CH 2
CH 2
1
Motion:
• In this chapter we will study the motion of objects only in a
straight line.
• We will not study the force causing this motion (this part will
come later)
• Motion in a straight line can be vertical, horizontal, or slanted,
but it must be straight.
Δx = x2 − x1
• If the particle moves from x1 = 5 m to x2 = 1 m, then Δx = (1 m) − (5 m) = −4 m. The negative result indicates that the
motion is in the negative direction.
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• Displacement is not always equal to the total distance covered in the trip
• Displacement is the net change in position between original and final positions
• Displacement is a vector: it is described by a magnitude and a direction
• Distance is a scalar (it has no direction)
• If you move between initial position xi to a final position xf as shown, then displacement ≠ distance
Displacement Distance
Displacement Net change between xi to a Total trip from xi to a final
final position xf position xf
xi xf Does not depend on the path Depends on the path of
of motion motion
Vector Scalar
SI unit: m SI unit: m
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∵ Displacement is a vector
xi xf
x (m) Displacement Dx = 3 m means the object
-2 -1 0 1 2 position has changed by 3 m in the positive
Dx = 3 m direction.
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Here you can see the difference between displacement and distance on the x-axis:
xi xf Dx = 1 m.
x (m) Total distance = 7 m.
-2 -1 0 1 2
xf xi Dx = – 1 m.
x (m) Total distance = 7 m.
-2 -1 0 1 2
xi xf Dx = 1 m.
x (m) Total distance = 1 m.
-2 -1 0 1 2
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Average Velocity and Average Speed
Suppose an object is at position x1 at time t1, and then moves and reaches position x2 at time t2.
x1 x2
x
Time elapsed
Δt
This means that the displacement Δx occurs during a particular time interval Δt
The average velocity Vavg is defined as:
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ∆𝑥
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡
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• Because displacement is a vector ⟹ velocity is a vector (velocity always has direction)
• Average velocity vavg always has the same sign as the displacement Δx:
positive displacement ⟹ positive velocity
negative displacement ⟹ negative velocity
• Average speed savg is the second way of describing “how fast” an object moves.
• The average speed involves the total distance covered during the motion:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡
Velocity Speed
displacement distance
= =
time time
Does not depend on the path Depends on the path of
of motion motion
Vector Scalar
SI unit: m/s SI unit: mls
• Both vavg and savg are measured over a time interval Δt (not for a specific instant during the motion),
thus they are called “average”
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Example: a man walked as shown in the figure, then stopped at the point P. The total time that he takes
during his walk was 250 s. calculate the distance, displacement, average speed, and average velocity.
Solution:
Distance = 70 + 50 = 120 m
The + sign means that the displacement and the
Displacement = +20 m
velocity are in the positive direction of x-axis
distance 120
Average speed = = 250 = 0.48 m/s
time
displacement +20
Average velocity = = = + 0.08 m/s
time 250
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Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
• You have now seen two ways to describe how fast something moves: average velocity and average speed, both
of which are measured over a time interval Δt.
• However, we can also describe how fast a particle is moving at a given instant—its instantaneous velocity (or
simply velocity) v.
∆𝑥
𝑣 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
• Velocity (v) is the derivative of position (x) with respect to time (t)
Solution:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
𝑣= = 4 − 12t + 3t2 − 5t3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 0 – 12 + 6t – 15 t2
At t = 2 s,
v = 0 – 12 + 6 (2) − 15 (2)3
This result means that at the instant t = 2 s, the particle was moving with a velocity = 120 m/s in the negative
direction.
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• Using the instantaneous velocity, we can define the instantaneous speed or simply speed
• Speed is the magnitude of velocity; that is, speed is velocity but without any direction.
• For example, a velocity of +5 m/s and another velocity of −5 m/s both have an associated speed of 5 m/s.
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Acceleration
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ∆𝑣
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
Or,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝑥
𝑎= = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
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• To calculate the instantaneous acceleration at a time = to:
1) Calculate the first derivative of the velocity equation with respect to time
OR
calculate the second derivative of the position equation with respect to time
2) Substitute the value of to at the result of derivation
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• Acceleration can be positive or negative.
• If the signs of the velocity and acceleration of a particle are the same, the speed of the particle increases. If
the signs are opposite, the speed decreases.
The signs of both a and v are opposite The signs of both a and v are the same
(one is positive but the other is negative) (both positive or both negative)
⟹ the speed is decreasing ⟹ the speed is increasing
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Example: If a particle’s position is given by x = 4 − 12t + 3t2 − 5t3 (where t is in seconds and x is in meters),
what is its acceleration at t = 2 s?
Solution:
We can derive the velocity v from the last example (it is the same as taking the second derivative of the equation
given in the question),
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
We had: 𝑣 = = 𝑑𝑡 4 − 12t + 3t2 − 5t3
𝑑𝑡
⸫ v = 12 + 6t – 15 t2
𝑑𝑣 𝑑
⟹ a= = 𝑑𝑡 12 + 6t – 15 t2
𝑑𝑡
⸫ a = 6 – 30 t
At t = 2 s,
a = 6 − 30 (2)
= 6 − 60 = – 54 m/s2
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Constant Acceleration:
In these equations:
vo is the initial velocity
v is the final velocity
a is acceleration
t is time
xo is the initial position
x is the final position
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Example: A car starts moving from rest with a constant acceleration of 2 m/s2. how long does the car take to
travel a distance of 200 m? b) what is the car’s final velocity at this point?
Solution:
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Example: A car moving with a uniform velocity of 15 m/s is brought to rest in travelling a distance of 5 m.
Calculate the deceleration produced by brakes?
Solution:
225
𝑎=−
10
a = – 22.5 m/s2
The minus sign means that the can was slowing down (decelerating) as mentioned in the question.
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Free-Fall Acceleration
• If you eliminate the effects of air on its flight, you would find that the
object accelerates downward at a certain constant rate.
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⸪ the g value (acceleration) is constant
⸫ we can use for free-falling motion the same equations of motion that we
just learned, only with the following changes:
y-axis
(1) The directions of motion are now along a vertical y axis instead of the x
axis, with the positive direction of y upward.
positive direction negative direction
(2) The free-fall acceleration is always negative because it is always (positive v and (negative v and
positive y) negative y)
downward on the y-axis, toward Earth’s center and so it has the value −g
in the equations Earth's surface
• When an object is moving under the affect of Earth’s gravity, we deal with
it as a “falling” object (in moving both upward and also downward). The
only difference between “falling” upward and falling downward is the
signs of the velocity v and the distance y.
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The equation of motion for a free-falling object are:
Remember: when you substitute g in the equations, you use g = 9.8 m/s2 (do not put g = – 9.8 m/s2)
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Example: A man throws a ball up along a y axis, with an initial speed of 12 m/s.
a) How long does the ball take to reach its maximum height?
b) What is the ball’s maximum height above its release point?
Solution: