TYPE Original Research

PUBLISHED 18 March 2024

DOI 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

Potential for natural hydrogen in

OPEN ACCESS Quebec (Canada): a first review
EDITED BY
Viacheslav Zgonnik,
Natural Hydrogen Energy LLC, United States Stephan Séjourné 1,2*, Félix-Antoine Comeau 2,
REVIEWED BY
Maria Luisa Moreira dos Santos 2, Geneviève Bordeleau 2,
Laurent Truche, Maxime Claprood 2†, Pascal Mouge 3, Valentin Mulliez 3,
Université Grenoble Alpes, France
Mário Gonçalves, Michel Malo 2, Bernard Giroux 2, Erwan Gloaguen 2 and
University of Lisbon, Portugal
Jasmin Raymond 2
*CORRESPONDENCE
1
Stephan Séjourné, Enki GeoSolutions, Montréal, QC, Canada, 2Institut national de la recherche scientifique, Centre Eau
ssejourne@enkigeosolutions.ca Terre Environnement (INRS-ETE), Québec, QC, Canada, 3Novatem, Mont-Saint-Hilaire, QC, Canada
†
PRESENT ADDRESS
Maxime Claprood,
Centre d’études sur les ressources minérales,
Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Saguenay,
The energy transition calls for natural hydrogen exploration, with most
QC, Canada
occurrences discovered either inadvertently or, more recently, at the
RECEIVED 06 December 2023
ACCEPTED 01 February 2024
location of potentially diffusive circles observed from a change of vegetation
PUBLISHED 18 March 2024 cover at the surface. However, some notable hydrogen occurrences are not
CITATION
directly associated with the presence of diffusive circles like the Bourakebougou
Séjourné S, Comeau F-A, field in Mali. Thus, the objective of this work was to highlight geological areas
Moreira dos Santos ML, Bordeleau G, that have some potential to find natural hydrogen in Quebec, a Canadian
Claprood M, Mouge P, Mulliez V, Malo M,
Giroux B, Gloaguen E and Raymond J (2024),
province where no diffusive circles have yet been documented but which is
Potential for natural hydrogen in Quebec rich in potential source rocks and where no exploration for natural hydrogen
(Canada): a first review. has been undertaken so far. A review of the different geological regions of
Front. Geochem. 2:1351631.
doi: 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631
Quebec was undertaken to highlight the relevant characteristics and
geographical distribution of geological assemblages that may produce or
COPYRIGHT
© 2024 Séjourné, Comeau, Moreira dos Santos, have produced natural hydrogen, in particular, iron-rich rocks but also
Bordeleau, Claprood, Mouge, Mulliez, Malo, uranium-rich rocks, supramature shales and zones where significant
Giroux, Gloaguen and Raymond. This is an structural discontinuities are documented or suspected, which may act as
open-access article distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License conduits for the migration of fluids of mantle origin. In addition to regional
(CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in and local geological data, an inventory of available geochemical data is also
other forums is permitted, provided the original carried out to identify potential tracers or proxies to facilitate subsequent
author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are
credited and that the original publication in this exploration efforts. A rating was then proposed based on the quality of the
journal is cited, in accordance with accepted potential source rocks, which also considers the presence of reservoir rocks and
academic practice. No use, distribution or the proximity to end-users. This analysis allowed rating areas of interest for
reproduction is permitted which does not
comply with these terms. which fieldwork can be considered, thus minimizing the exploratory risks and
investments required to develop this resource. The size of the study area (over
1.5 million km2), the diversity of its geological environments (from metamorphic
cratons to sedimentary basins) and their wide age range (from Archean to
Paleozoic) make Quebec a promising territory for natural hydrogen exploration
and to test the systematic rating method proposed here.

KEYWORDS

energy transition, underground reservoir, source rock, hydrogeochemistry, exploration

screening, Superior province, Canadian Shield, Appalachian basin

Frontiers in Geochemistry 01 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

1 Introduction to minimize the exploration risks and investments required to

develop this carbon-free resource.
When produced from a carbon-neutral source, hydrogen can
contribute to the energy transition by replacing the use of fossil
fuels, particularly in the industrial, heavy road and marine 2 Methods
transport sectors. Worldwide, hydrogen demand amounted to
about 94 million tons (Mt) in 2021, but over 99% of the hydrogen 2.1 Geological mapping
manufactured that year came from fossil fuels, resulting in
CO 2 emissions of over 900 Mt (IEA, 2022). While the share The most representative geological assemblages in Quebec were
of green hydrogen is set to increase, the technologies involved first reviewed to identify favourable settings for natural hydrogen
remain costly and uncompetitive with hydrogen produced by production. In addition to their relevance for Quebec’s geology, the
methane steam reforming or from coal. Natural hydrogen, mechanisms considered here are those that are relatively better
i.e., dihydrogen (H2 ) produced by natural geological processes understood and documented, and for which anticipated hydrogen
in the subsurface, could complement green hydrogen while production is comparatively more volumetrically significant.
being produced at competitive costs with grey or black The inventory is mainly based on geological maps, in particular
hydrogen, particularly in cases where this resource proves via the Système d’information géominière (SIGEOM, 2023).
renewable, a possibility that remains to be evaluated (Lapi Cartographic data was accompanied by a literature review
et al., 2022). undertaken to identify previously documented hydrogen
Hydrogen is chemically reactive and ubiquitous in many natural occurrences, if any, or more broadly to identify indicators that
environments. Natural hydrogen can be produced in a wide range of support the potential of a given area. This review is not intended to
geological settings, by various geological processes, at different be exhaustive, and focuses mainly on the most representative and
temperatures, depths and rates (Zgonnik, 2020; Milkov, 2022). best-documented areas. Targets are identified here as “plays” in the
These characteristics provide the incentive to explore for natural simplest sense, i.e., having the possible presence of a source rock and
hydrogen in locations not previously deemed promising for energy possibly a reservoir rock, while the other items defining a hydrogen
sources. However, the development of a one-size-fits-all exploration system (a trap, a migration conduit, the chronology and rates of
strategy remains an elusive goal at present, and most initial production/migration/accumulation) were not considered because
discoveries of natural hydrogen remain either fortuitous of the lack of sufficient information.
(Prinzhofer et al., 2018), or guided by the observation at the Geological maps are obviously useful for locating potential
ground surface of diffusive circles, also known as fairy circles, source rocks outcropping at the surface. In the case of
but that have yet to be linked to subsurface accumulations sedimentary basins, which cover most of the Canadian Shield in
(McMahon et al., 2023). southern Quebec, existing deep drilling and geochemical data are
In the Canadian province of Quebec, hydroelectricity covers a crucial sources of information and were included in this assessment.
large part of the energy needs but 53% of these needs are still met by
imported fossil fuels (Whitmore and Pineau, 2023), leaving room for
natural hydrogen to support the province’s energy transition efforts. 2.2 Geochemical mapping
Quebec covers an area of over 1.5 million km2 and includes
diversified geological assemblages. This diversity is encouraging In addition to the analyses of gases in the groundwater of certain
in terms of the possible presence of natural hydrogen, but likely mines mentioned in the introduction, geochemical data were
to slow down and dilute exploration efforts, especially as no diffusive available for Quebec southern sedimentary basins. Geochemical
circles have yet been documented in Quebec, and certain circular datasets sometimes contain analyses of hydrogen gas
topographic depressions developed in the permafrost concentration, as in the case of subsurface data collected by the
(thermokarsts) may obscure the search for diffusive circles. oil and gas industry and available in the Système d’Information
Nevertheless, some preliminary indications have been Géoscientifique Pétrolier et Gazier du Québec (SIGPEG, 2023), but
documented, notably the presence of dissolved hydrogen gas in more often they only contain indirect indicators such as shallow
the water of some mines near the province of Ontario, where this hydrogeochemical parameters that may be used as proxies (salinity,
phenomenon has historically received more attention (Fritz et al., methane (CH4), and/or radon (222Rn) concentrations dissolved in
1987). Based on these statements, we hypothesized that natural groundwater of shallow aquifers). These are mainly available
hydrogen could play an important role in Quebec’s green economy through the Projets d’acquisition de connaissances sur les eaux
and we completed a very first assessment of the province’s souterraines (PACES, 2023) and the Réseau de suivi des eaux
exploration opportunities. souterraines du Québec (RSESQ, 2023), but also in other
The objective of this work was to identify geological settings in publications such as Bordeleau et al. (2018; 2019), Moritz et al.
which natural hydrogen can potentially be found in Quebec. This (2015), Peel (2014), Pinti et al. (2014) and Raynauld et al. (2014). In
paper addresses the question “where to start looking?” in two steps. addition to these near-surface data, Drolet et al. (2013; 2014) present
First, an inventory of the most prospective environments is made, radon indoor emission potential maps that could also be used as an
based on publicly available data (lithological assemblages and indirect indicator (data not shown in the present paper).
geochemical databases) and the most representative hydrogen In particular, oil and gas data contain reports on the analysis of
production mechanisms. Second, rating of these areas is gases sampled during drilling or during drill stem tests (DST), which
proposed to prioritize possible future exploration efforts, trying enable us to assess the nature of the gases present at depth (down to

Frontiers in Geochemistry 02 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

about 4,000 m in the case of Quebec). Data must be examined with Groundwater can be classified by TDS as: freshwater
caution, as it can be associated with the following biases: 1) an (<1,000 mg/L), brackish (>1,000 mg/L and <10,000 mg/L), and
under-representation of hydrogen analyses which, unlike major saline water (>10,000 mg/L; Freeze and Cherry, 1979). The high
gases, is not systematically analyzed (Zgonnik, 2020), 2) a concentrations must be examined with caution, because beyond an
geographical distribution that does not meet exploration upward migration of deep saline fluids, they are associated with
objectives for natural hydrogen, and 3) the possibility that the possible biases: 1) presence of salt derived from the clays of the
hydrogen analyzed is an artifact caused by microbial activity or Champlain Sea (Cloutier, 2004); 2) intrusion of seawater into
corrosion of steel casings (Guelard et al., 2017). This dataset may aquifers along the coast and 3) use of de-icing salt on roads.
therefore contain “false negatives” and mask the potential for Therefore, the presence of wells containing water with high
hydrogen on a more regional scale, or conversely may cause a salinity, located alongside a fault zone, can be a good indicator of
magnifying glass effect on “false positives” that are in fact of its permeability. However, those located along the coast or a major
anthropogenic origin. road could potentially create a false indicator.
In another perspective, the use of indirect hydrogeochemical Finally, the indicators are also compared with the different
indicators available in the near-surface dataset is centered in hydrofacies, defined by the dominant cation and anion in water
targeting regions where deep fluids (often saline), associated with samples. While characterizing hydrofacies, if no cation or anion
dissolved gases (such as CH4, CO2 and potentially hydrogen), constitutes at least 40% of the total, it is categorized as “mixed” (e.g.,
naturally ascend towards the surface through permeable fault Mixed-HCO3 denotes no dominant cation but bicarbonate, HCO3-,
zones (e.g., Bordeleau et al., 2019). It is postulated that the St. as the dominant anion). If Ca and Mg individually fall below 40%
Lawrence Lowlands, in southern Quebec, could have the capacity to but their sum exceeds 60%, and Na+K is below 40%, the dominant
trap potential hydrogen produced at depth, the same way that it has cation is associated with water alkalinity, labeled as “alk-(dominant
preserved hydrocarbons (e.g., Moritz et al., 2015; Bordeleau et al., anion)" due to carbonate dissolution (Ca and Mg being primary
2019), since this area exhibits specific faults demonstrating minimal cations). When two cations or anions each surpass 40% (e.g., Ca =
matrix permeability and increased fracture porosity (Ladevèze et al., 44% and Na = 42%), both dominant ions are explicitly named [e.g.,
2019). Beyond looking for high salinity and CH4, the surveillance of Ca-Na-(dominant anion)].
radon concentrations (together with CO2 and helium) stands as a
highly effective method for probing the fluid dynamic processes
ongoing within the Earth’s crust and detecting fault activity 2.3 Geophysical and imaging inventory
(Baubron et al., 2002; Ignatenko et al., 2016; Lefeuvre et al.,
2022). At high concentrations, it also indicates subsurface The very high reactivity of hydrogen makes it unlikely that
lithologies enriched in uranium (238U) and might suggest active geophysical methods can detect emanations directly from the
water radiolysis (Lefeuvre et al., 2021). surface. On the other hand, geophysical and satellite/aerial
Thus, the utilisation of these pathfinders is suitable in a context imagery data can help determine or delineate the presence of
with extensive, publicly available geochemical data, but where hydrogen source rocks. As such, a preliminary inventory of
existing analyses of hydrogen are remarkably scarce, as it has not relevant geophysical data and images has been carried out in
been the focus of exploratory researches up to now. An inventory of order to provide a complete picture relying on all datasets
the available hydrogeochemical data has been carried out from the available in Quebec. Geophysical data inventory mainly relied on
sources mentioned here-in, and correlated with mapped geological public databases available in SIGEOM (2023) and SIGPEG (2023)
faults available in the SIGEOM (2023) database. The shallow for the years 1970–2023, while images were obtained from the open
hydrogeochemical dataset contain information on well depth and database Québec (2023). Only the geographical distribution and
geology, along with major ion concentrations (such as calcium, Ca2+; availability of these datasets have been inventoried, and the data
sodium, Na+; potassium, K+; magnesium, Mg2+; chloride, Cl-; themselves have not been examined in detail. For this reason, that
bicarbonate, HCO3-; nitrate, NO3-; sulfate, SO42-) and inventory is not taken into account in the rating of the different
physicochemical parameters (including temperature, dissolved regions, but is presented as an indication of the data density.
oxygen, pH, electrical conductivity and redox potential), for
almost all samples. The water salinity is characterized by
dissolved salts, consisting of dissociated cations and anions, and 2.4 Rating of the areas of interest
it is usually expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of total
dissolved solids (TDS). The calculation is expressed by the The inventory revealed several regions that were shown to have
following equation Eq. 1), considering the major ions here-in potential because 1) they contain rock types or geological
mentioned, excluding NO3-, and including the carbonate (CO3-) environments conducive to the formation of natural hydrogen, or
and bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions calculated from the measured total 2) they contain direct indicators of the presence of hydrogen or 3)
alkalinity, pH and temperature; and silicon dioxide (SiO2) they contain indirect indicators that could support the possible
calculated from the measured silicon (Si): presence of natural hydrogen. However, not all these regions are
equal in their potential, and their relative ranking is desirable in
mg − order to prioritize subsequent exploration efforts. The rating system
TDS

Ca2+ + Mg2+ + Na+ + K+ + Cl− + SO2− 4 + HCO3
L put forward takes into account three fundamental geological criteria,
HCO−3 62, 02478 to which a fourth criterion is added to reflect the feasibility of
3 + SiO2 ) − 
+ CO2− ×  (1)
61, 01684 2 integrating the resource into the regional economic fabric (Table 1).

Frontiers in Geochemistry 03 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

TABLE 1 Classification used to rate the attributes of the various sectors of converted into percentages (33%–100%) for clarity. The possibility of
interest for natural hydrogen in Quebec.
obtaining a null value is not introduced in this rating system, as the
Criterion Value Weight exercise concerns areas of interest that have already been pre-selected for
their potential in hydrogen source rocks. Conversely, a maximum score
Geological evidence for the potential source rock
does not mean that there is a 100% chance of hydrogen being produced,
Significant evidence 3 as the score is relative to the other sectors. A hydrogen reservoir
Reasonable evidence 2 3 discovered in a given area would not be evaluated on this scale and
Anecdotical evidence 1 would be ranked out of the category.
Existing analogues in the world for the source rock identified The rating of the areas of interest is completed by a fourth
criterion: the proximity of the area to end-users. This criterion is
Very well documented and/or large volumes 3
independent of the area’s geological attributes and is introduced
Moderately documented and/or moderate volumes 2 2
Little documented or marginal volumes 1
here to provide information on the resource’s development
potential in the event of a discovery. A separate grading
Best possible reservoir type in the area of interest system (A to C) is applied to this criterion to clearly
Conventional, gas type, well understood 3 distinguish it from the geological criteria. This separate
Conventional, gas type, poorly understood 2 1 grading ensures that an area with favourable geological criteria
In situ source rock 1 is not unduly disadvantaged, given that a discovery in a remote
sector may in turn attract new end-users and lead to the
Proximity with end-users
development of new infrastructures, while the development of
Abundant end-users, in the same area A a discovery in an urbanized area may be conversely hampered by
Few end-users, in the same area B −
social acceptability issues and conflict uses.
Remote area C

3 Results
This analysis is qualitative, as it is not yet possible to objectively
quantify the geological criteria considered, in the absence of 3.1 Regional geology and representative
indicators such as gas fluxes in the ground, volumes of gas in source rocks
place in a reservoir, or volumes of reactive rocks.
The first criterion, the value of geological indicators and attributes At the surface, more than 90% of the province of Quebec consists of
of potential source rocks, reflects the quality of the indicators itself Precambrian rocks of the Canadian Shield (Figure 1), which is
documented in a given area, which suggest that hydrogen can be dominated by three main geological provinces: Superior (4.3–2.5 Ga),
produced, or has been produced, by the source rock. This criterion Churchill (2.9–1.1 Ga) and Grenville (2.7–0.6 Ga). The area south of the
receives a mark of 1–3 depending on the amount and quality of local St. Lawrence River is occupied mainly by Paleozoic sedimentary basins
evidence that is available to support the potential source rock. (570–245 Ma) developed unconformably on the craton.
The criterion on the existence of known analogues elsewhere in the The Superior Province forms the heart of the Canadian Shield and
world for the source rock is introduced to nuance the score attributed to the North American continent (Card, 1990; Card and Poulsen, 1998).
local geological evidence. The aim is to avoid undervaluing an area Representing the largest terrestrial Archean craton, it covers an area of
(“false negative” effect) if it has little geological data at the moment. This over 740,000 km2 in Quebec. World-renowned for its numerous gold,
criterion receives a mark of 1–3 depending on the current knowledge on copper, zinc, nickel and silver deposits, it has more recently been the site
the potential of known analogues. of major diamond discoveries in kimberlites. Four types of sub-
The last geological criterion considers the nature of the best provinces are recognized, with metasedimentary, metamorphic,
possible hydrogen reservoir in the area of interest. If future work volcano-plutonic and plutonic facies. The best-known sub-province
confirms the presence of natural hydrogen in one of the areas of is the Abitibi, the world’s most extensive Archean volcanosedimentary
interest, the setting in which hydrogen can potentially accumulate belt (Chartrand, 1994; Hocq, 1994; Hocq and Verpaelst, 1994).
could influence the decision to pursue further exploration. With this The Churchill Province covers an area of some 200,000 km2 in
in mind, this criterion reflects the geological context and the Quebec and surrounds the Superior craton (James et al., 1996;
technological challenges associated with finding and exploiting a Wardle et al., 2002; Lafrance et al., 2018). This province includes
possible accumulation of natural hydrogen. This criterion receives a fold and thrust belts composed of weakly metamorphosed
mark of 1–3 depending on the current level of understanding on supracrustal rocks and a hinterland of strongly remobilized
possible reservoir types in the area of interest. Paleoproterozoic Archean crust and magmatic arcs.
Each of these three fundamental geological criteria receives a The Grenville Province of Quebec covers a vast territory of
weighting factor that modifies its score (Table 1). Geologic evidence nearly 495,000 km2. The province is renowned for its iron and
documented in the area of interest has a preponderant weight (3) over ilmenite mines, as well as for its industrial mineral potential. It
inferences based on analogues (2). The lowest weight (1) is given to the represents the imprint of the last orogenic event to have shaped the
reservoir criterion, reflecting the fact that this study focusses on potential Canadian Shield (Rivers and Corrigan, 2000; Rivers et al., 2012), and
source rocks, not economic viability. For a given area of interest, the is the deep root of an ancient mountain range comparable to today’s
value of each criterion is thus multiplied by its corresponding weighting Himalayas (Windley, 1986). This province also forms the basement
factor, which gives a possible range between 6 and 18. This range is then of the sedimentary basins of southern Quebec.

Frontiers in Geochemistry 04 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

FIGURE 1
Major geological provinces in Quebec. Map background: SIGEOM (2023).

The Paleozoic sedimentary basins of southern Quebec considered for this study. There is an abundant literature on
cover an area of over 100,000 km 2 on land and extend the mechanisms capable of producing natural hydrogen and the
eastwards into the Gulf of St. Lawrence (St. Julien and reader is invited to refer to the very detailed inventory presented
Hubert, 1975; Williams, 1979). They are subdivided into in Zgonnik (2020) and completed by Milkov (2022). Only the
three main groups: 1) a slightly deformed autochthonous relevant references that are not already listed in these two papers
platform (St. Lawrence Platform) punctuated in its western are mentioned here. The mechanisms considered in this study
part by Mesozoic intrusions, 2) an Appalachian domain consist of the following:
corresponding to several orogenic pulsations and including
an ophiolitic belt accreted during the Taconian orogeny and - Mantle and core outgassing (Melton and Giardini, 1981;
3) a post-orogenic successor basin mainly developed offshore in Schrauder and Navon, 1994; Matveev et al., 1997; Kagi
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Oil and gas exploration in these basins et al., 2000; Ko et al., 2022; Weiss et al., 2022).
has led to the discovery of conventional and unconventional - The radiolysis of water in the presence of weakly radioactive
reservoirs on land (Lavoie et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2014; Chen rocks (LaVerne and Tandon, 2003; Lefticariu et al., 2010;
et al., 2016). Essehli et al., 2011; Kumagai et al., 2013; Costagliola
Considering the geological contexts and lithological et al., 2017).
assemblages most representative of Quebec, four main - Hydrothermal alteration (Rüpke and Hasenclever, 2017;
mechanisms likely to produce natural hydrogen were Geymond et al., 2022).

Frontiers in Geochemistry 05 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

FIGURE 2
Potential hydrogen source rocks of the Canadian Shield in Quebec. Map background: SIGEOM (2023).

- Decomposition of organic matter (Mahlstedt et al., 2022; but the potential for natural hydrogen in the Shield is not limited to
Boreham et al., 2023). these areas.

Other mechanisms are likely to produce hydrogen in some of 3.2.1 Gold mines in the Superior (play type A)
Quebec’s geological environments, but these mechanisms are not well Several gold mines have been operated or are still active in the
documented or are likely to produce comparatively smaller volumes of Superior Province, in particular a vast mining camp in the Abitibi
hydrogen, such as microbial activity or rock friction in fault zones. sub-province along the Cadillac Fault (play A1, Figure 2), as well as
the Éléonore (A2) and Casa Berardi (A3) mines and a former mining
camp in the Chibougamau region (A4). Gold mineralization occurs
3.2 Hydrogen source rocks in the in volcano-sedimentary environments rich in mafic and, more
Canadian Shield rarely, ultramafic rocks, and is also associated with banded iron
formations in the case of the Éléonore mine. The Abitibi sub-
Seventeen areas of interest have been identified in the Quebec’s province is of particular interest here because of the associated
part of the Canadian Shield, which were grouped into four categories direct and possibly indirect indicators of hydrogen.
according to their affinities. These areas have been selected and The Abitibi sub-province corresponds to a vast Neoarchean
delineated in order to provide a representative overview of the greenstone belt that straddles the Ontario-Quebec border. It consists
nature and extent of the rocks that may be sources of hydrogen, of successions of folded volcanic and sedimentary rocks and

Frontiers in Geochemistry 06 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

intermediate domes of intrusive rocks. The komatiite successions Syenitic Suite (C5) (van Breemen and Currie, 2004; Saucier et al.,
within some of the volcanic assemblages host magmatic sulfide 2013; Wavrant et al., 2017; Matte et al., 2022).
deposits. In addition to the presence of ultramafic and mafic rocks in Some peralkaline granites are known to contain hydrogen in
these areas, soluble combustible gases (hydrocarbons and hydrogen) fluid inclusions. This is particularly true of the Lac Brisson Pluton
have been documented in the groundwater of some gold mines in (“Strange Lake” in Labrador), where hydrogen is documented in
Ontario and Quebec (Fritz et al., 1987). Vegetation anomalies, fluid inclusions at concentrations ranging from 1.1% to 35%
generally referred to as “forest rings”, have also been documented (Salvi and Williams-Jones, 1997). Truche et al. (2021) have
locally in the black spruce forests of the Abitibi region, mainly in studied these occurrences at Lac Brisson and identify
Ontario but also in western Quebec. In aerial view, these forest rings hydrothermal alteration of arfvedsonite, a ferrous-iron-rich
may evoke the diffusive circles (or “fairy circles”) corresponding to amphibole, as the mechanism responsible for the hydrogen
hydrogen emanations in many localities around the world, as detected. In addition to arfvedsonite alteration, other iron-rich
already proposed by Malvoisin and Brunet (2023). More detailed rocks may also be present locally, as in the case of Juillet Syenite.
analysis, however, reveals that forest rings have different, even Although in the case of Lac Brisson the hydrogen occurrences
opposite, geometric characteristics to diffusive circles, including documented to date are limited to fluid inclusions, free hydrogen
less dense vegetation depression of the rock surface limited to the gas is documented in other peralkaline granites, notably in the
outer ring rather than centred on the heart of the structure (Veillette case of the Ilimaussaq massif in Greenland and in the Khibiny
and Giroux, 1999; Giroux et al., 2001; Hamilton et al., 2004; massif in Russia, where hydrogen is also present in natural
Hamilton, 2005; Hamilton and Hattori, 2008; Brauneder, 2012; fracture networks (up to 16.7% H2, Zgonnik, 2020).
Brauneder et al., 2016). Data on hydrogen in Abitibi gold mines
and on gases associated with forest rings are presented in greater 3.2.4 Proterozoic basins (play type D)
detail in Section 3.4.1. Four sedimentary basins within the Canadian Shield are
examined here. Three are located in the Superior Province: the
3.2.2 Kimberlites (play type B) Richmond Gulf Graben (play D1, Figure 2), the Hudson Basin (D2)
Four main kimberlite fields have been documented in Quebec. and the contiguous Mistassini-Otish basins (D3). A fourth and
The Torngat field (play B1, Figure 2) is located on the boundary of larger basin is the Labrador Trough (D4) in the Churchill Province.
the Churchill and Nain provinces, while the other three are in the The Richmond Gulf Graben (Chandler, 1988; Labbé and
Superior Province: the Otish Mountains kimberlite dykes (B2), Lacoste, 2004) and the Quebec part of the Hudson Basin
incidentally located about 500 m from a uranium deposit, the (Remick et al., 1963; Sanford and Norris, 1975; Hamblin, 2008;
Desmaraisville kimberlite field (B3) in the north-central Abitibi Cherns and Wheeley, 2009) are considered here mainly because of
sub-province and the Témiscamingue kimberlite field (B4), which is the cover they can provide for possible hydrogen accumulations.
located mainly in Ontario but also extends into Quebec and is They rest in unconformity or faulted contact on an Archean
centred on the Témiscamingue rift zone. basement mainly composed of granitoids possibly rich in
Kimberlites are volatile-rich ultramafic rocks derived from the radiogenic elements. The sedimentary sequence itself locally
mantle. There is abundant evidence in the worldwide literature on includes volcanics and mafic dykes, and the normal or shear
the presence of molecular hydrogen and water as fluid inclusions in faults that affect these basins may act as conduits for deep fluid
diamonds associated with kimberlites. In addition, they can also be circulation.
associated with crustal fractures that can act as conduits for deep The Mistassini Basin (Chown, 1984; Héroux et al., 2004)
fluid migration. These rocks are also likely to be serpentinized. includes iron formations and uranium showings. Up to 2.5 km
While no data are available to document the presence of natural thick, the basin is composed of sandstones and carbonates that
hydrogen associated with kimberlites in Quebec unlike in the case of may have developed reservoir properties, as well as mudstones that
the Abitibi gold mines (see above), low-temperature may serve as a seal. A meteorite impact crater (Evangelastos et al.,
serpentinization has been demonstrated in the Ontario part of 2009) may also have contributed to the development of fracture
the Témiscamingue kimberlite field by Sader et al. (2007). networks favouring fluid migration. Hydrogen has been
documented in fluid inclusions in the Lac Mistassini region, at
3.2.3 Alkaline intrusions (play type C) concentrations ranging from 6% to 92%, associated with nitrogen
Five alkaline intrusions are examined here, which are emplaced and more rarely methane (Héroux et al., 2004). The adjacent Otish
in the Churchill and Grenville provinces: the Lac Brisson Pluton Basin (Fryer, 1972; Chown, 1984; Faure, 2010) comprises olivine-
(play C1, Figure 2) at the Quebec-Labrador border (Bélanger, 1984; bearing mafic dykes and uranium showings. The kimberlite of the
Zajac et al., 1984; Currie, 1985; Miller, 1985; Pillet, 1985; Nassif, Otish Mountains, located on the northern flank of the basin, may
1993; Charette et al., 2019), which includes zones of hematite breccia be an indicator of the presence of crustal fractures allowing the
at the intrusion margin, the Misery Syenite (C2) (David et al., 2012; circulation of deep fluids. Finally, the Labrador Trough (Frarey and
Petrella, 2012; Petrella et al., 2014; Lafrance et al., 2018), the Juillet Duffell, 1964; Dimroth, 1978; Rohon et al., 1993; Clark, 1994;
Syenite (C3) (Hammouche et al., 2012; Charette et al., 2019), which Wardle et al., 2002; Clark and Wares, 2004) comprises banded iron
includes gabbroic units, enclaves of banded iron formations from formations, MORB-type mafic rocks and ultramafic rocks (sills,
the host rock, and lamprophyres that may represent a mafic rock carbonatite) locally overlain by mudstones and turbidites, which
associated with the syenite (Taner, 1992), the Crevier Alkaline may provide a seal for possible hydrogen accumulations.
Intrusion (C4) (Bergeron, 1980; Groulier et al., 2014; El Bourki Sandstones and dolostones, possibly with reservoir quality, are
and Moukhsil, 2021; Moukhsil and El Bourki, 2021) and the Kipawa also present.

Frontiers in Geochemistry 07 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

FIGURE 3
Potential hydrogen source rocks of the southern Quebec basins. Map background: SIGEOM (2023).

3.3 Hydrogen source rocks in 457 Ma (De Souza et al., 2011). In Quebec, these ophiolite complexes
southern Quebec outcrop discontinuously, mainly in the Eastern Townships (play E1,
Figure 3) and in the Monts Chics-Chocs (E2) in Gaspe Peninsula,
Ten areas of interest have been identified in the sedimentary and these two regions are retained here because of their
basins of southern Quebec, which were grouped into five categories geographical extent.
according to their affinities. As for the Canadian Shield, these areas In southwestern Quebec and the Gaspe Peninsula, the ophiolites
have been selected and delineated in order to provide a observed at outcrops are extensively serpentinized in many areas, so
representative overview of the nature and extent of the rocks that that the hydrogen produced by serpentinization had time to migrate
may be sources of hydrogen, but the potential for natural hydrogen out of the ophiolites. However, several areas also feature weakly
in southern Quebec is not necessarily limited to these areas. serpentinized ophiolites, where a hydrogen production process
Especially, two large regions do not include areas of interest at could still be active. This is particularly true of the Mont Olivine
this time: Anticosti Island and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The region east of Mont Albert in Gaspe (Beaudin, 1980) and of the Lac
available data do not currently allow the identification of source Canard area south of Thetford Mines (Pagé et al., 2008), and the
rocks for hydrogen at reasonable depths in these regions. However, controls on serpentinization should be further studied as a predictive
the lack of evidence should not definitively close the door to research tool to better constrain the geographical extent of the prospective
in these regions. In the case of Anticosti, for example, forest rings areas. Furthermore, the composition of Thetford Mines olivines
documented in the central part of the island (Dubois, 1993) bear (Fo90 to Fo93; Pagé et al., 2008) is comparable to that of ophiolite
features comparable to those observed in Abitibi (see Section 3.2.1) complexes where natural hydrogen emanations have been
and deserve further investigation. interpreted as the result of low-temperature serpentinization
processes that are still active. This is notably the case for the
3.3.1 Ophiolite complexes (play type E) correlative Bay of Islands complex in Newfoundland (Fo89 to
The ophiolite complexes present in southern Quebec and Fo92; Batanova et al., 1998), where Szponar et al. (2013) sampled
Newfoundland belong to the Dunnage Zone, an Ordovician strongly alkaline and highly reducing water sources containing up to
terrane accreted onto the Humber Zone. These ophiolite 1.18 mg/L of dissolved hydrogen, and the Zambales ophiolite in the
fragments are correlated with each other, although the accretion Philippines (Fo88 to Fo93; Payot et al., 2013), where natural hydrogen
is diachronic. The final obduction onto Humber Zone rocks took emanations of the order of 42% H2 have been documented
place at the beginning of the Taconian orogeny between 475 and (Abrajano et al., 1988). Close to Quebec ophiolite complexes,

Frontiers in Geochemistry 08 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

potential reservoirs and traps are to be sought in nearby sedimentary in the periphery of intrusions (Fo44; Philpotts, 1976), presumably by
rocks, such as the Saint-Daniel Melange and the Ruisseau Isabelle assimilation of crustal material during magma ascent. Evidence of
Melange, which contain both reservoir and cap rocks. serpentinization is documented at outcrops in one case. In addition
No hydrogen analyses for Quebec ophiolite complexes were to this dominant process, some intrusions and associated dykes and
identified in the literature consulted. However, two studies sills are also radioactive (Globensky, 1985) and, when they
provide indirect clues to this potential. Normand and encounter hydrocarbon source rocks (here, the Utica Shale),
Williams-Jones (2010) document the presence of gaseous contact metamorphism at the time of the emplacement can also
hydrocarbons in rodingite fluid inclusions at the Jeffrey mine induce cracking of hydrocarbon chains and hydrogen production
in southwestern Quebec. These authors conclude to an abiotic from organic matter.
origin for the hydrocarbons, related to the serpentinization In addition, two types of seals are present in the region: the mafic
process in an environment with high hydrogen fugacity, and sills themselves, by analogy with the Bourakebougou hydrogen
they note that small quantities of hydrogen could also be present reservoir in Mali (Prinzhofer et al., 2018), and the sedimentary
in the fluid inclusions, but that the minor gas species have not cover formed by the Utica Shale and Lorraine Group shales, which
been determined. In another study, Morency (1989) proposes an can exceed 2,000 m in thickness in the region. Potential reservoirs
industrial process for deserpentinization through heating and (sandstones and carbonates) are stratigraphically located between
shows laboratory results in which samples from ophiolites in this shale cover and the potential hydrogen source formed by the
southeastern Quebec and the Gaspe Peninsula could produce up laccolites emplaced between the platform and the
to 22% hydrogen by this process. Grenvillian basement.

3.3.2 Monteregian intrusions (play type F) 3.3.3 Crustal fractures (play type G)
The Monteregian Hills (Clark, 1955; Clark, 1977; Philpotts, Several lineaments corresponding to crustal fracture
1976; Valiquette and Pouliot, 1977; Globensky, 1985; Gold et al., corridors have been identified in southern Quebec on the basis
1986; Eby, 1987), of Cretaceous age (Eby, 1984), form a set of of geophysical data, mainly gravimetric (Thériault et al., 2004;
landforms roughly aligned along a WNW-ESE axis in southwestern 2005; Pinet et al., 2008; Lyal Harris, personal communication,
Quebec, associated with numerous dykes and sills (Figure 3). Based 2022). The five crustal fracture corridors considered here (plays
on gravity data, Feininger and Goodacre (1995) interpret the G1 to G5, Figure 3) were selected because, in addition to
presence of thick magmatic laccolites emplaced at the interface geophysical data, their presence is also supported by surface
between the Grenvillian basement and the sedimentary cover, evidence of fluid flow in the form of mineralization,
beneath the Monteregian Hills, and they estimate the total hydrothermal dolomitization and/or lamprophyre dykes.
volume of magma emplaced at around 200 km3, far greater than Exploration wells in the G2 corridor have also revealed the
the volume corresponding to the landforms alone. The composition presence of partially serpentinized ultramafic rock dykes.
of the Monteregian Hills can be simplified into three groups, more or Sandstones and carbonates, which may locally have reservoir
less successive in time, comprised of ultramafic rocks (mainly properties, are present within these structural corridors (Morin
peridotites and pyroxenites), mafic rocks (mainly gabbros, and Laliberté, 2002a; 2002b) and are overlain by shale or siltstone
essexites and gabbroic anorthosites) and finally intermediate seals up to several hundred metres thick. G2 to G4 are crustal
rocks (mainly syenites, foidic syenites, nordmarkites, pulaskites fractures with surface expressions (Thériault et al., 2004;
and diorites). Some breccias are diamondiferous (Bédard, 1994; Thériault et al., 2005). G1 and G5 are the projection to surface
Bédard and LeCheminant, 1996). Contemporaneous dykes and sills of upper mantle discontinuities identified by Lyal Harris
are mainly alkaline lamprophyres, grouped into three main types: (personal communication, 2022) and G5 can be further
camptonites, monchiquites and alnöites. The alignment of these extended to the southwest beyond its trace plotted on Figure 3
intrusions has long led to believe that they corresponded to a hot (Pinet et al., 2008).
spot, but this theory is now debated and synthesis work (Bédard, Crustal fracture corridors are major faults that are deeply
1985; McHone et al., 1987; Matton and Jébrak, 2009) points instead rooted in the basement and may even cut through the crust into
to a mantle plume of shallower origin, whose upward movement was the mantle. While these deformation corridors are not hydrogen
favoured by deep crustal fractures and decompression melting source rocks, they can act as conduits for the migration of deep-
(Courtillot et al., 2003). In fact, the Monteregian intrusions were seated hydrogen-bearing fluids of crustal or even mantle origin.
emplaced through a Grenvillian basement already structured by a set Alternatively, these same corridors may have allowed the
of normal faults corresponding to the opening of the Iapetus Ocean intrusion of ultramafic rocks that can be serpentinized and
and the Ottawa-Bonnechère Graben (Bédard, 1985; Faure et al., thus produce hydrogen in situ.
1996; Allen et al., 2010).
Three processes favourable to the production of natural 3.3.4 Hydrocarbon source rocks (play type H)
hydrogen can be associated with the presence of these intrusions. Several hydrocarbon source rocks have been identified in the
Serpentinization of ultramafic and mafic rocks is considered here to basins of southern Quebec. Most of them are either too immature
be the dominant process. According to the incomplete data (in areas that have been well studied) or very poorly documented
available, olivines in Monteregian intrusions are predominantly (in areas where they could be sufficiently buried to reach a high
magnesian (Fo66 to Fo81; Philpotts, 1976; Valiquette and Pouliot, level of thermal maturity). However, the Utica Shale in the
1977), but their iron content is higher than that of olivines in Quebec St. Lawrence Lowlands (Thériault, 2012) shows locally suitable
ophiolites (Fo90 to Fo93; see above). This iron content increases even characteristics.

Frontiers in Geochemistry 09 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

TABLE 2 Composition of degassing products from four Abitibi mines, expressed in percents. “-”Not analyzed; “n.d.”: Not detected.

Mine (region) Sample # H2 O2 N2 CO2 CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4+ He Ar Reference

LR6480-L2900-LR 1.83 0.63 15.2 - 66.1 - - - 5.09 1.33 Li et al. (2021)
La Ronde
(Cadillac)
LR6480-L2900-LR 3.63 0.15 8.92 - 72.1 - - - 7.2 0.79 Li et al. (2021)

Sigma 10680.1985 0.51 0.07 55.1 0.27 37.8 0.66 - - - 5.61 Fritz et al. (1987)
Sigma
(Val-d’Or)
Sigma 10680 0.51 - 55 0.27 37.9 0.66 - - - 5.62 Sherwood Lollar et al. (1993b)

2004(90. R36. ‘84) - 0.24 11.1 0.28 85.1 2.08 0.24 <0.03 1.6 0.23 Fritz et al. (1987)

2004(90. R36. ‘85) - 0.48 11.3 <0.02 82.1 1.81 0.14 <0.07 1.88 0.01 Fritz et al. (1987)

2000(90. R36.1986) - n.d 8.26 0.02 83.2 2.27 0.13 0.03 1.22 0.13 Sherwood et al. (1988)
Lac Matagami
(Matagami)
2000-R36 - - 8.53 0.02 87.6 2.34 0.13 0.03 1.26 0.13 Sherwood Lollar et al. (1993b)

2002(90. R46) - 0.72 21.4 0.22 75.9 1.55 0.12 <0.03 1.1 1.51 Fritz et al. (1987)

2002-R46 - - 18.9 0.22 76.6 1.56 0.12 <0.03 1.11 1.49 Sherwood Lollar et al. (1993b)

N18-4W-85c-1985 - <0.07 6.73 0.26 89.5 2.71 0.18 <0.03 1.03 0.52 Fritz et al. (1987)

N18-4W - - 6.67 0.26 88.7 2.69 0.18 <0.03 1.02 0.52 Sherwood Lollar et al. (1993b)

UN-243 (28)-1985 - <0.07 16.7 0.1 78.8 1.91 0.09 <0.03 1.11 1.5 Fritz et al. (1987)

UN-243(28) - - 16.7 0.1 78.6 1.91 0.09 <0.03 1.11 1.5 Sherwood Lollar et al. (1993b)
Norita
(Matagami)
N256 - 1985 - 1.59 28.6 0.46 62.3 2.1 0.26 <0.03 - 3.17 Fritz et al. (1987)

N256 - - 24.9 0.5 68.5 2.31 0.29 <0.03 <0.01 3.41 Sherwood Lollar et al. (1993b)

UN398-1986 - 0.17 4.49 0.04 82.5 4.08 0.41 0.18 0.83 0.07 Sherwood et al. (1988)

UN-398 - - 4.13 0.04 89.9 4.36 0.44 0.19 0.88 0.06 Sherwood Lollar et al. (1993b)

The Utica Shale outcrops at the surface along the St. Lawrence 1993). It comprises sandstones and carbonates which have the
River and extends at depth into the heart of the basin beneath the attributes of reservoir rocks and may locally form an imperfect
Lorraine Group flysch. Based on a few deep boreholes drilled in the seal. The area also contains several structural discontinuities in the
region and the interpretation of available seismic data (Laliberté and basement that can be identified by magnetic and gravity data. Some
Trépanier, 1982; SOQUIP, 1984; Castonguay et al., 2006; Séjourné of these discontinuities correspond to faults at the surface, which are
et al., 2013), it appears that the Utica Shale extends southeastward locally associated with breccias and Mississippi Valley-type zinc
beneath the Appalachians (Figure 3) to a maximum depth of at least mineralization (Clark, 1966; Cornish, 1977; Globensky, 1986;
6,600 m. Beyond this eastern limit, the data no longer allow us to Fekete, 1990; Brack, 1995; Brack, 1996).
follow this unit. The thermal maturity map of the Utica Shale In the absence of a good quality seal, this area is unlikely to
(Bertrand and Lavoie, 2006) indicates that the hydrocarbon- be favourable for the accumulation of large volumes of hydrogen
bearing source rock has reached the anchizone and epizone in the sediments. Interest lies in the thickness of the sedimentary
stages in this area, which are favourable to the release of cover over potential source rocks and in the presence of
hydrogen. In its southern part, the shale is also crosscut locally structural discontinuities rooted in the basement: the possible
by intrusives (Monteregian intrusions, see above) which, through presence of hydrogen could be detected more easily at the
contact metamorphism, may have accelerated the thermal surface there than in other areas of interest with a thick
maturation of organic matter when magma was emplaced impermeable shale cover. This area could thus be used to test
(Héroux and Bertrand, 1991). Potential hydrogen reservoir rocks various investigation methods if the presence of anorthosites in
in the area of interest are the carbonates and sandstones of the the basement can be confirmed.
parautochthonous domain, imbricated above the autochthonous
Utica Shale.
3.4 Geochemical data
3.3.5 Sedimentary cover of the Adirondacks (play
type I) In addition to the isolated works documenting the presence of
Based on regional correlations and geophysical data, the hydrogen or hydrocarbons of abiotic origin in fluid inclusions,
Grenvillian basement beneath the sedimentary cover south of which have been mentioned above (see above: Mistassini Basin,
Montreal (Figure 3) may include rocks rich in ferromagnesian Lac Brisson Pluton and Jeffrey Mine Ophiolite), more systematic
minerals, notably anorthosite (Liu et al., 2022). At this location, studies and geochemical databases are available to help complete the
the sedimentary basin is only 500 to 1,000 m thick (Globensky, inventory of indicators of the possible presence of hydrogen, or of

Frontiers in Geochemistry 10 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

TABLE 3 Isotopic composition of hydrocarbons and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in water from four Abitibi mines, expressed in permil.

Mine Sample # δ13CCH4 δ2HCH4 δ13CC2H6 δ2HC2H6 δ13CC3H8 δ13CDIC δ2HH2O δ15NN2 Source
(Region)
LR6480- - - - - - - - 7.4 Li et al. (2021)
L2900-LR
La Ronde
(Cadillac)
LR6480- - - - - - - - 6.5 Li et al. (2021)
L2900-LR

Sigma −46.3 −301 −37.5 - - −15.5 −97 - Fritz et al. (1987)

10680.1985

Sigma Sigma 10680 - - - - - - - 9.1 Sherwood Lollar

(Val-d’Or) et al. (1993b)

Sigma −46.3 −332 −42.1 - - −16.3 −153 - Fritz et al. (1987)

12042.1984

2004(90. - - - - - −16.3 −111 - Fritz et al. (1987)

R28. ‘85)

R28 - - - - - - - 8.6 Sherwood Lollar

et al. (1993b)

2004(90. −50.9 −437 - - - −18 −63 - Fritz et al. (1987)

Lac Matagami R36. ‘84)
(Matagami)
2004(90. −53.7 - −43.5 - - −20.2 −55 - Fritz et al. (1987)
R36. ‘85)

2000-R36 −52 −356 −47.2 - - - - - Sherwood Lollar

et al. (1993b)

2002(90. R46) −54.5 −396 - - - - - - Fritz et al. (1987)

N18-4W-85c- −47.7 −423 - - - - −69 - Fritz et al. (1987)

1985

UN-243 (28)- −55.5 −398 - - - - - - Fritz et al. (1987)

1985

N256 - 1985 −48.6 −470 - - - - - - Fritz et al. (1987)

Norita
(Matagami) UN-257(28)- - - - - - - −96 - Fritz et al. (1987)
1985

UN398-1986 −50.2 −404 −44.9 −439 −35.8 - −90 - Sherwood et al.

(1988)

UN-398 - - - - - - - 11.8 Sherwood Lollar

et al. (1993b)

rocks capable of producing hydrogen, in the Canadian Shield and classification of Milkov (2022). In at least four locations in
southern Quebec. Ontario, the gases analyzed (CH4, C2H6, C6H8, H2, N2) have a
clear abiotic origin (Sherwood Lollar et al., 1993a; Sherwood Lollar
3.4.1 Canadian Shield et al., 2006; Sherwood Lollar et al., 2008; Montgomery, 1994; Li et al.,
3.4.1.1 Dissolved gas in mine groundwater 2021) and, in at least one case, dihydrogen isotopes suggest that its
Combustible gases (hydrocarbons and hydrogen) have been genesis is linked to a serpentinization process (Sherwood Lollar
documented in solution in the groundwater of some gold mines et al., 1993a).
in the Abitibi greenstone belt (play type A1), mainly in Ontario In Quebec, hydrocarbons sampled in mine groundwater tend to
where hydrogen can represent between 0.06% and 57.8% of the represent a mixture of an abiotic source comparable to that found in
dissolved gases but also in Quebec with values between 0.51% and Ontario, and a biogenic component accounting for 30%–50% of the
3.63%, although studies are less detailed (Fritz et al., 1987; Sherwood total gas volume (Sherwood Lollar et al., 1993b). Hydrogen analyses
et al., 1988; Sherwood Lollar et al., 1993a; Sherwood Lollar et al., are available for only two mines in Quebec. Data available in the
1993b; Sherwood Lollar et al., 2006; Sherwood Lollar et al., 2008; literature for major and minor gases in these Quebec gold mines are
Warr et al., 2019; Li et al., 2021). Nitrogen content can be as high as compiled in Tables 2, 3.
83.3%, CO2 content is less than 1% with a few exceptions, and The aforementioned authors emphasize the similarities
helium content can be as high as 19.3% (Sherwood et al., 1988). The observed between the gases analyzed in the Canadian Shield and
major and minor gases measured are characteristic of a source those documented in the Fennoscandian Shield in Finland or the
originating from the crystalline basement according to the Kaapvall Craton in South Africa, and explain the locally low

Frontiers in Geochemistry 11 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

FIGURE 4
Box plots showing (A) total dissolved solids (TDS); (B) methane (CH4); and (C) radon (222Rn) concentrations; including the minimum (min), median
(median), mean (mean), first and third quartiles (q1, q3), maximum (max), and the threshold beyond which data are considered anomalous (upper fence =
q3 +1.5 x (q3-q1)). Not all TDS and CH4 outliers are depicted within this scale. (D) Concentrations of TDS based on different hydrofacies.

abundance of hydrogen by in situ microbial consumption processes in Ontario and analysis revealed mainly methane and CO2
(see also: Karolytė et al., 2022). Sherwood Lollar et al. (2007) propose (Hamilton et al., 2004). Hydrogen analyses were carried out for
a model of mixing between hydrogen-rich, micro-organism-poor two anomalies but were inconclusive (Majeed, 2020). However, the
saline waters and low-salinity meteoric waters with more diverse sampling methodology used in this case (see Hamilton et al., 2019)
microbial content. In this model, mixing occurs episodically through appears unsuitable for the preservation of hydrogen. Dissolved
the connection of otherwise hydrogeologically isolated natural methane sampled in the centre of forest rings is of biogenic
fractures, as a result of a tectonic event or mining activity that origin (Hamilton et al., 2004), as is the CO2 sampled in ring soils
reactivates these fractures: when micro-organism-rich meteoric (Majeed, 2020). Some of the forest rings studied are further
waters come into contact with hydrogen-rich saline waters, the characterized by specific autotrophic microorganism communities
hydrogen is rapidly consumed by methanogenic bacteria. This (von Gunten et al., 2018).
model is further supported by the observations of Telling et al.
(2017) in the case of the Thompson mine in Manitoba. 3.4.2 Southern Quebec basins
3.4.2.1 Near-surface data
3.4.1.2 Forest rings The (near-surface) hydrogeochemistry data compiled in this study
Work by the Ontario Geological Survey over the past 20 years comprise groundwater analyses from 1,861 shallow private or
has shown that the forest rings (see Section 3.2.2) documented in the monitoring wells distributed in southern Quebec. From this dataset,
Abitibi greenstone belt (play type A1) are the surface expression of it was possible to calculate the salinity from 1,728 samples, that suggest
methane- and sometimes H2S-rich reducing chimneys, comparable that southern Quebec’s groundwater is generally categorized as
to those developed in soils above some ore bodies (Hamilton et al., freshwater (<1,000 mg/L TDS), with median levels at 254 mg/L and
2004; Hamilton and Hattori, 2008; Brauneder, 2012; Brauneder an average of 525 mg/L (Figure 4A). Brackish or saline waters are
et al., 2016). Soil gas samples were taken from several forest rings relatively rare, comprising respectively 6% and 0.7% of the available data.

Frontiers in Geochemistry 12 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

FIGURE 5
Total Dissolved Solids concentrations (TDS, mg/L) in groundwater across southern Quebec, with emphasis on boxed sectors: (A) Rivière Jacques-
Cartier Fault near Saint-Édouard-de-Lotbinière, (B) Aston Fault and Logan Line west of Drummondville, and (C) Tracy Brook and Delson faults south of
Montreal. Concentrations exceeding 1,500 mg/L are highlighted in red. Map background source: SIGEOM (2023).

The TDS boxplot indicates that outliers are above the upper prevalence of outliers is noteworthy and illustrates a great
fence of 866 mg/L, which is not very high considering the total range heterogeneity of the distribution, that could be due to different
of measured values extending up to 24,400 mg/L. By visually conditions and the aquifers diversity. However, this study does not
inspecting the distribution, a first threshold of around 1,500 mg/L aim to provide a thorough characterization of the aquifers.
can be determined. When comparing with hydrofacies, it appears Therefore, the use of outliers (geochemical anomalies) as a proxy
that the highest salinities are predominantly found in Na-Cl, and in is regarded as a valuable tool to identify possible permeable faults.
a few cases, Na-SO4 groundwater types (Figure 4D). The Na-Cl Hydrogeochemical anomalies in the study area exhibiting
hydrofacies might suggest an upward flow of saline fluids along heightened salinity levels are localized along the coastal zone of
faults, yet it lacks distinctiveness as it could also align with the other the Lower Saint Lawrence region, coinciding also with Highway
primary sources of salinity mentioned earlier. To discern these 20 between Kamouraska and Rimouski. These readings are not
potential sources based on geochemical data, a more detailed specifically aligned with mapped faults. Hence, the escalated salinity
statistical analysis of comprehensive ion profiles becomes levels in these cases likely stem from the intrusion of seawater or the
imperative. However, by spatially visualizing TDS values, one can use of de-icing salts. Salinity values surpassing 1,500 mg/L also
explore the likelihood that elevated salinities (>1,500 mg/L) might manifest in the St. Lawrence Lowlands, near Montreal and along
stem from fault presence as opposed to alternative sources the corridor linking Montreal and Quebec City (Figure 5).
of salinity. Noteworthy, this area possibly correlates with the existence of
The other two geochemical indicators selected have been clays from the ancient Champlain Sea (Cloutier, 2004). The
analyzed with 399 wells in the dataset that have CH4 region also encompasses several major thoroughfares, such as
measurements and 215 wells that contain 222Rn measurements. Road 148 between Montreal and Ottawa, Highway 15 to the
The boxplot distribution for CH4 is depicted in Figure 4B, north and south of Montreal, and Highway 20 connecting
showing a median value of 0.03 mg/L and an average of 2.5 mg/L. Montreal and Quebec City.
The average significantly surpasses the third quartile (0.2 mg/L) However, upon closer examination of values near geological
and the upper fence (0.6 mg/L), primarily due to the considerable faults, it is apparent that pronounced salinity levels are related to the
presence of positive outliers that markedly impact the mean value. Aston and Rivière Jacques-Cartier faults, along with the Logan Line.
Moreover, 10% of the higher values fall between 7.3 and 45.9 mg/L. Remarkably, these heightened values adjacent to faults become
Regarding 222Rn, the median value is established at 8.2 Bq/L, and the particularly evident when amalgamating all other TDS data
average is 23.7 Bq/L (Figure 4C). Like for the other indicators, the under 1,500 mg/L (Figure 5). Three sectors delineate potential

Frontiers in Geochemistry 13 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

FIGURE 6
Methane concentrations (CH4, mg/L) in groundwater across southern Quebec, grouped according to percentile classes, with emphasis on boxed
sectors: (A) Rivière Jacques-Cartier Fault near Saint-Édouard-de-Lotbinière, (B) Aston Fault and Logan Line west of Drummondville, and (C) Tracy Brook
and Delson faults south of Montreal. Map background: SIGEOM (2023).

permeable fault zones: the region encompassing the Rivière Jacques- 3.4.2.2 Deep subsurface data
Cartier Fault near Saint-Edouard-de-Lotbinière (normal fault, Oil and gas exploration data in the sedimentary basins of
boxed area A), the area involving the Aston Fault and Logan southern Quebec provide information on the nature of the fluids
Line west of Drummondville (thrust faults, boxed area B), and present in the subsurface, information that is rarely available in the
the sector of the Tracy Brook and Delson faults, situated to the south Canadian Shield. The systematic inventory of publicly available
of Montreal (normal faults, boxed area C). information in the SIGPEG (2023) database identified 147 gas
A similar pattern of anomalies is reinforced when observing the analyses from 63 wells, of which around half (33 wells) included
CH4 concentrations (Figure 6), as there appears to be a correlation at least one hydrogen analysis (100 analyses in total). Information on
between the highest values and the sectors demarcated by salinity. nitrogen, CO2 and helium concentrations was also examined, as
The exception is expressed within the sector to the south of Montreal these gases can serve as indicators of the source of fluids and
(boxed area C), which presents a lack of CH4 measurement data therefore of the possible presence of hydrogen (Milkov, 2022).
points, except for the western section, where the available analyses Figure 8 shows the location of all data compiled.
have shown mostly high concentrations. Finally, few samples Around 78% of measured hydrogen concentrations were below
contain 222Rn measurements, reflecting a lack of data in some 0.1%, and no correlation was observed between H2 and N2, CO2 and
regions, such as the delimited sector C (Figure 7). Elevated He or N2 and CO2 concentrations. Only twenty-one analyses from
anomalous values are evident in groundwater near the Mont- nine wells stood out with values above 0.1% H2 (Table 4). This
Saint-Hilaire magmatic intrusion (233.4 Bq/L) and within threshold was chosen here because it corresponds to the
metasedimentary aquifers of the Appalachian Mountains. Overall, observations of Milkov (2022), where out of a worldwide
the values in the Appalachians exceed those recorded in the St. population of 6,246 hydrogen analyses, 69% had a concentration
Lawrence Platform, possibly due to lithological disparities. Indeed, of less than 0.1%. For each of the nine wells mentioned above, the
wells in the St. Lawrence Platform draw groundwater from fractured analytical results, the history of activities carried out in the well prior
carbonate-shale formations, while those in the Appalachians to sample collection, and the local geological context were examined
interact with shales and metasediments (slates, schists, and in detail to assess the significance of results. The aim was to assess
phyllades), anticipated to contain higher uranium content (Pinti the natural or anthropogenic origin of the hydrogen. It appears that
et al., 2014). Furthermore, notably high concentrations of 222Rn are the highest hydrogen values (between 6.7% and 71.75%) can be
still visible in the sectors targeted by the other indicators, particularly explained by the corrosion of steel casings or acidification
in sectors A and B. operations. Hydrogen concentration values for which no artificial

Frontiers in Geochemistry 14 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

FIGURE 7
Radon concentrations (222Rn, Bq/L) in groundwater of southern Quebec [data from Bordeleau et al. (2019); Pinti et al. (2014)], grouped according to
percentile classes. Emphasis on boxed sectors: (A) Rivière Jacques-Cartier Fault near Saint-Édouard-de-Lotbinière, (B) Aston Fault and Logan Line west
of Drummondville, and (C) Tracy Brook and Delson faults south of Montreal. Map background: SIGEOM (2023).

FIGURE 8
Gas analyses compiled for the hydrocarbon wells based on the SIGPEG (2023) database. Map background: SIGEOM (2023).

Frontiers in Geochemistry 15 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

TABLE 4 Details of gas analyses for hydrocarbon wells where H2 ≥ 0.1%, with possible artificial and natural sources for hydrogen. HC: Hydrocarbons.

Possible
Evidence for Possible
Well HC and NATURAL
He N2 CO2 Sampling an ARTIFICIAL Geological
(year H2(%) others source of
(%) (%) (%) location ARTIFICIAL source of H2 context
drilled) (%) H2 in the
origin of H2 in the well
area
Serpentinized Close to normal
A029 (1959) 6.7 - 50.1 0 43.2 Drill stem test Suspected Steel corrosion schists in the faults rooted in
basement the basement

0.29 0.03 3.02 0.14 96.52 Close to normal

A176 (1975) Drill stem tests Suspected Steel corrosion None found faults rooted in
0 0 4.67 0.58 94.75 the basement

0.26 0.03 3.57 traces 96.14 In the footwall of

Serpentinized
a regional normal
A186 (1977) 0.01 0.09 6.8 traces 93.1 Drill stem tests No None found schists in the
fault rooted in the
basement
basement

0.1 0.31 1.62 0 97.97 Drill stem test No None found

0.04 0.04 10.44 0.07 89.41 Well head, after Yes

fracturation
In the footwall of
0.14 0.02 51.85 0.01 47.98 Well head, after Yes Serpentinized
a regional normal
A196 (1980) fracturation Reaction with acid schists in the
fault rooted in the
and perforation used during basement
basement
fracturation
0 0.06 1.8 0 98.14 Well head, Yes
post-
completion
production test

0.19 0.06 2.08 traces 97.67

0.02 0.05 2.61 0.41 96.91 In the footwall of

Serpentinized
a regional normal
A197 (1980) 0.02 0.05 1.86 traces 98.07 Drill stem tests No None found schists in the
fault rooted in the
basement
0.02 0.05 2.2 0.47 97.26 basement

0.12 0.05 1.92 traces 97.91

0.25 0.05 1.21 0.04 98.45

0.36 0.07 8.84 0.15 90.58 In the footwall of

Serpentinized
a regional normal
A198 (1981) traces 0.03 26.44 traces 73.53 Drill stem tests No None found schists in the
fault rooted in the
basement
0.11 0.07 1.91 traces 97.91 basement

0.42 0.06 1.34 0.05 98.13

71.75 - - 0 traces
Underlying
67.74 - - 0 traces ophiolite Sedimentary
A278 (2009) Well head Yes Steel corrosion complex, cover of an
18.74 - - 0 traces serpentinite in ophiolite complex
the well cuttings
25.31 - - 0 traces

0.15 0.04 3.89 0.03 95.89

0.49 0.01 4.59 0.05 94.86 10 km south of a

Hydrocarbon
melange of
2.43 0.07 4.04 0.01 93.45 reservoir in
serpentinized
C100 (1983) Drill stem tests No None found anticline limited
ultramafic rocks
0.53 0.08 2.42 0 96.97 by a regional
(“Mont
strike-slip fault
0.05 0.09 2.33 0 97.53 Serpentine”)

0.43 0.08 2.73 0.09 96.67

0.02 0.03 2.03 traces 97.92 Hydrocarbon

Mafic dyke
reservoir close to a
C135 (2009) 0.05 0.09 4.68 traces 95.18 Drill stem tests No None found crosscut by
regional strike-
strike-slip faults
0.19 0.06 4.32 0.27 95.17 slip fault

Frontiers in Geochemistry 16 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

FIGURE 9
Hydrocarbon wells studied in southwestern Quebec, for which hydrogen values greater than 0.1% were measured. The nature of the basement
encountered in drilling was compiled from drilling data and Liu et al. (2022). Map background: SIGEOM (2023).

cause could be established or suspected range from 0.1% to structures, aeromagnetic measurements taken at low altitude with
2.43%, and correspond to wells located in regions where very tight flight lines, on the order of 25 m apart, would be necessary,
potential geological sources of hydrogen are documented. These but such data are not publicly available.
may be local sources such as mafic dykes, or more diffuse sources Other geophysical methods may also be useful, notably those
such as metamorphic basement with local evidence of that determine the presence of radioactive rocks or heat flows
serpentinization (Figure 9), or even tectonic melanges of (hence deep fractures). In this respect, certain thorium and/or
serpentinized ultramafic rocks. In all cases, however, there is uranium anomalies could reflect local enrichment due to the
insufficient information to establish a direct link between the upward flow of fluids or deep materials, likely to create thermal
hydrogen detected in the wells and the possible hydrogen-source anomalies. This argues in favor of high-resolution gamma-ray
rocks present in the same region and, notably, these occurrences spectrometry surveys (low height and narrow flight lines) to
of non-anthropic hydrogen do not coincide geographically with identify the presence of anomalies at selected sites (Prinzhofer
the main plays previously identified. et al., 2022). This method thus offers an advantageous alternative
to heat flux measurements, which are difficult to implement on a
large scale. Thorium is the element that shows the strongest
3.5 Geophysical and imaging data contrasts between different rock types, and therefore the
element most clearly representative of the presence of
3.5.1 Geophysical data radioactive isotopes likely to provide a heat source.
Given the dominant natural hydrogen production models The inventory of airborne electromagnetic, magnetometric and
identified in Quebec, the most relevant geophysical methods for radiometric data available in Quebec shows that the magnetometric
natural hydrogen exploration are, in descending order of priority: 1) method is the most represented, followed by electromagnetic
Earth magnetic field measurements, 2) heat flux assessments, 3) methods. This is largely due to the lower cost of magnetometric
gamma-ray spectrometric measurements, 4) magnetotelluric surveys, and their interest in the context of natural resource
measurements to search for deep faults, and 5) electromagnetic exploration in Quebec. Most of the surveys identified are of
measurements to locate FeS-rich conductors. private origin. They are, however, highly concentrated over
The aeromagnetic method is particularly well suited to the limited areas and relatively small surfaces. Public projects, on the
detection of ferrous iron, and especially in the partially oxidized other hand, are less numerous but more extensive, and generally
state, as in magnetite. Very high-resolution helicopter-borne surveys cover all identified areas of geological interest. Most data acquisition
are perfectly suited to the size of these sources. To identify surface projects were carried out between 2000 and 2016.

Frontiers in Geochemistry 17 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

FIGURE 10
Rating of the potential hydrogen source rock areas considered in Quebec. The values shown correspond to the percentage rating assigned to each
of the areas considered. Map background: SIGEOM (2023).

The inventory of magnetotelluric data shows limited data were acquired as part of the Lithoprobe 8 project between
coverage in Quebec, restricted to the kimberlite and mining 1990 and 1993 (NRCan, 2023).
areas. Since the primary objective of this method is to identify
deep-seated structures, it may be possible to follow such 3.5.2 Imagery and satellite data
lineaments into the areas of interest when a given survey is Hydrogen seepage can be associated with faults or diffusive
itself located at a distance from these areas. These data, even old circles. The latter are easier to locate on the basis of field or airborne
ones, can be an asset and can be correlated with available observations, but are also controversial in that the measurement of
seismic data. hydrogen in soils is not a standardized practice (McMahon et al.,
Most seismic-reflection data are located in southern Quebec and 2023) and diffusive circles have not yet been linked to underlying
were collected for hydrocarbon exploration purposes. Southwestern subsurface accumulations. Despite these uncertainties, the location
Quebec is the region with the most extensive seismic coverage, of diffusive circles may point to areas where hydrogen is naturally
compared with the Gaspe region, even though the latter has a longer present in the ground and should therefore be considered in the
history of oil exploration. Most of the seismic lines recorded in the exploration toolbox, although it is not a definitive proof of the
areas of potential hydrogen source rocks remain in the private existence of a subsurface accumulation of natural hydrogen.
domain and are not currently available. In the southwestern part Surface depressions that correspond to diffusive circles can be
of the Canadian Shield, seismic-reflection and seismic-refraction detected by the main imaging methods if they have the

Frontiers in Geochemistry 18 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

appropriate spatial resolution. Several types of imagery and TABLE 5 Rating score of different areas of interest for natural hydrogen
source rocks in the Canadian Shield and southern Quebec.
satellite data are publicly available for the whole province
(Québec, 2023). The two main data sources are topographic Hydrogen Source Rock Play Score
imagery and satellite imagery, which are available across
F Monteregian intrusions 100% (A)
Quebec at a resolution of 20–30 m. Although this resolution is
too low to detect surface depressions potentially generated by E1 Ophiolite complex (southwest) 94% (A)
hydrogen, this map can be useful when combined with regional E2 Ophiolite complex (Gaspé) 94% (C)
and local fault data to detect large deformation zones. LiDAR
data contain the digital terrain model at a spatial resolution of D3 Mistassini and Otish basins 94% (C)

1 m and are available south of latitude 52° north. Satellite image A1 Cadillac Fault gold mines 89% (A)
mosaics are available, designed by combining several adjacent
A2, A3, A4 Éléonore, Casa Berardi and Chibougamau mines 72% (C)
Landsat or Sentinel satellite image tiles. Mosaic coverage varies
according to the year of acquisition, from southern Quebec to all D4 Labrador Trough 67% (C)
of Quebec. Recent satellite data (2021 and 2022) come from the B4 Témiscamingue kimberlite 61% (B)
Sentinel-2 sensor and offer a spatial resolution of 10 m
C1 Lac Brisson Pluton 61% (C)
across Quebec.
There are two main points to note when analyzing airborne or H Utica Shale (overmature) 56% (B)
satellite images. First, because the area of interest is so large, it is
I Adirondacks overburden 56% (B)
impossible to manually detect and interpret any circular depressions
that may exist. A machine learning approach must be considered to C4, C5 Crevier and Kipawa intrusions 44% (B)
enable analysis over such a large area. Second, as a large portion of B1, B2, B3 Torngat, Otish and Desmaraisville kimberlites 44% (C)
the study area (the Canadian Shield) lies in a permafrost region
C2, C3 Misery and Juillet syenites 44% (C)
where the action of glaciers has left traces, we need to be able to
distinguish diffusive circles from other types of circular depressions G1, G4 Crustal fractures 39% (B)
(Moretti et al., 2021). Once again, an approach using machine
D1, D2 Richmond Gulf Graben and Hudson platform 39% (C)
learning would enable us to respond to this requirement.
G2, G3, G5 Crustal fractures 33% (B)

3.6 Rating
Quebec, but it uncovers convincing direct and indirect evidence of
Each of the twenty-seven plays identified above has been the presence of hydrogen in some regions and to the potential
evaluated and rated according to three geological criteria and of others.
the proximity with possible end-users. The results are While anecdotal, evidence of hydrogen in fluid inclusions
represented geographically in Figure 10 and summarized in demonstrates the presence of a production mechanism that was
Table 5. Detailed scores for each sector are presented in once active and supports the possibility that accumulations can
Supplementary Table S1. be discovered in geological environments, particularly in the
The rating of the areas of interest reveals three main groups based Mistassini Basin, which has yet to be studied thoroughly from
on the geological criteria. The first group stands out with scores of 89% a reservoir/trap/seal standpoint. Similarly, the presence of
or higher. The five areas included in this group all achieve the highest dissolved hydrogen in the groundwater of some mines
scores for the local geological criterion and the analogue criterion, with objectively represents small volumes in an environment that
the only difference occurring at the level of the potential reservoir implies significant challenges in terms of extraction
criterion. The second group comprises eight areas with geological scores techniques, but this phenomenon is geographically widespread
ranging from 56% to 72%. The plays in this group almost all achieve an and supported by similar observations in other ancient cratons
intermediate score for the local geological criterion and more variable around the world. The presence of hydrogen in some
scores for the other two criteria. Finally, a third group comprises the hydrocarbon wells and the evidence of fluid circulation
areas of interest that have obtained a geological score of 44% or less (for through deep-seated faults also open up the field of
a minimum possible of 33%). Fourteen areas are included in this tail investigation to areas otherwise devoid of geological
group, all of which are characterized by a minimum score for the local information supporting the presence of source rocks for
geological criterion and low scores for the other two criteria. It is hydrogen at depth. Existing data still convey a very hazy
important to note that the areas of interest that scored highest on the picture of the potential in southern Quebec due to their non
criterion of proximity to end-users (mark A) are all included in the top homogeneous distribution, but available data must be put into
group defined independently by the geological criteria. perspective with the incremental advancement of knowledge in
other parts of the world. For example, the emphasis in Kansas has
been on the study of two wells with up to 50% hydrogen (Goebel
4 Discussion et al., 1983; Coveney et al., 1987; Guelard et al., 2017) but should
not obscure the long-known existence of at least seven other wells
Unsurprisingly, this examination of the literature and databases in which hydrogen values of 0.2%–0.5% have been documented,
did not immediately lead to major discoveries of natural hydrogen in in a region where hydrogen emanations in soils (up to 6,400 ppm)

Frontiers in Geochemistry 19 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

show a strong spatial correlation with the position of lineaments The rating presented here focusses on potential source rocks.
interpreted as the surface expression of basement faults Geochemical data were taken into account in the evaluation of
(Johnsgard, 1988; Angino et al., 1990). Finally, this work play A in the Canadian Shield (see Section 3.4.1), but the
reveals some geological environments considered highly relationship with source rocks is less obvious in the case of
promising elsewhere in the world, notably some ophiolite the geochemical datasets available in southern Quebec and
complexes and Archean banded iron formations. these were not considered in the evaluation of the southern
So, where to start looking for natural hydrogen in Quebec? The plays. The benefits of the geochemical data in these cases lie
rating proposed here offers a first evaluation of the main exploration in the fact that they complement the inventory of the potential
areas that should be considered. Any rating is intimately linked to source rocks and open up the possibility of adding new
the notion of risk, and while it remains imperfect because it is not prospective areas to the list in the future. Thus, the
exhaustive and is purely qualitative, the proposed rating does at least occurrence of hydrogen in some hydrocarbon wells (see
enable us to adapt an exploration strategy according to objective Section 3.4.2.2) hints to the presence of potential source rocks
geological criteria, as well as more subjective criteria that touch on that are currently not included in the inventory due to their
the spheres of profitability and social acceptability. Indeed, unlike limited geographical extent, but which may be reconsidered in
other rating systems that consider more elaborate criteria, such as the future should new information becomes available. A typical
those developed for petroleum systems (Magoon and Dow, 1994; example is the documented occurrence in well C100, located
Otis and Schneidermann, 1997) or helium systems (McDowell et al., 10 km south of a melange of serpentinized ultramafic rocks that
2017; Tedesco, 2022), in the case of the very first exploration efforts are laterally correlative with the ophiolite complex identified as
in a frontier region, it is important to take into account factors that play E2. In addition, the hydrogen occurrences documented in
are not limited to geological considerations. four wells east of Lake Saint-Pierre (Figure 9) are located in an
Considering the customer or end-user at an early point in the area where deep hydrocarbon wells have penetrated the
exploration strategy introduces the notion of remoteness. Do we Precambrian basement and have shown that this basement can
want to focus on sectors with the highest geological value, or those be locally serpentinized, although evidence of this is still sparse
that are the most accessible? This issue is not trivial in the case of and scattered. A third example is how hydrogeochemical datasets
Quebec, where most of the population and infrastructure are indicate that play I area is a location where deep fluid flow is likely
concentrated in the south, while exploration in the North is a to occur along normal faults (play I extends southwestward from
costly process that presents numerous logistical and climatic the Delson and Tracy Brook faults, see boxed area C in Figure 5).
challenges. A discovery in a remote location also poses problems This area, although having received a low score, has been
of profitability. Hydrogen is more difficult to transport than other identified as suitable for testing various methods of
sources of energy and it must first be considered as a local resource investigation: the combination of a prospective area with deep
until economies of scale can be achieved for transportation, which fluid conduits independently identified by hydrogeochemical
will only be justified by a volumetrically large discovery. studies makes play I all the more interesting to consider for a
Another pragmatic choice addresses the question of “proof of concept” approach.
technological maturity. A source of natural hydrogen present In any case, the results of this study support the possibility that
beneath a sedimentary basin can lead to accumulations in the natural hydrogen could be present in commercial quantities in
overlying sedimentary cover, exploitable with off-the-shelf Quebec, but dedicated exploration work remains to be carried
technologies, whereas a source identified in the rocks of the out to confirm this hypothesis. Examples of exploration work
Canadian Shield can only be exploited in situ, i.e., without prior could include the search for hydrogen emanations at the surface
accumulation, which represents significant technological challenges in areas of interest identified as priorities here, but also along fault
and, incidentally, has implications for the volumes and flows that lineaments where hydrogeochemical data indicate deep-seated fluid
could be produced. flows, and geophysical investigations focussed on high-resolution
Another possible criterion could be the potentially renewable radiometry and heat flows. The rating of some of the plays
nature of the resource. This criterion is not considered here, as considered here could then be re-evaluated if new geological
exploration in Quebec is not sufficiently mature to document this evidence is discovered.
aspect. However, it could become an important factor of social
acceptability in the event of a discovery. In this respect, the
literature already includes numerous examples worldwide where 5 Conclusion
low-temperature hydrogen production processes appear to be
currently occurring (Abrajano et al., 1988; Szponar et al., 2013; This study documents the presence and quality of potential
Prinzhofer et al., 2018; Zgonnik et al., 2019; Geymond et al., 2022; source rocks for natural hydrogen in Quebec, a province of
Lévy et al., 2023). However, considering the slow production rates of Canada that covers more than 1.5 million km2 and includes
hydrogen by known natural processes, the renewability of a natural highly diverse geological environments. The purpose of this
hydrogen discovery may not be compatible everywhere with its study is not to demonstrate the presence of exploitable
economic viability and, as pointed out by Lapi et al. (2022), several accumulations of hydrogen on the territory, but rather to
aspects of the possible renewability of natural hydrogen sources remain develop a framework that allows prioritizing future
elusive. The possibility of some source rocks being stimulated by water exploration efforts, with a view to minimize the exploration
injection to produce hydrogen could also be considered, particularly in risks and investments required to develop this carbon-free
conjunction with carbon sequestration (Osselin et al., 2022). resource that can potentially help with Quebec’s energy

Frontiers in Geochemistry 20 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

transition. Dedicated exploration work, starting with the Author contributions

detection of hydrogen emanations at the surface, remains to
be carried out. Highlights of this study include the following: SS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology,
Project Administration, Supervision, Visualization, Writing–original
- Four main mechanisms for the production of natural hydrogen draft. F-AC: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation,
have been selected, based on the most representative geological Methodology, Visualization, Writing–original draft. MLMdS:
assemblages in the province: 1) degassing of the Earth’s mantle Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology,
and core, 2) radiolysis of water in the presence of weakly Visualization, Writing–original draft. GB: Conceptualization, Data
radioactive rocks, 3) hydrothermal alteration and 4) curation, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing–original
decomposition of organic matter. draft. MC: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation,
- Numerous geological environments favourable for the Methodology, Visualization, Writing–original draft. PM:
formation of natural hydrogen are documented, from the Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology,
Canadian Shield in the north to the sedimentary basins of Visualization, Writing–original draft. VM: Conceptualization, Data
southern Quebec. A total of twenty-seven distinct areas have curation, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing–original
been retained. draft. MM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation,
- The presence of hydrogen is attested in various environments, Methodology, Visualization, Writing–original draft. BG:
in fluid inclusions, in dissolved gases present in the Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology,
groundwater of some mines, as well as in gases sampled in Visualization, Writing–original draft. EG: Conceptualization, Data
some hydrocarbon wells. curation, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing–original
- The analysis of oil and gas industry data also highlights the draft. JR: Funding acquisition, Writing–review and editing.
importance of screening the data to avoid the false-positive
effect of artificially-produced hydrogen.
- Local vegetation anomalies show a regional spatial coincidence Funding
with hydrogen evidence, but a genetic link remains to
be confirmed. The author(s) declare financial support was received for the
- The hydrogeochemical dataset reveals anomalies near mapped research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The
faults in three specific areas in southern Quebec: the Rivière evaluation of the near-surface geochemical data is part of MLMDS
Jacques-Cartier Fault sector, the Tracy Brook and Delson faults M. Sc. Project of INRS-ETE, funded by National Science and
region, and the Aston Fault and the Logan Line. Sectors with Engineering Research Council (NSERC) Discovery Grants program
normal fault systems, as the two first examples, take precedence # RGPIN-2021-03802. The Ministère de l’Économie, de l’Innovation
for potential on-site hydrogen researches due to the increased et de l’Énergie (MEIE) of Quebec contributed financially to the
possibility of deep fluids migrating upwards to the surface. authors’ research on assessing natural hydrogen potential in
- The main areas with potential source rocks for natural Quebec. It must be noted that the information and conclusions
hydrogen are rated according to three geological criteria to presented in this article have not been endorsed by the MEIE.
assess their respective merits. The areas that stand out
according to this rating include a series of ultramafic and
mafic rock intrusions (the Monteregian Hills), two ophiolite Acknowledgments
complexes (in southwestern Quebec and the Gaspe Peninsula),
two contiguous Proterozoic sedimentary basins (the Mistassini The authors would like to acknowledge Viacheslav Zgonnik
and Otish basins) and a cluster of gold mines in an Archean (Natural Hydrogen Energy LLC), Isabelle Moretti (Université de
greenstone belt (in the Abitibi sub-province). Pau et des Pays de l’Adour), Ugo Geymond and Dan Lévy (Institut
- A fourth rating criterion considers the ease with which this de Physique du Globe de Paris) for their insights on the different
resource could be integrated into the economic fabric. This hydrogen production mechanisms, and Lyal Harris (INRS, Centre
criterion, distinct from the geological ones, is deemed Eau Terre Environnement), Abdelali Moukhsil (Ministère des
important in a region such as Quebec, where the Ressources naturelles et des Forêts du Québec), Alain Tremblay
distribution of population and industry is highly (Université du Québec à Montréal) and Jean-Michel Schroetter
heterogeneous, and transportation distances are long. (Bureau de recherches Géologiques et Minières, Unité CGEO,
- Taken together, the studied criteria enable to quickly filter Orléans) for their insights and constructive discussions on some
regions and draw a preliminary portrait of areas where natural potentially prospective areas in Quebec. Jacinthe Légaré-Laganière
hydrogen exploration could be prioritized and contribute to and Mabrouk Ouederni (Ministère de l’Économie, de l’Innovation et
Quebec’s green economy. de l’Énergie du Québec) are also acknowledged for improving the
quality of the manuscript. The authors wish to acknowledge the two
reviewers, LT and MG, for their thorough review of the article.
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in Conflict of interest
the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed
to the corresponding author. Author SS was employed by Enki GeoSolutions.

Frontiers in Geochemistry 21 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or
could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. endorsed by the publisher.

Publisher’s note Supplementary material

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online
and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631/
organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the full#supplementary-material

References
Abrajano, T. A., Sturchio, N. C., Bohlke, J. K., Lyon, G. L., Poreda, R. J., and Stevens, C. mineral deposits. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal. 16, 85–99. doi:10.1144/
M. (1988). Methane-hydrogen gas seeps, Zambales Ophiolite, Philippines: deep or geochem2015-360
shallow origin? Chem. Geol. 71, 211–222. doi:10.1016/0009-2541(88)90116-7
Brauneder, K. M. (2012). Geochemistry of forest rings in Northern Ontario:
Allen, J. S., Thomas, W. A., and Lavoie, D. (2010). “The Laurentian margin of identification of ring edge processes in peat and soil. M.Sc. thesis. Univeristy of Ottawa.
northeastern North America,” in From rodinia to pangea: the lithotectonic record of the
Breemen, O. v., and Currie, K. L. (2004). Geology and U–Pb geochronology of the
appalachian region. Editors R. P. Tollo, M. J. Bartholomew, J. P. Hibbard, and
Kipawa Syenite Complex — a thrust related alkaline pluton — and adjacent rocks in the
P. M. et Karabinos (Boulder, Colorado, United States: Geological Society of
Grenville Province of western Quebec. Can. J. Earth Sci. 41, 431–455. doi:10.1139/e04-010
America), 71–90. doi:10.1130/2010.1206(04)
Card, K. D. (1990). A review of the superior province of the Canadian shield, a product
Angino, E. E., Zeller, E. J., Dreschhoff, G. A. M., Goebel, E. D., and Coveney, R. M. J.
of archean accretion. Precambrian Res. 48, 99–156. doi:10.1016/0301-9268(90)90059-Y
(1990). “Spatial distribution of hydrogen in soil gas in central Kansas, USA,” in
Geochemistry of gaseous elements and compounds. Editor E. M. Durrance, 485–493. Card, K. D., and Poulsen, K. H. (1998). “Geology and mineral deposits of the superior
province of the Canadian shield,” in Geology of the precambrian superior and Grenville
Batanova, V. G., Suhr, G., and Sobolev, A. V. (1998). Origin of geochemical
provinces and precambrian fossils in north America (lucas, S. And st-onge, M.R.,
heterogeneity in the mantle peridotites from the Bay of islands ophiolite,
coordinators) (Canada: Geological Survey of Canada). doi:10.1130/DNAG-GNA-C1.13
Newfoundland, Canada: ion probe study of clinopyroxenes. Geochimica
Cosmochimica Acta 62, 853–866. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(97)00384-0 Castonguay, S., Dietrich, J., Shinduke, R., and Laliberté, J.-Y. (2006). Nouveau regard
sur l’architecture de la Plate-forme du Saint-Laurent et des Appalaches du sud du Québec
Baubron, J. C., Rigo, A., and Toutain, J. P. (2002). Soil gas profiles as a tool to
par le retraitement des profils de sismique réflexion M-2001, M-2002 et M-2003. Canada:
characterize active tectonic areas: the Jaut Pass example (Pyrenees, France). Earth
Commission géologique du Canada. doi:10.4095/222405
Planet. Sci. Lett. 13, 69–81. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00596-9
Chandler, F. W., 1988. The early proterozoic Richmond Gulf graben, east coast of
Beaudin, J. (1980). Région du Mont Albert et du Lac Cascapédia. Ministère de
Hudson Bay, Quebec. Geol. Surv. Can. Bull. 362, 76 doi:10.4095/126313
l’Énergie et des Ressources. Rapp. DPV 705, 84.
Charette, B., Lafrance, I., Vanier, M.-A., and Godet, A. (2019). Domaine de Mistinibi-
Bédard, J. H. (1985). The opening of the Atlantic, the Mesozoic New England igneous
Raude, sud-est de la Province de Churchill, Nunavik, Québec, Canada: synthèse de la
province, and mechanisms of continental breakup. Tectonophysics 113, 209–232. doi:10.
géologie. Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources naturelles, Québec. BG 2019-07.
1016/0040-1951(85)90197-0
https://gq.mines.gouv.qc.ca/bulletins-geologiques/churchill/mistinibi-raude/.
Bédard, J. H. (1994). Mesozoic east North American alkaline magmatism: Part 1.
Chartrand, F. (1994). “Synthèse des gisements métallifères dans le Nord-Ouest québécois,”
Evolution of Monteregian lamprophyres, Québec, Canada. Geochimica Cosmochimica
in Géologie du Québec (Québec: Ministère des Ressources naturelles), 40–46.
Acta 58, 95–112. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(94)90449-9
Chen, Z., Lavoie, D., Jiang, C., Duchesne, M. J., and Malo, M., 2016. Geological
Bédard, J. H., and LeCheminant, A. N. (1996). “Alnoïtes et roches apparentées,
characteristics and petroleum resource assessment of the macasty formation, Anticosti
province ignée des collines montérégiennes, Québec,” in La Recherche de Diamants au
island, Quebec, Canada. Geological Survey of Canada. doi:10.4095/297865
Canada (Commission géologique du Canada), 3228, 119–123. doi:10.4095/208203
Chen, Z., Lavoie, D., and Malo, M., 2014. Geological characteristics and petroleum
Bélanger, M. (1984). Région du lac Brisson, Territoire du Nouveau-Québec. Ministère de
resource assessment of Utica Shale, Quebec, Canada. Geol. Surv. Can., 7606, 43. doi:10.
l’Énergie et des Ressources. https://gq.mines.gouv.qc.ca/documents/EXAMINE/DP8420/.
4095/293793
Bergeron, A. (1980). Pétrographie et géochimie du complexe igné alcalin de Crevier et
Cherns, L., and Wheeley, J. R. (2009). Early palaeozoic cooling events: peri-gondwana
de son encaissant métasomatisé. Univ. Québec à Chicoutimi; mémoire maîtrise, 142.
and beyond. London: Geological Society Special Publication. doi:10.1144/SP325.13
doi:10.1522/1300469
Chown, E. H. (1984). “Mineralization controls in the aphebian formations,
Bertrand, R., and Lavoie, V. (2006). Hydrocarbon source rocks and organic
Chibougamau, Mistassini and otish areas,” in Chibougamau - stratigraphy and
maturation of lower Paleozoic successions in the St. Lawrence Platform and in the
mineralization. Editors J. Guha and E. H. Chown (Canada: Canadian Institute of
external domain of the Quebec Appalachians. https://gac.ca/product/gac-mac-2006-
Mining and Metallurgy).
abstracts-volume-31-montreal-2006/.
Clark, T. (1994). “Géologie et gîtes de l’Orogène du Nouveau-Québec et de son
Bordeleau, G., Rivard, C., Lavoie, D., Lefebvre, R., Malet, X., and Ahad, J. M. E. (2019).
arrière-pays,” in Géologie du Québec (Hocq, M., coordonnateur) (Québec: Ministère des
Geochemical and isotopic data used to infer the origins of natural gas in groundwater of
Ressources naturelles), 47–65.
the Saint-Édouard area, southern Québec. Geol. Surv. Can. Open File 8505, 91. doi:10.
4095/321053 Clark, T., and Wares, R. (2004). Synthèse lithotectonique et métallogénique de
l’Orogène du Nouveau-Québec (Fosse du Labrador). MM 2004-01. Québec: Ministère
Bordeleau, G., Rivard, C., Lavoie, D., Lefebvre, R., Malet, X., and Ladevèze, P. (2018).
des Ressources naturelles de la Faune et des Parcs.
Geochemistry of groundwater in the Saint-Édouard area, Quebec, Canada, and its
influence on the distribution of methane in shallow aquifers. Appl. Geochem. 89, Clark, T. H. (1955). Région de St-Jean-Beloeil. Ministère des Mines du Québec.
92–108. doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2017.11.012 Rapp. RG 66, 83.
Boreham, C. J., Edwards, D. S., Feitz, A. J., Murray, A. P., Mahlstedt, N., and Horsfield, Clark, T. H. (1966). Région de Châteauguay. Ministère des Richesses naturelles.
B. (2023). Modelling of hydrogen gas generation from overmature organic matter in the Rapp. géologique 122, 68.
Cooper Basin, Australia. APPEA J. 63, S351–S356. doi:10.1071/AJ22084
Clark, T. H. (1977). Région de Granby (ouest). Ministère des Richesses naturelles du
Brack, W. (1995). Progress report on the Hemmingford Property, Sawmill Grid, Québec. Rapp. RG 177, 109.
Southern Quebec. Ministère des Ressources naturelles et des Forêts. http://sigeom.mrnf.
Cloutier, V. (2004). Origine et évolution géochimique des eaux souterraines du système
gouv.qc.ca.
aquifère des Basses-Laurentides dans les roches sédimentaires paléozoïques des Basses-
Brack, W. (1996). Progress report on the Hemmingford Property, Walklate Grid, Terres-du Saint-Laurent. Ph.D. thesis. Québec, Canada: Institut national de la recherche
Southern Quebec. Ministère des Ressources naturelles et des Forêts. http://sigeom.mrnf. scientifique (INRS), Québec, Canada. Available at: https://espace.inrs.ca/id/eprint/1445/
gouv.qc.ca.
Cornish, R. A. (1977). Report on drill programme: hemmingford, Quebec, project 7710.
Brauneder, K., Hamilton, S. M., and Hattori, K. (2016). Geochemical processes in the Rapport No. GM 39112. Quebec: Ministère des Ressources naturelles et des Forêts.
formation of "forest rings": examples of reduced chimney formation in the absence of Available at: https://sigeom.mines.gouv.qc.ca

Frontiers in Geochemistry 22 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

Costagliola, A., Vandenborre, J., Blain, G., Baty, V., Haddad, F., and Fattahi, M. Giroux, J.-F., Bergeron, Y., and Veillette, J. J. (2001). Dynamics and morphology of
(2017). Radiolytic dissolution of calcite under gamma and helium ion irradiation. giant circular patterns of low tree density in black spruce stands in northern Quebec.
J. Phys. Chem. C 121, 24548–24556. doi:10.1021/acs.jpcc.7b07299 Can. J. Bot. 79, 420–428. doi:10.1139/b01-022
Courtillot, V., Davaille, A., Besse, J., and Stock, J. (2003). Three distinct types of Globensky, Y. (1985). Géologie des régions de Saint-Jean (partie nord) et de Beloeil.
hotspots in the Earth’s mantle. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 205, 295–308. doi:10.1016/S0012- Rapport MM 84-03. Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources.
821X(02)01048-8
Globensky, Y. (1986). Géologie de la région de Saint-Chrysostome et de Lachine (sud).
Coveney, R. M., Goebel, E. D., Zeller, E. J., Dreschhoff, G. A. M., and Angino, E. E. Rapport MM 84-02. Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources.
(1987). Serpentinization and the origin of hydrogen gas in Kansas. AAPG Bull. 71,
Globensky, Y. (1993). Lexique stratigaphique canadien - Région des Appalaches, des
39–48. doi:10.1306/94886D3F-1704-11D7-8645000102C1865D
Basses-Terres du Saint-Laurent et des Îles de la Madeleine. Direction générale de
Currie, K. L. (1985). An unusual peralkaline granite near Lac Brisson, Quebec- l’exploration géologique et minérale, Gouvernement du Québec. Rapp. DV 91-23, 327.
Labrador. Canada: Geological survey of Canada, 73–80. doi:10.4095/120018
Goebel, E. D., Coveney, R. M., Angino, E. E., and Zeller, E. (1983). Naturally occurring
David, J., Simard, M., Bandyayera, D., Goutier, J., Hammouche, H., Pilote, P., et al. hydrogen gas from a borehole on the western flank of Nemaha Anticline in Kansas.
(2012). Datations U-Pb effectuées dans les Provinces du Supérieur et de Churchill en AAPG Bull. 67, 1324. doi:10.1306/03B5B76D-16D1-11D7-8645000102C1865D
2010-2011. RP 2012-01. Québec: Ministère de l’Énergie, des Ressources naturelles et de
Gold, D. P., Eby, G. N., Bell, K., and Vallée, M. (1986). Carbonatites, diatremes, and
la Faune. Available at: https://sigeom.mines.gouv.qc.ca
ultra-alkaline rocks in the Oka area, Quebec. London: Geological Association of Canada.
De Souza, S., Tremblay, A., Ruffet, G., and Pinet, N. (2012). Ophiolite obduction in
Groulier, P.-A., Ohnenstetter, D., Andre-Mayer, A. S., Zeh, A., Solgadi, F.,
the Quebec Appalachians, Canada — 40Ar/39Ar age constraints and evidence for syn-
Moukhsil, A., et al. (2014). Étude des minéralisations en Nb-Ta de l’intrusion
tectonic erosion and sedimentation1Geological Survey of Canada Contribution
alcaline de Crevier. UMR 7359 Géoressources, AQAT – urstm. MB 2014-33.
20100430.2GEOTOP (Centre de recherche en géochimie et géodynamique)
Goethe Universitat, MERN. Available at: https://sigeom.mines.gouv.qc.ca
Contribution 2011-0002.3This article is one of a series of papers published in this
CJES Special Issue: In honour of Ward Neale on the theme of Appalachian and Guelard, J., Beaumont, V., Rouchon, V., Guyot, F., Pillot, D., Jézéquel, D., et al. (2017).
Grenvillian geology. Can. J. Earth Sci. 49, 91–110. doi:10.1139/e11-037 Natural H2 in Kansas: deep or shallow origin? Geochem. Geophys. Geosystems 18,
1841–1865. doi:10.1002/2016GC006544
Dimroth, E. (1978). Région de la Fosse du Labrador (54°30′-56°30′). RG-193. Québec:
Ministère des Richesses naturelles, 396. Available at: https://sigeom.mines.gouv.qc.ca Hamblin, A. P. (2008). Hydrocarbon potential of the Paleozoic succession of Hudson
Bay/James Bay: preliminary conceptual synthesis of background data. London:
Drolet, J.-P., Martel, R., Poulin, P., and Dessau, J.-C. (2014). Methodology developed
Geological survey of Canada. doi:10.4095/225183
to make the Quebec indoor radon potential map. Sci. Total Environ. 473-474, 372–380.
doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.12.039 Hamilton, S. M. (2005). "Forest rings" and their implications for geochemical
exploration of oil, gas and mineral deposits. https://www.appliedgeochemists.org/
Drolet, J.-P., Martel, R., Poulin, P., Dessau, J.-C., Lavoie, D., Parent, M., et al. (2013).
sites/default/files/Hamilton_2_Forest_Rings.pdf.
An approach to define potential radon emission level maps using indoor radon
concentration measurements and radiogeochemical data positive proportion Hamilton, S. M., Burt, A. K., Hattori, K. H., and Shirota, J. (2004). The distribution
relationships. J. Environ. Radioact. 124, 57–67. doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2013.04.006 and source of forest ring-related methane in northeastern Ontario. Ontario, Canada:
Ontario Geological Survey. Available at: http://www.geologyontario.mndm.gov.on.ca/
Dubois, J. M. (1993). Origine mycologique de ronds dans la forêt coniférienne de l’île
mndmfiles/pub/data/imaging/OFR6145//OFR6145.pdf
d’Anticosti, golfe du Saint-Laurent (Canada). Photo-Interprétation 31, 207–212.
Hamilton, S. M., and Hattori, K. (2008). Spontaneous potential and redox responses
Eby, G. N. (1984). Geochronology of the monteregian hills alkaline igneous province,
over a forest ring. Geophysics 73, B67–B75. doi:10.1190/1.2890287
Quebec. Geology 12, 468–470. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1984)12<468:GOTMHA>2.0.CO;2
Hamilton, S. M., von Gunten, K., Sherwood Lollar, B., DiLoreto, Z. A., Alam, M. S.,
Eby, G. N. (1987). “The monteregian hills and white mountains alkaline igneous provinces,
Snihur, K., et al. (2019). “Soil gas compositional changes and electrical field (SP)
eastern north America,” in Alkaline igneous rocks. Editors J. G. Fitton and B. G. J. Upton
responses at the edges of the Thorn North forest ring,” in Summary of field work and
(London: Geological Society Special Publications). doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1987.030.01.21
other activities (Ontario, Canada: Ontario Geological Survey). Available at: http://www.
El Bourki, M., and Moukhsil, A. (2021). Géologie de la région de Dolbeau-Blondelas, geologyontario.mndm.gov.on.ca/mndmfiles/pub/data/imaging/OFR6360//
Province de Grenville, région du Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean. BG 2022-02. Québec, OFR6360.pdf
Canada: MERN. Available at: https://sigeom.mines.gouv.qc.ca
Hammouche, H., Legouix, C., Goutier, J., and Dion, C. (2012). Géologie de la région du
Essehli, R., Crumière, F., Blain, G., Vandenborre, J., Pottier, F., Grambow, B., et al. (2011). lac Zéni. RG 2012-02. Québec: Ministère des Ressources naturelles. Available at: https://
H2 production by γ and He ions water radiolysis, effect of presence TiO2 nanoparticles. Int. sigeom.mines.gouv.qc.ca
J. Hydrogen Energy 36, 14342–14348. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.05.136
Héroux, Y., and Bertrand, R. (1991). Maturation thermique de la matière organique
Evangelatos, J., Butler, K. E., and Spray, J. G. (2009). A marine magnetic study of a dans un bassin du Paléozoïque inférieur, basses-terres du Saint-Laurent, Québec,
carbonate-hosted impact structure: ile Rouleau, Canada. Geophys. J. Int. 179, 171–181. Canada. Can. J. Earth Sci. 28, 1019–1030. doi:10.1139/e91-093
doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04304.x
Héroux, Y., Chagnon, A., Diagana, B., Richer-Laflèche, M., and Moar, R. (2004).
Faure, S. (2010). Perméabilité crustale dans le Moyen-Nord québécois: guides Potentiel minéral du bassin de Mistassini: une réévaluation basée sur des outils
d’exploration géophysique pour l’or, l’uranium et le diamant. CONSOREM, Projet empruntés de l’exploration pétrolière. MB 2004-07. Québec: Ministère des Ressources
2009-10. Québec: Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de l’Énergie. Available at: naturelles et de l’Énergie. Available at: https://sigeom.mines.gouv.qc.ca
https://sigeom.mines.gouv.qc.ca
Hocq, M. (1994). “La province du Supérieur,”. MM 94-01 in Géologie du Québec
Faure, S., Tremblay, A., and Angelier, J. (1996). State of intraplate stress and tectonism (Québec: Ministère des Ressources naturelles).
of northeastern America since Cretaceous times, with particular emphasis on the New
Hocq, M., and Verpaelst, P. (1994). “Les sous-provinces de l’Abitibi et du Pontiac,”.
England–Quebec igneous province. Tectonophysics 255, 111–134. doi:10.1016/0040-
MM 94-01 in Géologie du Québec (Québec: Ministère des Ressources naturelles).
1951(95)00113-1
IEA (2022). Global hydrogen review 2022. Paris, France: International Energy Agency.
Feininger, T., and Goodacre, A. K. (1995). The eight classical Monteregian hills at
depth and the mechanism of their intrusion. Can. J. Earth Sci. 32, 1350–1364. doi:10. Ignatenko, G. K., Gremchenko, P. I., and Glushkov, Y. M. (2016). Hydrogen
1139/e95-109 concentration monitoring in subsoil air on tectonic faults on the territory adjacent
to NPP site. Nucl. Energy Technol. 2, 151–155. doi:10.1016/j.nucet.2016.07.014
Fekete, M. (1990). Summary report on geological, geochemical, and geophysical surveys
and reverse-circulation drill programme completed on the Southwestern Quebec Zinc James, D. T., Connelly, J. N., Wasteneys, H. A., and Kilfoil, G. J. (1996).
Project for Freewest Resources. Rapport No. GM 49643. Ministère des Ressources Paleoproterozoic lithotectonic divisions of the southeastern Churchill Province,
naturelles et des Forêts. Available at: https://sigeom.mines.gouv.qc.ca western Labrador. Can. J. Earth Sci. 33, 216–230. doi:10.1139/e96-019
Frarey, M. J., and Duffell, S., 1964. Revised stratigraphic nomenclature for the central Johnsgard, S. K. (1988). The fracture pattern of north-central Kansas and its relation
part of the Labrador Trough. Geol. Surv. Can. Stud. 64-25, 13 doi:10.4095/123909 to hydrogen soil gas anomalies over the Midcontinent Rift System. https://www.kgs.ku.
edu/Publications/OFR/1988/OFR88_25/.
Freeze, R. A., and Cherry, J. A. (1979). Groundwater. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall
Inc., 7632. Kagi, H., Lu, R., Davidson, P., Goncharov, A., Mao, H., and Hemley, R. (2000).
Evidence for ice VI as an inclusion in cuboid diamonds from high P-T near infrared
Fritz, P., Frape, S. K., and Miles, M. (1987). “Methane in the crystalline rocks of the
spectroscopy. Mineral. Mag. 64, 1089–1097. doi:10.1180/002646100549904
Canadian Shield,” in Saline water and gases in crystalline rocks. Editors P. Fritz and
S. K. Frape (London: Geological Association of Canada Special Paper). Karolytė, R., Warr, O., van Heerden, E., Flude, S., de Lange, F., Webb, S., et al. (2022).
The role of porosity in H2/He production ratios in fracture fluids from the
Fryer, B. J. (1972). Age determinations in the circum – ungava geosyncline and the
Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa. Chem. Geol. 595, 120788. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.
evolution of precambrian banded iron-formations. Can. J. Earth Sci. 9, 652–663. doi:10.
2022.120788
1139/e72-055
Ko, B., Chariton, S., Prakapenka, V., Chen, B., Garnero, E. J., Li, M., et al. (2022).
Geymond, U., Ramanaidou, E., Lévy, D., Ouaya, A., and Moretti, I. (2022). Can
Water-induced diamond formation at Earth’s core-mantle boundary. Geophys. Res.
weathering of banded iron formations generate natural hydrogen? Evidence from
Lett. 49, e2022GL098271. doi:10.1029/2022GL098271
Australia, Brazil and South Africa. Minerals 12, 163. doi:10.3390/min12020163

Frontiers in Geochemistry 23 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

Kumagai, Y., Kimura, A., Taguchi, M., Nagaishi, R., Yamagishi, I., and Kimura, T. McDowell, B. P., Milkov, A. V., and Anderson, D. S. (2017). The He system - a
(2013). Hydrogen production in gamma radiolysis of the mixture of mordenite and modification of the petroleum system for inert gases. Tulsa, OK, USA: AAPG. Search and
seawater: fukushima NPP accident related. J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 50, 130–138. doi:10. Discovery. Available at: https://www.searchanddiscovery.com/documents/2017/
1080/00223131.2013.757453 42098mcdowell/ndx_mcdowell.pdf
Labbé, J.-Y., and Lacoste, P. (2004). Minéralisations en Cu-Ag dans les basaltes McHone, J. G., Ross, M. E., and Greenough, J. D. (1987). “Mesozoic dyke swarms of
protérozoïques de la région du lac Guillaume-Delisle, Nouveau-Québec. ET 2004-02. eastern North America,” in Mafic dyke swarms. Editors H. C. Halls and W. F. Fahrig
Québec: Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de l’Énergie. Available at: https://sigeom. (London: Geological Association of Canada). Available at: http://earth2geologists.net/
mines.gouv.qc.ca Publications/McHoneGreenoughRoss_GSCSpPaper87.pdf
Ladevèze, P., Rivard, C., Lavoie, D., Séjourné, S., Lefebvre, R., and Bordeleau, G. McMahon, C. J., Roberts, J. J., Johnson, G., Edlmann, K., Flude, S., and Shipton,
(2019). Fault and natural fracture control on upward fluid migration: insights from a Z. K. (2023). Natural hydrogen seeps as analogues to inform monitoring of
shale gas play in the St. Lawrence Platform, Canada. Hydrogeology J. 27, 121–143. doi:10. engineered geological hydrogen storage. London: Geological Society. doi:10.1144/
1007/s10040-018-1856-5 SP528-2022-59
Lafrance, I., Charette, B., and Vanier, M.-A. (2018). Sud-est de la Province de Melton, C. E., and Giardini, A. A. (1981). The nature and significance of occluded
Churchill, Nunavik, Québec, Canada: synthèse de la géologie. Québec: Ministère de fluids in three Indian diamonds. Am. Mineralogist 66, 746–750.
l’Énergie et des Ressources naturelles. Available at: https://gq.mines.gouv.qc.ca/
Milkov, A. V. (2022). Molecular hydrogen in surface and subsurface natural gases:
bulletins-geologiques/churchill/
abundance, origins and ideas for deliberate exploration. Earth-Science Rev. 230, 104063.
Laliberté, J.-Y., and Trépanier, A. (1982). Carte structurale du marqueur bleu (Trenton doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104063
autochtone), Basses-Terres du Saint-Laurent. Rapport 1982TA000-01. Québec:
Miller, R. R. (1985). “Geology of the Strange Lake alkalic complex and the associated
Ministère des Richesses naturelles. Available at: http://sigpeg.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca
Zr-Y-Nb-Be-REE mineralization,” in Granite-related mineral deposit; geology,
Lapi, T., Chatzimpiros, P., Raineau, L., and Prinzhofer, A. (2022). System approach to petrogenesis and tectonic setting. Editors R. P. Taylor and D. F. Strong (Canada:
natural versus manufactured hydrogen: an interdisciplinary perspective on a new Canadian Institute of Mining).
primary energy source. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 47, 21701–21712. doi:10.1016/j.
Montgomery, J. (1994). An isotopic study of CH4 and associated N2 and H2 gases in
ijhydene.2022.05.039
Canadian shiel mining environments. M.Sc., University of Toronto. Available at: https://
LaVerne, J. A., and Tandon, L. (2003). H2 production in the radiolysis of water on librarysearch.library.utoronto.ca/permalink/01UTORONTO_INST/fedca1/cdi_
UO2 and other oxides. J. Phys. Chem. B 107, 13623–13628. doi:10.1021/jp035381s proquest_journals_304170435
Lavoie, D., Pinet, N., Dietrich, J., Hannigan, P., Castonguay, S., Hamblin, A. P., et al. Morency, M. (1989). Production of elements and compounds by deserpentinization of
2009. Petroleum resource assessment, paleozoic successions of the St. Lawrence ultramafic rock – summary of patent 1262031. Canadian Patent Database. Canadian
platform and Appalachians of eastern Canada. Geol. Surv. Can., 6174, 275 doi:10. Intellectual Property Office. Available at: https://www.ic.gc.ca/opic-cipo/cpd/fra/brevet/
4095/248071 1262031/sommaire.html?query=1262031&type=basic_search
Lefeuvre, N., Truche, L., Donzé, F.-V., Ducoux, M., Barré, G., Fakoury, R.-A., et al. Moretti, I., Brouilly, E., Loiseau, K., Prinzhofer, A., and Deville, E., 2021. Hydrogen
(2021). Native H2 exploration in the western Pyrenean foothills. Geochem. Geophys. emanations in intracratonic areas: new guide lines for early exploration basin screening.
Geosystems 22, e2021GC009917. doi:10.1029/2021GC009917 Geosciences 11, 145 doi:10.3390/geosciences11030145
Lefeuvre, N., Truche, L., Donzé, F.-V., Gal, F., Tremosa, J., Fakoury, R.-A., et al. Morin, C., and Laliberté, J.-Y. (2002a). The unexpected Silurian-Devonian structural
(2022). Natural hydrogen migration along thrust faults in foothill basins: the North style in Western Gaspe - new insight for promising hydrocarbon plays. Québec: Ministère
Pyrenean Frontal Thrust case study. Appl. Geochem. 145, 105396. doi:10.1016/j. des Ressources Naturelles.
apgeochem.2022.105396
Morin, C., and Laliberté, J.-Y. (2002b). Une nouvelle image structurale: Résultats des
Lefticariu, L., Pratt, L. A., LaVerne, J. A., and Schimmelmann, A. (2010). Anoxic mégatransects de la sismique réflexion à travers la ceinture appalachienne de la péninsule
pyrite oxidation by water radiolysis products - a potential source of biosustaining gaspésienne. Québec: Ministère des Ressources Naturelles.
energy. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 292, 57–67. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.01.020
Moritz, A., Hélie, J.-F., Pinti, D. L., Larocque, M., Barnetche, D., Retailleau, S., et al.
Lévy, D., Boka-Mene, M., Meshi, A., Fejza, I., Guermont, T., Hauville, B., et al. (2023). (2015). Methane baseline concentrations and sources in shallow aquifers from the shale
Looking for natural hydrogen in Albania and Kosova. Front. Earth Sci. 11, 1167634. gas-prone region of the St. Lawrence lowlands (Quebec, Canada). Environ. Sci. Technol.
doi:10.3389/feart.2023.1167634 49, 4765–4771. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b00443
Li, L., Li, K., Giunta, T., Warr, O., Labidi, J., and Sherwood Lollar, B. (2021). N2 in Moukhsil, A., and El Bourki, M. (2021). Géologie de la région de Girardville, Province
deep subsurface fracture fluids of the Canadian Shield: source and possible recycling de Grenville, région du Saguenay – lac-Saint-Jean. BG 2021-02. Québec, Canada: MERN.
processes. Chem. Geol. 585, 120571. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2021.120571 Available at: https://gq.mines.gouv.qc.ca/bulletins-geologiques/girardville
Liu, H., Ban, S., Bédard, K., and Giroux, B. (2022). Characteristics of Precambrian Nassif, G. J. (1993). The Strange Lake peralkaline Complex, Québec-Labrador: the
basement intruded by Cretaceous geological intrusions in Monteregian Igneous hypersolvus-subsolvus granite transition and feldspar mineralogy. M.Sc. thesis. McGill
Province and their impacts on regional thermal structure. Adv. Geo-Energy Res. 6, University, 104. Available at: https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/7h149q66x
206–220. doi:10.46690/ager.2022.03.04
Normand, C., and Williams-Jones, A. E. (2010). Origin of low molecular weight
Lollar, B. S., Lacrampe-Couloume, G., Voglesonger, K., Onstott, T. C., Pratt, L. M., hydrocarbon gases during serpentinization: insights from fluid inclusions in rodingites.
and Slater, G. F. (2008). Isotopic signatures of CH4 and higher hydrocarbon gases from GeoCanada 2010
Precambrian Shield sites: a model for abiogenic polymerization of hydrocarbons.
NRCan, (2023). Transect Lithoprobe 8 - Abitibi-Grenville. Ressources naturelles
Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta 72, 4778–4795. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2008.07.004
Canada, Archive de données sismiques régionales 2D. https://open.canada.ca/data/fr/
Magoon, L. B., and Dow, W. G. (1994). “The petroleum system,” in The petroleum dataset/6a480542-1f8d-495f-99c9-db4f623c780b.
system - from source to trap. Editors L. B. Magoon and W. G. Dow (Tulsa, OK, USA:
Osselin, F., Soulaine, C., Fauguerolles, C., Gaucher, E. C., Scaillet, B., and Pichavant,
AAPG Memoir). doi:10.1306/M60585
M. (2022). Orange hydrogen is the new green. Nat. Geosci. 15, 765–769. doi:10.1038/
Mahlstedt, N., Horsfield, B., Weniger, P., Misch, D., Shi, X., Noah, M., et al. (2022). s41561-022-01043-9
Molecular hydrogen from organic sources in geological systems. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng.
Otis, R. M., and Schneidermann, N. (1997). A process for evaluating exploration
105, 104704. doi:10.1016/j.jngse.2022.104704
prospects. AAPG Bull. 81 (1997), 1087–1109. doi:10.1306/522B49F1-1727-11D7-
Majeed, H. (2020). Investigation of soil gas Geochemistry at thorn north forest ring. 8645000102C1865D
M.Sc. thesis. University of Toronto. Available at: https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/
PACES (2023). Projets d’acquisition de connaissances sur les eaux souterraines.
bitstream/1807/103477/3/Majeed_Hamnah_202011_MSc_thesis.pdf
Ministère de l’Environnement, de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques, de la
Malvoisin, B., and Brunet, F. (2023). Barren ground depressions, natural H2 and Faune et des Parcs. online database: https://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/eau/
orogenic gold deposits: spatial link and geochemical model. Sci. Total Environ. 856, souterraines/programmes/acquisition-connaissance.htm.
158969. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158969
Pagé, P., Bédard, J. H., Schroetter, J.-M., and Tremblay, A. (2008). Mantle petrology
Matte, S., Constantin, M., and Stevenson, R., 2022. Mineralogical and geochemical and mineralogy of the Thetford mines ophiolite complex. Lithos 100, 255–292. doi:10.
characterisation of the Kipawa syenite complex, Quebec: implications for rare-earth 1016/j.lithos.2007.06.017
element deposits. Geol. Surv. Can. Sci. Present. 129: 36 doi:10.4095/329212
Payot, B. D., Arai, S., Tamayo, R. A., and Yumul, G. P. (2013). Textural evidence for
Matton, G., and Jébrak, M. (2009). The Cretaceous Peri-Atlantic Alkaline Pulse the chromite-oversaturated character of the melt involved in podiform chromitite
(PAAP): deep mantle plume origin or shallow lithospheric break-up? Tectonophysics formation. Resour. Geol. 63, 313–319. doi:10.1111/rge.12011
469, 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2009.01.001
Peel, M. (2014). Investigation géologique et géochimique des relations entre un réservoir
Matveev, S., Ballhaus, C., Fricke, K., Truckenbrodt, J., and Ziegenben, D. (1997). pétrolier et un aquifère superficiel dans le secteur Haldimand, Gaspé. M.Sc. thesis.
Volatiles in the Earth’s mantle: I. Synthesis of CHO fluids at 1273 K and 2.4 GPa. Québec, Canada: Institut national de la recherche scientifique INRS. Available at:
Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta 61, 3081–3088. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(97)00142-7 https://espace.inrs.ca/id/eprint/2612/

Frontiers in Geochemistry 24 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

Petrella, L. (2012). The nature and origin of REE mineralization in the Misery syenitic Sherwood, B., Fritz, P., Frape, S. K., Macko, S. A., Weise, S. M., and Welhan, J. A.
Intrusion. M.Sc. thesis. northern Quebec, Canada: McGill University. Available at: (1988). Methane occurrences in the Canadian shield. Chem. Geol. 71, 223–236. doi:10.
https://escholarship.mcgill.ca/concern/theses/cf95jf701 1016/0009-2541(88)90117-9
Petrella, L., Williams-Jones, A. E., Goutier, J., and Walsh, J. (2014). The nature and Sherwood Lollar, B., Frape, S. K., Fritz, P., Macko, S. A., Welhan, J. A., Blomqvist, R.,
origin of the rare earth element mineralization in the Misery syenitic intrusion, northern et al. (1993b). Evidence for bacterially generated hydrocarbon gas in Canadian shield
Quebec, Canada. Econ. Geol. 109, 1643–1666. doi:10.2113/econgeo.109.6.1643 and fennoscandian shield rocks. Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta 57, 5073–5085. doi:10.
1016/0016-7037(93)90609-Z
Philpotts, A. R. (1976). Petrography of mounts st-bruno and rougemont. Rapport ES
016. Québec: Ministère des Richesses naturelles. Available at: https://sigeom.mines. Sherwood Lollar, B., Frape, S. K., Weise, S. M., Fritz, P., Macko, S. A., and Welhan,
gouv.qc.ca J. A. (1993a). Abiogenic methanogenesis in crystalline rocks. Geochimica Cosmochimica
Acta 57, 5087–5097. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(93)90610-9
Pillet, D. (1985). Le granite peralcalin du lac Brisson, Territoire du Nouveau-Québec:
résultats préliminaires. MB 85-37. Québec: Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources. Sherwood Lollar, B., Lacrampe-Couloume, G., Slater, G. F., Ward, J., Moser, D. P.,
Available at: https://sigeom.mines.gouv.qc.ca Gihring, T. M., et al. (2006). Unravelling abiogenic and biogenic sources of methane in
the Earth’s deep subsurface. Chem. Geol. 226, 328–339. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2005.
Pinet, N., Lavoie, D., Keating, P., and Brouillette, P. (2008). Gaspé belt subsurface
09.027
geometry in the northern Québec Appalachians as revealed by an integrated geophysical
and geological study: 1 — potential field mapping. Tectonophysics 460, 34–54. doi:10. Sherwood Lollar, B., Voglesonger, K., Lin, L.-H., Lacrampe-Couloume, G., Telling, J.,
1016/j.tecto.2008.07.006 Abrajano, T. A., et al. (2007). Hydrogeologic controls on episodic H2 release from
Precambrian fractured rocks - energy for deep subsurface life on Earth and Mars.
Pinti, D. L., Retailleau, S., Barnetche, D., Moreira, F., Moritz, A. M., Larocque, M.,
Astrobiology 7, 971–986. doi:10.1089/ast.2006.0096
et al. (2014). 222Rn activity in groundwater of the St. Lawrence Lowlands, Quebec,
eastern Canada: relation with local geology and health hazard. J. Environ. Radioact. 136, SIGEOM (2023). Système d’information géominière. Ministère des Ressources
206–217. doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2014.05.021 naturelles et des Forêts du Québec. online database https://sigeom.mines.gouv.qc.ca.
Prinzhofer, A., Rigollet, C., Berthelot, J., and Françolin, J. (2022). Gamma SIGPEG (2023). Système d’Information Géoscientifique Pétrolier et Gazier. Ministère
spectrometry as the best proxy for hydrogen exudations. https://www. des Ressources naturelles et des Forêts du Québec. online database http://sigpeg.mrnf.
hnatsummit.com/. gouv.qc.ca.
Prinzhofer, A., Tahara Cissé, C. S., and Diallo, A. B. (2018). Discovery of a large SOQUIP (1984). Carte structurale du Trenton autochtone. Société québécoise
accumulation of natural hydrogen in Bourakebougou (Mali). Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 43, d’initiative pétrolière (SOQUlP). Rapport DP 84-31. Québec: Ministère des Richesses
19315–19326. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.08.193 naturelles. Available at: https://sigpeg.mrn.gouv.qc.ca
Québec, D. (2023). Données ouvertes géoréférencées pour la Province de Québec. St. Julien, P., and Hubert, C. (1975). Evolution of the taconian orogen in the Quebec
Gouvernement du Québec, online database. https://www.donneesquebec.ca/. Appalachians. Am. J. Sci. 275A, 337–362.
Raynauld, M., Peel, M., Lefebvre, R., Crow, H., Molson, J., Ahad, J., et al. (2014). Szponar, N., Brazelton, W. J., Schrenk, M. O., Bower, D. M., Steele, A., and Morrill, P.
Caractérisation hydrogéologique du secteur Haldimand. Rapport de recherche R-1497. L. (2013). Geochemistry of a continental site of serpentinization, the tablelands
Québec, Canada: Institut national de la recherche scientifique. Available at: https:// ophiolite, gros morne national park: a mars analogue. Icarus 224, 286–296. doi:10.
www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/eau/rapport-haldimand/haldimand_rapport.pdf 1016/j.icarus.2012.07.004
Remick, J. H., Gillain, P. R., and Durden, C. J. (1963). Géologie de la baie de Rupert - Taner, M. F. (1992). Reconnaissance géologique de la région du lac Juillet, Territoire du
rivière Missisicabi, territoires d’Abitibi et de Mistassini. Rapport Préliminaire RP 498. Nouveau-Québec. MB 91-19. Québec: Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources.
Québec: Ministère des Ressources naturelles. Available at: https://sigeom.mines.gouv. Available at: https://sigeom.mines.gouv.qc.ca
qc.ca
Tedesco, S. (2022). Geology and production of helium and associated gases.
Rivers, T., and Corrigan, D. (2000). Convergent margin on southeastern laurentia Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. Available at: https://www.elsevier.com/books/
during the mesoproterozoic: tectonic implications. Can. J. Earth Sci. 37, 359–383. geology-and-production-of-helium-and-associated-gases/tedesco/978-0-323-90988-4
doi:10.1139/e99-067
Telling, J., Voglesonger, K., Sutcliffe, C. N., Lacrampe-Couloume, G., Edwards, E., and
Rivers, T., Culshaw, N., Hynes, A., Indares, A., Jamieson, R., and Martignole, J. (2012). Sherwood Lollar, B. (2018). Bioenergetic constraints on microbial hydrogen utilization
“The Grenville orogen – a post-LITHOPROBE perspective,” in Tectonic styles in in Precambrian deep crustal fracture fluids. Geomicrobiol. J. 35, 108–119. doi:10.1080/
Canada: the LITHOPROBE perspective. Editors J. A. Percival, F. A. Cook, and 01490451.2017.1333176
R. M. Clowes (London: Geological Association of Canada). Chapter 3. Available at:
Thériault, R. (2012). Caractérisation du Shale d’Utica et du Groupe de Lorraine,
https://gac.ca/product/tectonic-styles-in-canada/
Basses-Terres du Saint-Laurent - partie 2: interprétation géologique. Rapport DV 2012-
Rohon, M.-L., Vialette, Y., Clark, T., Roger, G., Ohnenstetter, D., and Vidal, P. (1993). 04. Québec: Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources.
Aphebian mafic-ultramafic magmatism in the Labrador Trough (New Quebec): its age
Thériault, R., Laliberté, J.-Y., and Brisebois, D. (2004). Prolongement du Graben du
and the nature of its mantle source. Can. J. Earth Sci. 30, 1582–1593. doi:10.1139/
Saguenay sous les roches appalachiennes: implications pour l’exploration des
e93-136
hydrocarbures dans le Bas-Saint-Laurent. Québec: Ministère des Ressources naturelles.
RSESQ (2023). Réseau de suivi des eaux souterraines du Québec. Ministère de
Thériault, R., Laliberté, J.-Y., and Brisebois, D. (2005). Empreintes des grabens
l’Environnement, de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques, de la Faune et des
d’Ottawa-Bonnechère et du Saguenay dans la plate-forme du Saint-Laurent et les
Parcs. online database: https://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/eau/piezo/index.htm.
Appalaches: cibles pour l’exploration des hydrocarbures. Québec: Ministère de
Rüpke, L. H., and Hasenclever, J. (2017). Global rates of mantle serpentinization and l’Énergie et des Ressources.
H2 production at oceanic transform faults in 3-D geodynamic models. Geophys. Res.
Truche, L., Bourdelle, F., Salvi, S., Lefeuvre, N., Zug, A., and Lloret, E. (2021).
Lett. 44, 6726–6734. doi:10.1002/2017GL072893
Hydrogen generation during hydrothermal alteration of peralkaline granite. Geochimica
Sader, J. A., Leybourne, M. I., McClenaghan, M. B., and Hamilton, S. M. (2007). Low- Cosmochimica Acta 308, 42–59. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2021.05.048
temperature serpentinization processes and kimberlite groundwater signatures in the
Valiquette, G., and Pouliot, G. (1977). Géologie des monts Brome et Shefford. Rapport
Kirkland Lake and Lake Timiskiming kimberlite fields, Ontario, Canada: implications
ES 028. Québec: Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources. Available at: https://sigeom.
for diamond exploration. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Anal. 7, 3–21. doi:10.1144/1467-
mines.gouv.qc.ca
7873/06-900
Veillette, J., and Giroux, J.-F. (1999). The enigmatic rings of the James Bay Lowland: a
Salvi, S., and Williams-Jones, A. E. (1997). Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of hydrocarbons
probable geological origin. London: Geological survey of Canada. doi:10.4095/210206
during sub-solidus alteration of the Strange Lake peralkaline granite, Quebec/Labrador,
Canada. Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta 61, 83–99. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(96) von Gunten, K., Hamilton, S. M., Zhong, C., Nesbø, C., Li, J., Muehlenbachs, K., et al.
00313-4 (2018). Electron donor-driven bacterial and archaeal community patterns along forest
ring edges in Ontario, Canada. Environ. Microbiol. Rep. 10, 663–672. doi:10.1111/1758-
Sanford, B. V., and Norris, A. W. (1975). Devonian stratigraphy of the Hudson
2229.12678
platform. London: Geological survey of Canada. doi:10.4095/127031
Wardle, R. J., James, D. T., Scott, D. J., and Hall, J. (2002). The southeastern Churchill
Saucier, G., Noreau, C., Casgrain, P., Côté, P., Larochelle, E., Bilodeau, M., et al.
Province: synthesis of a Paleoproterozoic transpressional orogen. Can. J. Earth Sci. 39,
(2013). Feasibility study for the Kipawa project, Temiscamingue area. NI 43-
639–663. doi:10.1139/e02-004
101 technical report. Québec, Canada.
Warr, O., Giunta, T., Ballentine, C. J., and Sherwood Lollar, B. (2019). Mechanisms
Schrauder, M., and Navon, O. (1994). Hydrous and carbonatitic mantle fluids in
and rates of 4He, 40Ar, and H2 production and accumulation in fracture fluids in
fibrous diamonds from Jwaneng, Botswana. Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta 58,
Precambrian Shield environments. Chem. Geol. 530, 119322. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.
761–771. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(94)90504-5
2019.119322
Séjourné, S., Lefebvre, R., Malet, X., and Lavoie, D., 2013. Synthèse géologique et
Wavrant, L.-M., Sappin, A.-A., Beland, C. M. J., Chartier-Montreuil, W., Fleury, F.,
hydrogéologique du Shale d’Utica et des unités sus-jacentes (Lorraine, Queenston et
Zhao, P., et al. (2017). Projet terres rares au Québec. Rapport MB 2017-17. Québec:
dépôts meubles), Basses-Terres du Saint-Laurent, Québec, Doss. public 7338, 165 doi:10.
Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources naturelles. Available at: https://sigeom.mines.
4095/292430
gouv.qc.ca

Frontiers in Geochemistry 25 frontiersin.org

Séjourné et al. 10.3389/fgeoc.2024.1351631

Weiss, Y., Czas, J., and Navon, O. (2022). Fluid inclusions in fibrous diamonds. Rev. Zajac, I. S., Miller, R. R., Birkett, T. C., and Nantel, S. (1984). Le gîte de Zr, Y, Nb
Mineralogy Geochem. 88, 475–532. doi:10.2138/rmg.2022.88.09 et Be du complexe alcalin de Strange Lake. DV 84-18. Québec: Québec-
Labrador. Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources. Available at: https://sigeom.
Whitmore, J., and Pineau, P.-O. (2023). État de l’énergie au Québec, Édition 2023.
mines.gouv.qc.ca
Chaire de gestion du secteur de l’énergie. https://energie.hec.ca/wp-content/uploads/
2023/05/EEQ2023_WEB.pdf. Zgonnik, V. (2020). The occurrence and geoscience of natural hydrogen: a
comprehensive review. Earth-Science Rev. 203, 103140. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.
Williams, H. (1979). Appalachian orogen in Canada. Can. J. Earth Sci. 16, 792–807.
103140
doi:10.1139/e79-070
Zgonnik, V., Beaumont, V., Larin, N., Pillot, D., and Deville, E. (2019). Diffused flow
Windley, B. F. (1986). “Comparative tectonics of the western Grenville and the
of molecular hydrogen through the Western Hajar mountains, Northern Oman.
western Himalaya,” in The Grenville province. Editors J. M. Moore, A. Davidson, and
Arabian J. Geosciences 12, 71. doi:10.1007/s12517-019-4242-2
A. J. Baer (St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada: GAC Special Paper).

Frontiers in Geochemistry 26 frontiersin.org