under:

Material Quantity (Kg.) Rate per kg. (`)

A 750 7.00
B 500 5.00

CALCULATE (A) Material Cost Variance; (b) Material Price Variance; (c)
Material usage Variance.
2. The standard mix to produce one unit of a product is as follows:
Material X 60 units @ ` 15 per unit = 900
Material Y 80 units @ ` 20 per unit = 1,600
Material Z 100 units @ ` 25 per unit = 2,500
240 units 5,000
During the month of April, 10 units were actually produced and consumption
was as follows:

Material X 640 units @ ` 17.50 per unit = 11,200

Material Y 950 units @ ` 18.00 per unit = 17,100

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 13.58 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Material Z 870 units @ ` 27.50 per unit = 23,925

2,460 units 52,225

CALCULATE all material variances.
3. GAP Limited operates a system of standard costing in respect of one of its
products which is manufactured within a single cost centre. Following are
the details.
Budgeted data:
Material Qty Price (`) Amount (`)
A 60 20 1200
B 40 30 1200

Inputs 100 2400

Normal loss 20
Output 80 2400

Actual data:
Actual output 80 units.
Material Qty Price (`) Amount (`)
A 70 ? ?
B ? 30 ?
Material Price Variance (A) ` 105A
Material cost variance ` 275A
You are required to CALCULATE:
(i) Actual Price of material A
(ii) Actual Quantity of material B
(iii) Material Price Variance
(iv) Material Usage Variance

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(v) Material Mix Variance

(vi) Material Sub Usage Variance
4. One kilogram of product K requires two chemicals A and B. The following were
the details of product K for the month of June 2023:
(a) Standard mix for chemical A is 50% and chemical B is 50%.
(b) Standard price kilogram of chemical A is ` 12 and chemical B is ` 15.
(c) Actual input of chemical B is 70 kilograms.
(d) Actual price per kilogram of chemical A is ` 15
(c) Standard normal loss is 10% of total input

(d) Total Material cost variance is ` 650 adverse.

(e) Total Material yield variance is ` 135 adverse.
You are required to CALCULATE:

(i) Total Material mix variance

(ii) Total Material usage variance
(iii) Total Material price variance
(iv) Actual loss of actual input
(v) Actual input of chemical A
(vi) Actual price per kg. of chemical B

5. The following standards have been set to manufacture a product:

Direct Material: (`)

2 units of A @ ` 4 per unit 8.00
3 units of B @ ` 3 per unit 9.00
15 units of C @ ` 1 per unit 15.00
32.00
Direct Labour: 3 hours @ ` 8 per hour 24.00
Total standard prime cost 56.00

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The company manufactured and sold 6,000 units of the product during the
year. Direct material costs were as follows:
12,500 units of A at ` 4.40 per unit
18,000 units of B at ` 2.80 per unit

88,500 units of C at ` 1.20 per unit

The company worked 17,500 direct labour hours during the year. For 2,500 of these
hours, the company paid at ` 12 per hour while for the remaining, the wages were
paid at standard rate.
CALCULATE
(i) Materials price variance & Usage variance

(ii) Labour rate &Efficiency variances.

6. The following information is available from the cost records of Novell & Co. for
the month of March 2021:

Materials purchased 20,000 units @ ` 88,000

Materials consumed 19,000 units
Actual wages paid for 4,950 hrs. ` 24,750
Units produced 1,800 units
Standard rates and pieces are:
Direct material ` 4 per unit
Standard output 10 number for one unit
Direct labour rate ` 4.00 per hour
Standard requirement 2.5 hours per unit

You are required to CALCULATE relevant material and labour variance for the
month.
7. XYZ Company has established the following standards for factory overheads.
Variable overhead per unit: ` 10/-
Fixed overheads per month ` 1,00,000

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Capacity of the plant 20,000 units per month.

The actual data for the month are as follows:
Actual overheads incurred ` 3,00,000
Actual output (units) 15,000 units
Required:
CALCULATE overhead variances viz:
(i) Production volume variance
(ii) Overhead expense variance
8. Following information is available from the records of a factory:

Budget Actual
Fixed overhead for the month of June ` 10,000 ` 12,000
Production in June (units) 2,000 2,100
Standard time per unit (hours) 10 –
Actual hours worked in June – 21,000

CALCULATE:
(i) Fixed overhead cost variance,

(ii) Expenditure variance,

(iii) Volume variance.
9. XYZ Ltd. has furnished you the following information for the month of
August:

Budget Actual
Output (units) 30,000 32,500
Hours 30,000 33,000
Fixed overhead ` 45,000 50,000
Variable overhead ` 60,000 68,000
Working days 25 26

CALCULATE overhead variances.

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10. S.V. Ltd. has furnished the following data:

Budget Actual (for the month of July)

No. of working days 25 27
Production in units 20,000 22,000
Fixed overheads ` 30,000 ` 31,000

Budgeted fixed overhead rate is ` 1.00 per hour. In July, the actual hours
worked were 31,500.
CALCULATE the following variances:

(i) Expenditure variance.

(ii) Volume variance.
(iii) Total overhead variance.
11. The following data for Pijee Ltd. is given:

Budget Actual
Production (in units) 400 360
Man hours to produce above 8,000 7,000
Variable overheads (in `) 10,000 9,150

CALCULATE relevant Variable overhead variances.

12. The following data has been collected from the cost records of a unit for
computing the various fixed overhead variances for a period:

Number of budgeted working days 25

Budgeted man-hours per day 6,000
Output (budgeted) per man-hour (in units) 1
Fixed overhead cost as budgeted ` 1,50,000
Actual number of working days 27
Actual man-hours per day 6,300
Actual output per man-hour (in-units) 0.9
Actual fixed overhead incurred ` 1,56,000

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CALCULATE fixed overhead variances:

(i) Expenditure Variance
(ii) Volume Variance,
(iii) Fixed Cost Variance.
13. J.K. Ltd. manufactures NXE by mixing three raw materials. For every batch
of 100 kg. of NXE, 125 kg. of raw materials are used. In the month of April,
60 batches were prepared to produce an output of 5,600 kg. of NXE. The
standard and actual particulars for the month of April, are as follows:

Raw Standard Actual Quantity of

Materials Mix Price per kg. Mix Price per Kg. Raw Materials
Purchased
(%) (`) (%) (`) (Kg.)
A 50 20 60 21 5,000
B 30 10 20 8 2,000
C 20 5 20 6 1,200

You are required to CALCULATE:

(i) Material Price variance

(ii) Material Usage Variance
14. Following data is extracted from the books of XYZ Ltd. for the month of January:
(i) Estimation-

Particulars Quantity (kg.) Price (`) Amount (`)

Material-A 800 ? --
Material-B 600 30.00 18,000
--
Normal loss was expected to be 10% of total input materials.

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(ii) Actuals-

1480 kg of output produced.

Particulars Quantity (kg.) Price (`) Amount (`)

Material-A 900 ? --
Material-B ? 32.50 --
59,825
(iii) Other Information-
Material Cost Variance = ` 3,625 (F)
Material Price Variance = ` 175 (F)
You are required to CALCULATE:

(i) Standard Price of Material-A;

(ii) Actual Quantity of Material-B;
(iii) Actual Price of Material-A;
(iv) Revised standard quantity of Material-A and Material-B; and
(v) Material Mix Variance.
15. Paras Synthetics uses Standard costing system in manufacturing of its product
‘Star 95 Mask’. The details are as follows;
Direct Material 0.50 Meter @ ` 60 per meter ` 30
Direct Labour 1 hour @ ` 20 per hour ` 20
Variable overhead 1 hour @ ` 10 per hour ` 10
Total ` 60
During the month of August, 10,000 units of ‘Star 95 Mask’ were manufactured.
Details are as follows:
Direct material consumed 5700 meters @ ` 58 per meter
Direct labour Hours ? @ ? ` 2,24,400
Variable overhead incurred ` 1,12,200

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Variable overhead efficiency variance is ` 2,000 A. Variable overheads are based

on Direct Labour Hours.
You are required to calculate the missing data and all the relevant Variances.

ANSWERS/ SOLUTIONS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (d)

7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 4
2. Please refer paragraph 2
3. Please refer paragraph 7.1
4. Please refer paragraph 7.4

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. Basic Calculations

Standard for 1,000 kg. Actual for 1,000 kg.

Qty. Rate Amount Qty. Rate Amount
Kg. (`) (`) Kg. (`) (`)
A 800* 6 4,800 750 7 5,250
B 400* 4 1,600 500 5 2,500
Total 1,200 6,400 1,250 7,750

(* A- 8÷10 ×1000 = 800 B- 4÷10 × 1000 = 400)

Calculation of Variances:
(a) Material Cost Variance = Std. cost for actual output – Actual cost
MCV = 6,400 – 7,750 = `1, 350 (A)

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(b) Material Price Variance = (SP – AP) × AQ

A = (6 – 7) × 750 = ` 750 (A)

B = (4 – 5) × 500 = ` 500 (A)
MPV = `1,250 (A)

(c) Material Usages Variance = (SQ – AQ) × SP

A = (800 – 750) × 6 = ` 300 (F)
B = (400 – 500) × 4 = ` 400 (A)

MUV = ` 100 (A)

Check
MCV = MPV + MUV

1,350 (A) = 1,250 (A) + 100 (A)

2.

Material Standard for 10 units Actual for 10 units

Qty. Rate Amount Qty. Rate Amount
Units (`) (`) units (`) (`)
X 600 15 9,000 640 17.50 11,200
Y 800 20 16,000 950 18.00 17,100
Z 1,000 25 25,000 870 27.50 23,925
Total 2,400 50,000 2,460 52,225

1. Material Cost Variance = Standard cost – Actual cost

= ` 50,000 – ` 52,225
MCV = ` 2,225 (A)
2. Material Price Variance = (Std. Price – Actual Price) × Actual Qty.
Material X = (15 – 17.50) × 640 = ` 1,600 (A)

Material Y = (20 – 18) × 950 = ` 1,900 (F)

Material Z = (25 – 27.50) × 870 = ` 2,175 (A)
MPV = ` 1,875 (A)

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3. Material Usage Variance = (Std. Qty. – Actual Qty.) × Std. Price

Material X = (600 – 640) × 15 =` 600 (A)
Material Y = (800 – 950) × 20 = ` 3,000 (A)
Material Z = (1,000 – 870) × 25 = ` 3,250 (F)
MUV = ` 350 (A)
Check MCV = MPV + MUV
` 2,225 (A) = ` 1,875 (A) + ` 350 (A)
4. Material Mix Variance = (Revised Std. Qty. – Actual Qty.) × Std. Price
Material X = (615* – 640) × 15 = ` 375 (A)

Material Y = (820* – 950) × 20 = `2,600 (A)

Material Z = (1,025 – 870) × 25 = `3,875 (F)
MMV = ` 900 (F)
*Revised Standard Quantity (RSQ) is calculated as follows:
2460
Material X = × 600 = 615 units
2400
2460
Material Y = × 800 = 820 units
2400
2460
Material Z = × 1,000 = 1,025 units
2400
5. Material Yield Variance = (Std. Qty - Revised Std. Qty.) × Std. Price
Material X = (600 - 615) × 15 = `225 (A)
Material Y = (800 - 820) × 20 = `400 (A)
Material Z = (1,000 - 1,025) × 25 = `625 (A)
MYV = `1,250 (A)
Check
MUV = MMV + MYV (Or MRUV)
`350 (A) = `900 (F) + `1,250 (A)

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or

MCV = MPV + MMV + MYV (Or MRUV)

` 2,225 (A) = ` 1,875 (A) + `900 (F) + ` 1,250 (A)
3. (i) Actual Price of Material A

Let Actual Price of Material A be ‘X’

Material Price Variance (A) = ` 105 (A)
Material Price Variance = (SP – AP) × AQ
(20 – X) × 70 = 105 (A)
1,400 – 70X = -105
X = 1,505 ÷ 70 = 21.5

Therefore X (Actual Price) = ` 21.5

(ii) Actual Quantity of Material B
Let Actual Quantity of Material B be ‘X ‘

Material Cost Variance = (SQ× SP) – (AQ× AP)

Material Cost Variance = 275 (A)
{(60 × 20) – (70 × 21.5)} + {(40 × 30) – (‘X’ × 30)} = 275 (A)
{(1,200 – 1,505) + (1,200 – 30X)} = -275
(895 – 30X) = -275
X = 1,170 ÷ 30 = 39 units
(iii) Material Price Variance = (SP – AP) × AQ
Material A = (20 – 21.5) × 70 = ` 105 (A)
Material B = (30 – 30) × 39 =`0

Total = ` 105 (A)

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(iv) Material Usage Variance = (SQ– AQ) × SP

Material A = (60 – 70) × 20 = ` 200 (A)
Material B = (40 – 39) × 30 = ` 30 (F)
Total = ` 170 (A)
(v) Material Mix Variance = (RSQ– AQ) × SP
109
Material A = ( ×60 – 70) × 20 = ` 92 (A)
100
109
Material B = ( ×40 – 39) × 30 = ` 138 (F)
100
Total = ` 46 (F)
(vi) Material Yield Variance = (SQ – RSQ) × SP
109
Material A = (60 - ×60 ) × 20 = ` 108 (A)
100
109
Material B = (40 – ×40 ) × 30 = ` 108 (A)
100
Total = ` 216 (A)
4. Working Notes:
(1) Calculation of standard mix of input (assuming Standard input
as 100 kg)

Qty. (Kg) Price (`) Amount (`)

Chemical A 50 12 600
Chemical B 50 15 750
100 13.50 1,350
Normal Loss (10%) (10)
90 1,350

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(2) Let the actual input of chemical A be X kg. and the actual price of
chemical B be ` Y.
Given,
Material yield variance = (Total standard input – Total Actual input) x
Standard cost per unit of input
= [100 – (70 + X)] x 13.5 = 135 (A)
Therefore, X = 40 kg.
Also, Material cost variance= (Standard quantity x Standard price) –
(Actual quantity x Actual price)
= 1,350 – {(40 x 15) + (70 x Y)} = 650 (A)
= 1,350 – 600 – 70Y = 650A
Therefore, Y = ` 20
(i) Material mix variance
= (Revised Std. Quantity* – Actual quantity) x Standard Price
Chemical A = (55 – 40) x 12 = 180 (F)
Chemical B = (55 - 70) x 15 = 225 (A)
= ` 45 (A)
*Revised Std. Quantity:
Chemical A = (70 + 40) x 50% = 55
Chemical B = (70 + 40) x 50% = 55
(ii) Material usage variance
= (Std. qty. – Actual qty.) × Std. price
Chemical A = (50 – 40) × 12 = 120 (F)
Chemical B = (50 – 70) × 15 = 300 (A)
= ` 180 (A)

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(iii) Material price variance

= (Std. price – Actual price) × Actual qty.
Chemical A = (12 – 15) × 40 = 120 (A)
Chemical B = (15 – 20) × 70 = 350 (A)
= ` 470 (A)
(iv) Actual loss of actual input
Actual total input = 110 kg.
Less: Actual output = 90 kg.
Actual loss = 20 kg.
(v) Actual input of chemical A = 40 kg. [As calculated in Working note (2)].

(vi) Actual price per kg. of chemical B = ` 20 [As calculated in

Working note (2)].
5. For Material Cost Variances

SQ × SP AQ × AP AQ × SP
A 12,000 × 4 = 48,000 12,500 × 4.40 12,500 × 4 = 50,000
= 55,000
B 18,000 × 3 = 54,000 18,000 × 2.80 18,000 × 3 = 54,000
= 50,400
C 90,000 × 1 = 90,000 88,500 × 1.20 88,500 × 1 = 88,500
= 1,06,200
Total ` 1,92,000 ` 2,11,600 `1,92,500

Variances:
Material Price Variance = Actual quantity (Std. price – Actual price)
Or, = (AQ × SP) – (AQ × AP)

Or, = ` 1,92,500 – `2,11,600

= ` 19,100 (A)

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Material Usage Variance = Standard Price (Std. Quantity – Actual Quantity)

Or, = (SP × SQ) – (SP × AQ)

Or, = ` 1,92,000 – ` 1,92,500 = ` 500 (A)
For Labour Cost Variance :

SH × SR AH × AR AH × SR
Labour (6,000 × 3) ×` 8 2,500 × 12 = 30,000 17,500 × 8 =
= 1,44,000 15,000 × 8 = 1,20,000 1,40,000
Total ` 1,44,000 ` 1,50,000 ` 1,40,000

Variances:
Labour Rate Variance: Actual Hours (Std. Rate – Actual Rate)
Or, = (AH × SR) – (AH × AR)
Or, = `1,40,000 – `1,50,000
= `10,000 (A)
Labour Efficiency Variance: Standard Rate (Std. Hours – Actual Hours)
Or, = (SR × SH) – (SR × AH)
Or, = `1,44,000 – `1,40,000
= `4,000 (F)
6. Material variances
1. Material cost variance
= (Std. qty for actual output* × Std. price) – (Actual qty. × Actual price)
= (18,000 × 4) – (19,000 × 4.40)
= 72,000 – 83,600 = ` 11,600 (A)
* Std. qty. for actual output = 1,800 × 10 = 18,000 units
2. Material price variance
= (Std. price – Actual price) × Actual qty.
= (4 - 4.40) × 19,000 = 0.40 × 19,000 = ` 7,600 (A)

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3. Material usage variance

= (Std. qty. – Actual qty.) × Std. price
= (18,000 – 19,000) × 4 = 1,000 × 4 = ` 4,000 (A)
Labour variances
1. Labour cost variance
= (Std. hours for actual output* × Std. price) – Actual cost
= (4,500 × 4) – 24,750
= 18,000 – 24,750 = ` 6,750 (A)
*Std. hours for actual output = 1,800 × 2.5 = 4,500 hrs.

2. Labour rate variance

= (Std. rate – Actual rate) × Actual hrs.
= ( 4 – 5 ) × 4,950 = ` 4,950 (A)

3. Labour efficiency variance

= (Std. hrs. for actual output – Actual hrs.) × Std. rate
= ( 4,500 – 4,950)× 4 = ` 1,800 (A)
7. Production/ Overhead volume variance (only for fixed overhead)
Fixed Overhead Volume Variance:
= Absorbed overhead – Budgeted Overhead
= (`5 × 15,000 units) – (`5 × 20,000 units)
= `75,000 -`1,00,000 =`25,000 (Adverse)
Overhead expense variances

= Budgeted Overhead – Actual Overhead

= (`5× 20,000 units) – (Total overhead – Variable overhead)
= (`5× 20,000 units) – (`3,00,000 - `10×15,000 units)
= `1,00,000 – (`3,00,000 - `1,50,000)
= `1,00,000 –`1,50,000 = ` 50,000 (Adverse)

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8. For fixed overhead variances:

Actual F.O. incurred (given) `12,000

Budgeted F.O. for the period `10,000
Standard F.O. for production
2,100 units × {`10,000 ÷ 2,000 units} `10,500

(i) Fixed Overhead Variance = Standard F.O. – Actual F.O.

= ` 10,500 – `12,000

= `1,500 (A)
(ii) F.O. Expenditure Variance = Budgeted F.O – Actual F.O.
= `10,000 – `12,000
= `2,000 (A)
(iii) F.O. Volume Variance = Standard F.O – Budgeted F.O.
= `10,500 – ` 10,000 = ` 500 (F)
9. Basic Calculations:
Budgeted hours 30,000
Standard hours per unit = = = 1 hour
Budgeted units 30,000

Std. hrs. for actual output = 32,500 units × 1 hr = 32,500

Budgeted overhead
Standard overhead rate per hour =
Budgeted hours

45,000
For fixed overhead = = `1.50 per hour
30,000
60,000
For variable overhead = = `2 per hour
30,000

Std. F.O. rate per day = `45,000 ÷ 25 days = `1,800

Recovered overhead = Std. hrs. for actual output × St. rate

For fixed overhead = 32,500 hrs. × `1.50 = `48,750

For variable overhead = 32,500 hrs. × `2 = `65,000

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Standard overhead = Actual hours × Std. rate

For fixed overhead = 33,000 × 1.50 = `49,500

For variable overhead = 33,000 × 2 = `66,000

Budgeted hours
Revised budget hours = × Actual days
Budgeted days

30,000
= × 26 = 31,200 hours
25

Revised budgeted overhead (for fixed overhead) = 31,200 × 1.50 = `46,800

Calculation of variances
Fixed Overhead Variances:

(i) F.O. cost Variance = Recovered Overhead – Actual Overhead

= 48,750 – 50,000
= `1,250 (A)
(ii) F.O. Expenditure Variance = Budgeted Overhead – Actual Overhead
= 45,000 – 50,000
= ` 5,000 (A)
(iii) F.O. Volume Variance = Recovered Overhead – Budgeted Overhead
= 48,750 – 45,000
= ` 3,750 (F)
(iv) F.O. Efficiency Variance = Recovered Overhead – Standard Overhead
= 48,750 – 49,500 = `750 (A)
(v) F.O. Capacity Variance = Standard Overhead- Revised Budgeted
Overhead
= 49,500-46800 =` 2,700 (F)
(v) Calendar Variance = (Actual Days - Budget Days) × St. rate per day.
= (26 – 25) × 1,800 = `1,800 (F)

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Variable Overhead Variances

(i) V.O. Cost variance = Recovered Overhead – Actual Overhead

= 65,000 – 68,000 = ` 3,000 (A)

(ii) V.O.Expenditure Variance= Standard Overhead – Actual Overhead

= 66,000 – 68,000 = ` 2,000 (A)

(iii) V.O. Efficiency Variance = Recovered Overhead – Standard Overhead

= 65,000 – 66,000 = `1,000 (A)

Check

(i) F.O. Cost Variance = Expenditure variance + Volume variance

1,250 (A) = 5,000 (A) + 3,750 (F)

Efficiency Capacity Calendar
(ii) F.O. Volume Variance = + +
Variance Variance Variance
3,750 (F) = 750 (A) + 2,700 (F) + 1,800 (F)

(iii) V.O. Cost Variance = Expenditure Variance + Efficiency Variance

3,000 (A) = 2,000 (A) + 1,000 (A).

10. For Fixed Overhead Variances

Actual fixed overhead incurred ` 31,000

Budgeted fixed overhead for the period `30,000

Standard fixed overhead for production

(` 30,000 ÷ 20,000 units) × 22,000
`33,000

Computation of Variances:
(i) Fixed overhead expenditure variance:
= Budgeted fixed overhead – Actual fixed overhead
= ` 30,000 – ` 31,000 = ` 1,000 (A)

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.77

(ii) Fixed overhead volume variance:

= Standard fixed overhead – Budgeted fixed
overhead

= ` 33,000 – ` 30,000 = ` 3,000 (F)

(iii) Fixed overhead variance:
= Standard fixed overhead – Actual fixed overhead
= ` 33,000 – ` 31,000 = ` 2,000 (F)
11. Working Notes:
1. Calculation of standard variable overhead per unit
Budgeted variable overhead 10,000
= = = ` 25 per unit
Budgeted production 400

2. Calculation of standard variable overhead per hour

Budgeted variable overhead 10, 000
= = = ` 1.25 per hour
Budgeted man hours 8, 000

3. Calculation of Std. variable overhead for actual output

= Actual output × Std. variable overhead per unit

= 360 units × ` 25 = ` 9,000
4. Calculation of Budgeted variable overhead based on actual hours
worked
= Actual hours worked × Std. variable overhead per hour
= 7,000 × 1.25 = ` 8,750
5. Calculation of standard hours for actual output
= Actual output × Std. hours per unit
= 360 units × 20 hours = 7,200 hours
(i) Variable overhead cost variance
= Std. variable overhead for actual output – Actual Variable Overheads
= 9,000 – 9,150 = ` 150 (A)

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 13.78 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) Variable overhead expenditure variance

= Std. overhead for Actual hours – Actual Overhead

= 8,750 – 9,150 = ` 400 (A)
(iii) Variable overhead efficiency variance

= (Std. hours for actual output – Actual hours) × Std. rate per hour
= (7,200 – 7,000) × 1.25 = ` 250 (F)
12. For Fixed overheads Variances:
Actual fixed overhead incurred = ` 1,56,000
Budgeted fixed overhead for the period = 1,50,000
Standard fixed overhead for production (Standard output for actual time ×
Standard Fixed Overhead per unit)
(6,300 hrs × 27 days × 0.9) × (` 1,50,000 ÷ 1,50,000 units) = ` 1,53,090
(a) Fixed Overhead = Budgeted fixed overhead –
Expenditure Actual fixed overhead
Variance ` 6,000 (A)
= `1,50,000 – `1,56,000 =
(b) Fixed Overhead = Standard fixed overhead –
Volume Variance Budgeted fixed overhead
= `1,53,090 – ` 1,50,000 = ` 3,090 (F)
(c) Fixed Overhead = Standard fixed overhead –
Variance Actual fixed overhead
= `1,53,090 – ` 1,56,000 = ` 2,910 (A)

13. Actual material used = 125 kg × 60 = 7,500 kg.

Actual cost of actual material used (AQ × AR) (`)

A (60%) 4,500 kg × `21 = 94,500

B (20%) 1,500 kg × ` 8 = 12,000
C (20%) 1,500 kg × ` 6 = 9,000
7,500 1,15,500

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.79

Standard cost of actual material used (AQ × SR) (`)

A 4,500 kg × `20 = 90,000

B 1,500 kg × `10 = 15,000
C 1,500 kg × ` 5 = 7,500
7,500 1,12,500
Standard cost of material, if it had been used in standard proportion
(Standard Proportion × Standard Rate) (`)

A (50%) 3,750 kg × `20 = 75,000

B (30%) 2,250 kg × `10 = 22,500
C (20%) 1,500 kg × ` 5 = 7,500
7,500 1,05,000

Standard cost of production (SQ for actual production × SR)

Standard cost of output for 100 kg: (`)

A 62.50 kg × `20 = 1,250

B 37.50 kg × `10 = 375
C 25.00 kg × ` 5 = 125
125.00 1,750

Standard cost for output of 5,600 kg.

1,750
= kg × 5,600 kg. = ` 98,000
100
Material Price Variance = Standard cost of actual material used – Actual cost
of actual material used = ` 1,12,500 – ` 1,15,500 = ` 3,000 (A)
Material Usage Variance = Standard cost of production – Standard cost of
actual material used = ` 98,000 – `1,12,500 = ` 14,500 (A)
Note: Material Price Variance can be calculated at the time of purchase as well.
In that case, material variance will be as follows:

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 13.80 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Actual cost of material purchased

A 5,000 kg × ` 21 = ` 1,05,000
B 2,000 kg × ` 8 = ` 16,000
C 1,200 kg × ` 6 = ` 7,200
` 1,28,200

Standard cost of material purchased

A 5,000 kg × ` 20 = ` 1,00,000
B 2,000 kg × ` 10 = ` 20,000
C 1,200 kg × ` 5 = ` 6,000
` 1,26,000

Material Price variance (if calculated at the time of purchase)

= Standard cost of actual material used – Actual cost of actual material used

= ` 1,26,000 – ` 1,28,200 = ` 2,200 (A)

14. (i) Material Cost Variance (A + B) = {(SQ × SP) – (AQ × AP)}
`3,625 = (SQ × SP) – `59,825
(SQ × SP) = ` 63,450
(SQA × SP A) + (SQ B × SP B ) = ` 63,450
(940 kg × SP A) + (705 kg ×`30)= ` 63,450

(940 kg × SP A) + `21,150 = ` 63,450

(940 kg × SP A) = ` 42,300
` 42,300
SPA =
940kg

Standard Price of Material-A = ` 45

Working Note:
SQ i.e. quantity of inputs to be used to produce actual output
1, 480kg
= = 1,645 kg
90%

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.81

800kg
SQA = ×1,645kg. = 940 kg
(800+600)
600kg
SQB = ×1,645kg. = 705 kg
(800+600)

(ii) Material Price Variance (A + B) = {(AQ × SP) – (AQ × AP)}

` 175 = (AQ × SP) – ` 59,825
(AQ × SP) = ` 60,000
(AQA × SPA) + (AQB × SPB) = ` 60,000
[900 kg × ` 45 (from (i) above)]
+ (AQB × ` 30) = ` 60,000
` 40,500 + (AQB × ` 30) = ` 60,000
(AQB × ` 30) = ` 19,500
19,500
AQB = = 650 kg
30
Actual Quantity of Material B = 650 kg.
(iii) (AQ × AP) = ` 59,825
(AQA × APA) + (AQB × APB) = ` 59,825
(900 kg × APA) + (650 kg (from (ii)
above) × ` 32.5) = ` 59,825
(900 kg × APA) + ` 21,125 = ` 59,825
(900 kg × APA) = ` 38,700
38,700
APA = = 43
900
Actual Price of Material-A = ` 43
(iv) Total Actual Quantity of Material-A and Material-B
= AQA + AQB = 900 kg + 650 kg (from (ii) above)
= 1,550 kg

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 13.82 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Now,
800kg
Revised SQA = ×1,550kg. = 886 kg
(800+600)
600kg
Revised SQB = ×1,550kg. = 664 kg
(800+600)

(v) Material Mix Variance (A + B) = {(RSQ × SP) – (AQ × SP)}

= {(RSQA × SPA) + (RSQB × SPB) – 60,000}

= (886 kg (from (iv) above) × ` 45 (from

(i) above)) + (664 kg (from (iv) above)
× ` 30) - ` 60,000
= (39,870+19,920)–60,000= ` 210 (A)
15. (i) Material Variances
Budget Std. for actual Actual
Quantity Price Amount Quantity Price Amount Quantity Price Amount
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
Material 0.5 60 30 5,000 60 3,00,000 5,700 58 3,30,600

Material Cost Variance = (SQ×SP – AQ ×AP)

3,00,000 – 3,30,600 = ` 30,600(A)

Material Price Variance = (SP – AP) AQ

(60 -58) 5,700 = ` 11,400 (F)
Material Usage Variance = (SQ – AQ) SP
(5,000 – 5,700) 60 = ` 42,000 (A)
(ii) Variable Overheads variances
Variable overhead cost Variance = (Standard variable overhead – Actual
Variable Overhead)
Standard Variable Overheads: 10,000 units × 10 = 1,00,000
(1,00,000 – 1,12,200) = ` 12,200(A)

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 STANDARD COSTING 13.83

Variable overhead Efficiency Variance = (Standard Hours – Actual

Hours) × Standard Rate per Hour
Let Actual Hours be ‘X’
(10,000 – X) × 10 = 2,000 (A)
1,00,000 – 10X = -2,000
X = 1,02,000 ÷ 10
Therefore, Actual Hours (X) = 10,200
Variable overhead Expenditure Variance = (Variable Overhead at
Actual Hours - Actual Variable Overheads)

10,200 × 10 – 1,12,200 = ` 10,200 (A)

(iii) Labour variances

Budget Std. for actual Actual

Hours Rate Amount Hours Rate Amount Hours Rate Amount
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)

Labour 1 20 20 10,000 20 2,00,000 10,200 22 2,24,400

Actual Rate = ` 2,24,400÷10,200 hours = `22

Labour Cost Variance = (SH × SR) – (AH × AR)

10,000× 20 – 10,200 × 22 = ` 24,400 (A)

Labour Rate Variance = (SR – AR) × AH
(20 – 22) × 10,200 = ` 20,400 (A)
Labour Efficiency Variance = (SH – AH) × SR
(10,000 – 10,200) × 20 = ` 4,000 (A)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

CHAPTER 14
CHAPTER
14

MARGINAL COSTING

LEARNING OUTCOMES

♦ Explain the meaning and characteristics of Marginal Costing.

♦ Describe the meaning of CVP Analysis and apply the same in
making short-term managerial decisions.
♦ Describe the meaning and application of Break-even point,
Margin of safety, Angle of incidence etc. and apply the same
in making computations.
♦ Calculate and explain the various formulae used in CVP
analysis.
♦ Apply the concepts of marginal costing and CVP analysis in
short-term decision making.
♦ Differentiate between Marginal Costing and Absorption
Costing.

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 14.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Meaning of Marginal Cost

and Marginal Costing
Break-even Analysis
Marginal Costing

Characteristics of Marginal
Costing
Marginal of Safety
Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP)
Analysis
Angle of Incidence
Short-term Decision
making
Contribution Ratio

1. INTRODUCTION
As discussed in the first chapter ‘Introduction to Cost and Management
Accounting’, the cost and management accounting system by provision of
information, enables management to take various decisions. Marginal Costing is a
technique of cost and management accounting which is used to analyse
relationship between cost, volume and profit.
In order to appreciate the concept of marginal costing, it is necessary to study the
definition of marginal costing and certain other terms associated with this
technique. The important terms have been defined as follows:
1. Marginal Cost: Marginal cost as understood in economics is the
incremental cost of production for producing one additional unit of product.
As we understood, variable costs have direct relationship with volume of output
and fixed costs remains constant irrespective of volume of production. Hence,
marginal cost is measured by the total variable cost attributable to one

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.3

additional unit. For example, the total cost of producing 10 units and 11 units
of a product is `10,000 and `10,500 respectively. The marginal cost for 11 th unit
i.e. 1 unit extra from 10 units is `500.
Marginal cost can precisely be the sum of prime cost and variable overhead.
Example 1: Arnav Ltd. produces 10,000 units of product Z by incurring a total
cost of ` 3,50,000. Break-up of costs are as follows:
(i) Direct Material @ ` 10 per unit, ` 1,00,000,
(ii) Direct employee (labour) cost @ ` 8 per unit, ` 80,000
(iii) Variable overheads @ `2 per unit, ` 20,000

(iv) Fixed overheads ` 1,50,000 (upto a volume of 50,000 units)

In this example, if Arnav Ltd. wants to know marginal cost of producing one
extra unit from the current production i.e. 10,001 st unit. The marginal cost would
be the change in the total cost due production of this 10,001 st extra unit. The
extra cost would be `20, as calculated below:

10,000 10,001 Change in

units units Cost
(A) (B) (c) = (B) - (A)
(i) Direct Material @ `10 per unit 1,00,000 1,00,010 10
(ii) Direct employee (labour) cost @ `8 80,000 80,008 8
per unit
(iii) Variable overheads @ `2 per unit 20,000 20,002 2
(iv) Fixed overheads 1,50,000 1,50,000 0
Total Cost 3,50,000 3,50,020 20

2. Marginal Costing: It is a costing system where products or services

and inventories are valued at variable costs only. It does not take
consideration of fixed costs. This system of costing is also known as direct
costing as only direct costs forms the part of product and inventory cost. Costs
are classified on the basis of behavior of cost (i.e. fixed and variable) rather
functions as done in absorption costing method.
3. Direct Costing: Direct costing and Marginal Costing is used synonymously
at various places. But the relation of costs with respect to activity level must be

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 14.4 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

understood. Some costs are variable at batch level but fixed for unit level
whereas others are variable at production line level but fixed for batches and
units.
Example 2: Arnav Ltd. produces 10,000 units of product Z by incurring a total
cost of `4,80,000. Break-up of costs are as follows:

(i) Direct Material @ `10 per unit, `1,00,000,

(ii) Direct employee (labour) cost @ `8 per unit, `80,000
(iii) Variable overheads @ ` 2 per unit, `20,000
(iv) Machine set up cost @ `1,200 for a production run (100 units can be
manufactured in a run)
(v) Depreciation of a machine specifically used for production of Z `10,000

(iv) Apportioned fixed overheads ` 1,50,000.

Analysis of the costs:

10,000 10,001 Change in Direct Cost

units units Cost
(A) (B) (c) = (B) - (A)
(i) Direct Material 1,00,000 1,00,010 10 Unit level Direct
@ ` 10 per unit Cost.
(ii) Direct employee 80,000 80,008 8 Unit level Direct
(labour) cost @ Cost.
` 8 per unit
(iii) Variable 20,000 20,002 2 Unit level Direct
overheads @ `2 Cost.
per unit
(iv) Machine set up 1,20,000 1,21,200 1,200 Batch level Direct
cost Cost
(v) Depreciation of 10,000 10,000 0 Product level Direct
a machine Cost.
(vi) Apportioned 1,50,000 1,50,000 0 Department level
fixed overheads Direct Cost
Total Cost 4,80,000 4,81,220 1,220

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.5

In the example, the direct cost of producing 10,001 st unit is 1,220 but it is not
the marginal cost of producing one extra unit rather marginal cost of running
one extra production run (batch).
4. Differential and Incremental Cost: Differential cost is difference
between the costs of two different production levels. It is a relative
representation of costs for two different levels that results in the increase or
decrease in cost. Incremental cost, on the other hand, is the increase in the costs
due to change in the volume or process of production activities. Incremental
costs are sometime compared with marginal cost but in reality, there is a thin
line difference between the two. Marginal cost is the change in the total cost
due to production of one extra unit while incremental cost can be both for
increase in one unit or in total volume. In the Example 2 above, ` 1,220 is the
incremental cost of producing one extra unit but not marginal cost for
producing one extra unit.

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF MARGINAL COSTING

The technique of marginal costing is based on the distinction between product
costs and period costs. Only the variables costs are treated as the costs of the
products while the fixed costs are treated as period costs which will be incurred
during the period regardless of the volume of output. The main characteristics
of marginal costing are as follows:
1. All elements of cost are classified into fixed and variable components.
Semi-variable costs are also analyzed into fixed and variable elements.
2. The marginal or variable costs (as direct material, direct labour and variable
factory overheads) are treated as the cost of product.
3. Under marginal costing, the value of finished goods and work–in–progress
is also comprised only of marginal costs. Variable selling and distribution
are excluded for valuing these inventories. Fixed costs are not considered for
valuation of closing stock of finished goods and closing WIP.
4. Fixed costs are treated as period costs and are charged to profit and loss
account for the period for which they are incurred.
5. Prices are determined with reference to marginal costs and contribution margin.

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 14.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

6. Profitability of departments and products is determined with reference to

their contribution margin.

3. FACTS ABOUT MARGINAL COSTING

Some of the facts about marginal costing are depicted below:
Not a distinct method: Marginal costing is not a distinct method of costing like
job costing, process costing, operating costing, etc., but a special technique
used for managerial decision making. Marginal costing is used to provide a basis
for the interpretation of cost data to measure the profitability of different
products, processes and cost centres in the course of decision making. It can,
therefore, be used in conjunction with the different methods of costing such as
job costing, process costing, etc., or even with other techniques such as standard
costing or budgetary control.
Cost Ascertainment: In marginal costing, cost ascertainment is made on the
basis of the nature of cost. It gives consideration to behaviour of costs. In other
words, the technique has developed from a particular conception and
expression of the nature and behaviour of costs and their effect upon the
profitability of an undertaking.
Decision Making: According to traditional or total cost method, as opposed to
marginal costing, the classification of costs is based on functional basis. Under
this method the total cost is the sum total of the cost of direct material, direct
labour, direct expenses, manufacturing overheads, administration overheads,
selling and distribution overheads. In this system, other things being equal, the
total cost per unit will remain constant only when the level of output or mixture
is the same from period to period. Since these factors are continually fluctuating,
the actual total cost will vary from one period to another. Thus, it is possible for
the costing department to say one day that an item cost `20 and the next day
it costs `18. This situation arises because of changes in volume of output and
the peculiar behavior of fixed expenses included in the total cost. Such
fluctuating manufacturing activity, and consequently the variations in the total
cost from period to period or even from day to day, poses a serious problem to
the management in taking sound decisions. Hence, the application of marginal
costing has been given wide recognition in the field of decision making.

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.7

4. DETERMINATION OF COST AND PROFIT

UNDER MARGINAL COSTING
For the determination of cost of a product or service under marginal costing,
costs are classified into variable and fixed. All the variable costs are part of
product and services while fixed costs are charged against contribution margin.
Cost and Profit Statement under Marginal Costing

Amount Amount (`)

(`)
Revenue (A) xxx
Product Cost:
- Direct Materials xxx
- Direct employee (labour) xxx
- Direct expenses xxx
- Variable manufacturing overheads xxx
Product (Inventoriable) Costs: (B) xxx xxx
Product Contribution Margin {A – B} xxx
- Variable Administration overheads xxx
- Variable Selling & Distribution overheads xxx xxx
Contribution Margin: (C) xxx
Period Cost: (D)
Fixed Manufacturing expenses xxx
Fixed non-manufacturing expenses xxx xxx
Profit/ (loss) {C – D} xxx

(i) Product (Inventoriable) Costs: In the case of merchandise inventory,

these are the costs which are associated with the purchase and sale of goods.
In the production scenario, such costs are associated with the acquisition and
conversion of materials and all other manufacturing inputs into finished
product for sale. Hence, under marginal costing, variable manufacturing costs
constitute inventoriable or product costs.

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 14.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Finished goods are measured at product cost. Work-in-process (WIP) inventories

are also measured at product cost on the basis of percentage of completion
(Please refer Process & Operation costing chapter)
(ii) Contribution: Contribution or contribution margin is the difference
between sales revenue and total variable costs irrespective of manufacturing or
non-manufacturing.

Contribution (C) = Sales Revenue (S) – Total Variable Cost (V)

It is obtained by subtracting variable costs from sales revenue. It can also be

defined as excess of sales revenue over the variable costs. The contribution
concept is based on the theory that the profit and fixed expenses of a business
is a ‘joint cost’ which cannot be equitably apportioned to different segments of
the business. In view of this difficulty the contribution serves as a measure of
efficiency of operations of various segments of the business. The contribution
forms a fund for fixed expenses and profit as illustrated below:
Example:

Variable Cost = `50,000, Fixed Cost = ` 20,000,

Selling Price = ` 80,000
Contribution = Selling Price – Variable Cost

= ` 80,000 – ` 50,000 = ` 30,000

Profit = Contribution – Fixed Cost
= ` 30,000 – ` 20,000 = `10,000

Since, contribution exceeds fixed cost; the profit is of the magnitude of ` 10,000.
Suppose the fixed cost is ` 40,000 then the position shall be:
Contribution – Fixed cost = Profit or,
= ` 30,000 – ` 40,000 = - ` 10,000
The amount of ` 10,000 represent extent of loss since the fixed costs are more than
the contribution. At the level of fixed cost of ` 30,000, there shall be no profit and
no loss.

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.9

(iii) Period Cost: These are the costs, which are not assigned to the products
but are charged as expenses against the revenue of the period in which they
are incurred. All fixed costs either manufacturing or non-manufacturing are
recognised as period costs in marginal costing.

5. ABSORPTION COSTING
Absorption Costing is the practice of charging all costs, both variable and
fixed to operations, processes or product.
In absorption costing the classification of expenses is based on functional basis
whereas in marginal costing it is based on the nature of expenses. In absorption
costing, the fixed expenses are distributed over products on absorption costing basis
that is, based on a pre-determined level of output. Since fixed expenses are constant,
such a method of recovery will lead to over or under-recovery of expenses depending
on the actual output being greater or lesser than the estimate used for recovery. This
difficulty will not arise in marginal costing because the contribution is used as a fund
for meeting fixed expenses.

(For understanding the difference between marginal and absorption costing

along with the presentation of information to management under the said two
costing techniques, students are advised to refer Para 14.14)

6. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF

MARGINAL COSTING
ADVANTAGES
1. Simplified Pricing Policy: The marginal cost remains constant per unit of
output whereas the fixed cost remains constant in total. Since marginal cost
per unit is constant from period to period within a short span of time, firm
decisions on pricing policy can be taken. If fixed cost is included, the unit
cost will change from day to day depending upon the volume of output. This
will make decision making task difficult.
2. Proper recovery of Overheads: Overheads are recovered in costing on the
basis of pre-determined rates. If fixed overheads are included on the basis
of pre-determined rates, there will be under- recovery of overheads if

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 14.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

production is less or if overheads are more. There will be over- recovery of

overheads if production is more than the budget or actual expenses are less
than the estimate. This creates the problem of treatment of such under or
over-recovery of overheads. Marginal costing avoids such under or over
recovery of overheads.
3. Shows Realistic Profit: Advocates of marginal costing argues that under the
marginal costing technique, the stock of finished goods and work-in-progress
are carried on marginal cost basis and the fixed expenses are written off to
profit and loss account as period cost. This shows the true profit of the period.
4. How much to produce: Marginal costing helps in the preparation of break-
even analysis which shows the effect of increasing or decreasing production
activity on the profitability of the company.
5. More control over expenditure: Segregation of expenses as fixed and
variable helps the management to exercise control over expenditure. The
management can compare the actual variable expenses with the budgeted
variable expenses and take corrective action through analysis of variances.
6. Helps in Decision Making: Marginal costing helps the management in taking
a number of business decisions like make or buy, discontinuance of a
particular product, replacement of machines, etc.
7. Short term profit planning: It helps in short term profit planning by B.E.P
charts.
LIMITATIONS
1. Difficulty in classifying fixed and variable elements: It is difficult to
classify exactly the expenses into fixed and variable category. Most of the
expenses are neither totally variable nor wholly fixed. For example, various
amenities provided to workers may have no relation either to volume of
production or time factor.
2. Dependence on key factors: Contribution of a product itself is not a guide
for optimum profitability unless it is linked with the key factor.

3. Scope for Low Profitability: Sales staff may mistake marginal cost for total
cost and sell at a price; which will result in loss or low profits. Hence, sales
staff should be cautioned while giving marginal cost.

4. Faulty valuation: Overheads of fixed nature cannot altogether be excluded

particularly in large contracts, while valuing the work-in- progress. In order

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.11

to show the correct position, fixed overheads have to be included in work-in-

progress.
5. Unpredictable nature of Cost: Some of the assumptions regarding the
behaviour of various costs are not necessarily true in a realistic situation. For
example, the assumption that fixed cost will remain static throughout is not
correct. Fixed cost may change from one period to another. For example,
salaries bill may go up because of annual increments or due to change in pay
rate etc. The variable costs do not remain constant per unit of output. There
may be changes in the prices of raw materials, wage rates etc. after a certain
level of output has been reached due to shortage of material, shortage of
skilled labour, concessions of bulk purchases etc.
6. Marginal costing ignores time factor and investment: The marginal cost
of two jobs may be the same but the time taken for their completion and the
cost of machines used may differ. The true cost of a job which takes longer
time and uses costlier machine would be higher. This fact is not disclosed by
marginal costing.
7. Understating of W-I-P: Under marginal costing stocks and work in progress
are understated.

7. COST-VOLUME-PROFIT (CVP) ANALYSIS

Meaning: It is a managerial tool showing the relationship between various ingredients
of profit planning viz., cost, selling price and volume of activity. As the name suggests,
cost volume profit (CVP) analysis is the analysis of three variables, cost, volume and
profit. Such an analysis explores the relationship between costs, revenue, activity levels
and the resulting profit. It aims at measuring variations in cost and volume.
Assumptions:
1. Changes in the levels of revenues and costs arise only because of changes
in the number of product (or service) units produced and sold – for
example, the number of television sets produced and sold by Sony
Corporation or the number of packages delivered by Overnight Express. The
number of output units is the only revenue driver and the only cost driver.

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 14.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Just as a cost driver is any factor that affects costs, a revenue driver is a
variable, such as volume, that causally affects revenues.

2. Total costs can be separated into two components; a fixed component that
does not vary with output level and a variable component that changes with
respect to output level. Furthermore, variable costs include both direct
variable costs and indirect variable costs of a product. Similarly, fixed costs
include both direct fixed costs and indirect fixed costs of a product
3. When represented graphically, the behaviours of total revenues and total
costs are linear (meaning they can be represented as a straight line) in
relation to output level within a relevant range (and time period).
4. Selling price, variable cost per unit, and total fixed costs (within a
relevant range and time period) are known and constant.
5. The analysis either covers a single product or assumes that the proportion
of different products when multiple products are sold will remain
constant as the level of total units sold changes.
6. All revenues and costs can be added, subtracted, and compared without
taking into account the time value of money. (Refer to the FM study
material for a clear understanding of time value of money).
Importance
It provides the information about the following matters:
1. The behavior of cost in relation to volume.

2. Volume of production or sales, where the business will break-even.

3. Sensitivity of profits due to variation in output.
4. Amount of profit for a projected sales volume.
5. Quantity of production and sales for a target profit level.
Impact of various changes on profit:
An understanding of CVP analysis is extremely useful to management in budgeting
and profit planning. It elucidates the impact of the following on the net profit:
(i) Changes in selling prices,
(ii) Changes in volume of sales,

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.13

(iii) Changes in variable cost,

(iv) Changes in fixed cost.

7.1 Marginal Cost Equation

The contribution theory explains the relationship between the variable cost and
selling price. It tells us that selling price minus variable cost of the units sold is the
contribution towards fixed expenses and profit. If the contribution is equal to fixed
expenses, there will be no profit or loss and if it is less than fixed expenses, loss is
incurred. Since the variable cost varies in direct proportion to output, therefore if
the firm does not produce any unit, the loss will be there to the extent of fixed
expenses. These points can be described with the help of following marginal cost
equation:

Marginal Cost Equation = S -V = C = F ± P

Where,
S = Sales value, V = Variable cost , C = Contribution,
F = Fixed Cost,

Marginal Cost Statement

(`)

Sales xxxx
Less: Variable Cost xxxx
Contribution xxxx
Less: Fixed Cost xxxx
Profit xxxx

7.2 Contribution to Sales Ratio (Profit Volume Ratio or P/V Ratio)

This ratio shows the proportion of sales available to cover fixed costs and profit.
Contribution represents the sales revenue after deducting variable costs. This ratio
is usually expressed in percentage.

Contribution Change in contribution / Profit

P / V Ratio = ×100 or, P/V Ratio = ×100
Sales Change in sales

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 14.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

A higher contribution to sales ratio implies that the rate of growth of contribution
is faster than that of sales. This is because, once the breakeven point is reached,
profits shall grow at a faster rate when compared to a product with a lesser
contribution to sales ratio.
By transposition, we have derived the following equations:
(i) C = S × P/V ratio
C
(ii) S=
P / VRatio

7.3 Break-Even Analysis

Break-even analysis is a generally used method to study the CVP analysis. This
technique can be explained in two ways:
(i) In narrow sense it is concerned with computing the break-even point. At this
point of production level and sales there will be no profit and loss i.e. total
cost is equal to total sales revenue.
(ii) In broad sense this technique is used to determine the possible profit/loss at
any given level of production or sales.

8. METHODS OF BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS

Break even analysis may be conducted by the following two methods:
(A) Algebraic computations
(B) Graphic presentations
(A) ALGEBRAIC CALCULATIONS
8.1 Break-even Point

The word contribution has been given its name because of the fact that it literally
contributes towards the recovery of fixed costs and the making of profits. The
contribution grows along with the sales revenue till the time it just covers the fixed cost.
This is the point where neither profits nor losses have been made is known as a break-
even point. This implies that in order to break even the amount of contribution
generated should be exactly equal to the fixed costs incurred. Hence, if we know how
much contribution is generated from each unit sold, we shall have sufficient information

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.15

for computing the number of units to be sold in order to break even. Mathematically,

Fixed costs
Break-even point in units =
Contributi on per unit

Example 3: ABC Ltd. manufacturing a single product, incurring variable costs of

` 300 per unit and fixed costs of ` 2,00,000 per month. If the product sells for
` 500 per unit, the breakeven point shall be calculated as follows;

Fixed costs ` 2,00,000

Break- even point in units = = = 1,000 units
Contribution per unit `200

Total fixed cost

Break- even points (in Value) = × Sales
Contribution

Total fixed cost

Break- even point (in Value) =
P / V Ratio
8.2 Cash Break-even Point

When break-even point is calculated only with those fixed costs which are payable
in cash, such a break-even point is known as cash break-even point. This means
that depreciation and other non-cash fixed costs are excluded from the fixed costs
in computing cash break-even point. Its formula is –

Cash fixed costs

Cash break- even point =
Contribution per unit

ILLUSTRATION 1
MNP Ltd sold 2,75,000 units of its product at ` 37.50 per unit. Variable costs are
` 17.50 per unit (manufacturing costs of ` 14 and selling cost ` 3.50 per unit). Fixed
costs are incurred uniformly throughout the year and amounting to ` 35,00,000
(including depreciation of ` 15,00,000). There is no beginning or ending inventories.
Required:
COMPUTE breakeven sales level quantity and cash breakeven sales level quantity.
SOLUTION

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 14.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Fixed cost ` 35,00,000

Break even Sales Quantity = =
Contribution margin per unit `20

= 1,75,000 units

Cash Fixed Cost ` 20,00,000

Cash Break-even Sales Quantity = =
Contribution margin per unit `20

=1,00,000 units.
8.3 Multi-Product Break-Even Analysis
In a multi-product environment, where more than one product is manufactured by
using a common fixed cost, the break-even point formula needs some adjustments.
The contribution is calculated by taking weights for the products. The weights
may be of sales mix quantity or sales mix values. The calculation of Multi-Product
Break-even analysis can be understood with the help of the following example.
Example 4: Arnav Ltd. sells two products, J and K. The sales mix is 4 units of J and
3 units of K. The contribution margins per unit are ` 40 for J and ` 20 for K. Fixed
costs are ` 6,16,000 per month.

Sales mix (in quantity) is 4 units of Product- J and 3 units of Product- K

i.e. Sales ratio is 4 : 3

Composite contribution per unit by taking weights for the product sales quantity
4 3
=Product J- ` 40 × + Product K- `20 × = `22.86 + `8.57 = `31.43
7 7

Common Fixed Cost `6,16,000

Composite Break-even point = =
Composite Contribution per unit `31.43
= 19,600 units

4
Break-even units of Product-J = 19,600 × = 11,200 units
7

3
Break-even units of Product- K = 19,600 × = 8,400 units
7

ILLUSTRATION 2

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.17

You are given the following particulars

i. Fixed cost ` 1,50,000
ii. Variable cost ` 15 per unit
iii. Selling price is ` 30 per unit

CALCULATE:
(a) Break-even point
(b) Sales to earn a profit of ` 20,000

SOLUTION

Fixed cost `1,50,000

(a) Break-even point (BEP) = = = 10,000 Units
Contribution per unit * `15

* (Contribution per unit = Sales per unit – Variable cost per unit = ` 30 - `15)

(b) Sales to earn a Profit of ` 20,000:

Fixed cost+Desired profit

= ×Selling price per unit
Contribution per unit

`1,50,000+ `20,000
= ×`30 = ` 3,40,000
`15
Or

Fixed cost+Desired profit `1,70,000 `1,70,000

= = = ` 3, 40,000
P / V Ratio P / V Ratio 50%

Contributi on
PV Ratio = × 100
Sales

ILLUSTRATION 3

A company has a P/V ratio of 40%. COMPUTE by what percentage must sales be
increased to offset: 20% reduction in selling price?

SOLUTION

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 14.18 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Desired Contribution 0.40

Revised Sales Value = = = 1.6
Revised P / VRatio * 0.25

This means sales value to be increased by 60% of the existing sales.

Revised Contribution 0.80- 0.60

*Revised P/V Ratio = = = 0.25
Revised Selling Price 0.80

Desired Contribution 0.40

Required Sales Quantity = = =2
Revised P / VRatio *×Revised Selling Price 0.25×0.80

Therefore, Sales value to be increased by 60% and sales quantity to be doubled to

offset the reduction in selling price.
Proof:
Let selling price per unit is `10 and sales quantity is 100 units.

Data before change in selling price:

(`)
Sales (`10 × 100 units) 1,000
Contribution (40% of 1,000) 400
Variable cost (balancing figure) 600

Data after the change in selling price:

Selling price is reduced by 20% that means it became `8 per unit. Since, we have
to maintain the earlier contribution margin i.e. `400 by increasing the sales quantity
only. Therefore, the target contribution will be `400.
The new P/V Ratio will be

(`)
Sales 8.00
Variable cost 6.00
Contribution per unit 2.00
P/V Ratio 25%

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.19

Desired Contribution `400

Sales Value = = = `1,600
Revised P / VRatio 0.25

Sales value `1,600

Sales quantity = = = 200 units
Selling price per unit `8

ILLUSTRATION 4

PQR Ltd. has furnished the following data for the two years:

2021-22 2022-23

Sales ` 8,00,000 ?
Profit/Volume Ratio (P/V ratio) 50% 37.5%
Margin of Safety sales as a % of total sales 40% 21.875%

There has been substantial savings in the fixed cost in the year 2022-23 due to the
restructuring process. The company could maintain its sales quantity level of 2021-
22 in 2022-23 by reducing selling price.
You are required to CALCULATE the following:
(i) Sales for 2022-23 in Value,
(ii) Fixed cost for 2022-23 in Value,
(iii) Break-even sales for 2022-23 in Value.
SOLUTION
In 2021-22, PV ratio = 50%

Variable cost ratio = 100% - 50% = 50%

Variable cost in 2021-22 = ` 8,00,000 × 50% = ` 4,00,000
In 2022-23, sales quantity has not changed. Thus, variable cost in 2022-23 is
` 4,00,000.
In 2022-23, P/V ratio = 37.50%
Thus, Variable cost ratio = 100% − 37.5% = 62.5%

4,00,000
(i) Thus, sales in 2022-23 = = `6,40,000
62.5%
In 2022-23, Break-even sales = 100% − 21.875% (Margin of safety) = 78.125%

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 14.20 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) Break-even sales = 6,40,000 × 78.125% = ` 5,00,000

(iii) Fixed cost = B.E. sales × P/V ratio
= 5,00,000 × 37.50% = `1,87,500.
(B) GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF BREAK-EVEN CHART
8.4 Break-even Chart
A breakeven chart records costs and revenues on the vertical axis and the level of
activity on the horizontal axis. The making of the breakeven chart would require
you to select appropriate axes. Subsequently, you will need to mark costs/revenues
on the Y axis whereas the level of activity shall be traced on the X axis. Lines
representing (i) Fixed costs (horizontal line at ` 2,00,000 for ABC Ltd), (ii) Total costs
at maximum level of activity (joined to the Y-axis where the Fixed cost of ` 2,00,000
is marked) and (iii) Revenue at maximum level of activity (joined to the origin) shall
be drawn next.
The breakeven point is that point where the sales revenue line intersects the total
cost line. Other measures like the margin of safety and profit can also be measured
from the chart.
The breakeven chart for ABC Ltd (Example-3) is drawn below.

` 000

8.5 Contribution Breakeven Chart

It is not possible to use a breakeven chart as described above to measure
contribution. This is one of its major limitations especially so because contribution
analysis is literally the backbone of marginal costing. To overcome such a limitation,
accountants frequently resort to the making of a contribution breakeven chart
which is based on the same principles as a conventional breakeven chart except for

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.21

that it shows the variable cost line instead of the fixed cost line. Lines for Total cost
and Sales revenue remain the same. The breakeven point and profit can be read off
in the same way as with a conventional chart. However, it is also possible to read
the contribution for any level of activity.
Using the same example of ABC Ltd as for the conventional chart, the total variable
cost for an output of 1,700 units is 1,700 × `300 = `5,10,000. This point can be
joined to the origin since the variable cost is nil at zero activity.

` 000

The contribution can be read as the difference between the sales revenue line and
the variable cost line.
8.6 Profit-Volume Chart

This is also very similar to a breakeven chart. In this chart the vertical axis represents
profits and losses, and the horizontal axis is drawn at zero profit or loss.
In this chart each level of activity is taken into account and profits marked
accordingly. The breakeven point is where this line interacts the horizontal axis. A
profit-volume graph for our example (ABC Ltd) will be as follows,

` 000

Loss

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 14.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The loss at a nil activity level is equal to ` 2,00,000, i.e. the amount of fixed costs.
The second point used to draw the line could be the calculated breakeven point
or the calculated profit for sales of 1,700 units.
Advantages of the profit-volume chart
1. The biggest advantage of the profit-volume chart is its capability of depicting
clearly the effect on profit and breakeven point of any changes in the
variables. The following example illustrates this characteristic,
Example 5
A manufacturing company incurs fixed costs of `3,00,000 per annum. It is a single
product company with annual sales budgeted to be 70,000 units at a sales price of
`300 per unit. Variable costs are ` 285 per unit.
(i) Draw a profit volume graph, and use it to determine the breakeven point.
The company is deliberating upon an increase in the selling price of the
product to ` 350 per unit. This shall be required in order to improve the
quality of the product. It is anticipated that despite increase in the selling
price the sales volume shall remain unaffected, however, the fixed costs shall
increase to ` 4,50,000 per annum and the variable costs to ` 330 per unit.
(ii) Draw on the same graph as for part (a) a second profit volume graph and give
your comments.
Solution
Figure showing changes with a profit-volume chart
` 000

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.23

Working notes (i)

The profit for sales of 70,000 units is ` 7,50,000.

(`’000)
Contribution 70,000 × (`300 – `285) 1050
Fixed costs 300
Profit 750

This point is joined to the loss at zero activity, ` 3,00,000 i.e., the fixed costs.
Working notes (ii)
The profit for sales of 70,000 units is ` 9,50,000.
(`’000)
Contribution 70,000 × (`350 – `330) 1400
Fixed costs 450
Profit 950

This point is joined to the loss at zero activity, ` 4,50,000 i.e., the fixed costs.
Comments:
It is clear from the graph that there are larger profits available from option (ii). It
also shows an increase in the break-even point from 20,000 units to 22,500 units,
however, the increase of 2,500 units may not be considered large in view of the
projected sales volume. It is also possible to see that for sales volumes above
30,000 units the profit achieved will be higher with option (ii). For sales volumes
below 30,000 units option (i) will yield higher profits (or lower losses).

ILLUSTRATION 5
You are given the following data for the current financial year of Rio Co. Ltd:

Variable cost 60,000 60%

Fixed cost 30,000 30%
Net profit 10,000 10%
Sales 1,00,000 100%

FIND OUT (a) Break-even point, (b) P/V ratio, and (c) Margin of safety. Also DRAW
a break-even chart showing contribution and profit.

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 14.24 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION

Sales - Variable Cost 1,00,000 - 60,000

P / V ratio = = = 40%
Sales 1,00,000
Fixed Cost 30,000
Break Even Point = = = ` 75,000
P / V ratio 40%
Margin of safety = Actual Sales – BE point = 1,00,000 – 75,000 = ` 25,000
Break even chart showing contribution is shown below:
Cost and Revenue (` thousands)

Break-even chart

ILLUSTRATION 6
PREPARE a profit graph for products A, B and C and find break-even point from the
following data:
Products A B C Total
Sales (`) 7,500 7,500 3,750 18,750
Variable cost (`) 1,500 5,250 4,500 11,250
Fixed cost (`) --- --- --- 5,000

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.25

SOLUTION
Statement Showing Cumulative Sales & Profit

Sales Cumulative Variable Contributio Cumulative Cumulative

Sales Cost n Contribution Profit
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
A 7,500 7,500 1,500 6,000 6,000 1,000
B 7,500 15,000 5,250 2,250 8,250 3,250
C 3,750 18,750 4,500 (750) 7,500 2,500

Profit in `
(+) 5,000
`3,250
(+) 2,500 `2,500
`1,000

0 2,500 5,000 7,500 10,000 12,500 15,000 17,500 20,000

BEP Sales in `
(-) 2,500
Profit Line
(-) 5,000
Loss in `
Break Even Point (BEP) = ` 12,500

9. LIMITATIONS OF BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS

The limitations of the practical applicability of breakeven analysis and
breakeven charts stem mostly from the assumptions underlying CVP which
have been mentioned above. Assumptions like costs behaving in a linear fashion
or sales revenue remain constant at different sales levels or the stocks shall remain
constant period after period are unrealistic. Similarly, the assumption that the only
factor which influences costs is the ‘activity level achieved’ is erroneous because
other factors like inflation also have a bearing on costs.

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 14.26 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

10. MARGIN OF SAFETY

The margin of safety can be defined as the difference between the expected level
of sale and the breakeven sales. The larger the margin of safety, the higher is the
chances of making profits. In the Example-3 if the forecast sale is 1,700 units per
month, the margin of safety can be calculated as follows,
Margin of Safety = Projected sales – Breakeven sales
= 1,700 units – 1,000 units
= 700 units or 41% of sales.
The Margin of Safety can also be calculated by identifying the difference between
the projected sales and breakeven sales in units multiplied by the contribution per
unit. This is possible because, at the breakeven point all the fixed costs are
recovered and any further contribution goes into the making of profits. It also can
be calculated as:
Profit
Margin of Safety =
P / V Ratio

ILLUSTRATION 7
A company earned a profit of ` 30,000 during the year. If the marginal cost and
selling price of the product are ` 8 and ` 10 per unit respectively, FIND OUT the
amount of margin of safety.
SOLUTION

Selling price- Variable cost per unit `10- `8

P/V ratio = = = 20%
Selling price `10

Profit 30,000
Margin of safety = = = ` 1,50,000
P/V ratio 20%

ILLUSTRATION 8
A Ltd. Maintains margin of safety of 37.5% with an overall contribution to sales ratio
of 40%. Its fixed costs amount to ` 5 lakhs.

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.27

CALCULATE the following:

i. Break-even sales
ii. Total sales

iii. Total variable cost

iv. Current profit
v. New ‘margin of safety’ if the sales volume is increased by 7 ½ %.
SOLUTION
(i) We know that: Break- even Sales (BES) × P/V Ratio = Fixed Cost
Break-even Sales (BES) × 40% = ` 5,00,000
Break- even Sales (BES) = ` 12,50,000
(ii) Total Sales (S) = Break Even Sales + Margin of Safety
S = ` 12,50,000 + 0.375S
Or, S – 0.375S = ` 12,50,000
Or, S = ` 20,00,000
(iii) Contribution to Sales Ratio = 40%
Therefore, Variable cost to Sales Ratio = 60%
Variable cost = 60% of sales = 60% of 20,00,000
Variable cost = 12,00,000
(iv) Current Profit = Sales – (Variable Cost + Fixed Cost)
= ` 20,00,000 – (12,00,000 + 5,00,000) = ` 3,00,000
(v) If sales value is increased by 7 ½ %
New Sales value = ` 20,00,000 × 1.075 = ` 21,50,000

New Margin of Safety = New Sales value – BES

= ` 21,50,000 – ` 12,50,000 = ` 9,00,000

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 14.28 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

11. VARIATIONS OF BASIC MARGINAL COST

EQUATION AND OTHER FORMULAE
i. Sales – Variable cost = Fixed cost ± Profit/ Loss
By multiplying and dividing L.H.S. by S
S(S − V)
ii. = F+P
S
 S−V
iii. S × P/V Ratio = F + P or Contribution  P/V Ratio = 
 S 
iv BES × P/V Ratio = F ( at BEP profit is zero)

Fixed Cost
v BES =
P / V Ratio
Fixed Cost
vi P/V Ratio =
BES
vii S × P/V Ratio = Contribution (Refer to iii)
Contributi on
viii P/V Ratio =
Sales
ix (BES + MS) × P/V Ratio = Contribution (Total sales = BES + MS)
x (BES × P/V Ratio) + (MS × P/V Ratio) = F + P
By deducting (BES × P/V Ratio) from L.H.S. and F from R.H.S. in (x) above,
we get:
xi M.S. × P/V Ratio = P
Change in profit
xii P/V Ratio =
Change in sales

Change in contribution
xiii P/V Ratio =
Change in sales
Contributi on
xiv Profitability =
Key factor

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.29

Profit
xv Margin of Safety = Total Sales – BES or .
P / V ratio
xvi BES = Total Sales – MS
Total sales - BES
Margin of Safety Ratio =
Total sales

ILLUSTRATION 9
By noting “P/V will increase or P/V will decrease or P/V will not change”, as the case
may be, STATE how the following independent situations will affect the P/V ratio:
(i) An increase in the physical sales volume;
(ii) An increase in the fixed cost;
(iii) A decrease in the variable cost per unit;
(iv) A decrease in the contribution margin;
(v) An increase in selling price per unit;

(vi) A decrease in the fixed cost;

(vii) A 10% increase in both selling price and variable cost per unit;
(viii) A 10% increase in the selling price per unit and 10% decrease in the physical
sales volume;
(ix) A 50% increase in the variable cost per unit and 50% decrease in the fixed cost.
(x) An increase in the angle of incidence.
SOLUTION

Item P/V Ratio Reason

no.
(i) Will not change The ratio of sales value and variable cost will
remain same irrespective of change in sales
volume.
(ii) Will not change Fixed cost is not considered in calculation of P/V
ratio.
(iii) Will increase Decrease in variable cost increases contribution

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 14.30 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

margin so does the P/V ratio.

(iv) Will decrease Decrease in contribution margin decreases the P/V
ratio.
(v) Will increase Increase in selling price per unit increases the
contribution margin per unit and the P/V ratio.
(vi) Will not change Fixed cost is not considered in calculation of P/V
ratio.
(vii) Will not change The increase in selling price and variable cost by
the same ratio will not change the P/V ratio. Please
refer the example note- 1 below.
(viii) Will increase The increase in selling price will increase the
contribution margin but the change in sales
volume in any direction will not affect P/V ratio.
Thus, increase in selling price with decrease in sales
volume will increase the P/V ratio.
(ix) Will decrease The increase in variable cost reduces the
contribution margin thus decreases the PV ratio.
Increase or decrease in fixed cost will not affect the
P/V ratio.
(x) Will increase Angle of incidence represents the rate of profit
earning, after reaching the break-even point.
Increase in angle of incidence means increase in
rate of profit earning which is nothing but the P/V
ratio that contributes towards the profitability after
recovering the fixed cost. (Please also refer para
14.12)

A 10% increase in both selling price and variable cost per unit.
Example note-1:
Assumptions:
a) Variable cost is less than selling price.
b) Selling price `100 variable cost ` 90 per unit.

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.31

100 − 90
c) P/V ratio = = 10%
100
10% increase in S.P. = `110
10% increase in variable cost = `99
110 − 99
P/V ratio = = 10% i.e. P/V ratio will not change
10

12. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

This angle is formed by the intersection of sales line and total cost line at the break-
even point. This angle shows the rate at which profit is earned once the break-
even point is reached. The wider the angle the greater is the rate of earning
profits. A large angle of incidence with a high margin of safety indicates extremely
favourable position.
The shaded area in the graph given below is representing the angle of incidence.
The angle above and below the break-even point shows the rate of earning
profitability (loss). Wider angle denotes higher rate of earnings and vice-versa.
280

L ine
les
260
Sa
240

220

200
ea
it Ar
180 of
Pr Line
Cost and Sales (Rs. ‘ 000)

C ost
Margin Angle of Total
160 of incidence
Safety
Cost and Sales (` '000)

Break even point

140

120 Variable cost

100

80
a
Ar e
ss
60 Lo

40 Margin
of Fixed cost
20 Safety

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

B.E.sales Actual sales

Volume of sales (Unit ‘000)

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 14.32 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

13. APPLICATION OF CVP ANALYSIS IN

DECISION MAKING
As discussed earlier CVP analysis is used as an evaluation tool for managerial decisions.
In this chapter we will discuss the use of CVP Analysis for short term decision making.
Before going into illustration, let us discuss the decision making framework.
13.1 Framework for Decision Making

Step 1: Identification of Problem

Step 2: Indentification of Options

Step 3: Evaluation of the Options

Step 4: Selection of the Option

Step-1: Identification of Problem

Every organisation has its own objectives, and goals are set to achieve these
objectives. To reach at the goal, actions are to be taken. For example, if an
organisation wants to be a cost leader in the industry it operates in, it has to achieve
3Es in its all activities. 3Es means economy in inputs, efficiency in process and
operations and effectiveness in output. An entity that exists for profit may identify
few areas (problem areas) which if worked on can add to the profit or wealth
maximisation. For example, Arnav Ltd. a manufacturer of Steel products, has
identified that it can be leader in the industry if it can produce steel products at
lower cost than its rival. Here the goal should be (problem area) low-cost
production.
Step- 2: Identification of Options
After identification of problem(s), the next step is identification of options to
achieve the goal (to answer the problem). All possible options need to be explored.
In the above example, the Arnav Ltd. may have the following options for low-cost
production:
(a) Purchase of inputs from specialised market- Local vs Import

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.33

(b) Make the input in its own factory- Make or Buy

(c) Bulk purchase to avail discount offer- How much to purchase
(d) Make in-house- Make vs Outsource

(e) Bulk processing- How much to produce

(f) Using efficient machine for manufacturing- Old machine vs New machine
(g) Optimisation of key resources- Product mix decisions etc.

Step- 3: Evaluation of the Options

After identification of options, each option is to be evaluated against the objective
criteria. An entity with objective of making profit may evaluate options on the basis
of financial measures like impact of profit or loss, market share, overall impact on
profitability, return on investment etc. Non-financial factors like customer
satisfaction, impact on existing market/ customer, ethics of decision are also
evaluated.
This step is a very important and may be grouped into two tasks
(i) Identification of Cost and Benefits of each option
(ii) Estimation of amount of each option
Step-4: Selection of option:
After evaluation of the options, the best option is selected and implemented.
13.2 Principles for Identification of Cost and Benefits for Measurement

The cost and benefit of an option is identified for measurement if it passes the
principles of Controllability and Relevance.
(i) Controllability: Those cost and benefits which arise due to choice of an
option. In other words, benefits received, and cost incurred are directly related with
the choice of the option. Thus, the costs and benefits which are controllable are
considered for measurement for making decision.

(ii) Relevance: The costs which are controllable need to be relevant for decision
making. This means all controllable costs are not relevant for decision making
unless it differs under the two options. Thus, a cost is treated is relevant only if
(a) it is a future cost and (b) it differs under two options under consideration.

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For Example, Arnav Ltd. wants to manufacture 1,000 additional units of Product X.
It is considering either to manufacture in its own factory or to outsource to job
workers. In this example cost of raw materials to manufacture additional 1,000 units
is controllable as it arises due to management’s decision to make additional units.
But it is not relevant for making choice between manufacturing in-house and
outsource to job workers, as under the both options, the raw materials cost would
be same.
Hence, for decision making purpose only those cost and benefits are identified for
measurement which are both Controllable and Relevant.
Below is an analysis of few costs for its relevance:

Cost Relevance Reason

(i) Historical Irrelevant The cost has already been incurred and do
Cost not affect the decision. Example: Book value
of machinery etc.
(ii) Sunk Cost Irrelevant The cost which are already paid either for
goods or services availed or to be availed.
Example: Raw material purchased and held
in store without having replacement cost,
Cost of drawing, blueprint etc.
(iii) Committed Irrelevant The committed costs are the pre-agreed
Cost cost which cannot be revoked under the
normal circumstances. This is also a sunk
cost. Examples: Cost of materials as per rate
agreement, Salary cost to employees etc.
(iv) Opportunity Relevant The opportunity cost is represented by the
Cost forgone potential benefit from the best
rejected course of action. Had the option
under consideration not chosen, the benefit
would come to the organisation.
(v) Notional or Relevant Notional costs are relevant for the decision
Imputed Cost making only if company is actually forgoing
benefits by employing its resources to
alternative course of action. For example,
notional interest on internally generated

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.35

fund is treated as relevant notional cost only

if company could earn interest from it.
(vi) Shut-down Relevant When an organization suspends its
Cost manufacturing operations, certain fixed
expenses can be avoided and certain extra
fixed expenses may be incurred depending
upon the nature of the industry. By closing
down the manufacturing, the organization
will save variable cost of production as well
as some discretionary fixed costs. This
particular discretionary cost is known as
shut-down cost.

13.3 Principles of Estimation of Costs and Benefits

After identification of the costs and benefits, it is now required to be quantified i.e.,
the cost and benefit should be measured and estimated. The estimation is done by
following the two principles as discusses below:
(i) Variability: Variability means by how much a cost or benefit increased or
decreased due to the choice of the option. Variable costs are the cost which differs
under the different volume or activities. On the other hand, fixed costs remain same
irrespective of volume and activities.

(ii) Traceability: Traceability of cost means degree of relationship between the

cost and the choice of the option. Direct costs are directly assigned to the option
on the other hand indirect costs needs to be apportioned to the option on some
reasonable basis.
For Example, Arnav Ltd. wants to manufacture 1,000 units of Product X. It is
considering to manufacture the same in its own factory. To manufacture in its own
factory, it requires 1,000 hours of employees and a specialised machine. In this
example, employee cost for labour of 1,000 hours is variable cost for in-house
manufacturing and it is directly traceable. Cost of machinery is also direct cost but
so far as traceability of the machinery cost is concerned it is direct cost for 1,000
units as a whole but indirect cost for a unit.
Hence, the cost and benefits of an option is measured at directly traceable and
variable costs.

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13.4 Short-term Decision-Making using concepts of CVP Analysis

Management uses marginal costing and CVP concepts for making various
decisions. In this chapter we will learn how the concepts of marginal costing and
CVP is applied for analysis of identified options for short-term decision making.
Generally, short-term decisions are related with temporary gaps between demand
and supply for available resources. The areas of short term decision may be
classified into two broad categories:
(i) Decisions related with excess supply, such as:
(a) Processing of Special Order

(b) Determination of price for stimulating demand

(c) Local vs Export sale
(d) Determination of minimum price for price quotations

(e) Shut-down or continue decision etc.

(ii) Decisions related with excess demand, such as:
(a) Make or Buy/ In-house-processing vs Outsourcing

(b) Product mix decision under resource constraints (limiting factors)

(c) Sales mix decisions
(d) Sale or further processing etc.

What is a Limiting Factor? Limiting factor is anything which limits the activity of
an entity. The factor is a key to determine the level of sale and production, thus it
is also known as Key factor. From the supply side the limiting factor may either be
Men (employees), Materials (raw material or supplies), Machine (capacity), or
Money (availability of fund or budget) and from demand side it may be demand
for the product, other factors like nature of product, regulatory and environmental
requirement etc. The management, while making decisions, has objective to
optimise the key resources upto maximum possible extent.
ILLUSTRATION 10
A company can make any one of the 3 products X, Y or Z in a year. It can exercise its
option only at the beginning of each year.
Relevant information about the products for the next year is given below.

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.37

X Y Z

Selling Price (` / unit) 10 12 12

Variable Costs (` / unit) 6 9 7
Market Demand (unit) 3,000 2,000 1,000
Production Capacity (unit) 2,000 3,000 900
Fixed Costs (`) 30,000

Required
COMPUTE the opportunity costs for each of the products.
SOLUTION

X Y Z

I. Contribution per unit (`) 4 3 5

II. Units (Lower of Production / Market Demand) 2,000 2,000 900
III. Possible Contribution (`) [ I × II ] 8,000 6,000 4,500
IV. Opportunity Cost* (`) 6,000 8,000 8,000

(*) Opportunity cost is the maximum possible contribution forgone by not producing
alternative product i.e. if Product X is produced then opportunity cost will be maximum of
(` 6,000 from Y, ` 4,500 from Z).

ILLUSTRATION 11
M.K. Ltd. manufactures and sells a single product X whose selling price is ` 40 per
unit and the variable cost is ` 16 per unit.
(i) If the Fixed Costs for this year are ` 4,80,000 and the annual sales are at 60%
margin of safety, CALCULATE the rate of net return on sales, assuming an
income tax level of 40%
(ii) For the next year, it is proposed to add another product line Y whose selling
price would be ` 50 per unit and the variable cost ` 10 per unit. The total fixed
costs are estimated at ` 6,66,600. The sales mix values of X : Y would be 7 : 3.
DETERMINE at what level of sales next year, would M.K. Ltd. break even? Give
separately for both X and Y the break-even sales in rupee and quantities.

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SOLUTION
(i) Contribution per unit = Selling price – Variable cost
= `40 – `16 = `24

` 4,80,000
Break-even Point = = 20,000 units
`24

Actual Sales – Break - even Sales

Percentage Margin of Safety =
Actual Sales

Actual Sales – 20,000units

Or, 60% =
Actual Sales

∴ Actual Sales = 50,000 units

(`)
Sales Value (50,000 units × `40) 20,00,000
Less: Variable Cost (50,000 units × `16) 8,00,000
Contribution 12,00,000
Less: Fixed Cost 4,80,000
Profit 7,20,000
Less: Income Tax @ 40% 2,88,000
Net Return 4,32,000
 ` 4,32,000 
Rate of Net Return on Sales = 21.6%  ×100 
 `20,00,000 

(ii) Products

X Y
(`) (`)
Selling Price 40 50
Less: Variable Cost 16 10
Contribution per unit 24 40
Sales Ratio 7 3
Contribution in sales Ratio 168 120

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.39

Based on Weighted Contribution

24 ×7 + 40 ×3
Weighted Contribution = = ` 28.8 per unit
10

Total Fixed Cost 6,66,600

Total Break-even Point = = = 23,145.80 units
Weighted Contribution 28.80

Break-even Point

7
X = ×23,145.80 = 16,202 units
10

or 16,202 × ` 40 = ` 6,48,080

3
Y = ×23,145.80 = 6,944 units or 6,944 × ` 50 =` 3, 47,200
10
Based on distributing fixed cost in the weighted Contribution Ratio
Fixed Cost

168
X = ×6,66,600 = ` 3,88,850
288

120
Y = ×6,66,600 = ` 2,77,750
288
Break-even Point

Fixed Cost 3,88,850

X = = = 16,202 units or ` 6, 48,000
Contribution per unit 24

Fixed Cost 2,77,750

Y = = = 6,944 units or ` 3, 47,200
Contribution per unit 40
ILLUSTRATION 12
X Ltd. supplies spare parts to an air craft company Y Ltd. The production capacity of
X Ltd. facilitates production of any one spare part for a particular period of time. The
following are the cost and other information for the production of the two different
spare parts A and B:

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 14.40 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Part A Part B
Per unit
Alloy usage 1.6 kgs. 1.6 kgs.
Machine Time: Machine P 0.6 hrs 0.25 hrs.
Machine Time: Machine Q 0.5 hrs. 0.55 hrs.
Target Price (`) 145 115
Total hours available Machine P 4,000 hours
Machine Q 4,500 hours

Alloy available is 13,000 kgs. @ ` 12.50 per kg.

Variable overheads per machine hours Machine P: ` 80

Machine Q: ` 100
Required
(i) IDENTIFY the spare part which will optimize contribution at the offered price.
(ii) If Y Ltd. reduces target price by 10% and offers ` 60 per hour of unutilized
machine hour, CALCULATE the total contribution from the spare part identified
above?
SOLUTION
(i)

Part A Part B
Machine “P” (4,000 hrs) 6,666 16,000
Machine “Q” (4,500 hrs) 9,000 8,181
Alloy Available (13,000 kg.) 8,125 8,125
Maximum Number of Parts to be manufactured 6,666 8,125
(Minimum of the above three)

(`) (`)

Material (`12.5 × 1.6 kg.) 20.00 20.00

Variable Overhead: Machine “P” 48.00 20.00
Variable Overhead: Machine “Q” 50.00 55.00

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Total Variable Cost per unit 118.00 95.00

Price Offered 145.00 115.00
Contribution per unit 27.00 20.00
Total Contribution for units produced (I) 1,79,982 1,62,500
Spare Part A will optimize the contribution.
(ii)

Part A

Parts to be manufactured numbers 6,666

Machine P : to be used 4,000

Machine Q : to be used 3,333

Underutilized Machine Hours (4,500 hrs. – 3,333 hrs.) 1,167

Compensation for unutilized machine hours (1,167hrs. × `60) (II) 70,020

Reduction in Price by 10%, Causing fall in Contribution of `14.50 96,657

per unit (6,666 units × `14.5) (III)

Total Contribution (I + II – III) 1,53,345

ILLUSTRATION 13
The profit for the year of R.J. Ltd. works out to 12.5% of the capital employed and the
relevant figures are as under:
Sales……………………………………………………………… ` 5,00,000
Direct Materials………………………………………………… ` 2,50,000
Direct Labour…………………………………………………….. ` 1,00,000
Variable Overheads…………………………………………… ` 40,000
Capital Employed……………………………………………… ` 4,00,000
The new Sales Manager who has joined the company recently estimates for next year
a profit of about 23% on capital employed, provided the volume of sales is increased
by 10% and simultaneously there is an increase in Selling Price of 4% and an overall
cost reduction in all the elements of cost by 2%.

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 14.42 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Required
FIND OUT by computing in detail the cost and profit for next year, whether the
proposal of Sales Manager can be adopted.
SOLUTION
Statement Showing “Cost and Profit for the Next Year”
Particulars Existing Volume, Costs, Estimated Sale,
Volume, etc. etc. after 10% Cost, Profit, etc.*
Increase

(`) (`) (`)

Sales 5,00,000 5,50,000 5,72,000

Less: Direct Materials 2,50,000 2,75,000 2,69,500

Direct Labour 1,00,000 1,10,000 1,07,800

Variable Overheads 40,000 44,000 43,120

Contribution 1,10,000 1,21,000 1,51,580

Less: Fixed Cost# 60,000 60,000 58,800

Profit 50,000 61,000 92,780

(*) for the next year after increase in selling price @ 4% and overall cost reduction by 2%.
(#) Fixed Cost = Existing Sales – Existing Marginal Cost – 12.5% on `4,00,000
= `5,00,000 – `3,90,000 – `50,000 = `60,000

 `92,780 
Percentage Profit on Capital Employed equals to 23.19%  x 100 
 ` 4,00,000 

Since the Profit of `92,780 is more than 23% of capital employed, the proposal of
the Sales Manager can be adopted.

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14. DISTINCTION BETWEEN MARGINAL AND

ABSORPTION COSTING
The distinctions in these two techniques are illustrated by the following diagrams:

Direct materials
Charged to Charged as
Direct labour
cost of goods expenses when
Variable factory overhead
produced goods are sold
Fixed factory overhead

All selling and adm. Charged as expenses

overhead when incurred

Absorption Costing Approach

Direct materials
Charged to Charged as
Direct labour
cost of goods expenses when
Variable factory overhead
produced goods are sold

Fixed factory overhead

and all selling and adm. Charged as expenses
overhead when incurred
Marginal Costing Approach
14.1 Main Points of distinction between Marginal Costing and
Absorption Costing

Marginal costing Absorption costing

1. Only variable costs are Both fixed and variable costs are
considered for product costing considered for product costing and
and inventory valuation. inventory valuation.
2. Fixed costs are regarded as Fixed costs are charged to the cost of
period costs. The Profitability production. Each product bears a
reasonable share of fixed cost and thus the

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 14.44 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

of different products is judged profitability of a product is influenced by the

by their P/V ratio. apportionment of fixed costs.
3. Cost data presented highlight Cost data are presented in conventional
the total contribution of each pattern. Net profit of each product is
product. determined after subtracting fixed cost
along with their variable costs.
4. The difference in the magnitude The difference in the magnitude of
of opening stock and closing opening stock and closing stock affects
stock does not affect the unit the unit cost of production due to the
cost of production. impact of related fixed cost.
5. In case of marginal costing the In case of absorption costing the cost per
cost per unit remains the same, unit reduces, as the production increases
irrespective of the production as it is fixed cost which reduces, whereas,
as it is valued at variable cost the variable cost remains the same per
unit.

14.2 Difference in Profit under Marginal and Absorption costing

The above two approaches will compute the different profit because of the difference
in the stock valuation. This difference is explained as follows in different circumstances.
1. No opening and closing stock: In this case, profit / loss under absorption
and marginal costing will be equal.

2. When opening stock is equal to closing stock: In this case, profit / loss
under two approaches will be equal provided the fixed cost element in both
the stocks is same amount.
3. When closing stock is more than opening stock: In other words, when
production during a period is more than sales, then profit as per absorption
approach will be more than that by marginal approach. The reason behind
this difference is that a part of fixed overhead included in closing stock value
is carried forward to next accounting period.
4. When opening stock is more than the closing stock: In other words, when
production is less than the sales, profit shown by marginal costing will be
more than that shown by absorption costing. This is because a part of fixed
cost from the preceding period is added to the current year’s cost of goods
sold in the form of opening stock.

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The presentation of information to management under the two costing techniques

is as under:
Income Statement (Absorption costing)

(` )
Sales XXXXX
Production Costs:
Direct material consumed XXXXX
Direct labour cost XXXXX
Variable manufacturing overhead XXXXX
Fixed manufacturing overhead XXXXX
Cost of Production XXXXX
Add: Opening stock of finished goods XXXXX
(Value at cost of previous period’s production)
XXXXX
Less: Closing stock of finished goods XXXXX
(Value at production cost of current period) .
Cost of Goods Sold XXXXX
Add: (or less) Under (or over) absorption of fixed
Manufacturing overhead XXXXX
Add: Administration costs XXXXX
Selling and distribution costs XXXXX XXXXX
Total Cost XXXXX
Profit (Sales – Total cost) XXXXX

Income Statement (Marginal costing)

(` )
Sales XXXXX
Variable manufacturing costs:
– Direct material consumed XXXXX
– Direct labour XXXXX
– Variable manufacturing overhead XXXXX

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Cost of Goods Produced XXXXX

Add: Opening stock of finished goods XXXXX
(Value at cost of previous period)
Less: Closing stock of finished goods (Value at current variable
cost)
Cost of Goods Sold XXXXX
Add: Variable administration, selling and dist. overhead XXXXX
Total Variable Cost XXXXX
Add: Selling and distribution costs
Contribution (Sales – Total variable costs) XXXXX
Less: Fixed costs (Production, admin., selling and dist.) XXXXX
Net Profit XXXXX

It is evident from the above that under marginal costing technique the
contributions of various products are pooled together and the fixed overheads are
met out of such total contribution. The total contribution is also known as gross
margin. The contribution minus fixed expenses yields net profit. In absorption
costing technique cost includes fixed overheads as well.
ILLUSTRATION 14
Wonder Ltd. manufactures a single product, ZEST. The following figures relate to ZEST
for a one-year period:

Activity Level 50% 100%

Sales and production (units) 400 800
(`) (`)
Sales 8,00,000 16,00,000
Production costs:
- Variable 3,20,000 6,40,000
- Fixed 1,60,000 1,60,000
Selling and distribution costs:
- Variable 1,60,000 3,20,000
- Fixed 2,40,000 2,40,000

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The normal level of activity for the year is 800 units. Fixed costs are incurred evenly
throughout the year, and actual fixed costs are the same as budgeted. There were no
stocks of ZEST at the beginning of the year.

In the first quarter, 220 units were produced and 160 units were sold.
Required:
(a) COMPUTE the fixed production costs absorbed by ZEST if absorption costing is
used?
(b) CALCULATE the under/over-recovery of overheads during the period?
(c) CALCULATE the profit using absorption costing?
(d) CALCULATE the profit using marginal costing?
SOLUTION
(a) Fixed production costs absorbed: (` )
Budgeted fixed production costs 1,60,000

Budgeted output (normal level of activity 800 units)

Therefore, the absorption rate: 1,60,000/800 = ` 200 per unit
During the first quarter, the fixed production
cost absorbed by ZEST would be (220 units × ` 200) 44,000
(b) Under /over-recovery of overheads during the period: (` )
Actual fixed production overhead 40,000

(1/4 of ` 1,60,000)
Absorbed fixed production overhead 44,000
Over-recovery of overheads 4,000
(c) Profit for the Quarter (Absorption Costing)

(`) (`)
Sales revenue (160 units × ` 2,000): (A) 3,20,000
Less: Production costs:
- Variable cost (220 units × ` 800) 1,76,000

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- Fixed overheads absorbed (220 units × ` 200) 44,000 2,20,000

Add: Opening stock --
 `2,20,000  (60,000)
Less: Closing Stock  ×60units 
 220units 
Cost of Goods sold 1,60,000
Less: Adjustment for over-absorption of fixed (4,000)
production overheads
Add: Selling & Distribution Overheads:
- Variable (160 units × `400) 64,000
- Fixed (1/4th of ` 2,40,000) 60,000 1,24,000
Cost of Sales (B) 2,80,000
Profit {(A) – (B)} 40,000

(d) Profit for the Quarter (Marginal Costing)

(`) (`)
Sales revenue (160 units × ` 2,000): (A) 3,20,000
Less: Production costs:
- Variable cost (220 units × ` 800) 1,76,000
Add: Opening stock --
 `1,76,000  (48,000)
Less: Closing Stock  ×60units 
 220units 
Variable cost of goods sold 1,28,000
Add: Selling & Distribution Overheads:
- Variable (160 units × `400) 64,000
Cost of Sales (B) 1,92,000
Contribution {(C) = (A) – (B)} 1,28,000
Less: Fixed Costs:
- Production cost (40,000)
- Selling & distribution cost (60,000) (1,00,000)
Profit 28,000

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SUMMARY
♦ Marginal Cost: Marginal cost as understood in economics is the incremental
cost of production which arises due to one-unit increase in the production
quantity. Marginal cost is measured by the total variable cost attributable to
one unit.
♦ Marginal Costing: It is a costing system where products or services and
inventories are valued at variable costs only. It does not take consideration of
fixed costs.
♦ Absorption Costing: A method of costing by which all direct cost and
applicable overheads are charged to products or cost centers for finding out
the total cost of production. Absorbed cost includes production cost as well as
administrative and other cost.
♦ Contribution: Contribution or contribution margin is the difference between
sales revenue and total variable costs irrespective of manufacturing or non-
manufacturing.
♦ Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) Analysis: It is an analysis of reciprocal effect of
changes in cost, volume and profitability. Such an analysis explores the
relationship between costs, revenue, activity levels and the resulting profit. It
aims at measuring variations in cost and volume.
♦ Contribution to Sales Ratio (Profit Volume Ratio or P/V ratio): This ratio
shows the proportion of sales available to cover fixed costs and profit.
Contribution represents the sales revenue after deducting variable costs.
♦ Break-even Point (BEP): The level of sales where an entity neither earns profit
nor incurs loss. BEP is indicated in both quantity and monetary value terms.
♦ Margin of Safety (MOS): The margin between sales and the break-even sales
is known as margin of safety. It can either be indicated in quantitative or
monetary terms.
♦ Angle of Incidence: This angle is formed by the intersection of sales line and
total cost line at the break-even point. This angle shows the rate at which
profits is earned once the break-even point is reached.
♦ Limiting (Key) factor: Limiting factor is anything which limits the activity of
an entity. The factor is a key to determine the level of sale and production, thus
it is also known as Key factor.

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TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Under marginal costing the cost of product includes:

(a) Prime costs only.

(b) Prime costs and variable overheads.
(c) Prime costs and fixed overheads.
(d) Prime costs and factory overheads.
2. Reporting under marginal costing is accomplished by:
(a) Treating all costs as period costs.
(b) Eliminating the work-in-progress inventory account.
(c) Matching variable costs against revenue and treating fixed costs as period
costs.

(d) Including only variable costs in income statement.

3. Period costs are:
(a) Variable costs.
(b) Fixed costs.
(c) Prime costs.
(d) Overheads costs.

4. When sales and production (in units) are same then profit under:
(a) Marginal costing is higher than that of absorption costing.
(b) Marginal costing is lower than that of absorption costing.
(c) Marginal costing is equal to that of absorption costing.
(d) None of the above.
5. When sales exceed production (in units) then profit under:
(a) Marginal costing is higher than that of absorption costing.
(b) Marginal costing is lower than that of absorption costing.

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.51

(c) Marginal costing is equal than that of absorption costing.

(d) None of above.
6. The main difference between marginal costing and absorption costing is
regarding the treatment of:
(a) Prime cost.
(b) Fixed overheads.

(c) Direct materials.

(d) Variable overheads.
7. Under profit volume ratio, the term profit:

(a) Means the sales proceeds in excess of total costs.

(b) Means the same thing as is generally understood.
(c) Is a misnomer, it in fact refers to contribution i.e. (sales revenue-variable
costs).
(d) None of the above.
8. Factors which can change the break-even point:
(a) Change in fixed costs.
(b) Change in variable costs.
(c) Change in the selling price.
(d) All of the above.
9. If P/V ratio is 40% of sales then what about the remaining 60% of sales:
(a) Profit.
(b) Fixed cost.
(c) Variable cost.
(d) Margin of safety.

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10. The P/V ratio of a product is 0.6 and profit is ` 9,000. The margin of safety is:
(a) ` 5,400
(b) ` 15,000
(c) ` 22,500
(d) ` 3,600

Theoretical Questions
1. EXPLAIN and ILLUSTRATE break-even point with the help of break-even chart.

2. WRITE a short note on Angle of Incidence.

3. DISCUSS basic assumptions of Cost Volume Profit analysis.
4. DISCUSS the practical application of Marginal Costing.

5. DISCUSS the points of difference between Absorption Costing and Marginal

Costing.
6. WRITE a short note on Margin of Safety.

Practical Problems
1. If P/V ratio is 60% and the Marginal cost of the product is ` 20. CALCULATE
the selling price?

2. The ratio of variable cost to sales is 70%. The break-even point occurs at 60%
of the capacity sales. Find the capacity sales when fixed costs are ` 90,000.
Also COMPUTE profit at 75% of the capacity sales.
3. You are required to-

(`)
(i) DETERMINE profit, when sales = 2,00,000
Fixed Cost = 40,000
BEP = 1,60,000
(ii) DETERMINE sales, when fixed cost = 20,000
Profit = 10,000
BEP = 40,000

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4. A company has made a profit of ` 50,000 during the year. If the selling price
and marginal cost of the product are ` 15 and ` 12 per unit respectively, FIND
OUT the amount of margin of safety.
5. (a) If margin of safety is ` 2,40,000 (40% of sales) and P/V ratio is 30% of AB
Ltd, CALCULATE its (1) Break even sales, and (2) Amount of profit on sales
of ` 9,00,000.
(b) X Ltd. has earned a contribution of ` 2,00,000 and net profit of `1,50,000
of sales of ` 8,00,000. What is its margin of safety?
6. A company sells its product at ` 15 per unit. In a period, if it produces and sells
8,000 units, it incurs a loss of ` 5 per unit. If the volume is raised to 20,000
units, it earns a profit of ` 4 per unit. CALCULATE break-even point both in
terms of Value as well as in units.

7. You are given the following data:

Sales Profit

Year 2021-22 ` 1,20,000 8,000

Year 2022-23 ` 1,40,000 13,000

FIND OUT –
(i) P/V ratio,
(ii) B.E. Point,
(iii) Profit when sales are ` 1,80,000,

(iv) Sales required earn a profit of ` 12,000,

(v) Margin of safety in year 2022-23.
8. The product mix of a Gama Ltd. is as under:

Products
M N

Units 54,000 18,000

Selling price ` 7.50 ` 15.00
Variable cost ` 6.00 ` 4.50

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 14.54 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

FIND the break-even points in units, if the company discontinues product ‘M’ and
replace with product ‘O’. The quantity of product ‘O’ is 9,000 units and its selling
price and variable costs respectively are ` 18 and ` 9. Fixed Cost is ` 15,000.
9. Mr. X has ` 2,00,000 investments in his business firm. He wants a 15 per cent
return on his money. From an analysis of recent cost figures, he finds that his
variable cost of operating is 60 per cent of sales, his fixed costs are ` 80,000 per
year. Show COMPUTATIONS to answer the following questions:
(i) What sales volume must be obtained to break even?
(ii) What sales volume must be obtained to get 15 per cent return on
investment?
(iii) Mr. X estimates that even if he closed the doors of his business, he would
incur ` 25,000 as expenses per year. At what sales would he be better off
by locking his business up?
10. A company had incurred fixed expenses of ` 4,50,000, with sales of
` 15,00,000 and earned a profit of ` 3,00,000 during the first half year. In the
second half, it suffered a loss of ` 1,50,000.
CALCULATE:

(i) The profit-volume ratio, break-even point and margin of safety for the
first half year.
(ii) Expected sales volume for the second half year assuming that selling price
and fixed expenses remained unchanged during the second half year.
(iii) The break-even point and margin of safety for the whole year.
11. The following information is given by Star Ltd.:

Margin of Safety ` 1,87,500

Total Cost ` 1,93,750
Margin of Safety 3,750 units
Break-even Sales 1,250 units
Required:
CALCULATE Profit, P/V Ratio, BEP Sales (in `) and Fixed Cost.

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.55

12. A single product company sells its product at ` 60 per unit. In 2021-22, the
company operated at a margin of safety of 40%. The fixed costs amounted to
` 3,60,000 and the variable cost ratio to sales was 80%.
In 2022-23, it is estimated that the variable cost will go up by 10% and the
fixed cost will increase by 5%.
(i) FIND the selling price required to be fixed in 2022-23 to earn the same
P/V ratio as in 2021-22.
(ii) Assuming the same selling price of ` 60 per unit in 2022-23, FIND the
number of units required to be produced and sold to earn the same profit
as in 2021-22.
13. (a) You are given the following data for the coming year for a factory.

Budgeted output 8,00,000 units

Fixed expenses ` 40,00,000
Variable expenses per unit ` 100
Selling price per unit ` 200

DRAW a break-even chart showing the break-even point.

(b) If price is reduced to ` 180, what will be the new break-even point?
14. A company has three factories situated in north, east and south with its Head
Office in Mumbai. The management has received the following summary report
on the operations of each factory for a period:
(` in ‘000)
Sales Profit
Actual Over/(Under) Actual Over/(Under)
Budget Budget
North 1,100 (400) 135 (180)
East 1,450 150 210 90
South 1,200 (200) 330 (110)

CALCULATE for each factory and for the company as a whole for the period:
(i) the fixed costs. (ii) break-even sales.

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 14.56 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

15. An automobile manufacturing company produces different models of Cars. The

budget in respect of model 007 for the month of March is as under:

Budgeted Output 40,000 Units

` In lakhs ` In lakhs
Net Realisation 2,10,000
Variable Costs:
Materials 79,200
Labour 15,600
Direct expenses 37,200 1,32,000
Specific Fixed Costs 27,000
Allocated Fixed Costs 33,750 60,750
Total Costs 1,92,750
Profit 17,250
Sales 2,10,000

CALCULATE:
(i) Profit with 10 percent increase in selling price with a 10 percent reduction
in sales volume.
(ii) Volume to be achieved to maintain the original profit after a 10 percent
rise in material costs, at the originally budgeted selling price per unit.

16. An Indian soft drink company is planning to establish a subsidiary company in

Bhutan to produce mineral water. Based on the estimated annual sales of
40,000 bottles of the mineral water, cost studies produced the following
estimates for the Bhutanese subsidiary:
Total annual Percent of Total Annual
costs Cost which is variable
Material 2,10,000 100%
Labour 1,50,000 80%
Factory Overheads 92,000 60%
Administration Expenses 40,000 35%

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.57

The Bhutanese production will be sold by manufacturer’s representatives who

will receive a commission of 8% of the sale price. No portion of the Indian
office expenses is to be allocated to the Bhutanese subsidiary. You are required
to
(i) COMPUTE the sale price per bottle to enable the management to realize
an estimated 10% profit on sale proceeds in Bhutan.
(ii) CALCULATE the break-even point in rupees sales as also in number of
bottles for the Bhutanese subsidiary on the assumption that the sale price
is ` 14 per bottle.
17. XYZ Ltd. has a production capacity of 2,00,000 units per year. Normal capacity
utilisation is reckoned as 90%. Standard variable production costs are ` 11 per
unit. The fixed costs are `3,60,000 per year. Variable selling costs are ` 3 per
unit and fixed selling costs are `2,70,000 per year. The unit selling price is ` 20.
In the year just ended on 31st March, the production was 1,60,000 units and
sales were 1,50,000 units. The closing inventory on 31st March was 20,000 units.
The actual variable production costs for the year were ` 35,000 higher than the
standard.
(i) CALCULATE the profit for the year
(a) by absorption costing method and
(b) by marginal costing method.
(ii) EXPLAIN the difference in the profits.

18. The following are cost data for three alternative ways of processing the clerical
work for cases brought before the LC Court System:

A B C
Manual (` ) Semi- Fully-
Automatic Automatic
(` ) (` )
Monthly fixed costs:
Occupancy 15,000 15,000 15,000
Maintenance contract --- 5,000 10,000
Equipment lease --- 25,000 1,00,000

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 14.58 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Unit variable costs (per report):

Supplies 40 80 20
Labour `200 `60 `20
(5 hrs × ` 40) (1 hr × `60) (0.25 hr × `80)

Required:
(i) CALCULATE cost indifference points. Interpret your results.

(ii) If the present case load is 600 cases and it is expected to go up to 850
cases in near future, SELECT most appropriate on cost considerations?
19. XY Ltd. makes two products X and Y, whose respective fixed costs are F1 and
F2. You are given that the unit contribution of Y is one fifth less than the unit
contribution of X, that the total of F 1 and F2 is ` 1,50,000, that the BEP of X is
1,800 units (for BEP of X, F2 is not considered) and that 3,000 units is the
indifference point between X and Y.(i.e. X and Y make equal profits at 3,000
unit volume, considering their respective fixed costs). There is no inventory
buildup as whatever is produced is sold.

Required
FIND OUT the values F1 and F2 and units contributions of X and Y.
20. Prisha Limited manufactures three different products and the following
information has been collected from the books of accounts:

Products
A B C
Sales Mix 40% 35% 25%
Selling Price ` 300 ` 400 ` 200
Variable Cost ` 150 ` 200 ` 120
Total Fixed Costs ` 18,00,000
Total Sales ` 60,00,000

The company has currently under discussion, a proposal to discontinue the

manufacture of Product C and replace it with Product E, when the following
results are anticipated:

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.59

Products
A B E
Sales Mix 45% 30% 25%
Selling Price ` 300 `400 ` 300
Variable Cost ` 150 `200 ` 150
Total Fixed Costs ` 18,00,000
Total Sales ` 64,00,000

Required:
(i) CALCULATE the total contribution to sales ratio and present break-even
sales at existing sales mix.
(ii) CALCULATE the total contribution to sales ratio and present break-even
sales at proposed sales mix.
(iii) STATE whether the proposed sales mix is accepted or not?

ANSWERS/ SOLUTIONS
Answers to the MCQs

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b)

7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (b)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 8

2. Please refer paragraph 12
3. Please refer paragraph 7
4. Please refer paragraph 3
5. Please refer paragraph 5
6. Please refer paragraph 10

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 14.60 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. Variable Cost = 100 – P/V Ratio
= 100 – 60 = 40
If Variable cost is 40, then selling price = 100

If Variable cost is 20, then selling price = (100/40) × 20 = ` 50

2. Variable cost to sales = 70%, Contribution to sales = 30%,
Or P/V Ratio 30%
We know that: BES × P/V Ratio = Fixed Cost
BES × 0.30 = ` 90,000
Or BES = ` 3,00,000
It is given that break-even occurs at 60% capacity.
Capacity sales = ` 3,00,000 ÷ 0.60 = ` 5,00,000
Computation of profit of 75% Capacity
75% of capacity sales (i.e. ` 5,00,000 × 0.75) = ` 3,75,000
Less: Variable cost (i.e. ` 3,75,000 × 0.70) = ` 2,62,500
= ` 1,12,500

Less: Fixed Cost =` 90,000

Profit =` 22,500
3. (i) We know that: B.E. Sales × P/V Ratio = Fixed Cost
or ` 1,60,000 × P/V ratio = ` 40,000
P/V ratio = 25%

We also know that Sales × P/V Ratio = Fixed Cost + Profit

or ` 2,00,000 × 0.25 = ` 40,000 + Profit
or Profit = ` 10,000
(ii) Again B.E. Sales × P/V ratio = Fixed Cost
or ` 40,000 × P/V Ratio = ` 20,000

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.61

or P/V ratio = 50%

We also know that: Sales × P/V ratio = Fixed Cost + Profit
or Sales × 0.50 = ` 20,000 + ` 10,000

or Sales = ` 60,000.
Contribution
4. P/V Ratio = × 100
Sales
= [(15 – 12)/15] × 100
= (3/15) x 100 = 20%
Marginal of Safety = Profit ÷ P/V Ratio
= 50,000 ÷ 20% = ` 2,50,000
100
5. (a) Total Sales = 2,40,000 × = ` 6,00,000
40
Contribution = 6,00,000 × 30% = ` 1,80,000

Profit = M/S × P/V ratio = 2,40,000 × 30% = ` 72,000

Fixed cost = Contribution – Profit
= 1,80,000 – 72,000 = ` 1,08,000
Fixed Cost 1,08,000
(1) Break-even Sales = = = ` 3,60,000
P / V ratio 30%

(2) Profit = (Sales × P/V ratio) – Fixed cost

= (9,00,000 × 30%) – 1,08,000 = ` 1,62,000

Contribution 2,00,000
(b) P/V ratio = = = 25%
Sales 8,00,000

Profit 1,50,000
Margin of safety = = = ` 6,00,000
P/V ratio 25%

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 14.62 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Alternatively:

Fixed cost = Contribution – Profit

= ` 2,00,000 – `1,50,000 = ` 50,000

B.E. Point = ` 50,000 ÷ 25% = ` 2,00,000

Margin of Safety = Actual sales – B.E. sales
= 8,00,000 – 2,00,000 = 6,00,000
6. We know that S – V =F+P

∴ Suppose variable cost = x, Fixed Cost = y

In first situation:
15 × 8,000 - 8,000 x = y – 40,000 (1)
In second situation:
15 × 20,000 - 20,000 x = y + 80,000 (2)
or, 1,20,000 – 8,000 x = y – 40,000 (3)
3,00,000 – 20,000 x = y + 80,000 (4)
From (3) & (4) we get x = ` 5, Variable cost per unit = ` 5
Putting this value in 3rd equation:

1,20,000 – (8,000 × 5) = y – 40,000

or, y = ` 1,20,000
Fixed Cost = ` 1,20,000

S − V 15 − 5 200 2
P/V ratio = = × 100 = 66 %.
=
S 15 3 3
Suppose break-even sales = x
15x – 5x = 1,20,000 (at BEP, contribution will be equal to fixed cost)
x = 12,000 units.
or, Break-even sales in units = 12,000, Break-even sales in Value
= 12,000 × 15 = `1,80,000.

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.63

7.

Sales Profit
Year 2021-22 ` 1,20,000 8,000
Year 2022-23 ` 1,40,000 13,000
Difference ` 20,000 5,000

Difference in profit 5,000

(i) P/V Ratio = × 100 = × 100 = 25%
Difference in Sales 20,000

(`)

Contribution in 2021-22 (1,20,000 × 25%) 30,000

Less: Profit 8,000

Fixed Cost* 22,000

*Contribution = Fixed cost + Profit

∴ Fixed cost = Contribution - Profit

Fixed cost 22,000
(ii) Break-even point = = = ` 88,000
P/V ratio 25%

(iii) Profit when sales are `1,80,000 (`)

Contribution (`1,80,000 × 25%) 45,000

Less: Fixed cost 22,000

Profit 23,000

(iv) Sales to earn a profit of `12,000

Fixed cost + Desired profit 22,000 + 12,000
= = `1,36,000
P/V ratio 25%

(v) Margin of safety in 2022-23 –

Margin of safety = Actual sales – Break-even sales

= 1,40,000 – 88,000 = ` 52,000.

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 14.64 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

8. N = 18,000 units
O = 9,000 units
Ratio (N : O) = 2:1
Let
t = No. of units of ‘O’ for BEP
2t = No. of units of ‘N’ for BEP
Contribution of ‘N’ = ` 10.5 per unit
Contribution of ‘O’ = ` 9 per unit
At Break Even Point:
10.5 x (2t) + 9 x t -15,000 = 0
30t = 15,000
t = 500 units
BEP of ‘N’ = 2t
= 1,000 units
BEP of ‘O’ = t = 500 units
9.

Particulars (`)

Suppose sales 100

Variable cost 60

Contribution 40

P/V ratio 40%

Fixed cost = ` 80,000

(i) Break-even point = Fixed Cost ÷ P/V ratio =80,000 ÷ 40% or ` 2,00,000

(ii) 15% return on ` 2,00,000 30,000

Fixed Cost 80,000
Contribution required 1,10,000
Sales volume required = ` 1,10,000 ÷ 40% or ` 2,75,000

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.65

(iii) Avoidable fixed cost if business is locked up = ` 80,000 - ` 25,000

= ` 55,000
Minimum sales required to meet this cost: ` 55,000 ÷ 40%
or ` 1,37,500

Mr. X will be better off by locking his business up, if the sale is less than
` 1,37,500
10. (i) In the First half year:

Contribution = Fixed cost + Profit

= 4,50,000 + 3,00,000 = ` 7,50,000

Contribution 7,50,000
P/V ratio = ×100 = × 100 = 50%
Sales 15,00,000

Fixed cost 4,50,000

Break-even point = = × 100 = ` 9,00,000
P/V ratio 50%

Margin of safety = Actual sales – Break-even point

= 15,00,000 – 9,00,000 = ` 6,00,000

(ii) In the second half year:

Contribution = Fixed cost – Loss

= 4,50,000 – 1,50,000 = ` 3,00,000

Fixed cost - Loss 3,00,000

Expected sales volume = = = ` 6,00,000
P / V ratio 50%

(iii) For the whole year:

Fixed cost 4,50,000 × 2

B.E. point = = = `18,00,000
P/V ratio 50%

Profit 3,00,000 − 1,50,000

Margin of safety = = = ` 3,00,000.
P/V ratio 50%

3,750units
11. Margin of Safety (%) =
3,750units+1,250units

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 14.66 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

= 75%

`1,87,500
Total Sales = = ` 2,50,000
0.75

Profit = Total Sales – Total Cost

= ` 2,50,000 – ` 1,93,750
= ` 56,250

Profit
P/V Ratio = ×100
Marginof Safety (` )

`56,250
= ×100 = 30%
`1,87,500
Break-even Sales = Total Sales × [100 – Margin of Safety %]
= ` 2,50,000 × 0.25 = ` 62,500
Fixed Cost = Sales × P/V Ratio – Profit
= ` 2,50,000 × 0.30 – ` 56,250 = ` 18,750
12. (i) Profit earned in 2021-22:

Particulars (`)
Total contribution (50,000 × ` 12) 6,00,000
Less: Fixed cost 3,60,000
Profit 2,40,000
Selling price to be fixed in 2022-23:
Revised variable cost (` 48 × 1.10) 52.80
Revised fixed cost (3,60,000 × 1.05) 3,78,000
P/V Ratio (Same as of 2021-22) 20%
Variable cost ratio to selling price 80%

Therefore, revised selling price per unit = ` 52.80 ÷ 80% = ` 66

(ii) No. of units to be produced and sold in 2022-23 to earn the same
profit:

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.67

We know that Fixed Cost plus profit = Contribution

(`)
Profit in 2021-22 2,40,000
Fixed cost in 2022-23 3,78,000
Desired contribution in 2022-23 6,18,000

Contribution per unit = Selling price per unit – Variable cost per unit.
= ` 60 – ` 52.80 = ` 7.20.
No. of units to be produced in 2022-23 = ` 6,18,000 ÷ ` 7.20 = 85,834
units.

Workings:
1. PV Ratio in 2021-22

(`)
Selling price per unit 60
Variable cost (80% of Selling Price) 48
Contribution 12
P/V Ratio 20%

2. No. of units sold in 2021-22

Break-even point = Fixed cost ÷ Contribution per unit

= ` 3,60,000 ÷ ` 12 = 30,000 units.

Margin of safety is 40%. Therefore, break-even sales will be 60%

of units sold.

No. of units sold = Break-even point in units ÷ 60%

= 30,000 ÷ 60% = 50,000 units.

13. (a) Contribution = S – V = ` 200 – ` 100 = ` 100 per unit.

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 14.68 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Fixed cost 40,00,000

B.E. Point = = = 40,000 units
Contribution per unit `100

(b) When selling price is reduced

New selling price = ` 180
New Contribution = ` 180 – ` 100 = ` 80 per unit.

` 40,00,000
New B.E. Point = = 50,000 units.
` 80
The break-even chart is shown below:

200
(Rs.'00000)

ine
esl ine
(` '00000)

l
Sa le sl
160 sa
w
Ne
and Revenue

e
os t lin
al c
Tot
Revenue

120

B.E.P.
Cost and Cost

80 New break-even point

Fixed cost line

40

0
20 40 50 60 80 100

Output ('000 units)

14. Calculation of P/V Ratio (`‘ 000)

Sales Profit
North : Actual 1,100 135
Add : Under budgeted 400 180
Budgeted 1,500 315

Diferenece in Profit 315 − 135 180

P/V ratio = = = × 100 = × 100 = 45%
Difference in Sales 1,500 − 1,100 400

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.69

(` ‘000)

Sales Profit
East : Actual 1,450 210
Less : Over budgeted (150) (90)
Budgeted 1,300 120

90
P/V ratio = × 100 = 60%
150
(`’ 000)

Sales Profit
South : Actual 1,200 330
Add: Under budgeted 200 110
Budgeted 1,400 440

110
P/V ratio = × 100 = 55%
200
(i) Calculation of fixed cost
Fixed Cost = (Actual sales × P/V ratio) – Profit

North = (1,100 × 45%) – 135 = 360

East = (1,450 × 60%) – 210 = 660
South = (1,200 × 55%) – 330 = 330
Total Fixed Cost 1,350
(ii) Calculation of break-even sales (in `’ 000)
Fixed Cost
B.E. Sales =
P/V ratio
360
North = = 800
45%
660
East = = 1,100
60%

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 14.70 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

330
South = = 600
55%
Total 2,500
15. (i) Budgeted selling price = 2,10,000 lakhs/ 40,000 units = `5,25,000 per unit.
Budgeted variable cost = 1,32,000 lakhs/ 40,000 units = ` 3,30,000 per unit.
Increased selling price = `5,25,000 + 10% = ` 5,77,500 per unit
New volume 40,000 – 10% = 36,000 units
Statement of Calculation of Profit:

(` In lakhs)
Sales 36,000 units at ` 5,77,500 = 2,07,900
Less: Variable cost: 36,000 × `3,30,000 = 1,18,800
Contribution 89,100
Less: fixed costs 60,750
Profit 28,350

(ii) Budgeted Material Cost = 79,200 Lakhs/ 40,000 Units = `1,98,000 per Unit

Increased material cost = `1,98,000×110% = 2,17,800

Labour cost 15,600 lakhs/ 40,000 units = 39,000
Direct expenses, 37,200 lakhs/ 40,000 units = 93,000
Variable cost per unit 3,49,800
Budgeted selling price per unit 5,25,000
Contribution per unit (5,25,000 – 3,49,800) 1,75,200

Fixed costs+Profit 60,750 lakhs + 17,250 lakhs

Sales volume = =
Contribution Per Unit ` 1.752 lakhs

= 44,521 units are to be sold to maintain the original

profit of ` 17,250 lakhs.

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.71

16. (i) Computation of Sale Price Per Bottle

Output: 40,000 Bottles
Particulars (`)

Variable Cost:
Material 2,10,000
Labour (`1,50,000 × 80%) 1,20,000
Factory Overheads (`92,000 × 60%) 55,200
Administrative Overheads (`40,000 × 35%) 14,000
Commission (8% on `6,00,000) (W.N.-1) 48,000
Fixed Cost:
Labour (`1,50,000 × 20%) 30,000
Factory Overheads (`92,000 × 40%) 36,800
Administrative Overheads (`40,000 × 65%) 26,000
Total Cost 5,40,000
Profit (W.N.-1) 60,000
Sales Proceeds (W.N.-1) 6,00,000
 ` 6,00,000  15
Sales Price per bottle  
 40,000 Bottles 

(ii) Calculation of Break-even Point

Sales Price per Bottle = `14

` 4,44,000 (W.N.- 2)
Variable Cost per Bottle = = `11.10
40,000 Bottles

Contribution per Bottle = `14 − `11.10 = `2.90

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 14.72 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Break -even Point:

Fixed Costs
(in number of Bottles) =
Contribution per Bottle

`92,800
= = 32,000Bottles
`2.90
(in Sales Value) = 32,000 Bottles × `14
= `4,48,000
Working Note
W.N.-1
Let the Sales Price be ‘x’
8x
Commission =
100
10x
Profit =
100
8x 10x
x = 4,92,000 + +
100 100
100x - 8x - 10x = 4,92,00,000
82x = 4,92,00,000
x = 4,92,00,000 / 82 = `6,00,000
W.N.-2

Total Variable Cost (`)

Material 2,10,000
Labour 1,20,000
Factory Overheads 55,200
Administrative Overheads 14,000
Commission [(40,000 Bottles × `14) × 8%] 44,800
4,44,000

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.73

17. Income Statement (Absorption Costing) for the year ending

31st March

(`) (`)

Sales (1,50,000 units @ `20) 30,00,000

Production Costs:
Variable (1,60,000 units @ `11) 17,60,000
Add: Increase 35,000 17,95,000
Fixed (1,60,000 units @ `2*) 3,20,000
Cost of Goods Produced 21,15,000
Add: Opening stock (10,000 units @ `13)* 1,30,000
22,45,000

 ` 21,15,000  2,64,375
Less: Closing stock  ×20,000 units 
 1,60,000 units 
Cost of Goods Sold 19,80,625
Add: Under absorbed fixed production overhead 40,000
(3,60,000 – 3,20,000)
20,20,625
Add: Non-production costs:
Variable selling costs (1,50,000 units @ `3) 4,50,000
Fixed selling costs 2,70,000
Total cost 27,40,625
Profit (Sales – Total Cost) 2,59,375

* Working Notes:
1. Fixed production overhead is absorbed at a pre-determined rate based
on normal capacity, i.e. `3,60,000 ÷ 1,80,000 units = ` 2.
2. Opening stock is 10,000 units, i.e., 1,50,000 units + 20,000 units –
1,60,000 units. It is valued at `13 per unit, i.e., `11 + `2 (Variable +
fixed).

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 14.74 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Income Statement (Marginal Costing) for the year ended

31st March
(`) (`)
Sales (1,50,000 units @ `20) 30,00,000
Variable production cost (1,60,000 units @ 17,95,000
`11 + `35,000)
Variable selling cost (1,50,000 units @ `3) 4,50,000
22,45,000
Add: Opening Stock (10,000 units @ `11) 1,10,000
23,55,000
Less: Closing stock
 `17,95,000  2,24,375
 ×20,000 units 
 1,60,000 units 
Variable cost of goods sold 21,30,625
Contribution (Sales – Variable cost of 8,69,375
goods sold)
Less: Fixed cost – Production 3,60,000
– Selling 2,70,000 6,30,000
Profit 2,39,375

Reasons for Difference in Profit: (`)

Profit as per absorption costing 2,59,375
Add: Op. stock under –valued in marginal costing 20,000
(`1,30,000 – 1,10,000)
2,79,375
Less: Cl. Stock under –valued in marginal closing 40,000
(`2,64,375 – 2,24,375)
Profit as per marginal costing 2,39,375

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.75

18. (i) Cost Indifference Point

A and B A and C B and C

(`) (`) (`)
Differential Fixed Cost (I) `30,000 `1,10,000 `80,000
(`45,000 – (`1,25,000 – (`1,25,000 –
`15,000) `15,000) `45,000)
Differential Variable Costs (II) `100 `200 `100
(`240 – (`240 – (`140 – `40)
`140) `40)
Cost Indifference Point (I/II) 300 550 800
(Differential Fixed Cost / Cases Cases Cases
Differential Variable Costs per
case)

Interpretation of Results
At activity level below the indifference points, the alternative with lower
fixed costs and higher variable costs should be used. At activity level
above the indifference point alternative with higher fixed costs and
lower variable costs should be used.

No. of Cases Alternative to be Chosen

Cases ≤ 300 Alternative ‘A’
300 ≥ Cases ≤ 800 Alternative ‘B’
Cases ≥ 800 Alternative ‘C’

(ii) Present case load is 600. Therefore, alternative B is suitable. As the

number of cases is expected to go upto 850 cases, alternative C is most
appropriate.
19. Let Cx be the Contribution per unit of Product X.
Therefore, Contribution per unit of Product Y =Cy=4/5Cx = 0.8Cx

Given F1 + F2 = 1,50,000,
F1 = 1,800Cx (Break even Volume × Contribution per unit)
Therefore, F2 = 1,50,000 – 1,800Cx.

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 14.76 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

3,000Cx –F1 =3,000 × 0.8Cx – F2 or 3,000Cx – F1 =2,400 Cx-F2 (Indifference Point)

i.e., 3,000Cx – 1,800Cx = 2,400Cx – 1,50,000 + 1,800Cx

i.e., 3,000Cx = 1,50,000, Therefore, Cx = ` 50/- (1,50,000 / 3,000)

Therefore, Contribution per unit of X = ` 50
Fixed Cost of X = F1 = ` 90,000 (1,800 × 50)

Therefore, Contribution per unit of Y is ` 50 × 0.8 = ` 40 and

Fixed Cost of Y = F2 = ` 60,000 (1,50,000 – 90,000)
The Value of F1 = ` 90,000, F2 = ` 60,000 and X = ` 50 and Y = ` 40

20. (i) Calculation of Contribution to sales ratio at existing sales mix:

Products
Total
A B C
Selling Price (`) 300 400 200
Less: Variable Cost (`) 150 200 120
Contribution per unit (`) 150 200 80
P/V Ratio 50% 50% 40%
Sales Mix 40% 35% 25%
Contribution per rupee of sales (P/V
20% 17.5% 10% 47.5%
Ratio × Sales Mix)

Present Total Contribution (` 60,00,000 × 47.5%) ` 28,50,000

Less: Fixed Costs ` 18,00,000
Present Profit ` 10,50,000
Present Break-Even Sales
` 37,89,473.68
(` 18,00,000/0.475)

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 MARGINAL COSTING 14.77

(ii) Calculation of Contribution to sales ratio at proposed sales mix:

Products
A B E Total

Selling Price (`) 300 400 300

Less: Variable Cost (`) 150 200 150
Contribution per unit (`) 150 200 150
P/V Ratio 50% 50% 50%
Sales Mix 45% 30% 25%
Contribution per rupee of sales
22.5% 15% 12.5% 50%
(P/V Ratio x Sales Mix)

Proposed Total Contribution (` 64,00,000 × 50%) ` 32,00,000

Less: Fixed Costs ` 18,00,000
Proposed Profit ` 14,00,000
Proposed Break-Even Sales ` 36,00,000
(` 18,00,000/0.50)

(iii) The proposed sales mix increases the total contribution to sales ratio
from 47.5% to 50% and the total profit from ` 10,50,000 to ` 14,00,000.
Thus, the proposed sales mix should be accepted.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

CHAPTER
15

BUDGETS & BUDGETARY

CONTROL

LEARNING OUTCOMES
♦ State the meaning of budget and budgetary control
♦ Essentials of budget.
♦ Discuss the objectives and importance of budget and
budgetary control.
♦ Describe the process of preparing budgets.
♦ State the motivation in budget process.
♦ List the different types of budgets.
♦ Differentiate between fixed and flexible budget.
♦ Prepare fixed and flexible budget.

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 15.2 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Essentials of Budget
Capacity-wise
Budgets & Budgetary Control Objectives of
Budgeting
Functions-wise
Types of Budgets
Period-wise
Zero-based
Budgeting (ZBB)
Master Budget
Performance
Budgeting

Budget Ratio

1. INTRODUCTION
An organization has its long-term objectives to achieve. The objectives are broken
down into achievable goals and targets. When these goals and targets are
translated into business plans, it is necessary to express the plans into quantifiable
terms to make it achievable. Budget is a commonly used business language that
expresses the business plans in quantifiable terms. When the targets are monitored
and compared with the actual results with the objective to narrow down the
deviations, make participants responsible and implement the preventive and
corrective actions, is known as budgetary control.
Meaning of Budget and Budgeting
Budget: A budget is an instrument of management used as an aid in the planning,
programming and control of business activity. The Chartered Institute of
Management Accountants (CIMA), UK defines budget as “A financial and/or
quantitative statement, prepared and approved prior to a defined period of time
of the policy to be pursued during that period for the purpose of attaining a given
objective. It may include income, expenditure and employment of capital” The
budget is a blue-print of the projected plan of action expressed in quantitative
terms for a specified period of time.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.3

Budget and Forecast

There is some similarity between the budget and forecast as both relate to a
defined period of time. A forecast is an assessment of probable future events.
Budget a financial/quantitative plan of a business enterprise to be pursued over a
period of time. Therefore, at the planning stage it is necessary to forecast a
probable course of action for the business. Budget is a commitment or a target
which the management seeks to attain on the basis of the forecasts made. Forecasts
are made regarding sales, production cost and financial requirements of the
business. A forecast denotes some degree of flexibility while a budget denotes a
definite target.
Budgeting: Budgeting is the process of designing, implementing and operating of
budget. The main emphasis in budgeting process is the provision of resources to
support plans which are being implemented. It is a means of coordinating the
combined intelligence of an entire organisation into a plan of action based on past
performance and governed by rational judgment of factors that will influence the
course of business in the future.

2. ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BUDGET

The main characteristics of budget are as follows:
1. A budget is concerned for a definite future period.
2. A budget is a written document.
3. A budget is a detailed plan of all the economic activities of a business.
4. All the departments of a business unit should co-operate for the preparation
of a business budget.
5. Budget is a means to achieve business objectives and it is not an end in itself.
6. Budget needs to be updated, corrected and controlled every time
circumstances change. Therefore, it is a continuous process.
7. Budget helps in planning, coordination and control.
8. Different types of budgets are prepared by industries according to business
requirements.

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 15.4 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

9. A budget acts as a business barometer.

10. Budget is usually prepared in the light of past experiences.
11. Budget is a constant endeavour of the Management.

3. ESSENTIAL STEPS FOR PREPARING BUDGET

Essential steps for preparing a budget are as follows:
1. Organisational structure must be clearly defined and responsibility should be
assigned to identifiable units within the organisation.
2. Setting of clear objectives and reasonable targets. Objectives should be in
consonance with the long-term plan of the organisation.
3. Objectives and responsibility should be clearly stated and communicated to
the management or person responsible.

4. Budgets are prepared for the future periods based on expected course of
actions.
5. Budgets are updated for the events that were not kept into the mind while
establishing budgets. Hence, budgets should flexible enough for mid- term
revision.
6. The entire organisation must be committed to the preparation and
implementing budgeting.
7. Budgets should be quantifiable and master budget should be broken down
into various functional budgets.

8. Budgets should be monitored periodically. Variances of the actual outcomes

should be compared with the actuals and variances analysed and
responsibility should be fixed.
9. Budgetary performance needs to be linked effectively to the reward system.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.5

Specification of Setting goals Preparation of

Objectives and targets Budgets

Taking
preventive and Identifying the Monitoring the
corrective deviations actual results
actions

4. OBJECTIVES OF BUDGETING
Direction and Co-
Planning Controlling
ordination

Planning
Planning is the beginning of any activity. Planning establishes the objectives of the
firm and decides the course of action to achieve it. It is concerned with formulating
short-term and long-term plans to achieve a particular end. Planning is a statement
of what should be done, how it should be done and when it should be done. The
process of preparing budget begins with the establishment of specific targets of
performance and is followed by devising plans to achieve such desired goals. These
targets include both the overall business targets as well as the specific targets for
the individual units within the business. Establishing specific targets for future
operations is part of the planning function of management, while executing actions
to meet the goals is the directing function of management. It may be explained as
• Budget is prepared in synchronisation with the overall objectives of the
organisation, keeping mission and corporate strategy into account. Individual
plans at unit level should be in consonance with organisational plan.
• Budget reflects plans. Therefore, planning should precede the preparation of
budget.
• Budgeted plans are quantified and responsibility is assigned to the persons
who are responsible for execution of plan.

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 15.6 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

• Communication of business objectives through budget has helped many a

company to reduce expenses during business recession.

• Planning not only motivates employees to attain goals but also improves
overall decision making. During the planning phase of the budget process,
all viewpoints are considered, options identified, and cost reduction
opportunities assessed. This process may reveal opportunities or threats that
were not known prior to the budget planning process.
Directing and Coordinating
• Once the budget plans are in place, these can be used to direct and
coordinate operations in order to achieve the stated targets.
• A business, however, is much more complex and requires more formal
direction and coordination.
• The budget offers an important tool to direct and coordinate business
activities and units to achieve stated targets of performance.
• The budgetary units in an organisation are called responsibility centers. Each
responsibility center is led by a manager who has the authority over and
responsibility for the unit’s performance.
• Objectives of each responsibility centre and degree of performance expected
from them are separately communicated.
Controlling
• Control is the process of monitoring, measuring, evaluating and correcting actual
results to ensure that a firm’s goals and plans are achieved. Control is achieved
through the process of feedback.
• As time passes, the actual performance of an operation can be compared
against the planned targets. This provides prompt feedback to
employees about their performance. If necessary, employees can use such
feedback to fine-tune their activities in the future.
• Feedback received in the form of budget report from the responsibility centre
is helpful to know the performance of the concerned unit.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.7

• Any unforeseen changes into the conditions which were prevailing at the time
of preparing budget are taken into account and budgets are revised to show
true performance.
• Comparing actual results to the plan helps prevent unplanned expenditures.
The budget helps employees to regulate their spending priorities.
The main objective of Budgeting is to help in achieving the overall objective
of the organization.

5. BUDGETARY CONTROL
CIMA has defined the terms ‘budgetary control’ as the establishment of budgets
relating to the responsibilities of executives to the requirements of a policy and the
continuous comparison of actual with budgeted results, either to secure by
individual action, the objective of that policy or to provide a basis for its revision.
It is the system of management control and accounting in which all the
operations are forecasted and planned in advance to the extent possible and
the actual results compared with the forecasted and planned results.

5.1 Budgetary Control Involves

1. Establishment of budgets
2. Continuous comparison of actuals with budgets for achievement of targets.
3. Revision of budgets after considering the changes in the circumstances.
4. Fixation of the responsibility for failure to achieve the budget targets.

5.2 Objectives of Budgetary Control System

1. Portraying with precision the overall aims of the business and determining
targets of performance for each section or department of the business.
2. Laying down the responsibilities of each of the executives and other
personnel so that everyone knows what is expected of him and how he will
be judged. Budgetary control is one of the few ways in which an objective
assessment of executives or department is possible.

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 15.8 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

3. Providing a basis for the comparison of actual performance with the

predetermined targets and investigation of deviation, if any, of actual
performance and expenses from the budgeted figures. This naturally helps in
adopting corrective measures.
4. Ensuring optimum use of available resources to maximise profit or
production, subject to the limiting factors. Since budgets cannot be properly
drawn up without considering all aspects, usually there is good co-ordination
when a system of budgetary control operates.

5. Co-ordinating various activities of the business, and centralising control

and yet enabling management to decentralise responsibility and delegate
authority in the overall interest of the business.
6. Engendering a spirit of careful forethought, assessment of what is possible
and an attempt at it. It leads to dynamism without being reckless. Of course,
much depends on the objectives of the firm and the dynamism r of its
management.
7. Providing a basis for revision of current and future policies.
8. Drawing up long range plans with a fair measure of accuracy.

9. Providing a yardstick against which actual results can be compared.

5.3 Steps for establishing Budgetary Control

The following steps are necessary for establishing a good budgetary control
system:
1. Determining the objectives to be achieved, over the budget period, and
the policy or policies that might be adopted for the achievement of these
objectives.
2. Determining the activities that should be undertaken for the achievement
of the objectives.

3. Drawing up a plan or a scheme of operation in respect of each class of

activity, in quantitative as well as monetary terms for the budget period.
4. Laying out a system of comparison of actual performance by each person, or
department with the relevant budget and determination of causes for the
variation, if any.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.9

5. Ensuring that corrective action will be taken where the plan has not been
achieved and, if that is not possible, for the revision of the plan.
In brief, it is a system to assist management in the allocation of responsibility and
authority, to provide it with aid for making, estimating and planning for the future
and to facilitate the analysis of the variation between estimated and actual per-
formance.
In order to ensure effective functioning of budgetary control, it is necessary that
the firm should develop a proper basis of measurement or standards with which to
evaluate the efficiency of operations, i.e., the firm should have in operation, a
system of standard costing.
The organisation should be so integrated that all lines of authority and
responsibility are properly defined. This is essential since the system of budgetary
control postulates separation of functions and division of responsibilities and thus
requires that the organisation shall be planned in such a manner that everyone,
from the Managing Director down to the Shop Foreman, will have his duties
properly defined.

5.4 Feedback and Feedforward Control

Budgetary
Control System

Feedforward
Feedback Control
Control

There are two types of budgetary control system based on timing of action:
Feedback Control: The feedback system of budgetary control, the actual results
for the budgeted period are collected and compared with the budgeted figures.
The exercise of variance identification is done after the completion of the budget
period. The variances are reported and based on the report corrective actions are
taken, responsibility is fixed and based on experience, modification in future targets
is implemented. As the name suggests, it is an Ex-post Corrective control system of
budget.

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 15.10 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

This system of budgetary control is common in organistions where Management

Information System (MIS) is not so robust and where data is obtained only after the
finalisation of books of account. Though this type of control system is less
expensive to maintain but has limitations. Organisation has to remain on looser
side in today’s age of data warfare.
Feedforward Control: This the opposite of feedback control system of
budgetary control. It is Ex-Ante Preventive control mechanism of budgetary control.
The budgets are set at the inception of the budgeted period and the actual results
are continuously monitored and compared. The targets are kept realistic as far as
possible and the targets are reviewed and reset if necessary.
This budgetary control system requires a robust MIS supported by integrated ERP
system enabling an entity to get data as and when desired basis. This system is very
expensive and beneficial for the organisations where the business environment is
dynamic and information has important role in getting edge in competition and
todays data warfare.

5.5 Budget Committee and Budget Officer

The budget committee is a group of representatives of various functions in an
organisation. As all functions are inter-related and as any change in one’s target
will have its impact on that of the other, it is necessary to discuss the targets so
that a mutually agreed programme is finally decided. This is called coordination in
budget-making. It is a powerful force in knitting together various activities of the
business and enforcing real control over operations.
The Chief Executive is ultimately responsible for the budget programme but it will
be better if the large part of the supervisory responsibility is delegated to an official
designated as Budget Officer The budget Officer should have knowledge of the
technical side of the business and should report to the president or CEO of the
business entity.
The responsibility for successfully introducing and implementing Budgetary Control
System rests with the Budget Committee acting through the Budget Officer. The
Budget Committee would be composed of all functional heads and a member from
the Board to preside over and guide the deliberations.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.11

The main responsibilities of the Budget Committee/Budget Officer are to:

1. Assist in the preparation of the separate budget for various departments
by coordinating the work of the accounts department, which is normally
responsible to compile the budgets—with the relevant functional
departments like Sales, Production, Plant maintenance etc.;

2. Forward the budget to the individual departments heads who are re-
sponsible to implement the budget. The Budget Officer should guide them
in overcoming any practical difficulties, in its working;

3. Prepare the periodical budget reports for circulation to the individuals

concerned;
4. Follow-up action to be taken on the budget reports;

5. Prepare an overall budget working report for discussion at the Budget

Committee meetings and to ensure follow-up on the lines of action
suggested by the Committee;

6. Prepare periodical reports for the Board meeting. Comparing budgeted

Profit and Loss Account and the Balance Sheet with the actual results attained.
It is necessary that every budget should be thoroughly discussed with the
functional heads before it is finalised.
It is the duty of the Budget Officer to see that the periodical budget reports are
supplied to the recipients at regular intervals so as to enable them to take remedial
action.
The efficiency of the Budget Officer, and through him of the Budget Committee,
will be judged more by the smooth working of the system and the agreement
between the actual figures and the budgeted figures.
Budgets provides basis for giving an incentive for better performance,; It is up to
the Budget Officer to see that attention of the different functional heads is drawn
to the deviations so as to face the challenge in a successful manner.

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 15.12 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

5.6 Advantages of Budgetary Control System

Points Description
1. Efficiency The use of budgetary control system enables the
management of a business entity to conduct its
business activities in an efficient manner.
2. Control on It is a powerful instrument used by business
expenditure entity for the control of their expenditure. It
provides a yardstick for measuring and
evaluating the performance of individuals and
their departments.
3. Finding deviations Budget reveals the deviations of the actual from
the budgeted figures after making a comparison
and communicating the deviation to
management.
4. Effective utilisation of Effective utilisation of various resources like—
resources men, material, machinery and money—is made
possible, as the production is planned after
taking these into account.
5. Revision of plans Budget helps in the review of current trends and
framing of future policies.
6. Implementation of Budget creates suitable conditions for the
Standard Costing implementation of standard costing system in a
system business organisation.
7. Cost Consciousness Budgetary control system encourages cost
consciousness and maximum utilisation of
available resources.
8. Credit Rating Management which has developed a well-ordered
budget plans and which operate accordingly,
receive greater favour from credit agencies.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.13

5.7 Limitations of Budgetary Control System

Points Description
1. Based on Estimates Budgets are based on a series of estimates, which
are based on the conditions prevalent or expected
at the time budget is established. It requires revision
in plan if conditions change.
2. Time factor Budgets cannot be executed automatically. Some
preliminary steps are required to be accomplished
before budgets are implemented. It requires proper
attention and time of management. Management
must not expect too much during the initial
development period.
3. Co-operation Staff co-operation is usually not available during the
Required initial budgetary control exercise. In a decentralised
organisation, each unit has its own objective and
these units enjoy some degree of discretion. In this
type of organisation structure, coordination among
different units is required. The success of the
budgetary control depends upon willing co-
operation and teamwork,
4. Expensive The implementation of budget is somewhat
expensive. For successful implementation of the
budgetary control, proper organisation structure
with responsibility is prerequisite. Budgeting
process start from the collection of information to
for preparing the budget and performance analysis.
It consumes valuable resources (in terms of
qualified manpower, equipment, etc.) for this
purpose; hence, it is an expensive process.
5. Not a substitute for Budget is only a managerial tool and must be
management intelligently applied for management to get
benefited. Budgets are not a substitute for good
management.

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 15.14 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

6. Rigid document Budgets are sometime considered as rigid

documents. But in reality, an organisation is
exposed to various uncertain internal and external
factors. Budget should be flexible enough to
incorporate ongoing developments in the internal
and external factors affecting the very purpose of
the budget.

5.8 Components of Budgetary Control System

The policy of a business for a defined period is represented by the master budget,
the detailed components of which are given in a number of individual budgets
called functional budgets. These functional budgets are broadly grouped under the
following heads:

1. Physical budgets: Those budgets which contain information in quantitative

terms such as the physical units of sales, production etc. This may include
quantity of sales, quantity of production, inventories, and manpower
budgets are physical budgets.
2. Cost budgets: Budgets which provides cost information in respect of
manufacturing, administration, selling and distribution, etc. for example,
manufacturing costs, selling costs, administration cost, and research and
development cost budgets are cost budgets.
3. Profit budgets: A budget which enables the ascertainment of profit. For
example, sales budget, profit and loss budget, etc.
4. Financial budgets: A budget which facilitates in ascertaining the financial
position of a concern, for example, cash budgets, capital expenditure
budget, budgeted balance sheet etc.

6 BUDGETS AND MOTIVATION

When pursuing some target, the end result of achieving the goal should be
motivating one. Motivation is a factor which works like fuel to get hope lighted and
ignites the aspirations. Therefore, motivation is the driving force which converts the
efforts into results and thus the long-term objectives of the any person whether it
would be an individual or a corporate.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.15

The same principle of motivation also applies to a business entity to achieve its
objectives in the course of pursuing its mission. Budget is a planning exercise which
quantifies the desired results into targets. The budget targets are communicated
to the executives at different levels and they are asked to strive to get the targes
achieved. But the whole exercise is not so simple as it seems in script,
implementation it in practicality has bumpy rides. The behavioural aspect of human
being comes into character, and it is not so difficult to guess why an executive put
his/ her best efforts to achieve the communicated targets. There must be
something motivating in achieving the targets, therefore, a budgeting process
should have the following consideration to make it motivating one:
(a) Performance measurement: The budget, at first be communicated to all
executives so that everybody must be informed the desired performance
expected from each of them. Secondly, the achievement of targets should
have consideration in measurement and evaluation of performance an
executive at individual level and at departmental level. Rewards such as
promotion, increment, Performance related pay (Pay), bonus may be
appropriate motivation factors.
(b) Achievable Targets: While setting targets, the practical aspects such as
availability of resources and realism of figures must be considered. The targes
should be balance one, it neither be very easy nor too tough, means it should
be realistic one. An unrealistic target has reverse impact and may be
demotivate the executives.
(c) Optimum utilisation of resources: A budget targets which is easily
achievable may underutilise the resources such as potential skills of
executives. Pressure sometime forcing to explore innovative ways to get
things done. Thus, to keep motivation alive, a balanced approach should be
applied for optimum utilisation of resources upto its effort zone, though
beyond the comfort zone.
(d) Involvement in budgeting process: The budgets which involves the
executives from all department can capture the requirement of all the users.
The participative budgeting motivates the executives and give them a sense
of ownership. Involvement at planning stage of budget can take care of the
requirements of the executives and force them accept the targets. However,
involvement at every stage of budgeting process may distort the objective of
budget and lands nowhere., thus, a balance approach may be followed.

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 15.16 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

7. PREPARATION OF BUDGETS
1. Defining business or organisational objectives: A budget is a plan for the
achievement of certain organisational objectives. It is therefore desirable that
these objectives are defined precisely. The organisational objectives should
be written down; the areas of control demarcated; and items of revenue and
expenditure to be covered by the budget clearly stated. This will give a clear
understanding of the plan and its scope to all those who must cooperate to
make it successful.

2. Identification of the key budget factor: There are usually one or two key
budget factors (sometimes there may be more than two) which set a limit to
the total activity. For instance, in India sometimes non-availability of power
does not allow production to increase in spite of heavy demand. Similarly,
lack of demand may limit production. Such a factor is known as key factor.
For proper budgeting, it must be identified and its influence on production
on sales estimated properly while preparing the budget.

3. Appointment of controller/officer: Formulation of a budget usually

requires service of a whole time senior executive.; He must be assisted in this
work by a Budget Committee, consisting of all the heads of departments
along with the Managing Director as the Chairman. The Budget
Controller/Officer is responsible for coordinating and development of budget
programmes and preparing the manual of instruction, known as Budget
manual.

4. Budget Manual: The budget manual is a booklet specifying the objectives of

an organisation in relation to its strategy. The budget is made to decide how
much an organisation would earn and spend and in what manner. In the
budget, the organisation sets its priorities too.

CIMA, London, defines budget manual as, “A document which sets out the
responsibilities of the persons engaged in, the routine of, and the forms and
records required for, budgetary control.”

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.17

Effective budgetary planning relies on the provision of adequate information

to the individuals involved in the planning process. Many of these information
needs are contained in the budget manual. A budget manual is a collection
of documents that contains key information for those involved in the
planning process.
Contents of a Budget Manual
Typical budget manual may include the following:
(i) A statement regarding the objectives of the organisation and how they
can be achieved through budgetary control;
(ii) A statement about the functions and responsibilities of each executive,
both regarding preparation and execution of budgets;
(iii) Procedures to be followed for obtaining the necessary approval of
budgets. The authority of granting approval should be stated in explicit
terms. Whether, one two or more signatures are required on each
document should be clearly stated;
(iv) A form of organisation chart to show who are responsible for the
preparation of each functional budget and the way in which the budgets
are interrelated.

(v) A timetable for the preparation of each budget.

(vi) The manner of scrutiny and the personnel to carry it out;
(vii) Reports, statements, forms and other record to be maintained;
(viii) The accounts classification to be employed. It is necessary that the
framework within which the costs, revenue and other financial accounts
are classified must be identical both in the accounts and budget
department;
(ix) The reporting of the remedial action;
(x) The manner in which budgets, after acceptance and issuance, are to be
revised or the matter amended these are included in budgets and on
which action can be taken only with the approval of top management

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 15.18 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(xi) This will prevent the formation of a ‘bottleneck’ with the late
preparation of one budget holding up the preparation of all others.

(xii) Copies of all forms to be completed by those responsible for preparing

budgets, with explanations concerning their completion.

(xiii) A list of the organization’s account codes, with full explanations of how
to use them.

(xiv) Information concerning key assumptions to be made by managers in

their budgets, for example the rate of inflation, key exchange rates, etc.

5. Budget period: The period covered by a budget is known as budget period.

There is no general rule governing the selection of the budget period. In
practice the Budget Committee determines the length of the budget period
suitable for the business. Normally, a calendar year or a period co-terminus
with the financial year is adopted. The budget period for the calendar or
financial year is then divided into shorter periods; it may be monthly or
quarterly or for such periods as coincide with period of trading activity of the
business.

6. Standard of activity or output: For preparing budgets for the future, past
statistics, though important, cannot be completely relied upon. The past
usually represents a combination of good and bad factors. Therefore, though
results of the past should be studied, but these should only be applied when
there is a likelihood of similar conditions repeating in the future. Also, while
setting the targets for the future, it must be remembered that in a progressive
business, the achievement of a year should normally exceed those of earlier
years. Therefore, what was good in the past is only fair for the current year
and should work for much better in the future.

In budgeting, fixing the budget of sales, expenses, and of capital expenditure is

important since these budgets determine the extent of development activity. For
budgeting sales, one must consider the trend of economic activity of the country,
recommendations of salesmen, customers and employees, effect of price changes
on sales, the provision for advertisement campaign plan capacity etc.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.19

8. DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUDGETS

BUDGET

Capacity Wise Function Wise Master Budget Period Wise

Sales Budget Long-term

Fixed Budget Budget
Production Budget
Plant utilisation Budget Short-term
Flexible Budget
Direct-material usage Budget
Budget
Direct-material purchase Budget Current Budget
Direct-labour (personnel) Budget
Factory overhead Budget
Production cost Budget
Ending inventory Budget
Cost of gooods-sold Budget
Selling and distribution cost Budget
Administration expenses Budget
Research and development cost Budget
Capital expenditure Budget
Cash Budget

8.1 Classification on the basis of Capacity or Flexibility

These types of budgets are prepared on the basis of activity level or utilization of
capacity. These are also known as “Budgets on the basis of flexibility”.
(i) Fixed Budget: A budget prepared on the basis of standard or fixed level of
activity is known as fixed budget. It does not change with a change in the level of
activities. According to CIMA, “a fixed budget is a budget designed to remain
unchanged irrespective of the level of activity actually attained”. A fixed
budget shows the expected results of a responsibility center for only one activity
level.
Once the budget is prepared, it is not changed, even if the level of activity changes.
Fixed budgeting is used by many service companies and for some administrative

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 15.20 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

functions of manufacturing companies, such as purchasing, engineering, and

accounting.

Fixed Budget is used as an effective tool of cost control. In case, the level of activity
attained is different from the level of activity for budgeting purposes, the fixed
budget becomes ineffective. Fixed budget is suitable for fixed expenses. It is also
known as a static budget.
Essential conditions:
1. When the nature of business is not seasonal.
2. There is no impact of external factors on the business activities.
3. The demand of the product is certain and stable.
4. Supply orders are received and issued regularly.
5. The market of the product is normally domestic but it can also apply in
respect of service export, where fairly regular export orders are received
6. There is no need of special labour or material in the production of the
products.
7. Supply of production inputs is regular.
8. There is a trend of price stability.
Generally, all above conditions are not found in practice. Hence fixed budget is not
suitable in business concerns.
Merits and Demerits of fixed budgets are tabulated below:

Merits Demerits
1. Very simple to understand 1. It does not suite a dynamic organization
2. Less time consuming and may give misleading results. A poor
or good performance may remain un-
noticed.
2. It is not suitable for long period.
3. It is also found unsuitable particularly
when the business conditions are
changing constantly.
4. Accurate estimates are not possible.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.21

(ii) Flexible Budget: A flexible budget is a budget which, by recognising the

difference in behaviour between fixed and variable costs in relation to fluctuations
in output, turnover, or other variable factors, is designed to change appropriately
with such fluctuations. According to CIMA, “a flexible budget is defined as a
budget which, by recognizing the difference between fixed, semi-variable and
variable costs is designed to change in relation to the level of activity
attained.” Unlike static (fixed) budgets, the flexible budgets show the expected
results of a responsibility center for different activity levels.

One can view a flexible budget as a series of static budgets for different levels of
activity. Such budgets are especially useful in estimating and controlling factory
costs and operating expenses. It is more realistic and practicable because it gives
due consideration to behaviour of revenue and cost at different levels of activity.
While preparing a flexible budget, the expenses are classified into three categories
viz.
(i) Fixed,
(ii) Variable, and
(iii) Semi-variable.
Semi-variable expenses are further segregated into fixed and variable expenses.
Flexible budgeting may be resorted to under the following situations:
(i) In the case of new business venture, due to its typical nature, it may be
difficult to forecast the demand of a product accurately.
(ii) Where the business is dependent upon the fluctuations of nature e.g., a
person dealing in wool trade may have enough market demand, if
temperature goes below the freezing point and much less demand if the
weather is relatively warm.
(iii) In the case of labour-intensive industry where the production of the entity is
dependent upon the availability of labour.
Suitability for flexible budget:
1. Seasonal fluctuations in sales and/or production, for example in soft drinks
industry;

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 15.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2. a company which keeps on introducing new products or makes changes in

the design of its products frequently;

3. industries engaged in make-to-order business like ship building;

4. an industry which is influenced by changes in fashion; and
5. general changes in sales.
Merits and Demerits of flexible budgets are tabulated below:

Merits Demerits
1. With the help of flexible budget, the 1. The formulation of flexible
sales, costs and profit may be budget is possible only when
calculated easily by the business at there is proper accounting
various levels of production capacity. system maintained, perfect
2. In flexible budget, adjustment is very knowledge about the factors of
simple according to change in production and various
business conditions. business circumstances is
available.
3. It also helps in determination of
production level as it shows 2. Flexible Budget also requires
budgeted costs with classification at the system of standard costing
various levels of activity along with in business.
sales. Hence the management can 3. It is very expensive and labour
easily select the level of production oriented.
which shows the profit
predetermined by the owners of the
business.
4. It also shows the quantity of product
to be produced to earn determined
profit.

Difference between Fixed and Flexible Budgets:

Sl. No. Fixed Budget Flexible Budget

1. It does not change with actual It can be re-casted on the basis of
volume of activity achieved. activity level to be achieved. Thus, it
Thus, it is known as rigid or is not rigid.
inflexible budget.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.23

2. It operates on one level of It consists of various budgets for

activity and under one set of different levels of activity.
conditions. It assumes that
there will be no change in the
prevailing conditions, which
is unrealistic.
3. Here as all costs like - fixed, Here analysis of variance provides
variable and semi-variable useful information as each cost is
are related to only one level analysed according to its behaviour.
of activity so variance
analysis does not give useful
information.
4. If the budgeted and actual Flexible budgeting at different levels
activity levels differ of activity facilitates the
significantly, then the aspects ascertainment of cost, fixation of
like cost ascertainment and selling price and tendering of
price fixation do not give a quotations.
correct picture.
5. Comparison of actual It provides a meaningful basis of
performance with budgeted comparison of the actual
targets will be meaningless performance with the budgeted
specially when there is a targets.
difference between the two
activity levels.

ILLUSTRATION 1
A factory which expects to operate 7,000 hours, i.e., at 70% level of activity, furnishes
details of expenses as under:
Variable expenses `1,260
Semi-variable expenses `1,200
Fixed expenses `1,800
The semi-variable expenses go up by 10% between 85% and 95% activity and by 20%
above 95% activity. PREPARE a flexible budget for 80, 90 and 100 per cent activities.

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 15.24 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

SOLUTION

Head of Account Control basis 70% 80% 90% 100%

Budgeted hours 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
(`) (`) (`) (`)
Variable expenses Variable 1,260 1,440 1,620 1,800
Semi-variable expenses Semi-variable 1,200 1,200 1,320 1,440
Fixed expenses Fixed 1,800 1,800 1,800 1,800
Total expenses 4,260 4,440 4,740 5,040
Recovery rate per hour:
Total expenses/Bud hours 0.61 0.55 0.53 0.50

Conclusion:
We notice that the recovery rate at 70% activity is ` 0.61 per hour. If in a particular
month the factory works 8,000 hours, it will be incorrect to estimate the allowance
as `4,880 @ `0.61. The correct allowance will be `4,440 as shown in the table. If the
actual expenses are `4,500 for this level of activity, the company has not saved any
money but has over-spent by `60 (`4,500 – `4,440).
ILLUSTRATION 2
A department of Company X attains sale of ` 6,00,000 at 80 per cent of its normal
capacity and its expenses are given below:

Administration costs: (`)

Office salaries 90,000
General expenses 2 per cent of sales
Depreciation 7,500
Rates and taxes 8,750
Selling costs:

Salaries 8 per cent of sales

Travelling expenses 2 per cent of sales
Sales office expenses 1 per cent of sales
General expenses 1 per cent of sales

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.25

Distribution costs:
Wages 15,000
Rent 1 per cent of sales
Other expenses 4 per cent of sales
PREPARE flexible administration, selling and distribution costs budget, operating at
90 per cent, 100 per cent and 110 per cent of normal capacity.
SOLUTION
Flexible Budget of Department....of Company ‘X’
80% (`) 90% (`) 100%(`) 110%(`)
Sales 6,00,000 6,75,000 7,50,000 8,25,000
Administration Costs:
Office Salaries (fixed) 90,000 90,000 90,000 90,000
General expenses (2% of Sales) 12,000 13,500 15,000 16,500
Depreciation (fixed) 7,500 7,500 7,500 7,500
Rent and rates (fixed) 8,750 8,750 8,750 8,750
(A) Total Adm. Costs 1,18,250 1,19,750 1,21,250 1,22,750
Selling Costs:
Salaries (8% of sales) 48,000 54,000 60,000 66,000
Travelling expenses (2% of sales) 12,000 13,500 15,000 16,500
Sales office (1% of sales) 6,000 6,750 7,500 8,250
General expenses (1% of sales) 6,000 6,750 7,500 8,250
(B) Total Selling Costs 72,000 81,000 90,000 99,000
Distribution Costs:
Wages (fixed) 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000
Rent (1% of sales) 6,000 6,750 7,500 8,250
Other expenses (4% of sales) 24,000 27,000 30,000 33,000
(C) Total Distribution Costs 45,000 48,750 52,500 56,250
Total Costs (A + B + C) 2,35,250 2,49,500 2,63,750 2,78,000

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 15.26 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Note: In the absence of information, it has been assumed that office salaries,
depreciation, rates and taxes and wages remain the same at 110% level of activity
also. However, in practice some of these costs may change if present capacity is
exceeded.
ILLUSTRATION 3
Action Plan Manufacturers normally produce 8,000 units of their product in a month,
in their Machine Shop. For the month of January, they had planned for a production
of 10,000 units. Owing to a sudden cancellation of a contract in the middle of
January, they could only produce 6,000 units in January.
Indirect manufacturing costs are carefully planned and monitored in the Machine
Shop and the Foreman of the shop is paid a 10% of the savings as bonus when in any
month the indirect manufacturing cost incurred is less than the budgeted provision.
The Foreman has put in a claim that he should be paid a bonus of ` 88.50 for the
month of January. The Works Manager wonders how anyone can claim a bonus when
the Company has lost a sizeable contract. The relevant figures are as under:
Indirect manufacturing Expenses for a Planned for Actual in costs
normal month January January
(` ) (` ) (` )
Salary of foreman 1,000 1,000 1,000
Indirect labour 720 900 600
Indirect material 800 1,000 700
Repairs and maintenance 600 650 600
Power 800 875 740
Tools consumed 320 400 300
Rates and taxes 150 150 150
Depreciation 800 800 800
Insurance 100 100 100
5,290 5,875 4,990
Do you agree with the Works Manager? Is the Foreman entitled to any bonus for the
performance in January? Substantiate your answer with facts and figures. EXPLAIN.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.27

SOLUTION
Flexible Budget of “Action Plan Manufacturers”
(for the month of January)
Indirect Nature Expenses Planned Expenses Actual Difference
manufacturing of cost for a expenses as per expenses
cost normal flexible
month budget
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)=(5)–
(4)
Salary of foreman Fixed 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Nil
Indirect labour Variable 720 900 540 600 60
(WN 1)
Indirect material Variable 800 1,000 600 700 100
(WN 2)
Repair and Semi- 600 650 550 600 50
maintenance variable
(WN 3)
Power (WN 4) Semi- 800 875 725 740 15
variable
Tools consumed Variable 320 400 240 300 60
(WN 5)
Rates and taxes Fixed 150 150 150 150 Nil
Depreciation Fixed 800 800 800 800 Nil
Insurance Fixed 100 100 100 100 Nil
5,290 5,875 4,705 4,990 285

Conclusion: The above statement of flexible budget shows that the concern’s
expenses in the month of January have increased by `285 as compared to flexible
budget. Under such circumstances, assuming the expenses are controllable and
based on the financial perspective the Foreman of the company should not be
entitled for any performance bonus for the month of January.

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 15.28 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Working notes:

` 720
1. Indirect labour cost per unit = ` 0.09
8,000
Indirect labour for 6,000 units = 6,000 × ` 0.09 = `540.

`800
2. Indirect material cost per unit = `0.10
8,000
Indirect material for 6,000 units = 6,000 × `0.10 = `600
3. According to high and low point method of segregating semi-variable cost
into fixed and variable components, following formulae may be used.

Change in expense level

Variable cost of repair and maintenance per unit=
Change in output level

`650 -` 600
= = ` 0.025
2,000

For 8,000 units

Total Variable cost of repair and maintenance = `200
Fixed repair & maintenance cost = `400

Hence at 6,000 units output level, total cost of repair and maintenance should
be
= ` 400 + ` 0.025 × 6,000 units= `400 + ` 150 = ` 550

`875-`800
4. Variable cost of power per unit = = 0.0375
2,000 units
For 8,000 units
Total variable cost of power = `300
Fixed cost = `500
Hence, at 6,000 units output level, total cost of power should be
= `500 + `0.0375 × 6,000 units = `500 + `225 =`725

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.29

5. Tools consumed cost for 8,000 units = `320

Hence, tools consumed cost for 6,000 units = (`320/8,000 units) × 6,000 units
= `240

8.2 Classification on the basis of Function

A functional budget is one which is related to function of the business as for
example, production budget relating to the manufacturing function. Functional
budgets are prepared for each function and they are subsidiary to the master
budget of the business.

The various types of functional budgets to be prepared will vary according to the
size and nature of the business.
The various commonly used functional budgets are:
(i) Sales Budget
(ii) Production Budget
(iii) Plant Utilisation Budget

(iv) Direct-Material Usage Budget

(v) Direct-Material Purchase Budget
(vi) Direct Labour (Personnel) Budget

(vii) Production or Factory Overhead Budget

(viii) Production Cost Budget
(ix) Ending Inventory Budget

(x) Cost of Goods Sold Budget

(xi) Selling and Distribution Cost budget
(xii) Administration Expenses Budget
(xiii) Research and Development Cost Budget
(xiv) Capital Expenditure Budget
(xv) Cash Budget

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 15.30 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The important functional budgets (also known as schedules to Master Budget) and
the master budget are discussed and illustrated below:
(i) Sales Budget:
• Sales forecast is the commencement of budgeting and hence sales
budget assumes primary importance. The quantity which can be sold
may be the principal budget factor in many business undertakings. In
any case in order to chalk out a realistic budget programme, there must
be an accurate sales forecast.
• The sales budget is prepared for each product. This includes:
1. the quantity of estimated sales and
2. the expected unit selling price. These data are often reported by
regions or by sales representatives.
• In estimating the quantity of sales for each product, past sales volumes
are often used as a starting point. These amounts are adjusted
(increased or decreased) for factors that are expected to affect future
sales. Such as the factors listed below.
(i) Backlog of unfulfilled sales orders
(ii) Planned advertising and promotion
(iii) Expected industry and general economic conditions
(iv) Productive capacity
(v) Projected pricing
(vi) Findings of market research studies
(vii) Relative product profitability.
(viii) Competition.
• Once an estimate of the sales volume is obtained, the expected sales
revenue can be determined by multiplying the volume by the
expected unit sales price. The sales budget represents the total sales
in physical quantities and values for a future budget period. Sales
managers are constantly faced with problems like anticipation of
customer requirements, new product needs, competitor strategies and
various changes in distribution methods or promotional techniques.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.31

• The purposes of sales budget are not to attempt to estimate or guess

what the actual sales will be, but rather to develop a plan with clearly
defined objectives towards which the operational effort is directed in
order to attain or exceed the objective. Hence, sales budget is not
merely a sales forecast. A budget is a planning and control document
which shows what the management intends to accomplish. Thus, the
sales budget is active rather than passive document.
• A sales forecast, , is a projection or estimate of the available customer
demand. A forecast reflects the environmental or competitive situation
facing the company whereas the sales budget shows how the
management intends to react to this environmental and competitive
situation.
• A good budget hinges on aggressive management control rather than
on passive acceptance of whatever the market appears to offer. If the
company fails to make this distinction, the budget will remain more a
figure-work exercise than a working tool of dynamic management
control.
The sales budget may be prepared under the following classification or
combination of classifications:
1. Products or groups of products.
2. Areas, towns, salesmen and agents.
3. Types of customers as for example: (i) Government, (ii) Export, (iii) Home
sales, (iv) Retail depots.
4. Period—months, weeks, etc.
The illustrative format of a sales budget is as under:
Last Year Budgeted Northern Southern Central
Total Year Total Region Region Region
Qty. Value Qty. Value Qty. Value Qty. Value Qty. Value
Product X
1st Qtr.
2nd Qtr.
3rd Qtr.
4th Qtr.

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 15.32 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Product Y
1st Qtr.

Total

Example of sales budget:

XYZ COMPANY
Sales Budget for the year ending March, 20....
Units Selling price Per unit (`) Total (`)
Product A 5,000 75 3,75,000
Product B 10,000 80 8,00,000
11,75,000

(ii) Production Budget:

Production Budget is a forecast of the production for the budget period of
an organisation. Production budget is prepared in two parts, viz. production
volume budget for the physical units of the products to be manufactured and
the cost of production or manufacturing budget detailing the budgeted cost
under material, labour, and factory overhead in respect of the products.
Production budget shows the production for the budget period based upon:
1. Sales budget,
2. Production capacity of the factory,

3. Planned increase or decrease in finished stocks, and

4. Policy governing outside purchase.
Production budget is normally stated in units of output. Production
should be carefully coordinated with the sales budget to ensure that pro-
duction and sales are kept in balance during the period. The number of units
to be manufactured to meet budgeted sales and inventory needs for
each product is set forth in the production budget.
The production facility available and the sales budget will be compared and
coordinated to determine the production budget. If production facilities are
not sufficient, consideration may be given to such factors as working
overtime, introducing shift working, sub-contracting or purchasing of

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.33

additional plant and machinery. If, however, the production facilities are
surplus, consideration should be given to promote advertising, reduction of
prices to increase the sales, sub-contracting of surplus capacity, etc.
One of the conditions to be considered in all the compilation of production
budget is the level of stock to be maintained.
• The level of stocks will depend upon the following three factors viz.:
1. Seasonal industries in which stocks have to be built up during off season
to cater to the peak season,
2. A steady and uniform level of production to utilise the plant fully and
to avoid retrenchment or lay-off of the workers, and
3. To produce in such a way that minimum stocks are maintained at any
time to avoid locking up of funds in inventory.
• Production budget can, therefore, show:
1. Stabilised production every month, say, the maximum possible
production or
2. Stabilised minimum quantity of stocks which will reduce inventory
costs.
3. In the case of stabilised production, the production facility will be fully
utilized, but the inventory carrying costs will vary according to stocks
held. In the case of stabilised stocks method, however, the inventory
carrying will be the lowest, but there may be under-utilisation of
capacity.
Example of production budget:
XYZ COMPANY
Production budget in units for the year ending March 31, 20....

Products
A B
Budgeted sales 5,000 10,000
Add : Desired closing stock 500 1,000
Total quantity required 5,500 11,000

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 15.34 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Less : Opening stock 1,500 2,000

Units to be produced 4,000 9,000

(iii) Plant Utilisation Budget:

Plant utilisation budget represents, in terms of working hours, weight or other
convenient units of plant facilities required to carry out the programme laid
down in the production budget.
The main purposes of this budget are:
1. To determine the load on each process, cost or groups of machines for the
budget period.
2. To indicate the processes or cost centres which are overloaded so that
corrective action may be taken such as: (i) working overtime (ii) sub-
contracting (iii) expansion of production facility, etc.
3. To dovetail the sales production budgets where it is not possible to
increase the capacity of any of the overloaded processes.
4. Where surplus capacity is available in any of the processes, to make
effort to boost sales to utilise the surplus capacity.
(iv) Direct Material usage Budget:

The steps involved in the compilation of direct materials usage budget are as
under:
1. The quality standards for each item of material have to be specified. In
this connection, standardisation of size, quality, colour, etc., may be
considered.
2. Standard requirement of each item of materials required should also be
set. While setting the standard quality, consideration should be given
to normal loss in process. The standard allowance for normal loss may
be given on the basis of past performance, test runs, technical estimates
etc.
3. Standard prices for each item of materials should be set after giving
consideration to stock and contracts entered into.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.35

After setting standards for quality, quantity and prices, the direct materials
cost budget can be prepared by multiplying each item of material required
for the production by the standard price.
Example of direct material usage budget is as under:
XYZ COMPANY
Direct material usage in units and in amount
for the year ending March 31, 20...
Direct Materials
Type of Product Product B Total direct Material Total
material A (9,000 material cost per cost of
(4,000 units) usage unit (`) material
units) (Units) used (`)

X (12 units per 48,000 1,08,000 1,56,000 1.50 2,34,000

finished
product)
Y (4 units per 16,000 18,000 34,000 2.50 85,000
product A & 2
units per
product B)
Total 3,19,000

(v) Direct Material Purchase Budget:

• The production budget is the starting point for determining the
estimated quantities of direct materials to be purchased.
• Multiplying these quantities by the expected unit purchase price
determines the total cost of direct materials to be purchased.
Two important considerations that govern purchase budgets are as
follows:
(i) Economic order quantity.
(ii) Re-order point with safety stocks to cover fluctuations in demand.
• The direct material purchases budget helps management maintain
inventory levels within reasonable limits. For this purpose, the timing of
the direct materials purchases should he coordinated between the
purchasing and production departments.

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 15.36 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

An example of material purchase budget is as under:

XYZ Company
Direct material purchase budget
for the year ending March 31, 20.....
Material X Material Y Total
Desired closing stock (units) 3,000 500
Units required for production 1,56,000 34,000
Add:
Total Requirement 1,59,000 34,500
Less: Opening stock (units) 4,000 300
Units to be purchased 1,55,000 34,200
Unit price (`) 1.50 2.50
Purchase cost (`) 2,32,500 85,500 3,18,000

(vi) Direct Labour (Personnel) Budget:

• Once sales budget and Production budget are compiled and plant
utilisation budget is decided detailed amount of the various machine
operations involved and services required can be calculated. This will
facilitate preparation of an estimate of different grades of labour
required.
From this, the standard hours required to be worked can be calculated the
total labour component thus budgeted can be divided into direct and indirect
labour. Standard rates of wages for each grade of labour can be introduced
and then the direct and indirect labour cost budget can be prepared.
Merits/advantages:
1. It defines the direct and indirect labour force required.
2. It enables the personnel department to plan ahead in recruitment and
training of workers so that labour turnover can be reduced to the
minimum.
3. It reveals the labour cost to be incurred in the manufacture, to facilitate
preparation of manufacturing cost budgets and cash budgets for
financing the wage bill.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.37

Example of direct-labour cost budget:

XYZ COMPANY
Direct-labour cost budget
for the year ending March 31, 20...
Units to be Direct labour Total Total budget cost (` )
produced hour, per unit hours @ ` 2 per hour
Product A 4,000 7 28,000 56,000
Product B 9,000 10 90,000 1,80,000
1,18,000 2,36,000
(vii) Production or Factory Overhead Budget:
• Production overheads consist of all items such as indirect materials,
indirect labour and indirect expenses. Indirect expenses. These include
expenditures on factors such as power, fuel, fringe benefits,
depreciation etc. The estimated overheads which are necessary for
production in the factory are called factory overhead costs and included
in the factory overhead budget.
• Factory overhead budget usually includes the total estimated cost for
each item of factory overhead.
• The production overhead budget is useful for working out the pre-
determined overhead recovery rates.
• A business may prepare supporting departmental schedules, in which
the factory overhead costs are separated into their fixed and variable
cost elements. Such schedules enable department managers to direct
their attention to those costs for which they are responsible and to
evaluate performance of each department.
• A careful study and determination of the behaviour of different types
of costs will be essential in preparation of overhead budget.
• A few examples are given below to show how the expenses are
estimated.
1. Fixed expenses are normally policy costs and hence they are
based on policy matters.
2. For estimating indirect labour, work study is resorted to and a

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 15.38 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

estimate of number of indirect workers required for each level of

direct workers employed is made—for example, one supervisor
for every twenty direct workers.
3. In regard to the estimate of consumption of indirect materials, the
age and condition of the plant and machinery are taken into
consideration.
Example of factory overhead budget:
XYZ COMPANY
Factory overhead budget for the year ending March 31, 20....
(Anticipated activity of 1,18,000 direct labour hours)
(` ) (` )
Supplies 12,000
Indirect labour 30,000
Cost of fringe benefits 10,000
Power (variable portion) 22,000
Maintenance cost (variable portion) 15,000
Total variable overheads 89,000
Depreciation 10,000
Property taxes 2,000
Property insurance 1,000
Supervision 12,000
Power (Fixed portion) 800
Maintenance (Fixed portion) 3,200
Total fixed overheads 29,000
Total factory overheads 1,18,000
Factory overhead recovery rate is:
`1,18,000
= `1 per direct labour hour
1,18,000 labour hours
(viii) Production Cost Budget:
Production Cost Budget is a forecast of the production for the budget period
of an organisation. Production budget is prepared in two parts, viz.
production volume budget for the physical units of the products to be
manufactured and the cost of production or manufacturing budget detailing
the budgeted cost under material, labour, and factory overhead in respect of
the products.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.39

Production cost budget covers direct material cost, direct labour cost and
manufacturing expenses. After preparing direct material, direct labour and
production overhead cost budget, one can prepare production cost budget.
(ix) Ending Inventory Budget:
This budget shows the cost of closing stock of raw materials and finished
goods, etc. required to be maintained by the business entity. This information
is required to prepare cost-of-goods-sold budget and budgeted financial
statements i.e., budgeted income statement and budgeted balance sheet.
Example of end of the year (or closing) inventory budget:
XYZ Company end of the year inventory budget March 31, 20....
Units Unit cost Amount Total
(` ) (` ) (` )
Direct material
X 3,000 1.50 4,500
Y 500 2.50 1,250 5,750
Finished goods
A 500 49.00* 24,500
B 1,000 53.00* 53,000 77,500
Total 83,250
* Unit cost of finished goods have been computed as below:
Unit cost Product A Product B
of input Units Amount Units Amount
(` ) (` ) (` )
Material X 1.50 12 18.00 12.00 18.00
Material Y 2.50 4 10.00 2.00 5.00
Direct labour 2.00 7 14.00 10.00 20.00
Factory overhead 1.00 7 7.00 10.00 10.00
49.00 53.00
(x) Cost of Goods Sold Budget:
This budget covers direct material cost, direct labour cost and manufacturing
expenses. This is adjusted by addition of the cost of the opening inventory
and reducing therefrom the cost of closing inventory of finished products.

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 15.40 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

We present below the cost-of-goods-sold budget on the basis of the data

taken from the various budgets already illustrated:
XYZ Company cost-of-goods-sold budget for the year ending
March 31, 20....
Amount
(` )
Direct materials used 3,19,000
Direct labour 2,36,000
Factory overhead 1,18,000
Total manufacturing costs 6,73,000
Add : Finished goods (opening) 1,79,500*
8,52,500
Less : Finished goods (closing) 77,500*
Total cost of goods sold 7,75,000
*Assumed figure
In the above budget if adjustments for opening and closing inventory of finished
goods are not shown. The budget will be called production cost budget.
(xi) Selling and Distribution Cost Budget:
Selling and distribution are the essential aspects of the profit earning
function. At the same time, the pre-determination of these costs is very
difficult. Selling & Distribution Cost Budget is a forecast of the cost of selling &
distribution of goods during the budget period. Selling cost is defined as the
cost of seeking to create and stimulate demand and of securing orders.
These costs are, therefore, incurred to maintain and increase the level of sales.
All expenses connected with advertising, sales promotion, sales office,
salesmen, credit collection, market research, after sales service, etc. are
generally grouped together to form part of the responsibility of the sales
manager.
While making a budget, selling costs are divided into fixed and variable. Semi-
variable costs should also be separated into variable and fixed elements.
The problems faced in the preparation of selling cost budgets are:
1. Heavy expenditure on selling and sales promotion may have to be
incurred when the volume of sales is falling off. This will increase the
percentage of such costs to total sales, and

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.41

2. Sometimes intensive sales and promotion efforts are called for in one
year and the benefit of such efforts accrue in the subsequent years. This
makes it difficult to establish a proportion of selling cost to sales.
3. In spite of these problems, some relationship between selling cost and
volume of sales has to be established and it is the duty of the Budget
Controller to determine the amount of selling costs to be incurred to
achieve the desired level of sales volume.
Using the past experience as a guide, consideration should be given to the
future trend of sales, possible changes in competition etc., in pre-
determination of selling costs.
• Distribution cost has been defined as the cost of the sequence of
operations which begins with making the packet of product avail-
able for dispatch and ends with making the re-conditioned return
of empty package, if any available for re-use. It includes transport
cost, storage and warehousing costs, etc.
• Preparation of the advertising cost budget is the responsibility of the
sales manager or advertisement manager. When preparing the
advertisement cost budget, consideration should be given to the
following factors:
1. The best method of advertisement must be selected; costs will
vary according to the method selected.
2. The maximum amount to be spent in a period, say one year, has
to be decided.
3. Advertising and sales should be co-ordinated. It means that
money should be spent on advertisement only when sufficient
quantities of the product advertised are ready for sale.
4. An effective control over advertisement expenditure should be
exercised and the effectiveness of the advertisement should be
measured.
5. The choice of the method of advertising a product is based on the
effectiveness of the money spent on advertisement in increasing or
maintaining sales. If the output sold increases, the production cost
will come down because of the economies of large-scale production.

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 15.42 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

• The amount to be spent on advertisement may be decided on the basis

of the following factors:

1. A percentage on the total sales value of the budget period or on

the expected profit may be fixed on the basis of past experience.
2. A sum which is expected to be incurred by the competitors may
be fixed to be spent during the budget period.
3. A fixed sum per unit of output can be fixed and added to cost.
4. An amount is fixed on the basis of the ability of the company to
spend on advertising.
5. An advertisement plan is decided upon and the amount to be
spent is determined.

• Depending upon the nature of the product and the effectiveness of the
media of the advertising the company prepares a schedule of various
methods of advertisement, to be used for effective sales promotion. The
number of advertisements (insertions) are determined and the cost
calculated as per the rates applicable to each of the media selected.
This is a sound method.

Example of selling and distribution cost budget:

XYZ Company selling and distribution cost budget
for the year ending March 31, 20....
Amount
Direct selling expenses: (` )
Salesmen’s salaries 14,500
Salesmen’s commission 7,000
Travelling expenses 19,000
40,500
Distribution expenses:
Warehouse wages 6,000
Warehouse rent, rates, electricity 4,500

Lorry expenses 11,000

21,500

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.43

Sales office expenses:

Salaries 16,000
Rent, rates, electricity 12,000
Depreciation 2,000
Stationery, postage and telephone 12,500
General expenses 3,000
45,500
Advertising:
Press 4,500
Radio and television 18,500
Shop window displays 4,000
27,000
Total 1,34,500
(xii) Administrative Expenses Budget:
The administrative expenses are mostly policy costs and are, therefore, fixed
in nature. The most practical method to follow in preparing estimate of
these expenses is to follow the past experience with due regard to antic-
ipated changes either in general policy or the volume of business. To
bring such expenses under control, it is necessary to review them frequently
and to determine at regular intervals whether or not these expenses continue
to be adjusted. Examples of such expenses are: board meeting expenses,
expenditure incurred on staff employed in human resources and finance
departments, audit fees, depreciation of office equipment, insurance,
subscriptions, postage, stationery, telephone, telegrams, office supplies, etc.
XYZ Company administrative expenses budget
for the year ending March 31, 20...
(` )
Salaries of clerical staff 28,000
Executives’ salaries 8,000
Audit fee 600
Depreciation on office equipment 800
Insurance 250
Stationery 1,250

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 15.44 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Postage and telegrams 950

Telephones 850
Miscellaneous 5,300
Total administrative expenses 46,000
(xiii) Research and Development Cost Budget:
Research and development expenditure is to be incurred so that the products or
methods of production do not become obsolete. The research and development
budget is the forecast of all such expenses. Research is required in order to
develop and/or improve products and methods. When research results in
definite benefit to the company, development function begins. After
development, formal production can commence on commercial scale and then
production function starts. Since the areas of research and development cannot
be precisely defined, the costs incurred under both the functions are clubbed
together as research and development costs. Research and Development (R &
D) plays a vital role in maintaining the business. For example, automobile
manufacturers, and those who produce drugs, spend considerable sums on R &
D to improve their products.
Research may be either pure research or applied research. Pure research
increases knowledge whereas applied research aims at producing definite
results like improved methods of production, etc.
Research and development expenses should be controlled carefully and
hence a limit on the spending is placed, i.e., the amount to be spent is
carefully determined or allocated.
• The following are the methods of allocation of R & D expenses.
1. A percentage based on total sales value. This method is good if
sales value is steady from year to year.
2. A percentage based on net profit.
3. A total sum is estimated on the basis of past experience and future
R & D plans and policies.
4. A sum is fixed on the basis of cash resources available with the
company.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.45

All factors which affect the importance of R & D are considered. For
example, factors like demand for existing products, competition,
economic conditions, etc., are considered carefully and a sum is set
aside as R& D budget.
(xiv) Capital Expenditure Budget:

The capital expenditure budget represents the planned outlay on fixed

assets like land, building, plant and machinery, etc. during the budget period.
This budget is subject to strict management control because it entails large
amount of expenditure. The budget is prepared to cover a long period of
years and it projects the capital costs over the period in which the expenditure
is to be incurred and the expected earnings.
The preparation of capital budget is based on the following
considerations:
1. Capital Budget is a budget prepared for capital receipts and expenditure
such as investment on land and building, plant and machinery obtaining
loans, issue of shares, purchase of assets etc.
2. Future development plans to increase output by expansion of plant
facilities.
3. Replacement requests from the concerned departments.
4. Factors like sales potential to absorb the increased output, possibility
of price reductions, increased costs of advertising and sales promotion
to absorb increased output, etc.
5. Overhead on production facilities of certain departments as indicated
by the plant utilisation budget.
Merits/Advantages of capital budgeting
1. Capital budget outlines the capital development programme and
estimated capital expenditure during the budget period.
2. It enables the company to establish a system of priorities. When there
is a shortage of funds, capital rationing becomes necessary.

3. It serves as a tool for controlling expenditure.

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 15.46 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

4. It provides the amount of expenditure to be incorporated in the future

budget summaries for calculation of estimated return on capital
employed.
5. This enables the cash budget to be completed. With other cash
commitments capital expenditure commitment should also be
considered for the completion of the budget.
6. It facilitates cost reduction programme, particularly when
modernisation and renovation is covered by this budget.
ILLUSTRATION 4
A single product company estimated its quarter-wise sales for the next year as
under:
Quarter Sales (Units)
I 30,000
II 37,500
III 41,250
IV 45,000

The opening stock of finished goods is 6,000 units and the company expects to
maintain the closing stock of finished goods at 12,250 units at the end of the
year. The production pattern in each quarter is based on 80% of the sales of
the current quarter and 20% of the sales of the next quarter. The company
maintains this 20% of sales of next quarter as closing stock of current quarter.
The opening stock of raw materials in the beginning of the year is 10,000 kg.
and the closing stock at the end of the year is required to be maintained at
5,000 kg. Each unit of finished output requires 2 kg. of raw materials.
The company proposes to purchase the entire annual requirement of raw
materials in the first three quarters in the proportion and at the prices given
below:

Quarter Purchase of raw materials % to total annual Price per

requirement in quantity kg. ( ` )
I 30% 2
II 50% 3
III 20% 4

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.47

The value of the opening stock of raw materials in the beginning of the year is
` 20,000. You are required to PREPARE the following for the next year, quarter
wise:
(i) Production budget (in units).
(ii) Raw material consumption budget (in quantity).
(iii) Raw material purchase budget (in quantity and value).
(iv) Priced stores ledger card of the raw material using First in First out method.
SOLUTION
Working Note:
Calculation of total annual production

(Units)
Sales in 4 quarters 1,53,750
Add: Closing balance 12,250
1,66,000
Less: Opening balance (6,000)
Total number of units to be produced in the next year 1,60,000

(i) Production Budget (in units)

Quarters I II III IV Total
Units Units Units Units Units
Sales 30,000 37,500 41,250 45,000 1,53,750
Production in current 24,000 30,000 33,000 36,000
quarter
(80% of the sale of current
quarter)
Production for next 7,500 8,250 9,000 12,250
quarter
(20% of the sale of next
quarter)
Total production 31,500 38,250 42,000 48,250 1,60,000

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 15.48 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) Raw material consumption budget in quantity

Quarters I II III IV Total
Units to be 31,500 38,250 42,000 48,250 1,60,000
produced in each
quarter: (A)
Raw material 2 2 2 2
consumption p.u.
(kg.): (B)
Total raw material 63,000 76,500 84,000 96,500 3,20,000
consumption (Kg.)
: (A × B)

(iii) Raw material purchase budget (in quantity)

Qty. (kg.)
Raw material required for production 3,20,000
Add : Closing balance of raw material 5,000
3,25,000
Less : Opening balance (10,000)
Material to be purchased 3,15,000

Raw material purchase budget (in value)

Quarters % of annual Qty. of material Rate Amount (`)

requirement per kg.
(`)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)=(3×4)
I 30 94,500 2 1,89,000
(3,15,000 kg. × 30%)
II 50 1,57,500 3 4,72,500
(3,15,000 kg. × 50%)
III 20 63,000 4 2,52,000
(3,15,000 kg. × 20%)
Total 3,15,000 9,13,500

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 (iv) Priced Stores Ledger Card
(of the raw material using FIFO method)

Quarters
I II III IV
Kg. Rate Value Kg. Rate Value Kg. Rate Value Kg. Rate Value
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
Opening 10,000 2 20,000 41,500 2 83,000 1,22,500 3 3,67,500 38,500 3 1,15,500
balance
(A) 63,000 4 2,52,000
Purchases: (B) 94,500 2 1,89,000 1,57,500 3 4,72,500 63,000 4 2,52,000 – – –
Consumption: 63,000 2 1,26,000 41,500 2 83,000 84,000 3 2,52,000 38,500 3 1,15,500

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

(C)
35,000 3 1,05,000 58,000 4 2,32,000
Balance: (D) 41,500 2 83,000 1,22,500 3 3,67,500 38,500 3 1,15,500 5,000 4 20,000
(D) = (A) +(B)– 63,000 4 2,52,000
(C)
BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL
15.49
 15.50 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 5
A company is engaged in the manufacture of specialised sub-assemblies
required for certain electronic equipment. The company envisages that in the
forthcoming month, December, the sales will be in the ratio of 3 : 4 : 2
respectively of sub-assemblies, ACB, MCB and DP.
The following is the schedule of components required for manufacture:

Component requirements

Sub-assembly Selling Price Base board IC08 IC12 IC26

ACB 520 1 8 4 2
MCB 500 1 2 10 6
DP 350 1 2 4 8
Purchase price (`) 60 20 12 8

The direct labour time and variable overheads required for each of the sub-
assemblies are:
Labour hours Variable overheads (`)

Grade A Grade B

ACB 8 16 36
MCB 6 12 24
DP 4 8 24
Direct wage rate per hour (`) 5 4 —
The labourers work 8 hours a day for 25 days a month.
The opening stocks of sub-assemblies and components for December are as
under:
Sub-assemblies Components
ACB 800 Base Board 1,600
MCB 1,200 IC08 1,200
DP 2,800 IC12 6,000
IC26 4,000
Fixed overheads amount to ` 7,57,200 for the month and a monthly profit
target of ` 12 lacs has been set.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.51

The company is eager for a reduction of closing inventories for the month of
December of sub-assemblies and components by 10% of quantity as compared
to the opening stock. PREPARE the following budgets for the month of
December:
(a) Sales budget in quantity and value.

(b) Production budget in quantity

(c) Component usage budget in quantity.
(d) Component purchase budget in quantity and value.
(e) Manpower budget showing the number of workers and the amount of
wages payable.
SOLUTION
Working Note:
1. Statement showing contribution:
Sub- assemblies ABC MCB DP Total
(` ) (` ) (` ) (` )

Selling price per unit (p.u.) : (A) 520 500 350

Marginal Cost per unit.
Components
- Base board 60 60 60
- IC08 160 40 40
- IC12 48 120 48
- IC26 16 48 64
Labour
- Grade A 40 30 20
- Grade B 64 48 32
Variable production overhead 36 24 24
Total marginal cost per unit. : (B) 424 370 288

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 15.52 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Contribution per unit. : (C) = (A) – 96 130 62

(B)
Sales ratio : (D) 3 4 2
Contribution × Sales ratio: [(E) = 288 520 124 932
(C) × (D)]

2. Desired Contribution for the forthcoming month December

( `)
Fixed overheads 7,57,200
Desired profit 12,00,000
Desired contribution 19,57,200

3. Sales mix required i.e. number of batches for the forthcoming month
December
Sales mix required = Desired contribution/contribution × Sales ratio

= `19,57,200/932 (Refer to Working notes 1 and 2)

= 2,100 batches
Budgets for the month of December
(a) Sales budget in quantity and value

Sub-assemblies ACB MCB DP Total

Sales (Qty.) 6,300 8,400 4,200
(2,100×3) (2,100×4) (2,100×2)
Selling price p.u. (`) 520 500 350
Sales value (`) 32,76,000 42,00,000 14,70,000 89,46,000

(b) Production budget in quantity

Sub-assemblies ACB MCB DP

Sales 6,300 8,400 4,200
Add : Closing stock 720 1,080 2,520

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.53

(Opening stock less 10%) ____ ____ ____

Total quantity required 7,020 9,480 6,720
Less : Opening stock (800) (1,200) (2,800)
Production 6,220 8,280 3,920

(c) Component usage budget in quantity

Sub-assemblies ACB MCB DP Total
Production 6,220 8,280 3,920 —
Base board (1 each) 6,220 8,280 3,920 18,420
Component IC08 (8:2:2) 49,760 16,560 7,840 74,160
(6,220 × 8) (8,280 × 2) (3,920 × 2)
Component IC12 24,880 82,800 15,680 1,23,360
(4:10:4) (6,220× 4) (8,280 × 10) (3,920 × 4)
Component IC26 (2:6:8) 12,440 49,680 31,360 93,480
(6,220× 2) (8,280 × 6) (3,920 × 8)

(d) Component Purchase budget in quantity and value

Sub-assemblies Base IC08 IC12 IC26 Total

board
Usage in production 18,420 74,160 1,23,360 93,480
Add: Closing stock 1,440 1,080 5,400 3,600
(Opening stock less
10%)
19,860 75,240 1,28,760 97,080
Less: Opening stock (1,600) (1,200) (6,000) (4,000)
Purchase (Qty.) 18,260 74,040 1,22,760 93,080
Purchase price (`) 60 20 12 8
Purchase value (`) 10,95,600 14,80,800 14,73,120 7,44,640 47,94,160

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 15.54 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(e) Manpower budget showing the number of workers and the amount
of wages payable
Sub- Budgeted Direct labour Total
assemblies Production Grade A Grade B
Hour Total Hour Total
s p.u. hours s p.u. hours
ACB 6,220 8 49,760 16 99,520
MCB 8,280 6 49,680 12 99,360
DP 3,920 4 15,680 8 31,360
(A) Total hours 1,15,120 2,30,240
(B) Hours per man per month 200 200
(C) Number of workers per month: 576 1,152
(A/B)
(D) Wage rate per month (`) 1,000 800
(E) Wages payable (`) : (C × D) 5,76,000 9,21,600 14,97,600
(xv) Cash Budget:
Cash Budget is a detailed budget of cash receipts and cash payments
incorporating both revenue and capital items for the budget period. This
budget is usually of two parts giving detailed estimates of (i) cash receipts
and (ii) cash disbursements. Estimates of cash-receipts are prepared on a
monthly basis and depend upon estimated cash-sales, collections from
debtors and anticipated receipts from other sources such as sale of assets,
borrowings, etc. Estimates of cash disbursements are based on estimated
cash purchases, payments to creditors, employees’ remuneration, bonus,
advances to suppliers, budgeted capital expenditure for expansion, etc.
Cash budget represents the cash requirements of the business during the
budget period. It is the plan of receipts and payments of cash for the
budget period, analysed to show the monthly flow of cash drawn up in such
a way that the balance can be forecasted at regular intervals.
The cash budget is one of the most important elements of the budgeted
balance sheet. Information from the various operating budgets, such as the
sales budget, the direct materials purchases budget, and the selling and
administrative expenses budget, affects the cash budget.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.55

In addition, the capital expenditures budget, dividend policies, and plans for
equity or long-term debt financing also affect the cash budget.

The main objectives of preparing cash budget are:

(i) The probable cash position, as a result of planned operation, is
assessed; and thus, the excess or shortage of cash becomes clear. This
helps in arranging short-term borrowings in advance to meet the
situations of shortage of cash or making investments when cash is in
excess.
(ii) Cash can be coordinated in relation to total working capital, sales
investment and debt.
(iii) A sound basis for credit for current control of cash position is
established.
(iv) The effect of sudden and seasonal requirements, large stocks, delay in
collection of receipts, etc., on the cash position of the organization is
revealed and things become under to the management.
Advantages of cash budget
(i) It aids in securing option working capital need for smooth running of
the operation and planning for payments to the shareholders.
(ii) It eases strains of a cash shortage
(iii) It facilitates temporary cash investment wherever, and to whatever
extent, found in excess
(iv) It provides for normal growth

8.3 Master Budget

CIMA, London, defines it as “the summary budget, incorporating its component
functional budgets, which is finally approved, adopted and employed.” When all
the necessary functional budgets have been prepared, the budget officer will
prepare the master budget which may consist of budgeted profit and loss account
and budgeted balance sheet. These are in fact the budget summaries. When the
master budget is approved by the board of directors, it represents a standard for
the achievement of which all the departments will work. On the basis of the various

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 15.56 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

budgets (schedules) prepared earlier in this study, we prepare below budgeted

income statement and budgeted balance sheet.
Example of budgeted income statement:
XYZ Company Budgeted Income Statement
For the Year Ending March 31, 20....
Amount
(` ) (` )
Sales 11,75,000
Less: Cost of goods sold 7,75,000
Gross margin 4,00,000
Less: Selling and distribution expenses 1,36,500
Less: Administrative expenses 46,000 1,82,500
Profit before interest and taxes 2,17,500
Interest expenses (assumed) 50,000
Profit before tax 1,67,500
Income-tax (30% assumed) 50,250
Net profit 1,17,250
Example of budgeted balance sheet:
XYZ Company Budgeted Balance Sheet
March 31, 20....
(` ) (` ) (` )
Share capital 3,50,000
Retained income 1,29,000 4,79,000
Represented by:
Plant and machinery 3,40,000
Less: Provision for depreciation 60,000 2,80,000
Raw materials 5,750
Finished goods 77,500
Debtors 1,10,000
Cash 37,750 2,31,000
Less: Creditors 32,000 1,99,000
4,79,000
Note: Information not available in respect of share capital, opening balance of retained
earnings, current assets and current liabilities, etc., has been assumed to complete the above
balance sheet.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.57

ILLUSTRATION 6
Float glass Manufacturing Company requires you to PREPARE the Master budget for
the next year from the following information:

Sales:
Toughened Glass ` 6,00,000
Bent Glass ` 2,00,000
Direct material cost 60% of sales
Direct wages 20 workers @ ` 150 per month
Factory overheads:
Indirect labour –
Works manager ` 500 per month
Foreman ` 400 per month
Stores and spares 2.5% on sales
Depreciation on machinery ` 12,600
Light and power ` 3,000
Repairs and maintenance ` 8,000
Others sundries 10% on direct wages
Administration, selling and distribution ` 36,000 per year
expenses

SOLUTION
Master Budget for the year ending _____

Sales: (`)
Toughened Glass 6,00,000
Bent Glass 2,00,000
Total Sales 8,00,000
Less: Cost of production:
Direct materials (60% of `8,00,000) 4,80,000

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 15.58 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Direct wages (20 workers × `150 × 36,000

12months)
Prime Cost 5,16,000
Fixed Factory Overhead:
Works manager’s salary (500 × 12) 6,000
Foreman’s salary (400 × 12) 4,800
Depreciation 12,600
Light and power (assumed fixed) 3,000 26,400
Variable Factory Overhead:
Stores and spares 20,000
Repairs and maintenance 8,000
Sundry expenses 3,600 31,600
Works Cost 5,74,000
Gross Profit (Sales – Works cost) 2,26,000
Less: Adm., selling and distribution expenses 36,000
Net Profit 1,90,000

8.4 Classification on the basis of Time Period

These types of Budgets are classified on the basis of time periods. These types of
budgets reflect the planning period of the organization.
Long term Budget: - Long Term Budget is a budget prepared covering a period of
more than a year. The Budgets are prepared to depict long term planning of the
business. The period of long-term Budgets varies between three to ten years.
These budgets are useful for those industries where gestation period is long i.e.,
the business entities manufacturing machinery, electricity etc.
1. Short term Budget: - These budgets are generally for one or two years and
are in the form of monetary terms. The consumer’s good industries like
Sugar, Cotton, and textile use short term budgets.

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2. Current Budgets: - The period of current budgets is generally of months and

weeks. These budgets relate to the current activities of the business.
According to CIMA London “Current budget is a budget which is created which
is established for use over a short period of time and is related to current
conditions”.

9. ZERO – BASED BUDGETING (ZBB)

Zero-based Budgeting (ZBB) is defined as a method of budgeting which requires
each cost element to be specifically justified, though the activities to which the
budget relates are not being undertaken for the first time. The cost of each activity
has to be justified and without justification, the budget allowance is zero.
Zero based budgeting differs from the conventional system of budgeting because
it mainly starts from scratch or zero and not on the basis of trends or historical
levels of expenditure. In the customary budgeting system, the last year’s figures are
accepted as they are, or cut back or increases are granted. Zero based budgeting
on the other hand, starts with the premise that the budget for next period is zero
so long the demand for a function, process, project or activity is not justified for
each rupee from the first rupee spent.
Zero-based Budgeting (ZBB) is an emergent form of budgeting which arises to
overcome the limitations of incremental (traditional) budgeting system.
ZBB is an activity-based budgeting system where budgets are prepared for
each activity rather than functional department. Justification in the form of cost
benefits for the activity is required to be given. The activities are then evaluated
and prioritized by the management on the basis of factors like synchronisation with
organisational objectives, availability of funds, regulatory requirement etc.
ZBB is suitable for both corporate and non-corporate entities. In case of non-
corporate entities like Government department, local bodies, not for profit
organisations, where these entities need to justify the benefits of expenditures on
social programmes like mid-day meal, installation of street lights, provision of
drinking water etc.

In case of corporate entities, ZBB is best suited for discretionary costs like
research and development cost, training programmes, advertisement etc.

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9.1 Stages in Zero-based Budgeting

ZBB involves the following stages:
(i) Identification and description of Decision packages
(ii) Evaluation of Decision packages

(iii) Ranking (Prioritisation) of the Decision packages

(iv) Allocation of resources
(i) Identification and description of Decision packages: Decision packages
are the programmes or activities for which decision is required to be taken.
The programmes or activities are described for technical specifications,
financial impact in the form of cost benefit analysis and other issues like
environmental, regulatory, social etc.
(ii) Evaluation of Decision packages: Once Decision packages are identified
and described, it is evaluated against factors like synchronisation with
organisational objectives, availability of funds, regulatory requirement etc.
(iii) Ranking (Prioritisation) of the Decision packages: After evaluation of the
decision packages, it is ranked on the basis priority of the activities. Because
of this prioritization feature ZBB is also known as Priority-based
Budgeting.
(iv) Allocation of resources: After ranking of the decision packages, resources
are allocated for decision packages. Budgets are prepared like it is done first
time without taking reference to previous budgets.

9.2 Advantages of Zero-based Budgeting

The advantages of zero-based budgeting are as follows:
• It provides a systematic approach for the evaluation of different
activities and rank them in order of preference for the allocation of scarce
resources.
• It ensures that the various functions undertaken by the organization are
critical for the achievement of its objectives and are being performed in the
best possible way.

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• It provides an opportunity to the management to allocate resources for

various activities only after having a thorough cost-benefit-analysis. The
chances of arbitrary cuts and enhancement are thus avoided.
• The areas of wasteful expenditure can be easily identified and
eliminated.

• Departmental budgets are closely linked with corporation objectives.

• The technique can also be used for the introduction and implementation
of the system of ‘management by objective.’ Thus, it cannot only be used
for fulfillment of the objectives of traditional budgeting but it can also be
used for a variety of other purposes.
Zero-based budgeting is superior to traditional budgeting: Zero based
budgeting is superior to traditional budgeting in the following manner:
• It provides a systematic approach for evaluation of different activities.
• It ensures that the function undertaken are critical for the achievement of the
objectives.
• It provides an opportunity for management to allocate resources to various
activities after a thorough – cost benefit analysis.
• It helps in the identification of wasteful expenditure and then their
elimination. If facilitates the close linkage of departmental budgets with
corporate objectives
• It helps in the introduction of a system of Management by Objectives.

9.3 Difference between Traditional Budgeting and Zero-

based budgeting
Following are the points of difference between traditional budgeting and zero-
based budgeting:

• Traditional budgeting is accounting oriented. Main stress happens to be on

previous level of expenditure. Zero-based budgeting makes a decision-
oriented approach. It is very rational in nature and requires all programmes,
old and new, to compete for scarce resources.

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• In traditional budgeting, first reference is made to past level of spending and

then demand for inflation and new programmes. In zero- based budgeting,
management focuses attention to only on decision packages, which enjoy
priority to others.
• In tradition budgeting, some managers deliberately inflate their budget
request so that after the cuts they still get what they want. In zero-based
budgeting, a rationale analysis of budget proposals is attempted. The
managers, who unnecessarily try to inflate the budget request, are likely to
be caught and exposed. Management accords its approval only to a carefully
devised result-oriented package.
• Traditional budgeting is not as clear and as responsive as zero-base
budgeting.
• In traditional budgeting, it is for top management to decide why a particular
amount should be spent on a particular decision unit. In Zero-based
budgeting, this responsibility is shifted from top management to the manager
of decision unit.
• Traditional budgeting makes a routine approach. Zero-based budgeting
makes a very straightforward approach and immediately spotlights the
decision packages enjoying priority over others.

9.4 Limitations of Zero-based Budgeting

• The work involves in the creation of decision-making and their subsequent
ranking has to be made on the basis of new data. This process is very tedious
to management.
• The activities selected for the purpose of ZBB are on the basis of the
traditional functional departments. So, the consideration scheme may not be
implemented properly.

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10. PERFORMANCE BUDGETING (PB)

Performance budgeting (PB) involves evaluation of the performance of an
organisation in the context of both specific as well as overall objectives of the
organisation. This requires complete clarity about both the short-term as well as
long-term organisational objectives. The responsibility of the various levels of
management should be predetermined in terms of results expected from them and
the authority vested in them. In other words, performance budgeting requires fixing
of the responsibility of each executive in organisation and the continuous appraisal
of his performance. It is, therefore, considered to be synonymous with
responsibility accounting.
Performance Budgeting provide a meaningful relationship between estimated
inputs and expected outputs as an integral part of the budgeting system. A
performance budget is one which presents the purposes and objectives for
which funds are required, the costs of the programmes proposed for achieving
those objectives, and quantitative data measuring the accomplishments and work
performed under each programme. Thus, PB is a technique of presenting budgets
for costs and revenues in terms of functions. Programmes and activities are
correlating the physical and financial aspect of the individual items comprising the
budget.

10.1 Traditional Budgeting vs. Performance Budgeting

• The traditional budgeting gives more emphasis on the financial aspect than
the physical aspects or performance. PB aims at establishing a relationship
between the inputs and the outputs.
• Traditional budgets are generally prepared with the main basis towards the
objects or items of expenditure i.e., it highlights the items of expenditure,
namely, salaries, stores and materials, rates, rents and taxes and so on. In the
PB emphasis is more on the functions of the organisation, the programmes
to discharge this function and the activities which will be involved in
undertaking these programmes.

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10.2 Steps in Performance Budgeting

According to the Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC, the following steps are
the basic ones in PB:
• Establishing a meaningful functional programme and activity classification of
government operations.
• Bring the system of accounting and financial management in accordance with
this classification.

• Evolving suitable norms, yardsticks, work units of performance and units

costs, wherever possible under each programme and activity for their
reporting and evaluation.
The Report of the ARC use the following terms in an integrated sequence:

Functions Programme Activity Project

The team ‘function’ is used in the sense of ‘objective’. For achieving objectives
‘programmes’ will have to be evolved. In respect of time horizon, it is essentially a
replacement of traditional annual fiscal budgeting by a more output-oriented, but
still an annual, exercise.
For an enterprise that wants to adopt PB, it is thus imperative that:
• the objectives of the enterprise are spelt out in concrete terms.
• the objectives are then translated into specific functions, programmes,
activities and tasks for different levels of management within the realities of
fiscal; constraints;
• realistic and acceptable norms, yardsticks or standards and performance
indicators should be evolved and expressed in quantifiable physical units.

• a style of management based upon decentralised responsibility structure

should be adopted, and
• an accounting and reporting system should be developed to facilities
monitoring, analysis and review of actual performance in relation to budgets.

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Performance Reporting at various levels of management:

Report : A major part of the management accountant’s job
consists of preparing reports to provide information
for purposes of control and planning.
The important consideration in drawing up of
reports and determining their scope are the
following:
Significance : Are the facts in the reports reliable? Does it either
called for action or demonstrate the effect of action?
It is material enough.
Timeliness : How late can the information be and still be of use?
What is the earliest moment at which it could be used
if it were available? How frequently is it required?
Accuracy : How small should be an inaccuracy which does not
alter the significance of the information?
Appropriateness : Is the recipient the right person to take any action that
is needed? Is there any other information which is
required to support the information to anyone else
jointly interested?
Discrimination : Will anything be lost by omitting the item? Will any of
the items gain from the omission? Is the responsibility
for suppressing the item acceptable?
Presentation : Is the report clear and unbiased? Is the form of it is
suitable to the subject? Is the form of it suitable to the
recipient?
The following are certain types of reports which are to be prepared and
submitted to management regularly at predetermined time interval:
1. Top Management: (Including Board of Directors and financial managers)
(i) Balance Sheet
(ii) Profit & Loss Statement
(iii) Position of stocks

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 15.66 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(iv) Disposition of funds or working capital;

(v) Capital expenditure and forward commitments together with progress
of projects in hands;
(vi) Cash-flow statements;
(vii) Sales, production, and other appropriate statistics.

2. Sales Management:
(i) Actual sales compared with budgeted sales to measure performance by:
- Products,

- Territories
- Individual salesmen, and
- Customers.

(ii) Standard profit and loss by product:

- For fixing selling prices, and
- To Concentrate on sales of most profitable products.

(iii) Selling expenses in relation to budget and sales value analyzed by:
- Products,
- Territories
- Individual salesmen, and
- Customers.
(iv) Bad debts and accounts which are slow and difficult in collection.
(v) Status reports on new or doubtful customers.
3. Production Management:
(i) To Buyer: Price variations on purchases analysed by commodities.
(ii) To Foreman:
- Operational efficiency for individual operators duly summarized
as departmental average;

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.67

- Labour utilization report and causes of lost time and controllable

time;

- Indirect shop expenses against the standard allowed; and

- Scrap report.
(iii) To Works Managers:

- Departmental operating statement;

- General works operating statements (Expenses relating to all works
expenses not directly allocable or controllable by departments);

- Plant utilization report;

- Department Scrap report; and
- Material usage report.

4. Special Reports:
These reports may be prepared at the request of general management or at
the initiative of the management accountants. The necessity for them may, in
some cases, arise on account of the need for more detailed information on
matters of interest first revealed; by the routine, reports. These reports may
range over a very wide area. Some of the matters in respect of which such
reports may be required can be:
(i) Taxation legislation and its effect on profits.
(ii) Estimates of the earning capacity of a new project.
(iii) Break-even analysis
(iv) Replacement of capital equipment.
(v) Special pricing analysis
(vi) Make or buy certain components
(vii) Statement of surplus available for payment of bonus under the labour
appellate tribunal formula.

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15.11. BUDGET RATIO

Ratio is a mathematical relationship between two or more related figures. Budget
ratios provide information about the performance level, i.e., the extent of deviation
of actual performance from the budgeted performance and whether the actual
performance is favourable or unfavorable. If the ratio is 100% or more, the
performance is considered as favourable and if ratio is less than 100% the
performance is considered as unfavourable.
The following ratios are usually used by the management to measure development
from budget.
Capacity Usage Ratio: This relationship between the budgeted number of working
hours and the maximum possible number of working hours in a budget period.

Standard Capacity Employed Ratio: This ratio indicates the extent to which
facilities were actually utilized during the budget period.
Level of Activity Ratio: This may be defined as the number of standard hours
equivalent to work produced expressed as a percentage of the budget of standard
hours.
Efficiency Ratio: This ratio may be defined as standard hours equivalent of work
produced expressed as a percentage of the actual hours spent in producing the
work.
Calendar Ratio: This ratio may be defined as the relationship between the number
of working days in a period and the number of working as in the relative budget
period.

Budget Ratios:

Standard Hours
(i) Efficiency Ratio = ×100
Actual Hours

Standard Hours
(ii) Activity Ratio = ×100
Budgeted Hours

Available working days

(iii) Calendar Ratio = ×100
Budgeted working days

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(iv) Standard Capacity Usage Ratio =

Budgeted Hours
×100
Max. possible hours in the budgeted period

(v) Actual Capacity Usage Ratio =

Actual Hours worked
×100
Max. possible working hours in a period

Actual working Hours

(vi) Actual Usage of Budgeted Capacity Ratio = ×100
Budgeted Hours

ILLUSTRATION 7
Following data is available for DKG and Co:
Standard working hours 8 hours per day of 5 days per week
Maximum capacity 50 employees

Actual working 40 employees

Actual hours expected to be worked per four week 6,400 hours
Std. hours expected to be earned per four weeks 8,000 hours
Actual hours worked in the four- week period 6,000 hours
Standard hours earned in the four- week period 7,000 hours.
The related period is of 4 weeks. In this period there was a one special day holiday
due to national event. CALCULATE the following ratios:
(1) Efficiency Ratio, (2) Activity Ratio, (3) Calendar Ratio, (4) Standard Capacity Usage
Ratio, (5) Actual Capacity Usage Ratio. (6) Actual Usage of Budgeted Capacity Ratio.
SOLUTION
Maximum Capacity in a budget period
= 50 Employees × 8 Hrs. × 5 Days × 4 Weeks = 8,000 Hrs.
Budgeted Hours
40 Employees × 8 Hrs. × 5 Days × 4 Weeks = 6,400 Hrs.
Actual Hrs. = 6,000 Hrs. (given)

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Standard Hrs. for Actual Output = 7,000 Hrs.

Budget No. of Days = 20 Days = 20 Days (4 Weeks x 5 Days)

Actual No. of Days = 20 – 1 = 19 Days

Standard Hrs 7,000 hours

1. Efficiency Ratio = ×100 = ×100 = 116.67%
Actual Hrs 6,000 hours

Standard Hrs 7,000 hours

2. Activity Ratio = ×100 = ×100 = 109.375%
Budgeted Hrs 6, 400 hours

Available working days 19days

3. Calendar Ratio = ×100 = ×100 = 95%
Budgeted working days 20days

4. Standard Capacity Usage Ratio =

Budgeted Hours 6, 400 hours
×100 = ×100 = 80%
Max. possible hours in the budgeted period 8,000 hours

Actual Hours worked

5. Actual Capacity Usage Ratio = ×100
Max. possible working hours in a period

6,000 hours
= ×100 = 75%
8,000 hours

Actual working Hours

6. Actual Usage of Budgeted Capacity Ratio = ×100
Budgeted Hours

6,000 hours
= ×100 = 93.75%
6, 400 hours

SUMMARY
♦ Budget: Budget is a quantitative expression of a plan of action to be pursued
over a defined period of time. It is statement of an estimated performance to
be achieved in given time, expressed in monetary or quantitative or both terms.
♦ Budget Centre: A Budget Centre is a section of an organisation developed
for the purpose of budgetary control, and is intended to facilitate formulation
of various budgets with the help of head of the department.

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♦ Budgetary Control: Budgetary Control is the establishment of budgets,

relating the responsibilities of executives to the requirements of a policy, and
the continuous comparison of actual with budgeted results, either to secure by
individual action the objective of that policy or to provide a basis for its revision.
♦ Budget Manual: The Budget manual is a document or booklet which Contain
guidelines for the preparation of budget in an organization.
♦ Budget Period: The period of time for which a budget is prepared and used. It
may be a year, quarter or a month.

♦ Classification of Budgets:
Capacity based - Fixed and Flexible
Content based - Monetary and Physical/quantitative

Functional based - Purchase, Sale, Production Cost, Administrative,

Selling & Distribution, Research & Development,
Plant Capital Expenditure, Cash, Plant Utilization.

♦ Fixed Budget: a fixed budget, is a budget designed to remain unchanged

irrespective of the level of activity actually attained
♦ Flexible Budget: a flexible budget is defined as a budget which, by recognizing
the difference between fixed, semi-variable and variable costs is designed to
change in relation to the level of activity attained.
♦ Zero-based Budgeting (ZBB): Zero-based Budgeting (ZBB) is defined as ‘a
method of budgeting which requires each cost element to be specifically
justified, although the activities to which the budget relates are not being
undertaken for the first time, without approval, the budget allowance is zero
♦ Performance Budgeting (PB): Performance Budgeting means that budget in
which the responsibility of various levels of management is predetermined in
terms of output or result keeping in view the authority vested with them.

♦ Budget Ratios: Ratio is a mathematical relationship between two or more

related figures. Budget ratios provide information about the performance level,
i.e., the extent of deviation of actual performance from the budgeted
performance and whether the actual performance is favourable or unfavorable.

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TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. If a company wishes to establish a factory overhead budget system in which
estimated costs can be derived directly from estimates of activity levels, it
should prepare a:
(a) Master budget
(b) Cash budget
(c) Flexible budget
(d) Fixed budget
2. The classification of fixed and variable cost is useful for the preparation of:
(a) Master budget
(b) Flexible budget
(c) Cash budget
(d) Capital budget

3. Budget manual is a document:

(a) Which contains different type of budgets to be formulated only.
(b) Which contains the details about standard cost of the products to be
made.
(c) Setting out the budget organization and procedures for preparing a
budget including fixation of responsibilities, formats and records required
for the purpose of preparing a budget and for exercising budgetary
control system.
(d) None of the above
4. The budget control organization is usually headed by a top executive who is
known as:
(a) General manager
(b) Budget director/budget controller

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(c) Accountant of the organization

(d) None of the above
5. “A favourable budget variance is always an indication of efficient performance”.
Do you agree, give reason?
(a) A favourable variance indicates, saving on the part of the organization
hence it indicates efficient performance of the organization.
(b) Under all situations, a favourable variance of an organization speaks
about its efficient performance.
(c) A favourable variance does not necessarily indicate efficient performance,
because such a variance might have been arrived at by not carrying out
the expenses mentioned in the budget.

(d) None of the above.

6. A budget report is prepared on the principle of exception and thus-
(a) Only unfavourable variances should be shown

(b) Only favourable variance should be shown

(c) Both favourable and unfavourable variances should be shown
(d) None of the above

7. Purchases budget and materials budget are same:

(a) Purchases budget is a budget which includes only the details of all
materials purchased
(b) Purchases budget is a wider concept and thus includes not only purchases
of materials but also other item’s as well
(c) Purchases budget is different from materials budget; it includes purchases
of other items only
(d) None of the above
8. Efficiency ratio is:

(a) The extent of actual working days avoided during the budget period
(b) Activity ratio/ capacity ratio

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(c) Whether the actual activity is more or less than budgeted activity
(d) None of the above
9. Activity Ratio depicts:
(a) Whether actual capacity utilized exceeds or falls short of the budgeted
capacity

(b) Whether the actual hours used for actual production were more or less
than the standard hours
(c) Whether actual activity was more or less than the budgeted capacity

(d) None of the above

10. Which of the following is usually a short-term budget:
(a) Capital expenditure budget

(b) Research and development budget

(c) Cash budget
(d) Sales budget

Theoretical Questions
1. EXPLAIN briefly the concept of ‘flexible budget’.
2. DISCUSS the components of budgetary control system.
3. LIST the eight functional budgets prepared by a business.
4. DISTINGUISH between Fixed and flexible budget.
5. EXPLAIN the Essentials of budget.
6. STATE the considerations on which capital expenditure budget is prepared.
7. DESCRIBE the steps involved in the budgetary control technique.

8. DESCRIBE the salient features of budget manual.

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Practical Problems
1. B Ltd manufactures two products viz., X and Y and sells them through two
divisions, East and West. For the purpose of Sales Budget to the Budget
Committee, following information has been made available for the year
2022-23:

Budgeted Sales Actual Sales

Product
East Division West Division East Division West Division
800 units at 1,200 units at 1,000 units at 1,400 units at
X
`18 `18 `18 `18
600 units at 1,000 units at 400 units at 800 units at
Y
`42 `42 `42 `42

Adequate market studies reveal that product X is popular but underpriced. It is

expected that if the price of X is increased by ` 2, it will, find a ready market.
On the other hand, Y is overpriced and if the price of Y is reduced by ` 2 it will
have more demand in the market. The company management has agreed for
the aforesaid price changes. On the basis of these price changes and the reports
of salesmen, following estimates have been prepared by the Divisional
Managers:
Percentage increase in sales over budgeted sales

Product East Division West Division

X + 12.5% + 7.5%
Y + 22.5% + 12.5%

With the help of intensive advertisement campaign, following additional sales

(over and above the above-mentioned estimated sales by Divisional Mangers)
are possible:

Product East Division West Division

X 120 units 140 units
Y 80 units 100 units

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You are required to PREPARE Sales Budget for 2022-23 after incorporating
above estimates and also SHOW the Budgeted Sales and Actual Sales of
2021-22.
2. During the FY 2021-22, P Limited has produced 60,000 units operating at 50%
capacity level. The cost structure at the 50% level of activity is as under:

(`)
Direct Material 300 per unit
Direct Wages 100 per unit
Variable Overheads 100 per unit
Direct Expenses 60 per unit
Factory Expenses (25% fixed) 80 per unit
Selling and Distribution Exp. (80% variable) 40 per unit
Office and Administrative Exp. (100% fixed) 20 per unit

The company anticipates that in FY 2022-23, the variable costs will go up by

20% and fixed costs will go up by 15%.
The selling price per unit will increase by 10% to ` 880
Required:
(i) CALCULATE the budgeted profit/ loss for the FY 2021-22.
(ii) PREPARE an Expense budget on marginal cost basis for the FY 2022-23
for the company at 50% and 60% level of activity and FIND OUT the
profits at respective levels.
3. K Ltd. produces and markets a very popular product called ‘X’. The company is
interested in presenting its budget for the second quarter of 2022-23.
The following information are made available for this purpose:
(i) It expects to sell 1,50,000 bags of ‘X’ during the second quarter of 2022-
23 at the selling price of ` 1,200 per bag.
(ii) Each bag of ‘X’ requires 2.5 mtr. of raw – material ‘Y’ and 7.5 mtr. of raw
– material ‘Z’.
(iii) Stock levels are planned as follows:

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Particulars Beginning of End of Quarter

Quarter
Finished Bags of ‘X’ (Nos.) 45,000 33,000
Raw – Material ‘Y’ (mtr) 96,000 78,000
Raw – Material ‘Z’ (mtr) 1,71,000 1,41,000
Empty Bag (Nos.) 1,11,000 84,000

(iv) ‘Y’ cost `160 per mtr., ‘Z’ costs `30 per mtr. and ‘Empty Bag’ costs `110
each.
(v) It requires 9 minutes of direct labour to produce and fill one bag of ‘X’.
Labour cost is ` 70 per hour.
(vi) Variable manufacturing costs are ` 60 per bag. Fixed manufacturing
costs ` 40,00,000 per quarter.
(vii) Variable selling and administration expenses are 5% of sales and fixed
administration and selling expenses are ` 3,75,000 per quarter.
Required

(i) PREPARE a production budget for the said quarter in quantity.

(ii) PREPARE a raw – material purchase budget for ‘Y’, ‘Z’ and ‘Empty Bags’
for the said quarter in quantity as well as in rupees.
(iii) COMPUTE the budgeted variable cost to produce one bag of ‘X’.
4. ABC Ltd. is currently operating at 75% of its capacity. In the past two years, the
levels of operations were 55% and 65% respectively. Presently, the production
is 75,000 units. The company is planning for 85% capacity level during 2022-
23. The cost details are as follows:

55% 65% 75%

(`) (`) (`)
Direct Materials 11,00,000 13,00,000 15,00,000
Direct Labour 5,50,000 6,50,000 7,50,000
Factory Overheads 3,10,000 3,30,000 3,50,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 15.78 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Selling Overheads 3,20,000 3,60,000 4,00,000

Administrative Overheads 1,60,000 1,60,000 1,60,000
24,40,000 28,00,000 31,60,000

Profit is estimated @ 20% on sales.

The following increases in costs are expected during the year:
In percentage

Direct Materials 8
Direct Labour 5
Variable Factory Overheads 5
Variable Selling Overheads 8
Fixed Factory Overheads 10
Fixed Selling Overheads 15
Administrative Overheads 10
PREPARE flexible budget for the period 2022-23 at 85% level of capacity. Also
ascertain profit and contribution.
5. The accountant of manufacturing company provides you the following details
for year 2021-22:

(` ) (` )

Direct materials 1,75,000 Other variable costs 80,000

Direct Wages 1,00,000 Other fixed costs 80,000
Fixed factory overheads 1,00,000 Profit 1,15,000
Variable factory overheads 1,00,000 Sales 7,50,000

During the year, the company manufactured two products A and B and the
output and costs were:

A B
Output (units) 2,00,000 1,00,000
Selling price per unit ` 2.00 ` 3.50

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.79

Direct materials per unit ` 0.50 ` 0.75

Direct wages per unit ` 0.25 ` 0.50

Variable factory overhead is absorbed as a percentage of direct wages. Other

variable costs have been computed as: Product A ` 0.25 per unit; and B ` 0.30
per unit.
During 2022-23, it is expected that the demand for product A will fall by
25 % and for B by 50%. It is decided to manufacture a further product C, the
cost for which is estimated as follows:

Product C

Output (units) 2,00,000

Selling price per unit ` 1.75
Direct materials per unit ` 0.40
Direct wages per unit ` 0.25

It is anticipated that the other variable costs per unit will be the same as for
product A.
PREPARE a budget to present to the management, showing the current position
and the position for 2022-23. Comment on the comparative results.
6. TQM Ltd. has furnished the following information for the month ending 30th
June:

Master Budget Actual Variance

Units produced and sold 80,000 72,000
Sales (`) 3,20,000 2,80,000 40,000 (A)
Direct material (`) 80,000 73,600 6,400 (F)
Direct wages (`) 1,20,000 1,04,800 15,200 (F)
Variable overheads (`) 40,000 37,600 2,400 (F)
Fixed overhead (`) 40,000 39,200 800 (F)
Total Cost 2,80,000 2,55,200

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 15.80 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The Standard costs of the products are as follows:

Per unit (`)

Direct materials (1 kg. at the rate of `1 per kg.) 1.00
Direct wages (1 hour at the rate of ` 1.50) 1.50
Variable overheads (1 hour at the rate of ` 0.50) 0.50
Actual results for the month showed that 78,400 kg. of material were used and
70,400 labour hours were recorded.
Required:
(i) PREPARE Flexible budget for the month and compare with actual results.
(ii) CALCULATE Material, Labour, Sales Price, Variable Overhead and Fixed
Overhead Expenditure variances and Sales Volume (Profit) variance.
7. Jigyasa Ltd. is drawing a production plan for its two products Minimax (MM)
and Heavyhigh (HH) for the year 2022-23. The company’s policy is to hold
closing stock of finished goods at 25% of the anticipated volume of sales of the
succeeding month. The following are the estimated data for two products:

Minimax (MM) Heavyhigh (HH)

Budgeted Production units 1,80,000 1,20,000
(` ) (` )

Direct material cost per unit 220 280

Direct labour cost per unit 130 120
Manufacturing overhead 4,00,000 5,00,000

The estimated units to be sold in the first four months of the year 2022-23 are
as under

April May June July

Minimax 8,000 10,000 12,000 16,000
Heavyhigh 6,000 8,000 9,000 14,000

PREPARE production budget for the first quarter in month-wise.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.81

8. Concorde Ltd. manufactures two products using two types of materials and one
grade of labour. Shown below is an extract from the company’s working papers
for the next month’s budget:

Product- Product-
A B
Budgeted sales (in units) 2,400 3,600
Budgeted material consumption per unit (in kg):
Material-X 5 3
Material-Y 4 6
Standard labour hours allowed per unit of product 3 5

Material-X and Material-Y cost ` 4 and ` 6 per kg and labours are paid
` 25 per hour. Overtime premium is 50% and is payable, if a worker works for
more than 40 hours a week. There are 180 direct workers.
The target productivity ratio (or efficiency ratio) for the productive hours
worked by the direct workers in actually manufacturing the products is 80%. In
addition the non-productive down-time is budgeted at 20% of the productive
hours worked.
There are four 5-days weeks in the budgeted period and it is anticipated that
sales and production will occur evenly throughout the whole period.

It is anticipated that stock at the beginning of the period will be:

Product-A 400 units

Product-B 200 units
Material-X 1,000 kg.
Material-Y 500 kg.

The anticipated closing stocks for budget period are as below:

Product-A 4 days sales
Product-B 5 days sales
Material-X 10 days consumption
Material-Y 6 days consumption

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 15.82 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Required:
CALCULATE the Material Purchase Budget and the Wages Budget for the direct
workers, showing the quantities and values, for the next month.

ANSWERS/ SOLUTIONS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c)

7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 8.1
2. Please refer paragraph 5.7
3. Please refer paragraph 8.2
4. Please refer paragraph 8.1
5. Please refer paragraph 2
6. Please refer paragraph 8.2
7. Please refer paragraph 5.3
8. Please refer paragraph 7

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. Statement Showing Sales Budget for 2022-23

Product X Product Y Total

Division Qty. Rate Amt. Qty. Rate Amt. Amt.
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
East 1,020 1 20 20,400 815 3 40 32,600 53,000
West 1,430 2 20 28,600 1,225 4 40 49,000 77,600
Total 1,200 49,000 1,000 81,600 1,30,600

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.83

Workings
1. 800 × 112.5% +120 = 1,020 units
2. 1,200 × 107.5% + 140 = 1,430 units
3. 600 × 122.5% + 80 = 815 units
4. 1,000 × 112.5% + 100 = 1,225 units
Statement Showing Sales Budget for 2021-22

Product X Product Y Total

Division
Qty. Rate Amt. Qty. Rate Amt. Amt.
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
East 800 18 14,400 600 42 25,200 39,600
West 1,200 18 21,600 1,000 42 42,000 63,600
Total 2,000 36,000 1,600 67,200 1,03,200

Statement Showing Actual Sales for 2021-22

Product X Product Y Total

Division Qty. Rate Amt. Qty. Rate Amt. Amt.
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
East 1,000 18 18,000 400 42 16,800 34,800
West 1,400 18 25,200 800 42 33,600 58,800
Total 2,400 43,200 1,200 50,400 93,600

2. (i) Calculation of Budgeted profit for the FY 2021-22

60,000 units
Per unit Amount
(`) (`)
Sales (A) 800.00 4,80,00,000
Variable Costs:
- Direct Material 300.00 1,80,00,000
- Direct Wages 100.00 60,00,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 15.84 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

- Variable Overheads 100.00 60,00,000

- Direct Expenses 60.00 36,00,000
- Variable factory expenses 60.00 36,00,000
(75% of `80 p.u.)
- Variable Selling & Dist. exp. 32.00 19,20,000
(80% of `40 p.u.)
Total Variable Cost (B) 652.00 3,91,20,000
Contribution (C) = (A – B) 148.00 88,80,000
Fixed Costs:
- Office and Admin. exp. (100%) -- 12,00,000
- Fixed factory exp. (25%) -- 12,00,000
- Fixed Selling & Dist. exp. (20%) -- 4,80,000
Total Fixed Costs (D) -- 28,80,000
Profit (C – D) -- 60,00,000

(ii) Expense Budget of P Ltd. for the FY 2022-23 at 50% & 60% level

60,000 units 72,000 units

Per unit Amount Per unit Amount
(`) (`) (`) (`)
Sales (A) 880.00 5,28,00,000 880.00 6,33,60,000
Variable Costs:
- Direct Material 360.00 2,16,00,000 360.00 2,59,20,000
- Direct Wages 120.00 72,00,000 120.00 86,40,000
- Variable Overheads 120.00 72,00,000 120.00 86,40,000
- Direct Expenses 72.00 43,20,000 72.00 51,84,000
- Variable factory 72.00 43,20,000 72.00 51,84,000
expenses

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.85

- Variable Selling & Dist. 38.40 23,04,000 38.40 27,64,800

exp.
Total Variable Cost (B) 782.40 4,69,44,000 782.40 5,63,32,800
Contribution (C) = (A – B) 97.60 58,56,000 97.60 70,27,200
Fixed Costs:
- Office and Admin. exp. -- 13,80,000 -- 13,80,000
(100%)
- Fixed factory exp. -- 13,80,000 -- 13,80,000
(25%)
- Fixed Selling & Dist. -- 5,52,000 -- 5,52,000
exp. (20%)
Total Fixed Costs (D) -- 33,12,000 -- 33,12,000
Profit (C – D) -- 25,44,000 -- 37,15,200

3. (i) Production Budget of ‘X’ for the Second Quarter

Particulars Bags (Nos.)

Budgeted Sales 1,50,000
Add: Desired Closing stock 33,000
Total Requirements 1,83,000
Less: Opening stock (45,000)
Required Production 1,38,000

(ii) Raw–Materials Purchase Budget in Quantity as well as in ` for

1,38,000 Bags of ‘X’

Particulars ‘Y’ ‘Z’ Empty Bags

Mtr. Mtr. Nos.
Production 2.5 7.5 1.0
Requirements
Per bag of ‘X’
Requirement for 3,45,000 10,35,000 1,38,000
Production
(1,38,000 × 2.5) (1,38,000 × 7.5) (1,38,000 × 1)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 15.86 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Add: Desired 78,000 1,41,000 84,000

Closing Stock
Total 4,23,000 11,76,000 2,22,000
Requirements
Less: Opening (96,000) (1,71,000) (1,11,000)
Stock
Quantity to be 3,27,000 10,05,000 1,11,000
purchased
Cost per `160 `30 `110
mtr./Bag
Cost of 5,23,20,000 3,01,50,000 1,22,10,000
Purchase (`)

(iii) Computation of Budgeted Variable Cost of Production of

1 Bag of ‘X’

Particulars (`)
Raw – Material
Y 2.5 mtr @160 400.00
Z 7.5 mtr @30 225.00
Empty Bag 110.00
Direct Labour (`70× 9 minutes / 60 minutes) 10.50
Variable Manufacturing Overheads 60.00
Variable Cost of Production per bag 805.50

4. ABC Ltd.
Budget for 85% capacity level for the period 2022-23

Budgeted production (units) 85,000

Per Unit (`) Amount (`)
Direct Material (note 1) 21.60 18,36,000
Direct Labour (note 2) 10.50 8,92,500
Variable factory overhead (note 3) 2.10 1,78,500

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.87

Variable selling overhead (note 4) 4.32 3,67,200

Variable cost 38.52 32,74,200

Fixed factory overhead (note 3) 2,20,000

Fixed selling overhead (note 4) 1,15,000

Administrative overhead 1,76,000

Fixed cost 5,11,000

Total cost 37,85,200

Add: Profit 20% on sales or 25% on total cost 9,46,300

Sales 47,31,500

Contribution (Sales – Variable cost) 14,57,300

Working Notes:
1. Direct Materials:

(`) (`)

75% Capacity 15,00,000 65% Capacity 13,00,000

65% Capacity 13,00,000 55% Capacity 11,00,000

10% change in 2,00,000 10% change in capacity 2,00,000

capacity

For 10% increase in capacity, i.e., for increase by 10,000 units, the total
direct material cost regularly changes by ` 2,00,000
Direct material cost (variable) = ` 2,00,000 ÷ 10,000 = ` 20

After 8% increase in price, direct material cost per unit = ` 20 × 1.08

= ` 21.60
Direct material cost for 85,000 budgeted units = 85,000 × ` 21.60
= ` 18,36,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 15.88 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2. Direct Labour:
(`) (`)

75% Capacity 7,50,000 65% Capacity 6,50,000

65% Capacity 6,50,000 55% Capacity 5,50,000
10% change in 1,00,000 10% change in 1,00,000
capacity capacity

For 10% increase in capacity, direct labour cost regularly changes by

` 1,00,000.
Direct labour cost per unit = ` 1,00,000 ÷ 10,000 = ` 10
After 5% increase in price, direct labour cost per unit = ` 10 × 1.05
= ` 10.50

Direct labour for 85,000 units = 85,000 units × ` 10.50 = ` 8,92,500.

3. Factory overheads are semi-variable overheads:

(`) (`)

75% Capacity 3,50,000 65% Capacity 3,30,000

65% Capacity 3,30,000 55% Capacity 3,10,000
10% change in 20,000 10% change in 20,000
capacity capacity

Variable factory overhead = ` 20,000 ÷ 10,000 = ` 2

Variable factory overhead for 75,000 units = 75,000 × ` 2 = `1,50,000
Fixed factory overhead = `3,50,000 – ` 1,50,000 = ` 2,00,000.
Variable factory overhead after 5% increase = ` 2 × 1.05 = ` 2.10
Fixed factory overhead after 10% increase = ` 2,00,000 × 1.10
= ` 2,20,000.

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.89

4. Selling overhead is semi-variable overhead:

(`) (`)

75% Capacity 4,00,000 65% Capacity 3,60,000

65% Capacity 3,60,000 55% Capacity 3,20,000
10% change in 40,000 10% change in capacity 40,000
capacity

Variable selling overhead = ` 40,000 ÷ 10,000 units = ` 4

Variable selling overhead for 75,000 units = 75,000 × ` 4 = ` 3,00,000.
Fixed selling overhead = ` 4,00,000 – ` 3,00,000 = ` 1,00,000
Variable selling overhead after 8% increase = ` 4 × 1.08 = ` 4.32
Fixed selling overhead after 15% increase = ` 1,00,000 × 1.15
= ` 1,15,000
5. Administrative overhead is fixed:
After 10% increase = ` 1,60,000 × 1.10 = ` 1,76,000
5.

Budget Showing Current Position and Position for 2022-23

Position for 2021-22 Position for 2022-23

A B Total A B C Total
(A+B) (A+B+C)

Sales (units) 2,00,000 1,00,000 – 1,50,000 50,000 2,00,000 –

(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)

(A) Sales 4,00,000 3,50,000 7,50,000 3,00,000 1,75,000 3,50,000 8,25,000

Direct Material 1,00,000 75,000 1,75,000 75,000 37,500 80,000 1,92,500

Direct wages 50,000 50,000 1,00,000 37,500 25,000 50,000 1,12,500

Factory 50,000 50,000 1,00,000 37,500 25,000 50,000 1,12,500
overhead
(variable)
Other variable 50,000 30,000 80,000 37,500 15,000 50,000 1,02,500
costs

(B) Marginal Cost 2,50,000 2,05,000 4,55,000 1,87,500 1,02,500 2,30,000 5,20,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 15.90 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(C) Contribution 1,50,000 1,45,000 2,95,000 1,12,500 72,500 1,20,000 3,05,000

(A-B)

Fixed costs –
Factory 1,00,000 1,00,000
– Others 80,000 80,000

(D) Total fixed 1,80,000 1,80,000

cost

Profit 1,15,000 1,25,000

(C – D)

Comments: Introduction of Product C is likely to increase profit by ` 10,000 (i.e.

from ` 1,15,000 to ` 1,25,000) in 2022-23 as compared to 2021-22. Therefore,
introduction of product C is recommended.
6. (i) Statement showing Flexible Budget and its comparison with actual
Flexible Budget
Master (at standard Actual
Budget cost) for
Variance
80,000 72,000
units Per 72,000 units
unit units
A. Sales 3,20,000 4.00 2,88,000 2,80,000 8,000 (A)
B. Direct material 80,000 1.00 72,000 73,600 1,600 (A)
C. Direct wages 1,20,000 1.50 1,08,000 1,04,800 3,200 (F)
D. Variable 40,000 0.50 36,000 37,600 1,600 (A)
overhead
E. Total variable 2,40,000 3.00 2,16,000 2,16,000 −
cost
F. Contribution 80,000 1.00 72,000 64,000 −

G. Fixed overhead 40,000 0.50 40,000 39,200 800 (F)

H. Net profit 40,000 0.50 32,000 24,800 7,200 (A)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.91

(ii) Variances:
Sales Price Variance = Actual Quantity (Standard Rate –
Actual Rate)
= 72,000 units (` 4.00 – ` 3.89)
= ` 8,000 (A)

Direct Material Cost Variance = Standard Cost for Actual output

–Actual cost
= ` 72,000 – ` 73,600 = ` 1,600 (A)
Direct Material Price Variance = Actual Quantity (Standard rate
– Actual Rate)
 ` 73, 600 
= 78,400 units  ` 1.00 − 
 78, 400 units 

= ` 4,800 (F)
Direct Material Usage Variance = Standard Rate (Std. Qty. –
Actual Quantity)
= ` 1 (72,000 units – 78,400 units)
= ` 6,400 (A)
Direct Labour Cost Variance = Standard Cost for actual
output – Actual cost
= ` 1,08,000 – `1,04,800 = `3,200 (F)
Direct Labour Rate Variance = Actual Hour (Std Rate – Actual
Rate)
 ` 1,04, 800 
= 70,400 hours  ` 1.5 − 
 70, 400 units 

= ` 800 (F)

Direct Labour Efficiency = Standard Rate (Standard Hour –

Actual Hour)
= ` 1.5 (72,000 – 70,400) = ` 2,400 (F)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 15.92 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Variable Overhead = Recovered variable overhead –

Actual variable overhead

= (72,000 units × ` 0.50) – ` 37,600

= ` 1,600(A)
Fixed Overhead Expenditure = Budgeted fixed overhead –
Actual fixed overhead
= ` 40,000 – ` 39,200 = ` 800 (F)
Sales Volume (Profit) Variance = Std. Profit (Budgeted Quantity –
Actual Quantity)
= ` 0.50 (80,000 – 72,000) = `4,000(A)
7. Production Budget of Product Minimax and Heavyhigh (in units)

April May June Total

MM HH MM HH MM HH MM HH
Sales 8,000 6,000 10,000 8,000 12,000 9,000 30,000 23,000
Add: Closing Stock 2,500 2,000 3,000 2,250 4,000 3,500 9,500 7,750
(25% of next
month’s sale)
Less: Opening Stock 2,000* 1,500* 2,500 2,000 3,000 2,250 7,500 5,750
Production units 8,500 6,500 10,500 8,250 13,000 10,250 32,000 25,000

* Opening stock of April is the closing stock of March, which is as per company’s policy
25% of next month’’ sale.

Production Cost Budget

Element of cost Rate (`) Amount (`)

MM HH MM HH
(32,000 (25,000
units) units)
Direct Material 220 280 70,40,000 70,00,000
Direct Labour 130 120 41,60,000 30,00,000
Manufacturing Overhead

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.93

(4,00,000 ÷ 1,80,000 × 32,000) 71,111

(5,00,000 ÷ 1,20,000 × 25,000) 1,04,167
1,12,71,111 1,01,04,167

8. Number of days in budget period = 4 weeks × 5 days = 20 days

Number of units to be produced

Product-A Product-B
(units) (units)
Budgeted Sales 2,400 3,600
Add: Closing stock
 2,400 units   3,600 units  480 900

 20 days × 4 days   × 5 days 
   20 days 

Less: Opening stock 400 200

2,480 4,300

(i) Material Purchase Budget

Material-X (Kg.) Material-Y (Kg.)
Material required:
Product-A 12,400 9,920
(2,480 units × 5 kg.) (2,480 units × 4 kg.)
Product-B 12,900 25,800
(4,300 units × 3 kg.) (4,300 units × 6 kg.)
25,300 35,720
Add: Closing stock
 25,300kgs. 
 ×10days 
 20days  12,650 10,716
 35,720kgs. 
 × 6days 
 20days 

Less: Opening stock 1,000 500

Quantity to be purchased 36,950 45,936
Rate per kg. of Material `4 `6
Total Cost ` 1,47,800 ` 2,75,616

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

 15.94 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) Wages Budget

Product-A (Hours) Product-B (Hours)

Units to be produced 2,480 units 4,300 units
Standard hours allowed per
3 5
unit
Total Standard Hours
7,440 21,500
allowed
Productive hours required 7, 440hours 21,500hours
=9,300 =26,875
for production 80% 80%

Add: Non-Productive down 1,860 hours. 5,375 hours.

time (20% of 9,300 hours) (20% of 26,875 hours)

Hours to be paid 11,160 32,250

Total Hours to be paid = 43,410 hours (11,160 + 32,250)

Hours to be paid at normal = 4 weeks × 40 hours × 180 workers
rate = 28,800 hours
Hours to be paid at premium
= 43,410 hours – 28,800 hours = 14,610 hours
rate
Total wages to be paid = 28,800 hours × ` 25 + 14,610 hours × ` 37.5
= ` 7,20,000 + ` 5,47,875
= ` 12,67,875

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

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