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2nd semester (Prelims)

Lesson 1- Introduction to Digital Logic a computer can address individually as a group is a

byte).
1. 1 ANALOG
The following are DIGITAL electronic devices include:
Analog solves problems by using continuously changing
data such as:  Computers
 Temperature  Potable media players such as iPods, digital
cameras camcorders
 Pressure
 Cellphones
 Voltage
 Radios
What devices use Analog?
 Televisions
It was the first such device to transmit drawings
to a stationary sheet of paper; previous inventions in  GPSs (Global positioning systems)
Europe used rotating drums to make such
transmissions. An analog synthesizer is a synthesizer  DVD, CD players
that uses analog circuits and analog computer  E book readers
techniques to generate sound electronically.
 Digital voice recorders
 Old radios
 Handled gaming consoles
 Megaphones
 Even cars and appliances, such as microwave
 Cassette player ovens, refrigerators, washing machines, include
 And the volume control on old telephone handsets. digital electronics for control, monitoring, and fault
diagnosis.
Advantages of Analog:
What devices use Digital?
Uses less bandwidth
Many people use digital laptops and computers
More accurate to check their email, browse the internet, and play
games. Digital tablets may replace laptops and
Disadvantages of Analog:
notebooks in the future. Your phone might be a
High cost of signal conversion inside the display. smartphone that uses digital technology. Modems that
are used in computers and smart phones are digital
Upgrade to digital interface not possible.
devices.
1.2 DIGITAL
1.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL
Digital comes from the root digit. In Latin, the
Advantages of Digital:
word “digitus” means finger for toe. The modern use of
the term digital is probably derived from the idea of  Less expensive
counting on your fingers. Fundamentally, there are two
 More reliable
types of computers such as analog or digital and it
describes electronic technology that generates, stores,  Easy to manipulate
and processes data in terms of two states: positive and
non-positive. Positive is expressed or represented by the  Flexible
number 1 and non-positive by the number 0. Thus, data  Compatibility with other digital system
transmitted or stored with digital technology is
expressed as a string of 0's and 1's. Each of these state  Integrated networks
digits is referred to as a bit (and a string of bits that
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2nd semester (Prelims)

Disadvantages of Digital: 2.1.2 Roman Numeral

 Sampling Error Roman numeral, any of the symbols or images utilized in

an arrangement of numerical representation dependent
 Digital communications require greater bandwidth
on the old Roman system. The symbols are I, V, X, L, C, D,
 The detection of digital signals requires the and M, standing independently for 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500,
communications system to be synchronized and 1,000 in the Hindu-Arabic numeral system. An image
placed after another of equivalent or more remarkable
value includes its value; e.g., II = 2 and LX = 60. An image
set before one of more prominent value subtracts its
value; e.g., IV = 4, XL = 40, and CD = 400. A bar put over a
number increases its value by 1,000.

2.1.3 Decimal System

Brief History of Number System
 A decimal (or denary) system is a numeral system
2.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF NUMBER SYSTEM that has the number ten as its base. The term
decimal is likewise utilized for a number written in
2.1.1 Unary System this system, or for a division expressed utilizing this
 The unary numeral system is the bijective base-1 system.
numeral system. It is the easiest numeral system to  A number written in decimal representation
express normal numbers. In to express a number N, includes the utilization of at least one of ten
an arbitrary chosen symbols to represent11 is distinctive system or fundamental units, called
repeated N times. digits. The digits are regularly utilized with a decimal
 These numbers ought to be recognized from separator, which shows the beginning of a fractional
reunites, which are additionally composed as part. The decimal separator might be a dab, a
groupings of ones yet have their standard decimal period, or a comma.
numerical understanding. This system is utilized in  The number ten is the count of the total number of
counting. For instance, utilizing the count check |, fingers and thumbs on a person's two hands (or toes
the number 3 is spoken to as |||. In East Asian on two feet). In many languages, the word digit or its
societies, the number three is spoken to as "三" (1 translation is also the anatomical term referring to
and 2 are spoken to a similar way), a character that fingers and toes. In English, the term decimal (from
is drawn with three strokes. Latin decimus) means "tenth," decimate means
"reduce by a tenth," and denary (Latin denarius)
means "the unit of ten."
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2nd semester (Prelims)

2.1.4 Rounding off-number engineer, to some extent since it can simplify a certain
arithmetic operation. On scientific calculators it is
Rounding means making a number easier but
usually known as "SCI" display mode.
keeping its value near what it was. The outcome is less
precise, however simpler to utilize

Here's the general guideline for adjusting:

If the number are rounding is followed by 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9,

round the number up. Example: 38 rounded to the
closest ten is 40

If the number are rounding is followed by 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4,

round the number down. Example: 33 adjusted to the
closest ten is 30

2.2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

 The simplest of all positional number system is the
binary number system. It has a base-or radix of the
binary system is 2, meaning it has only two digits
represented by 0 and 1 which appear in a binary
representation of any number. The two digits, 0
and 1, are considered as the two states (off/on) and
these states are used to carry instructions and store
data in computers. In general, this element
2.1.5 Engineering Notation represents just one bit which is referred to as
binary digit. Thus, the binary system underlies
Engineering notation is an interpretation of scientific modern technology of electronic digital computers.
representation in which the exponent in expression of
the form is selected to always be divisible by 3.  The first electronic digital computer was built at the
Numbers of forms, for example, 340, and therefore University of Pennsylvania and called the Electronic
compare to engineering notation, while numbers, for Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENAIC), the
example, and do not. first electronic computer was invented seventy-one
years ago. The invention of the binary system dated
2.1.6 Scientific Notation almost three centuries back.
Scientific Notation (also referred to as scientific form or  Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the co-
standard record frame, or standard frame in the UK) is a inventor of Calculus, published a paper about his
method for communicating numbers that are too large invention in 1701 in a paper essay D'une Nouvelle
or too small to be usefully written in decimal form. It is Science Des Nombres about his invention.
normally utilized by scientist, mathematicians and
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2nd semester (Prelims)

The paper was submitted to the Paris academy to mark 2.3.1 First Generation Computers (1950’s)
his election to the academy. Moreover, it took another
---Electronic computers were the limited possessions of
twenty years for the discovery to happen just like it took
scientists, engineers, and the military until 1951. No one
a few hundred years to develop a binary convertor.
had tried to create an electronic digital computer for
2.2.1 Understanding Binary Numbers business. Eckert and Mauchly, the first to try the digital
computer. When the University of Pennsylvania learned
The formal beginnings of the binary system, is around of them plans to transform ENIAC into a commercial
200 BC, Pingala, an Indian writer, introduced product, University officials stated that the university
sophisticated mathematical concepts that described
owned the duo’s patent.
metrics and gave the world its first ever description of a
binary number system. ---These early computers used vacuum tubes as circuitry
and magnetic drums for memory. The problem with
2.2.2 Applications of Number system vacuum tubes was that they failed frequently, costing a
The most common application for the number system in fortune to run, made of inefficient materials which
computer technology. Wherein a two-digit number generated a lot of heat, and sucked huge electricity and
system used in digital encoding is what all computer subsequently generated a lot of heat which caused
language and programming are based on. Using the ongoing breakdowns making the first-generation
data and then depicting it with restrained bits of computers were down (not working) ample of the time.
information is what makes up the digital encoding The advantage of vacuum tubes technology is that it
process. The controlled information comprises of the made the advent of Electronic digital computer. Vacuum
binary system’s 0s and 1s. An example of this is the tubes were only electronic devices available during
images on your computer screen. A binary line of each those days which made computing possible.
pixel is used to encode these images. A. Computer Characteristics & Capabilities.
2.2.3 Advantage of the Binary Number System
Cost – cost was very high.
The binary number system is suitable for a number of
Language – Machine and Assembly Language.
things. For example, to add numbers, a computer flips
switches. By adding binary numbers to the system, you Power – high power Consumption and it generated
can simulate computer is performing addition. Also, much heat.
there are two main reasons to use this number system
Reliability – high failure rate, Failure of circuits per
for computers. First is that it can provide a safety range
second.
for reliability. Secondary and most importantly, it helps
minimize the circuitry needed in electronic design and Size – Relatively big size. Size was equivalent to a room.
lower the space required, and the energy consumed and
Speed – slow speed, hundred instructions per second.
costs that are spent.
B. Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware.
2.3 GENERATION OF COMPUTER
Input Media – Punched cards & paper tape
The evolution of computer took place, can be divided
into five distinct phases, basis of the type of switching Main Component – based on vacuum tubes
circuits known as Generations of Computers.
Main memory –Magnetic drum
1. First Generation Computers –1942 to 1954
2. Second Generation of Computers -1955 to 1964 Output Media – Punched card & printed reports.
3. Third Generation of Computers- 1965 to 1974 secondary Memory – Magnetic drum & magnetic tape.
4. Fourth Generation Computers- 1975 – till now
5. Fifth Generation of Computers – Still in Process
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2nd semester (Prelims)

Examples Example
 ENIAC  IBM-7000
 UNIVAC  CDC 3000 series
 Mark –I  PDP1
 Mark-III  PDP3
 IBM 700 series  PDP 5
 IBM 700 series  PDP8
 IBM 701 series  ATLAS
 IBM 709 series  IBM-7094
 etc.  etc.
2.3.2 Second Generation Computers (Early 1960’s) 2.3.3 Third Generation Computers (Mid-1960s to Mid-
1970s)
Second-generation computers were created with
transistors instead of vacuum tubes, these computers The third-generation computers were introduced in
were faster, smaller, and more reliable than first- 1964. They used Integrated Circuits (ICs). These ICs are
generation computers. The replacement of vacuum popularly known as Chips (called semiconductors). A
tubes by transistors saw the advent of the second single IC has many transistors, registers and capacitors
generation of computing. Although first invented in built on a single thin slice of silicon. In this phase,
1947 by Bell Laboratories, transistors weren’t used transistors were now being miniaturized led to a
significantly in computers until the end of the 1950s. massive increase in speed and efficiency of these
machines.
A. Computer Characteristics & Capabilities:
JACK ST. CLAIR KIRBY
 Cost – cost Slightly lower than first generation.
Invented by Jack St. Clair Kirby and Robert Noyce
 Language – Assembly Language and High-level
in1958, integrated circuits assured to cut the cost of
languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC.
computer production significantly because ICs could
 Power– Low power Consumption. duplicate the functions of transistors at a small fraction
of a transistor’s cost. The earliest ICs, using a technology
 Reliability – Failure of circuits per days.
now called small-scale integration (SSI), could contain
 Size – Smaller than first generation Computers. up to 10 to 20 transistors on a chip. By the late 1960s,
engineers had achieved medium-scale integration (MSI),
 Speed – Relatively fast as compared to first which placed between 20 and 200 transistors on a chip.
generation, thousand instructions per second. In the early 1970s, large-scale integration (LSI) was
B. Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware: achieved, in which a single chip could hold up to 5,000
transistors.
Input Media – Punched cards

Main Component – Based on Transistor.

Main Memory – Magnetic core.

Output Media – Punched card & printed reports.

Secondary Memory – Magnetic tape & magnetic Disk.

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2nd semester (Prelims)

ROBERT NOYCE 2.3.3.1 Moore’s Law

Scientists knew that more powerful computers could be Moore's law is the perception that over the historical
built by creating more complex circuits. But because background of processing equipment, the quantity of
these circuits had to be wired by hand, these computers transistors on integrated circuits doubles approximately
were too complex and expensive to build. With every two years. The period regularly cited as "year and
integrated circuits, new and innovative designs became a half" is because of Intel official David House, who
possible for the first time. With ICs on the scene, it was anticipated that period for a multiplying in chip
possible to make smaller, inexpensive computers that execution (being a blend of the impact of something
more organizations could afford to acquire beyond transistors and their being quicker).
A. Computer Characteristics & Capabilities: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak considered to be the
young entrepreneurs at that time dreamed of creating
 Cost – cost lower than Second generation.
an “appliance computer.” They wanted a simple
 Language– High level languages like PASCAL, microcomputer that could take it out of the box, plug it
COBOL, BASIC, C etc. in, and use it (plug and play). Jobs and Wozniak sell a
Volkswagen for $1,300 to raise a capital to setup a shop
 Power– Low power Consumption.
in a garage. As they founded the Apple Computer, Inc, in
 Reliability – Failure of circuits in Weeks. April 1977. The first product was a processor board
intended for the hobbyist, since the company gained an
 Size – Smaller than Second Generation Computers. experience in building Apple1 they developed Apple II
Disk size mini computers. computer system.
 Speed – Relatively fast as compared to second A. Computer Characteristics & Capabilities:
generation, Million instructions per second (MIPS).
 Cost – Cost lower than third generation.
B. Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware:
 Language– High level languages like C++, KL1, RPG,
 Main Component – Based on Integrated Circuits SQL.
(IC)
 Power– Low power Consumption.
 Primary Memory – Magnetic core.
 Reliability – Failure of circuits in months.
 Secondary Memory– Magnetic Tape & magnetic
disk.  Size – Typewriter size micro Computer.

 Input Media – Key to tape & key to disk  Speed – Relatively fast as compared to Third
generation, Tens of Millions of instructions per
 Output Media – Printed reports & Video displays. second.
Example B. Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware:
 IBM-307 Series  Input Media – keyboard.
 CDC 7600 series  Main Component – Large scale integrated (LSI)
 PDP (Personal Data processer) II Semiconductor circuits called MICRO PROCESSOR
or chip and VLSI (Very Large scale integrated).
 etc.
 Main Memory – Semi-conductor memory like RAM,
ROM and cache memory is used as a primary
memory.

 Output Media – Video displays, Audio responses

and printed reports.
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 Secondary Memory – Magnetic disk, Floppy disk, HEXA

and Optical disk (CD, DVD). Base: 16
 Example – CRAY 2, IBM 3090/600 Series, IBM Digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
AS/400/B60 etc.
 Hexadecimal number: 1F416
In this generation of computer Artificial Intelligence
(AI) concept is adopted. The computers have  powers of : 164 163 162 161 160
intelligence quality, default assumptions, Decision  decimal value: 65536 4096 256 16 1
making capability etc. through these concepts expert
systems. Knowledge based systems, Decision Support  Hexadecimal number: 1 F 4
System are developed. Robots are the common example Four-bit Group Decimal Digit Hexadecimal Digit
of this type of system.
0000 0 0
Number System
0001 1 1
 Decimal, Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal Numeric
Systems. 0010 2 2

 Conversions among the different systems 0011 3 3

DECIMAL 0100 4 4

Base: 10 0101 5 5

Digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 0110 6 6

BINARY 0111 7 7

Base: 2 1000 8 8

Digits: 0, 1 1001 9 9

 binary number: 1101012 1010 10 A

 positional powers of 2: 25 24 23 22 21 20 1011 11 B

 decimal positional value: 32 16 8 4 2 1 1100 12 C

 binary number: 1 1 0 1 0 1 1101 13 D

OCTAL 1110 14 E

Base: 8 1111 15 F

Digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

 Octal number: 12468

 powers of : 84 83 82 81 80

 decimal value: 4096 512 64 8 1

 Octal number: 1 2 4 6
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2nd semester (Prelims)

Binary Arithmetic Binary Multiplication

The steps used for a computer to complete addition are Multiplication follows the general principal of shift and
usually greater than a human, but their processing add.
speed is far superior.
The rules include:
RULES
0*0=0
0+0=0
0*1=0
0+1=1
1*0=0
1+0=1
1*1=1
1 + 1 = 0 (With 1 to carry)
Binary Division
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (With 1 to carry)
 Division in binary is similar to long division in
decimal.

 It uses what is called a shift and subtract method.

Binary Subtraction

RULES

Convert the number to binary.

Perform two’s complement on the second number.

Add both numbers together.